Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Sri Lanka - Australian ...

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Sri Lanka 

D. Tilakaratna 1 

Abstract 

Although the forest industry plays a relatively minor role in Sri Lanka’s economy, its forests 

(covering 31% of the land area) play an important role in environmental stability and sustenance of 

the hydropower generation in the country. The plantation forest estate consists of 131 309 ha, with 

about 3400 ha planted annually. There are three native species of sub-family Swietenioideae in Sri 

Lanka. Two are small trees used mainly for fuel wood and have a limited occurrence in mangrove 

swamps. The third is a minor cabinet timber. Out of five introduced species of subfamily 

Swietenioideae, two are very important (Swietenia macrophylla King and Khaya senegalensis 

(Desr.) A. Juss.). Swietenia macrophylla has been a successful plantation species since the 1890s 

and local foresters have developed good silvicultural practices. Although Hypsipyla robusta 

(Moore) attacks occur, damage can be avoided by maintaining shelter in young plantations. Khaya 

senegalensis is a recent introduction and is gaining popularity, especially due to its suitability for 

drier areas. Toona ciliata M. Roem. is grown mainly as a shade tree in tea plantations at higher 

elevations. It is also specifically planted to produce valuable timber. Presently an unidentified 

disease threatens its continued use. Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq. and Cedrela odorata L. are also 

planted but have not gained popularity since their introduction. The very limited work in the past 

on H. robusta is largely due to it not being a major problem in Sri Lanka when mahogany is raised 

using enrichment planting as practised by the Forestry Department. However, it is a serious 

problem in plantings on open sites as practised by the private sector and research to find a control 

technique is important. Future research on H. robusta in Sri Lanka will be directed mainly at silvicultural 

control and tree improvement. 

THE forest industry plays a lesser role relative to 

other industries in the economy of Sri Lanka. This is 

indicated by the industrial production figures given 

in Table 1. Wood products come mainly from manmade 

plantations and home gardens, as logging in 

natural forests has been banned. The total forest 

cover in 1994 was about 31% of the land area (Conservator 

of Forests 1994). Forests provide shelter for 

wildlife and a source of other natural products such 

as medicinal plants, rattans etc. Maintenance of 

environmental stability, soil conservation and protection 

of biodiversity are other indirect benefits of 

forests. Forests in the catchment areas of rivers and 

reservoirs help regulate stream flow and water levels 

and thereby contribute to the maintenance of hydroelectric 

power production and to the entire industrial 

1 Forestry Research Centre, Kumbalpola, Boyagane, Sri 

Lanka 

3 

production in the country. The area planted to the 

principal plantation species is shown in Table 2 with 

S. macrophylla representing the fourth largest area. 

Importance and success of Meliaceae 

sub-family Swietenioideae tree species 

Xylocarpus granatum Koen., X. moluccensis (Lam.) 

M. Roem. and Chukrasia velutina Roem. are the 

only species of sub-family Swietenioideae that are 

native to Sri Lanka (Triman 1974). Xylocarpus 

species are found in mangrove swamps and are 

harvested in very limited quantities, mainly by local 

communities for firewood. The present rate of 

harvesting is not sustainable as mangrove areas are 

being converted to other land use types and demand 

for firewood is increasing. Chukrasia velutina is 

used as a cabinet timber. The area planted to various 

Meliaceae species is presented in Table 3 and discussed 

in the following text.

Swietenia macrophylla King 

Swietenia macrophylla has been planted in Sri Lanka 

over the past 100 years with the first plantation 

established in 1897 (Streets 1972). It is a high value 

species in the local market fetching around 300–500 

rupees per cubic foot. Presently, about 7314 ha of 

mahogany plantations have been planted in Sri 

Lanka and it represents an important component of 

4 

the plantation forest estate. Easy establishment, 

relatively fast growth and ability to regenerate 

naturally under existing plantations has made it an 

attractive tree species for producing high value hardwood. 

Swietenia macrophylla is a high priority 

species for planting in the intermediate and wet 

zones with, respectively, an average annual rainfall 

of 1500–2000 mm and 2000–5000 mm. It is unable 

to grow in the drier areas in Sri Lanka. 

Table 1. Value of industrial production 1991–1995 (Rs. million). Source: Central Bank of Sri Lanka (1995). 

Categories 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 

1. Textiles, wearing apparel and leather products 33 854 53 020 70 057 78 211 89 944 

2. Food, beverages and tobacco 30 003 34 157 30 700 45 054 54 927 

3. Chemical, petroleum, rubber and plastic products 20 140 23 817 28 876 34 017 38 321 

4. Non-metallic mineral products 8 181 10 582 12 351 14 580 16 740 

5. Fabricated metal products, machinery and transport 5 093 5 948 5 915 7 122 7 977 

equipment 

6. Paper and paper products 2 214 2 586 3 438 4 066 4 595 

7. Wood and wood products 802 1 005 1 230 1 601 1 929 

8. Basic metal products 1 264 1 424 1 497 1 909 1 736 

9. Products not elsewhere specified 2 373 2 658 3 402 4 083 5 271 

Total 103 924 136 106 166 475 190 643 221 440 

Table 2. Area of forestry plantations in Sri Lanka. Source: Conservator of Forests (1995). 

Tree species planted Present area planted (ha) Projected rate of planting (ha/year) 

Tectona grandis Linn. f. 46 060.80 500 

Pinus caribeae Morelet. 17 964.70 0 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. 15 774.30 0 

Swietenia macrophylla King 7 314.50 400 

Acacia auriculiformis Cunn. 5 964.00 175 

Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden 4 827.95 250 

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 3 420.90 300 

Eucalyptus microcorys F. Muell. 910.50 75 

Acacia mangium Willd. 890.10 450 

Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith 852.60 0 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. 438.90 0 

Other species 26 889.90 1250 

Total 131 309.15 3400 

Table 3. Native and exotic tree species of Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae planted in Sri Lanka. 

Tree species Native/ 

introduced 

Present area 

planted 

(ha) 

Rotation 

(years) 

Present 

planting rate 

(ha/yr) 

Planting 

status 1 

Hypsipyla 

attack 

Swietenia macrophylla King Introduced 7314 40 400 A YES 

S. mahagoni (L.) Jacq. Introduced 6.8 40 0 D YES 

Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. Introduced 70 40 50 A YES 

C. odorata L. Introduced Not known 40 0 C NO 

Toona ciliata M. Roem. Introduced 43.6 40 20 A YES 

1 A – ongoing and successful; B – ongoing but having limited or variable success; C – preliminary or experimental only; 

D – terminated

Mayhew and Newton (1998) have reviewed the 

silviculture of S. macrophylla with special reference 

to Sri Lanka. Most of the S. macrophylla plantations 

in Sri Lanka have been established as mixed plantations 

with teak (T. grandis L.) and Jak (Artocarpus 

integrifolia Linn. f). Swietenia macrophylla is 

successful in these mixtures but teak and Jak are 

unable to compete effectively (Mayhew and Newton 

1998). 

The interim management plan prepared by the 

Forest Department proposes three methods of establishing 

S. macrophylla plantations (Sandom and 

Thayaparan 1995). These are enrichment by underplanting, 

enrichment by block planting and enrichment 

by block planting with a nurse crop. Current 

planting practices are enrichment planting in 

degraded secondary forests and underplanting of 

Pinus plantations for conversion to broad leaf 

species, while research is being conducted on the use 

of nurse crops (Mahroof 1999). Enrichment planting 

consist of 2 m wide lines spaced at 5 m intervals in 

secondary scrub forests with trees planted 3 m apart. 

Planting stock is obtained by uprooting seedlings 

(striplings) about 1 m tall from under older plantations. 

Underplanting is carried out by removing 

alternate rows of pine trees and striplings are planted 

along the opened lines at 3 m spacing. After 

planting, patch weeding and climber cutting is 

carried out for 3 years. Underplanting of Pinus with 

S. macrophylla has been researched and reviewed by 

Weerawardane (1996). 

During the establishment phase of mahogany 

there are problems due to damage by wild animals 

such as porcupine, wild boar and rabbits. Termite 

damage to the root system also causes considerable 

mortality. Some mortality is due to drought. 

Sporadic incidents of Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) 

attack can be found but do not pose a major threat 

under the present planting practices of planting under 

partial shade. Hypsipyla robusta becomes a serious 

problem when mahogany is planted in open sites. 

Damage by wild animals is considered the most 

important hindrance to growth, followed by termite 

damage, H. robusta attack and mortality due to 

drought. 

Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. 

This species is a recent introduction to Sri Lanka 

from Africa. Two mature stands (0.5–1 ha) have 

been established in the intermediate rainfall zone. 

Several trees in these stands are producing seeds and 

growth has been very satisfactory. Recent investigations 

have shown its suitability to drier regions 

(Tilakaratna and Weerawardane 1992) and it is now 

considered a priority species for the dry zone. It 

5 

requires more light than S. macrophylla and is 

increasingly used for reforesting open sites in the 

intermediate and dry zones, where forest cover is 

more sparse. 

Studies are continuing on provenance testing and 

planting methods. Planting is continuing, using 

locally collected seeds and commercial seed-lots 

procured from external sources. Khaya senegalensis 

is planted mainly as pure stands or mixed with other 

local species in open areas. It is also used for underplanting 

of Pinus caribaea Morelet. plantations. 

Khaya senegalensis has become popular in social 

forestry and roadside planting. 

The most important hindrance to growth is 

elephant damage in some districts. In the existing 

plantations and trials, multi-stemming and heavy 

branching has been observed. Sporadic incidents of 

H. robusta attack have been observed in plantations 

but the incidence of attack is so limited that it does 

not pose a major threat at this time. It may become a 

serious problem if incidence of attack increases in 

the future. 

Toona and Cedrela species 

There is confusion in the proper taxonomic identity 

of the Toona and Cedrela species planted in Sri 

Lanka with determinations including T. ciliata M. 

Roem., C. chinensis and C. serrata. It appears that 

both Cedrela spp. are probably T. sinensis (A. Juss.) 

M. Roem. Toona ciliata and Cedrela spp. have been 

planted at elevations between 1000 m and 1800 m 

principally in tea plantations. Cedrela odorata has 

been planted in a trial in the low country intermediate 

zone and appears to be growing well at 

present. No further work on this species has been 

done. 

Currently, the Forest Department is using T. 

ciliata as one of the species in mixed plantations in 

the up-country. It produces good wood for furniture 

and construction. It has been planted in tea estates 

primarily as shade trees, but also in water catchments 

and protective reserves in and adjacent to tea estates. 

This species is naturalised and regenerates well such 

that it can be seen growing in natural forests and 

homesteads. 

The greatest threat to T. ciliata is from dieback of 

the trees which may be due to a pathogen. High 

mortality of trees, including large mature trees, can 

be seen in many areas. Shot-hole borer (Xyleborus 

sp.) is found in dead and dying trees and is thought 

to be the vector for a suspected pathogen causing 

dieback. The beetle makes galleries in the sapwood 

of living trees. Brownish discolouration can be seen 

in the sapwood around the insect galleries. This 

problem has become a very serious hindrance to

growing T. ciliata in Sri Lanka. A detailed study on 

this problem is necessary to understand and design 

control strategies. Damage by H. robusta is also a 

considerable problem because the sites in which this 

species is planted are typically open (Beeson 1941). 

Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq. 

As this is a slow growing mahogany species, it is not 

popular in areas where S. macrophylla can be grown. 

However, S. mahagoni can be grown in the dry zone 

of Sri Lanka. Open planting and enrichment planting 

have been tested in trials. Initial plantings have 

shown some success but slow growth and high susceptibility 

to fire have resulted in this species no 

longer being planted. 

Some studies on the yield and growth of S. 

mahagoni have been done for the preparation of 

management plans (Sandom and Thayaparan 1995) 

with the assistance from the Overseas Development 

Administration of the United Kingdom. Two types of 

single-tree volume tables have been prepared. These 

are single entry volume table with diameter at breast 

height (dbh) as the predictor variable and double 

entry volume table with dbh and top height as the 

predictor variables (Mayhew in press a). Site index 

curves have been produced using dominant height 

measurements from temporary sample plots in Sri 

Lanka (Mayhew in press b). 

Hypsipyla robusta research results and future 

directions 

Results on research on H. robusta in Sri Lanka have 

been published in a Masters thesis (Mahroof 1999). 

Results suggest that attack can be successfully 

avoided by planting mahogany under shade provided 

by a nurse crop that is pruned and managed for competition. 

Since H. robusta is a major threat to 

growing Swieteniodeae in the open, future research 

will be directed at finding control measures for 

reducing attack on open sites. Emphasis will be 

placed on silvicultural methods and natural resistance 

rather than the use of pesticides. 

Current researchers 

The Prof J. Edirisinghe and Ms R. Mahroof of the 

University of Peradeniya in Kandy and Dr C. 

6 

Hauxwell of the University of Edinburgh (UK), in 

conjunction with the Forestry Department, have conducted 

research on management of nurse crops and 

shade for control of H. robusta during establishment 

of S. macrophylla (Mahroof 1999). Funding from the 

UK Department for International Development 

supported this project. At the Forestry Department, 

Mr D. Tilakaratna, Research Officer, is studying 

variation in susceptibility to H. robusta attack in different 

provenances of S. macrophylla from Sri Lanka 

and Nicaragua. Mr S. Thayaparan, Assistant Conservator 

of Forests, is studying silvicultural treatments 

for control of H. robusta damage. 

References 

Beeson, C.F.C. 1941. The ecology and control of the forest 

insects of India and neighbouring countries. Vasant 

Press, Dehra Dun, India, 1007 p. 

Conservator of Forests. 1994. Administration report. 

Forestry Department, Sri Lanka. 

Conservator of Forests. 1995. Administration report. 

Forestry Department, Sri Lanka. 

Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 1995. Annual report. 

Mahroof, R.M. 1999. The influence of light availability on 

attack by the mahogany shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta 

Moore) in Sri Lanka. Masters Thesis, Edinburgh 

University, UK, 195 p. 

Mayhew, J.E. In Press a. Volume tables for Swietenia 

macrophylla. Sri Lanka Forester. 

Mayhew, J.E. In Press b. Site index curves for Swietenia 

macrophylla. Sri Lanka Forester. 

Mayhew, J.E. and Newton, A.C. 1998. The Silviculture of 

Mahogany. CABI Publishing, Commonwealth Agricultural 

Bureau International, Wallingford, UK, 226 p. 

Sandom, J.H. and Thayaparan, S. 1995. Revision of the 

interim management plan for the mixed mahogany 

forests of Sri Lanka. Unpublished report for the Forest 

Department, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 241 p. 

Streets, R.J., 1972. Exotic Trees in the British Commonwealth. 

Clarendon Press. Oxford 

Tilakaratna, D. and Weerawardane, N.D.R. 1992. Evaluation 

of the initial performance of six timber species in the 

dry zone of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester, 20 (3/4). 

Triman, H. 1974. A handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Dulau 

and Co. London. 

Weerawardane, N.D.R. 1996. Environmental effects on the 

growth of broadleaved trees introduced under pine stands 

in Sri Lanka. PhD Thesis, Edinburgh University, UK.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in India 

R.V. Varma 1 

Abstract 

The shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in India is a serious pest 

of meliaceous forest trees such as the exotics, Swietenia macrophylla King and S. mahagoni Jacq. 

and the native Toona ciliata M. Roem. Although Swietenia spp. are grown in plantations in many 

States, the establishment is difficult because of shoot borer attack during the sapling stage. Once 

past the sapling stage, Swietenia spp. are almost free of major pest problems. Information on the 

extent of mahogany plantations in a few States is available, but not for the country as a whole. 

Several studies have generated data on the biology and natural enemy complex of H. robusta. 

Recommendations for silvicultural management of the pest include providing overhead and side 

shade during establishment. However, this method has not been experimentally tested in field conditions. 

In the absence of a reliable management system for H. robusta, forest managers generally 

prefer tree crops which are more easily managed and less susceptible to pests. Thus Swietenia spp. 

are not favoured species for plantations. The past work done in India on H. robusta is reviewed 

and the need for a collaborative effort to develop a pest management system, incorporating silvicultural 

and biological methods is stressed. 

ONE OF THE long-standing pest problems in forestry 

in India is that of the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta 

(Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) which attacks most 

species belonging to the family Meliaceae, subfamily 

Swietenioideae. It is a serious pest of the native 

Toona ciliata M. Roem. and Xylocarpus moluccensis 

(Lam.) M. Roem., and the exotics, Swietenia macrophylla 

King and S. mahagoni Jacq. Plantations of 

Swietenia spp. and T. ciliata have been established in 

many parts of the country but have not succeeded 

due to severe damage caused by H. robusta. 

Forestry is an important industry in India with 

about 13 million hectares of forest plantation in 1990 

and the target of about 17 million hectares in 1995 

(Rao 1994). The most important plantation tree 

species are Tectona grandis Linn. f., Eucalyptus 

spp., Acacia spp., Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. & G. 

Forst. and Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. The total area 

under meliaceous species is relatively small and 

precise data are not available. In addition, India has 

64.2 million hectares of native forest of various types 

1 Division of Entomology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, 

Peechi Kerala, 680 653, India 

7 

(Lal 1989), some of which is commercially 

harvested. 

This paper summarises existing information on 

various aspects of the ecology and control of H. 

robusta and identifies and sets priorities on major 

research needs. 

Biology and Impact of Hypsipyla robusta 

A reasonably detailed account of the biology of H. 

robusta in India was presented by Beeson (1941) and 

is summarised below. The female moth, which is 

larger than the male, lays hundreds of eggs which are 

deposited on the young shoots. Young larvae bore 

into the shoots and grow to a length of about 30 mm. 

Pupation occurs within the cocoon usually inside the 

larval tunnel or in some other parts of the host plant. 

The duration of the life cycle varies from 1 to 6 

months in northern India where it overwinters as a 

fourth instar larva. In tropical climates, breeding is 

continuous throughout the year with overlapping 

generations of about 2 months in length. Under 

laboratory conditions the larvae tend to be cannibalistic 

(Ramaseshiah and Sankaran 1994) and a semisynthetic 

diet for rearing H. robusta has been 

developed (Achan 1968).

The life history and phenology of H. robusta 

varies depending on the host plant and climatic 

conditions. In temperate and subtropical regions, five 

generations have been reported with different generations 

feeding principally on flowers, fruit or shoots 

(Beeson 1941). In Southern India, the population is 

more or less continuous with overlapping generations 

(Mohandas unpublished). Incidence of the pest 

is confined generally to younger plantations while 

older trees are almost free from attack. This may be 

because adult moths are poor fliers and may find it 

difficult to reach tall trees for oviposition. The difference 

in the chemical composition of the shoots of 

mature and young trees may also affect the moths 

oviposition preference. General observations indicate 

that borer incidence is greater during the monsoon 

season. However, data on the incidence of the pest in 

relation to environmental factors have yet to be 

generated. Detailed investigation of the population 

dynamics of H. robusta under different climatic 

zones is also required. 

Heavy damage to young saplings of Swietenia 

spp. in plantations has been caused by larvae of H. 

robusta boring into the tender shoots. Larvae have 

also been recorded feeding on the inflorescences and 

fruits of T. ciliata with distinct shoot, flower and 

fruit feeding generations. The larvae usually feed 

under the protection of a loose silken network. It is 

noted that a single larva can bore into more than one 

shoot during the course of its development. 

H. robusta damage is heaviest in young plantations. 

Older trees are generally free from attack. 

Although H. robusta attack rarely causes death of 

saplings, tree growth and form can be severely 

affected. Repeated attacks on the terminal shoots 

will cause forking and result in crooked stems. H. 

robusta can also cause considerable loss of seeds in 

T. ciliata and X. moluccensis (Sen-Sarma 1981). 

Reliable, quantitative data on the severity of damage 

and resulting growth loss are not available. 

Methods of Control 

Attempts to control H. robusta using conventional 

insecticides have been made in the past (Beeson 

1941). Screening of new insecticides, especially 

systemics, is being conducted for short-term control 

(Mohandas unpublished). The hidden nature of the 

insect is an obstacle for effective management 

through chemical means. Although chemical control 

may become useful in extreme circumstances, its 

scope for large-scale application under operational 

conditions is limited. 

H. robusta has a rich natural enemy complex 

(Browne 1968; Rao and Bennet 1969; Ramaseshiah 

and Sankaran 1994). Initial studies were made in 

8 

India by the Commonwealth Institute of Biological 

Control (CIBC now IIBC) at Bangalore. Nearly 

50 parasite species belonging to the orders 

Hymenoptera and Diptera have been reported (Rao 

and Bennet 1969). Some of the most important parasites 

are Trichogrammatoidea robusta Nagaraja, 

Aptesis latiannulata (Cam.), Tetrastichus spirabilis 

Wtstn. and Antrocephalus destructor Wtstn. A 

survey of H. robusta parasites in southern India 

revealed Apanteles stennos Nixon and Agathis sp.nr. 

corphye Nixon to be effective parasites (Ramaseshiah 

and Sankaran 1994). A nematode parasite of 

the genus Hexamermis has also been recorded from 

different locations. The highest level of parasitism 

was noticed during the monsoon season. It appears 

that many of the naturally occurring parasites can 

limit the pest population to some extent. No microbial 

pathogens have been recorded so far, although, 

the suitability of Beauveria tenella (Delacroix) as a 

pathogen of H. robusta has been reported by 

Kandasamy (1969). A more intensive search for 

pathogens would be worthwhile. 

A number of silvicultural control options have 

been suggested from field observations. It has been 

found that saplings naturally regenerating under the 

shade of mother trees incur very little H. robusta 

damage. Thus, providing overhead and lateral shade 

has been suggested as a silvicultural method to 

reduce H. robusta incidence. Pest incidence also 

appears to be higher in monocultures than in mixed 

plantings, and higher in open rather than the shaded 

conditions. These observations and hypotheses need 

to be tested through field experiments. 

Research Needs and Future Directions 

A summary of the research effort into various 

aspects of the biology and control of H. robusta in 

India is given in Table 1. Given that H. robusta is a 

limiting factor for successful establishment of 

Swietenia spp. plantations, the following research 

priorities are suggested: 

• studies on H. robusta incidence and damage in 

relation to the age of the crop to assess the 

economic impact; 

• field trials in different locations to establish the 

effectiveness of shade and mixed planting as a 

possible silvicultural management method to 

reduce pest incidence; 

• studies on the pheromones of H. robusta for 

monitoring and mass trapping; 

• pathogens associated with H. robusta; and 

• detailed studies on the population dynamics of 

H. robusta.

Table 1. Summary of current and past research effort on 

various aspects of Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) biology and 

control. 

Area of study Current 

research 

– none; * minor; ** major 

Conclusions 

Historical 

research 

Biology 

Taxonomy – * 

Life history * ** 

Ecology in natural stands – * 

Ecology in plantations – * 

Population dynamics – * 

Natural enemies * ** 

Other 

Control 

– – 

Biological control – * 

Chemical control – – 

Silvicultural control – * 

Provenance trials – – 

Pheromone studies – – 

Genetic engineering – – 

Other – – 

Studies of H. robusta in India show that it is a 

serious pest both on native and exotic Meliaceae. 

Measurements of the loss of timber production 

caused by H. robusta and the relative impact of H. 

robusta on plantations of native and exotic species of 

9 

Meliaceae are required in order to assess the need for 

control. The observations that shaded and mixed 

plantations appear to be less prone to H. robusta 

attack need to be tested experimentally. 

References 

Achan, P.D. 1968. Preliminary observations on the 

development of an artificial diet for Hypsipyla robusta 

(Moore). CIBC Technical Bulletin, 10: 23–26. 

Beeson, C.F.C. 1941. The Ecology and Control of the 

Forest Insects of India and Neighbouring Countries. 

Dehra Dun, Vasant Press, 767 p. 

Browne, F.G. 1968. Pests and diseases of forest plantation 

trees. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1330 p. 

Kandasamy, D. 1969. Hypsipyla robusta (Moore), a new 

host for Beauveria tenella (Delacroix) Siemazko. Journal 

Invertebrate Pathology, 13: 149–150. 

Lal, J.B. 1989. India’s Forests, Myth and Reality. Nataraj 

Publishers, Dehra Dun, 304 p. 

Rao, Y.S. 1994. Forestry profiles. Forest News, 7: 1–3. 

Rao, V.P. and Bennett, F.D. 1969. Possibilities of biological 

control of the meliaceous shoot borers Hypsipyla 

spp. (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae). Commonwealth Institute 

of Biological Control. Technical Bulletin, 12: 61–81. 

Ramaseshiah, G. and Sankaran, T. 1994. Studies on some 

parasites of the meliaceous shoot borer Hypsipyla 

robusta (Moore) in South India. Hexapoda, 6: 39–46. 

Sen-Sarma, P.K. 1981. Recent advances in forest 

entomology in India. In: Ananthakrishnan, T.N., ed., 

Recent advances in entomology in India. Entomology 

Research Institute, Madras. 65–72.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Bangladesh 

M.W. Baksha 1 

Abstract 

In 1993–1994, more than 350 000 ha of forestry plantation had been established in Bangladesh 

with new plantings amounting to nearly 17 000 ha per year. Toona ciliata M. Roem. and Chukrasia 

tabularis A. Juss. occur in natural stands but have not been harvested since 1989. Meliaceous 

species including T. ciliata, C. tabularis, Swietenia macrophylla King and S. mahagoni Jacq. have 

been planted in Bangladesh. The main hindrance to growth of these species has been damage by 

the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Moore). Even though H. robusta is considered to be the main 

problem in growing mahogany, to date, no major research has been conducted on this pest. The 

Government of Bangladesh has now given top priority to research on Hypsipyla and a new research 

program is being established to study the biology and ecology of the pest and to devise suitable pest 

management techniques. 

BANGLADESH is located between 20° and 27° N 

and has a total area of 14.3 million ha, comprised of 

0.93 million ha of waterways, 8.5 million ha of 

cropland, 2.67 million ha of uncultivable land and 

2.2 million ha of ‘forests’. Of the ‘forest’ area, 40% 

is under tree cover and the remainder consists of 

denuded grassland, scrub and encroached lands. 

Village groves, estimated to be 0.27 million ha, are 

composed of woodlots of multipurpose fast growing 

trees, bamboo, rattans and shrubs. Even though this 

represents only 10% of the government forest area, it 

supplies 70%–80% of sawlogs and 90% of fuel wood 

and bamboo consumed in the country. The forestry 

sector contributes 3.3% of the gross domestic 

product of Bangladesh (Table 1). 

The total area under forestry plantations in 

Bangladesh is just over 350 000 ha (Table 2) and is 

spread across various parts of the country (Figure 1). 

The current rate of planting is about 17 000 ha per 

year and consists of a wide range of species. An 

exact breakdown of plantation area by tree species is 

not available. 

1 Forest Protection Division, Bangladesh Forest Research 

Institute, GPO Box 273, Chittagong 4000, Bangladesh 

10 

Table 1. Relative contribution of the forestry sector to the 

gross domestic product (GDP) 1 of Bangladesh in 1993– 94 

market prices. 

Primary production sectors Million taka 2 GDP (%) 

Crops 187 653 18.2 

Livestock 36 091 3.5 

Fisheries 48 405 4.7 

Forestry 33 739 3.3 

1 Anon. Ministry of Planning (Bangladesh Bureau of 

Statistics) 1995 

2 1 million taka = US$22 000 

Economic Importance and Performance of 

Swietenioideae Species 

Bangladesh has two native species of Meliaceae 

subfamily Swietenioideae (hereafter referred to as 

Swietenioideae) of potential economic importance. 

Toona ciliata M. Roem. and Chukrasia tabularis 

A. Juss. are present in some areas of native forest in 

the hill country but have been subject to a harvesting 

ban imposed in 1989 in an effort to stop the 

depletion of the meagre forest resources of the 

country.

26° 

21° 

WEST BENGAL 

(INDIA) 

PACHAGARH 

THAKURGAON 

NAWAB 

GANJ 

WEST BENGAL 

(INDIA) 

NILPHAMARI 

DINAJPUR 

NAOGAON 

RAJSHAHI 

MEHER 

PUR 

CHUA 

DANGA 

PAKISTAN KASHMIR 

INDIA 

NEPAL 

SRI LANKA 

89° 

89° 92° 

WEST BENGAL 

(INDIA) 

LALMONIRHAT 

RANGPUR 

JAIPUR 

HAT 

NATORE 

KUSHTIA 

JHENAIDAHA 

JESSORE 

Figure 1. Location of major forest areas in Bangladesh. 

SATKHIRA 

BOGRA 

INDIA 

BAY OF BENGAL 

KURIGRAM 

GAIBANDHA 

PABNA 

MAGURA 

KHULNA 

SIRAJGANJ 

RAJBARI 

NARAIL 

BURMA 

JAMALPUR 

SHERPUR 

TANGAIL 

MANIKGANJ 

FARIDPUR 

BAGERHAT 

GOPALGANJ 

PIROJPUR 

Sal forests 

Hill forests of Sylhet 

11 

DISTRICT MAP OF 

BANGLADESH 

0 32 64 

MEGHALAYA (INDIA) 

MADARIPUR 

MYMENSINGH 

GAZIPUR 

DHAKA 

N.GANJ 

MUNSHI 

GANJ 

SHARIAT 

PUR 

BARISAL 

JHALAKATI 

BARGUNA 

RATUAKHALI 

BAY OF BENGAL 

Hill forests of Chittagong and hill tracts 

Littoral forests 

NETRAKONA 

KISHOREGANJ 

NARSINGDI 

CHANDPUR 

LAKSH MIPUR 

BHOLA 

BRAHMANBARIA 

COMILLA 

km 

SUNAMGANJ SYLHET 

NOAKHALI 

HABIGANJ 

TRIPURA 

(INDIA) 

FENI 

MOULVI BAZAR 

CHITTAGONG 

KHAGRACHARI 

COX’S BAZAR 

RANGAMATI 

92° 

BANDARBAN 

BURMA 

ASSAM (INDIA) 

MIZORAM (INDIA) 

26° 

21°

Table 2. Area of forestry plantations in Bangladesh categorised by plantation type and tree species, up to 1993–1994. 

Plantation types Tree species Plantation area (ha) Rate of planting (ha/year) 

Coastal plantation Sonneratia apetala Buch. Ham. 

Avicennia officinalis Linn. 

Excoecaria agallocha Linn. 

Hill plantation Tectona grandis Linn. f. 

Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gaerth. 

Syzygium grande (Wt.) Wall. 

Swietenia macrophylla King 

Toona ciliata M. Roem. 

Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. 

Hopea odorata Roxb. 

Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. 

Artocarpus chaplasha Roxb. 

Sal plantation Albizia procera Benth. 

Acacia auriculiformis Cunn. 

Acacia mangium Willd. 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. 

Unclassified state forest 

plantation 

Village groves 

a. strip plantation 

b. block plantation A. procera 

S. macrophylla 

E. camaldulensis 

A. auriculiformis 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. 

Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) Rich ex Walp. 

Pinus caribaea Morelet. 

A. procera 

Samanea saman Merr. 

Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen 

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. 

S. macrophylla 

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 

Leucaena leucocephala de Wit 

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wt. Arn. 

Melia azaderach Linn. 

1 Source: Huq and Banik (1992) 

2 A. Ongoing and successful; B. Ongoing but having limited or variable success; C. Preliminary or experimental only; 

D. Terminated. 

12 

120 521 3936 

95 205 3971 

31 141 4141 

56 587 1394 

20 550 1731 

26 038 1646 

Total 350 042 16 819 

Table 3. Native and exotic tree species of Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae planted in Bangladesh. 

Tree species Origin Plantation 

area (ha) 

Planting rate 

(ha/year) 1 

Planting type Optimal 

rotation 

length 

(yrs) 

Program 

status 2 

Hypsipyla 

damage 

Swietenia macrophylla 

King 

Introduced Not known 141.30 Open block or strip plantings 40 B Major 

S. mahagoni Jacq. Introduced Not known Not known Open block or strip plantings 40 B Major 

Toona ciliata M. Roem. Native Not known Not known Enrichment social forestry 40 C Minor 

Chukrasia tabularis 

A. Juss. 

Native Not known 34.82 Mixed species open block 

planting in hill forest 

40 B Minor

The only harvesting of Swietenioideae in the foreseeable 

future will be from plantations. Native 

(T. ciliata and C. tabularis) and exotic (Swietenia 

macrophylla King and S. mahagoni Jacq.) species of 

Swietenioideae are being planted in plantations in 

the hill country and also in village groves (Tables 2 

and 3). Swietenia spp. are the most commonly 

planted meliaceous species and are often established 

in open spaced areas as block plantings or as strip 

plantings along highways, railway lines, roadsides 

and embankments. In block plantings, they are 

usually planted in monoculture while in strip plantings 

they are mostly in mixtures with other species. 

T. ciliata is planted both in forest and in village 

groves, whereas C. tabularis is exclusively planted 

in the hill forests. 

Severe damage caused by the shoot borer, 

Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 

has been the major hindrance to growth of species of 

Swietenioideae. However, the incidence of the collar 

borer, Pagiophloeus longiclavis Marshall (Coleoptera: 

Curculionidae) has also been observed in some 

plantations of Bangladesh. The larva of the latter 

tunnels in the cambium and sapwood causing 

swelling and cracking in the collar region of the host 

plant. 

No data have been collected on the growth, yield 

or economic performance of species of Swietenioideae 

in Bangladesh. 

Hypsipyla robusta Research and Future 

Directions 

In Bangladesh, no research on H. robusta has so far 

been conducted apart from the work of Beeson 

(1919, 1941) which covered many parts of the then 

British India (now India, Bangladesh and Pakistan) 

and the adjoining countries. Table 4 summarises the 

adequacy of knowledge of various aspects of 

H. robusta ecology and management. In spite of the 

paucity of data on this pest, it is considered a major 

problem in Swietenia spp. plantations in Bangladesh 

(Baksha 1990, 1993; Baksha and Islam 1990). 

Baksha provided brief notes on the pest and its 

control measures. Beeson’s earliest work recorded 

H. robusta infesting T. ciliata and Swietenia spp. in 

the southern Asian region (Beeson 1919) and was 

followed by his monumental synthesis of all available 

information on this pest (Beeson 1941). However, 

he did not mention specifically the occurrence 

of this pest from anywhere in the territory now 

known as Bangladesh. This could be due to the fact 

that Swietenia spp. were not planted extensively in 

Bangladesh until the independence of the country in 

1971, following which plantation establishment 

gained momentum. 

13 


various aspects of Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) biology and 

control. 


research 

– none; * minor; ** major. 

Historical 

research 

Biology 

Taxonomy – – 

Life history ** * 

Ecology in natural stands – * 

Ecology in plantations ** * 

Population dynamics ** – 

Natural enemies * – 

Other 

Control 

– – 

Biological control * – 

Chemical control ** – 

Silvicultural control ** * 

Provenance trials – – 



Other – – 

A detailed description of the biology and ecology 

of H. robusta, based on various published sources 

including Beeson (1941) is presented in Griffiths 

(these Proceedings). However, a number of specific 

aspects of the pest’s biology and impact on host 

plants that have been recorded in the southern Asian 

region are now outlined. In India, the length of the 

insect’s lifecycle varies from one to six months 

depending upon the season and it usually overwinters 

as a fourth instar larva. In equatorial climates, 

breeding appears to be continuous throughout the 

year, with overlapping generations. Larval feeding 

can cause considerable seed loss, particularly in T. 

ciliata, but its importance lies mainly with its activity 

as a shoot borer (Browne 1968). 

Hypsipyla robusta passes through three distinct 

generational feeding phases in T. ciliata in northern 

India and Myanmar. The first generation feeds on the 

flowers, the second on the fruit, and the third, fourth 

and fifth on the shoots. In the flower and fruit generations, 

pupation occurs in sheltered places, whereas 

in the shoot generations, a pupal chamber is formed 

in the larval tunnel. In southern India and Sri Lanka, 

H. robusta only feeds on shoots. 

Infestation is heaviest on young, vigorous trees 

growing in full sun. The host is rarely killed; however, 

retardation of growth in early years is serious. 

Plantations in their second and third years are generally 

most heavily attacked. Heavy infestation with 

repeated destruction of terminal buds results in 

crooked and highly branched stems.

A range of management strategies including 

avoiding alternative host plants, close spacing, provision 

of shade, mixed species plantings, pruning 

affected shoots, thinning and sack banding have been 

recommended by Beeson (1941) but have not been 

very successful. In Bangladesh, heavy damage has 

been sustained in plantations of Swietenia spp. raised 

in block and strip plantations and around private 

homesteads. Consequently, the Government of 

Bangladesh has attached top priority to further 

research on H. robusta. The research work is to 

study the biology and ecology of the pest and to 

devise suitable pest management techniques. 

Current Research 

Hypsipyla research in Bangladesh is being conducted 

only at the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, 

Chittagong. Two scientists, M.W. Baksha (Project 

Leader) and M.R. Islam (Associate), are currently 

involved in this research. No other person in Bangladesh 

is involved in research on this pest. 

References 

Anon. Ministry of Planning 1995. Statistical Pocket Book 

of Bangladesh, 1995. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 

Government of Bangladesh, 377 p. 

14 

Baksha, M.W. 1990. Some major forest insect pests of 

Bangladesh and their control. Bulletin 1, Forest 

Entomology Series, Bangladesh Forest Research 

Institute, Chittagong, 19 p. 

Baksha, M.W. 1993. Entomological aspects of tree species 

in Bangladesh. In: Ali, M.O., Ahmed, F.U., ed. Agroforestry 

Research Techniques. BARC Winrock International, 

Dhaka, 75–85. 

Baksha, M.W. and Islam, M.R. 1990. Summary of recent 

activities on forest insects in Bangladesh. In: 

Hutacharern, C., MacDicken, K.G., Ivory, M.H. and 

Nair, K.S.S., ed. Proceedings of the IUFRO Workshop 

on Pest and Diseases of Forest Plantations in the Asia 

Pacific Region. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the 

Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok, 43–44. 

Beeson, C.F.C. 1919. The life cycle of the toon shoot and 

fruit borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Moore). Indian Forest 

Records, 7: 1–71. 

Beeson, C.F.C. 1941. The Ecology and Control of Forest 

Insects of India and the Neighbouring Countries. 

Government of India Press, 767 p. 

Browne, F.G. 1968. Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantation 

Trees. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1330 p. 

Huq, M.F. and Banik, R.L. 1992. Country report Bangladesh. 

In: Vivekananda, K., Davidson, J. and Kashio, M., 

ed. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Tree 

Breeding and Propagation. Part II. Regional Review and 

Country Reports. FAO/UNDP, RAPA, Bangkok, 19–48.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Philippines 

E.B. Lapis 1 

Abstract 

The Philippines in 1992 had 125 513 ha of forestry plantations of which nearly 13 000 ha were 

planted to Swietenia macrophylla King. The current aim is to plant about 200 000 ha of plantation 

per year till 2015 and S. macrophylla is the third most popular species. One native species of 

Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae, Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe is harvested on a small scale 

and has been experimentally planted. It has not been recorded to be damaged by the shoot borer, 

Hypsipyla robusta (Moore). S. macrophylla plantations have been significantly affected by 

H. robusta and another lepidopteran stem borer of the family Cossidae. Very little research has 

been conducted on H. robusta in the Philippines, which is partly due to the moratorium on the 

planting of S. macrophylla in the 1970s as a result of H. robusta damage. 

THE forestry industry is very important to the 

Philippine government, as shown by the following 

indicators. A total of 31 schools nationwide offer 

forestry courses with a total enrolment of 3740 

students in 1994. The 1991 Annual Survey of Establishments 

reported a total of 1242 large establishments 

manufacturing wood and wood products, 

including furniture and fixtures. Average employment 

in these establishments totalled 76 046 people. 

The revenue realised from forest charges on logs was 

estimated to be about US$21 million in 1994. 

Additionally, non-timber forest products generated 

about US$0.44 million in forest charges, mainly 

attributed to rattan poles. 

In 1994, the contribution of the forestry sector to 

the gross national product (GNP), at constant 1985 

prices, amounted to about US$114 million or 0.37% 

of national GNP, ranking third among all agriculture 

and fisheries activities. The combined gross value 

added (GVA) of the agriculture and fisheries sector 

was also ranked third behind the industry and service 

sectors. 

The Master Plan for Forestry Development of the 

Philippines government set a target for the establishment 

of 3 million hectares of forest plantations from 

1991 to 2015, planting an average of 200 000 ha/year. 

1 Center for Forest Pest Management and Research, Ecosystem 

Research and Development Bureau, Department of 

Environment and Natural Resources, College Laguna 4001, 

Philippines 

15 

From 1991 to 1995, 202 000 ha of government and 

private sector plantations have been established. 

According to the Forestry Sector Program of the 

Department of Environment and Natural Resources 

(DENR) (PCARRD 1992), the principal species of 

trees planted in reforestation areas as of 1992, were: 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. (65 508 ha), Pterocarpus 

indicus Willd. (16 535 ha), Swietenia macrophylla 

King (12 969 ha), Acacia auriculiformis Cunn. 

(12 720 ha) and Acacia mangium Willd. (4053 ha). 

The area planted to minor species totalled about 

13 728 hectares in 1992. These species include 

Albizia procera Benth., Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. 

& G.Forst., Pentacme contorta (Vid.) Merr. & Rolfe, 

Terminalia cattapa Linn., Alnus japonica (Thunb.), 

Eucalyptus deglupta Bl., Samanea saman Merr., 

Gliricidia sepium Steud., Agathis philippinensis 

Warb., Tectona grandis Linn. f., Delonix regia Raf., 

Triplaris cummingiana Fisch. & May., Bauhinia 

monandra Kurz, Shorea astylosa Foxw., Vitex parviflora 

Juss., Cassia fistula Linn., Anisoptera thurifera 

(Blanco) Blume, Piliostigma malabaricum Roxb., 

Parkia roxburghii G. Don, Diospyrus philippinensis 

A. Dc., Calophyllum inophyllum L., Hopea foxworthyi 

Elm., Paraserianthes falcataria (L.), Intsia 

bijuga (Colebr.), Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers., 

Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon, Senna spectabilis 

(DC) I.&B. (Spreng), Melia dubia Cav., Toona 

calantas Merr. & Rolfe, Aleurites moluccana Willd., 

Dracontomelon dao Blume and Eucalyptus camaldulensis 

Dehn.



The only native species of the family Meliaceae, 

subfamily Swietenioideae (hereafter referred to as 

Swietenioideae) that is being harvested in the 

Philippines is T. calantas. It is being harvested from 

natural forest as a species in association with other 

commercial species. Harvesting is usually undertaken 

on a small scale and is considered sustainable. 

Statistics on the current volume of harvesting and its 

value are not available. 

Experimental plantings of T. calantas have been 

established on a very small scale. Even though the 

wood quality and uses of this species is comparable 

to that of the exotic S. macrophylla, and the optimal 

rotation period of 25 to 50 years for sawn timber is 

also similar to S. macrophylla, no large plantations 

have yet been established. T. calantas is found 

naturally in species-diverse, thick forest, yet the 

current experimental plantings have been in the open 

and in pure stands. Currently, the silvicultural 

requirements of T. calantas, in terms of soil type, 

light, spacing, etc., have not been identified. 

According to the 1992 report of the Forestry 

Sector Program of the DENR, 12 969 ha of S. 

macrophylla have been established in the Philippines 

(PCARRD 1992). It is expected that the area planted 

to this species has increased tremendously since that 

time as it is one of the most commonly planted 

species for reforestation and tree plantations by 

private individuals. S. macrophylla is usually planted 

in the open as pure stands, or as pure stand blocks in 

combination with G. arborea and other species. It is 

also a favoured species in social forestry programs 

and agroforestry projects in the uplands. 

The success of S. macrophylla plantations is, 

however, restricted by the occurrence of the shoot 

borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Moore), particularly in the 

Mindanao and Visayas region, and by another 

species of a stem borer, presumably Zeuzera coffeae 

Nietner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) in the Luzon and 

Mindanao regions (Lapis 1995). Another hindrance 

to growth, though isolated, is poor site suitability. S. 

macrophylla does not grow well in sites with 

relatively thin top soil and in rocky areas, but in 

good soil can reach a height of 6 m in three years 

(Weidelt 1976). 

No economic analyses of the associated plantation 

costs of these species of Swietenioideae are available. 

Estimates of plantation costs (Table 1) are 

based on general estimates for several fast-growing 

premium tree species planted with a spacing of 2 × 3 

m for a 100 ha ‘contract reforestation’ scheme, for a 

period of 3 years. The cost of protection may well be 

higher if the tree species was S. macrophylla and 

16 

H. robusta attack was severe and persistent. There 

have been no studies on productivity, yield or growth 

of T. calantas. A yield prediction model has been 

developed for S. macrophylla (Revilla et al. 1976). 

This model shows that on average to good sites, trees 

would be 5–7 m high at 5 years of age and reach 

about 30–40 m after 50 years. 

Table 1. Estimated costs over three years for reforestation 

of 100 ha planted with premium tree species at 2 m × 3 m 

spacing. 

Activity Estimated cost (US$) 

Survey, mapping, and blocking 673 

Nursery operations 13 750 

Plantation establishment 12 820 

Maintenance 15 846 

Protection 5 865 

TOTAL 48 954 

Source: PCARRD 1992 


Directions 

It is sad to note that research on H. robusta in the 

Philippines is lacking. Past research on the ecology 

of H. robusta in plantations is fragmented and 

unpublished. It is based on field trip observations on 

the seasonal abundance of the pest in nurseries and 

small plantations. These observations suggest that 

H. robusta is most abundant during January– 

February in Bukidnon, Mindanao. In general, as 

observed in other regions, abundance of H. robusta 

coincides with the flushing period of S. macrophylla 

when young and succulent shoots become available. 

Research on other biological aspects is completely 

lacking. 

A research project initiated in 1985 by the then 

Forest Research Institute (now the Ecosystem 

Research and Development Bureau of the DENR) on 

silvicultural control of H. robusta was prematurely 

terminated due to some social problems in the area. 

The project aimed to determine the effect of planting 

espacement and of mixed planting on the incidence 

and severity of H. robusta attack and damage on 

S. macrophylla. The research was supposed to have a 

seven-year observation period. Preliminary observations, 

however, indicate that closer spacing and 

mixed planting have lower damage and attack levels. 

The current absence of any research on H. robusta 

can be traced to the time when planting of 

S. macrophylla in the reforestation project areas of 

the then Bureau of Forest Department (now Forest 

Management Bureau) in the Mindanao region was 

stopped in the early 1970s due to severe damage by

H. robusta. From that time onwards, research on H. 

robusta was thought to be irrelevant and unimportant. 

However, in the later part of the 1980s, when 

the Department of Environment and Natural 

Resources (DENR) implemented its wide-scale 

reforestation and afforestation programs, S. macrophylla 

was included as one of the five most commonly 

planted species. This was largely due to the 

exceedingly heavy demand for plantable seedlings, 

the availability of S. macrophylla seedlings, and was 

without due consideration of the probable consequence 

of H. robusta infestation. 

However, now that S. macrophylla is the third 

most commonly planted species in both government 

and private reforestation programs and plantation 

establishments, and H. robusta and another borer 

that appears to be Zeuzera coffeae are still the most 

limiting factors in the maintenance of the health of 

nursery and young plantations of S. macrophylla, 

research leading to the development of pest management 

strategies should be revived and intensified. 

Proposed future research directions will include 

research into: 

1. the biology and ecology of H. robusta; 

2. biological control of H. robusta using parasites 

and microbial pathogens; 

3. silvicultural control using nurse crops, spacing 

and mixed planting; 

4. chemical control for nursery and newly established 

plantations; and 

5. provenance trials. 

17 

Current Research 

There is currently no research being done on H. 

robusta. in the Philippines. The Ecosystems 

Research and Development Bureau, which is the 

research arm of the DENR and has a mandate to 

conduct research on problems in forestry (among 

other things) with national impact, has still to come 

up with a comprehensive research program on 

H. robusta management and to coordinate with local 

and regional research institutions all over the 

country. 

References 

Lapis, E.B. 1995. Common insect pests of reforestation tree 

species. In: Lapis, E.B. ed. Pests and Diseases of Forest 

Plantation Trees in the Philippines: A Guidebook. 

PCARRD and DENR, Los Baños, Laguna, 90–130. 

(Book Series 154). 

PCARRD (Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and 

Natural Resources Research and Development) 1992. 

The Philippine recommendations for reforestation. 

PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna, 113 p. 

Revilla, A.V. Jr., Bonita, M.L. and Dimapilis, L.L. 1976. A 

yield prediction model for Swietenia macrophylla King 

plantations. Pterocarpus, 2(2): 172–179. 

Weidelt, H.J. ed. 1976. Manual of Reforestation and Erosion 

Control for the Philippines. Eschborne, Germany, GTZ.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Vietnam 

Nguyen Van Do 1 

Abstract 

Meliaceous species do not constitute much of the 300 000 ha of forestry plantations in Vietnam. 

Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. is an important native species of great value for high-grade timber but 

has now been banned from logging. Small areas of the exotic species, Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) 

A. Juss. and Swietenia macrophylla King have been planted. C. tabularis and Toona sureni 

(Blume) Merr. seedlings in nurseries have been damaged by shoot borers, presumably Hypsipyla 

robusta (Moore) and a number of other species. No research on H. robusta has been conducted in 

Vietnam. 

VIETNAM extends from 6°N to 23°N and is located in 

the Southeast Asian monsoon region. Due to its 

central location in Southeast Asia, the flora of 

Vietnam is characterised by a number of endemic 

species as well as many species from the nearby 

Indian, Chinese and Himalayan regions. Although an 

inventory of the flora of Vietnam has not been completed, 

more than 7000 species from 1850 genera 

and 267 families have been recorded. Among the 

1000 species that can produce wood and timber, only 

a few species yield sufficient quantity and quality of 

timber to be commercially important. However, 

forests in Vietnam are of great environmental importance 

since they contribute towards regulation of 

stream flow and reduction of soil erosion in a 

country with more than 60% of the land area classified 

as mountains, hills or sloping land. Many forests 

also have scientific and tourism values. 

Until 1943, forest covered more than 40% of the 

total land area of Vietnam. The following period of 

the resistance wars and post-war period resulted in a 

large area of the forest being removed for war 

supplies, country reconstruction and raw materials 

for the rapidly expanding population. In this period, 

the forest resources were overexploited, leading to 

severe degradation. This led to a strong emphasis on 

forest plantation establishment, native forest conservation 

and regulated logging of native forest. 

1 Forest Research Protection Division, Forest Science 

Institute of Vietnam, Chem-Tuliem, Hanoi, Vietnam 

18 

In Vietnam, there are about 1.6 million ha of plantation 

forests which are increasing in both the rate of 

planting and quality. Many species have been 

planted, including indigenous (e.g. Styrax tonkinensis 

Pierre, Manglietia glauca Blume) and exotic 

species (e.g. Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese, 

Pinus massoniana Lamb., P. caribaea Morelet, P. 

oocarpa Schiede, a wide range of Eucalyptus spp., 

Acacia mangium Willd., Acacia auriculiformis 

Cunn.). Some valuable commercial species such as 

Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss., Talauma gioi Chev., 

Tectona grandis Linn. f., Hopea odorata Roxb. have 

been planted to create a resource base for the developing 

wood peeling and veneer industries. Table 1 

lists the area of plantation of the most important tree 

species. Plant breeding for higher wood production 

has become a leading concern for forest researchers 

and practitioners. 

Importance of Swietenioideae Species 

Chukrasia tabularis is no longer harvested from 

native forest due to a government ban in 1985, 

although some illegal logging still occurs. This species 

has high economic value (US$1000 per m 3 ) and 

has been used to make fine furniture and other 

commodities. 

Only a small area has been planted to species of 

Swietenioideae. The native species, C. tabularis has 

been used in enrichment plantings in Nghe An and 

other provinces with a total of 569 ha planted. 

Planting of C. tabularis is ongoing and proving

successful and is expected to have an optimal 

rotation length of 50 to 60 years. The Forestry 

Ministry has decided, as part of its program, to 

develop afforestation of high economic value tree 

species, to include three native species of Swietenioideae 

(C. tabularis, Toona sureni (Blume) Merr., T. 

sinensis (A. Juss.) M. Roem.) in the development of 

seed production areas. Some exotic species have 

been planted with Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. 

Juss. used mainly as an ornamental tree along streets 

and Swietenia macrophylla King established in small 

plantings in some areas. 

Table 1. Area of forestry plantations in Vietnam. 

Tree species planted Present 

area 

planted 

(ha) 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. 94 674 

Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese 62 333 

Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. & G. Forst 25 906 

Aleurites montana Wils. and Thea sasanqua Pierre 21 175 

Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gorden 16 468 

Anacardium occidentale L. 16 216 

Melaleuca cajuputi Powel. and Rhizophora sp. 13 252 

Styrax tonkinensis Pierre 12 692 

Manglietia glauca Blume 12 230 

Pinus massoniana Lamb., 11 889 

Acacia auriculiformis Cunn. 6 347 

Dipterocarpus sp. and Tectona grandis Linn. f. 5 818 

Cinnamomum cassia Blume. and Illicium verum H. 4 131 

Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook 1 558 

Melia azedarach Linn. 1 022 

Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. 569 

Catanopsis spp. 398 

Madhuca pasquieri H. Lec. 229 

Total 306 907 

There have been some reports of insect pests on 

C. tabularis seedlings in nurseries. Local workers 

have reported leaf eating caterpillars and shoot 

borers but their identification has not been verified. 

19 


Directions 

There has been no research into Hypsipyla robusta 

(Moore) in Vietnam. Even though the dominant 

species in some natural forests belong to the Swietenioideae 

and they have high economic value, studies 

on their insect pest, especially H. robusta, have not 

been carried out for a number of reasons. 

Firstly, there are no funds available for basic 

research on forest insect pests of tree species that are 

not widely planted. Instead, the limited funds are 

directed towards applied studies on control of the 

main insect pests of plantation species that have 

already been planted (e.g. Pinus spp., Eucalyptus 

spp., Manglietia glauca, Styrax tonkinensis and 

cashew). 

Secondly, species of Swietenioideae have usually 

been established in mixed species or forest enrichment 

plantings and have not incurred destructive 

levels of insect damage. However, if species of 

Swietenioideae are to be planted widely and in open 

plantings, their insect pests are very likely to become 

a problem. It has been reported that H. robusta 

destroyed young Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. in 

nurseries in central and southern Vietnam. However, 

shoot borers collected from T. sureni in these areas 

in a subsequent year were identified as Zeuzera sp. 

Research directions in the future include: 

• surveying the insect pests of Meliaceae, particularly 

species of high economic value that are 

being used in new forestry projects; 

• participating in a regional network to exchange 

findings, experimental approaches and techniques 

in order to improve our knowledge of the biology 

of H. robusta and measures for its control; 

• collaborating with entomologists in Vietnam and 

overseas to carry out studies on insect pests of 

Meliaceae; 

• ensuring that the knowledge and experimental 

techniques for the study of H. robusta, as discussed 

at this workshop, will be properly applied 

in Vietnam.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borer of Meliaceae in Lao PDR 

Xeme Samontry 1 

Abstract 

The forestry sector plays a very significant role in national economic development. In 1994, 

forest product exports were valued at US$49.2 million and were expected to reach approximately 

US$70 million in 1995. There are a number of native tree species which are very important for 

sustainable plantation development, that belong to the subfamily Swietenioideae of the family 

Meliaceae such as Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. and several species of Toona. However, shoot 

borers, presumably Hypsipyla robusta (Moore), often damage young trees and have discouraged 

plantation development using Meliaceous species in Lao PDR. 

THE Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) 

is located between China in the north, Cambodia in 

the south, Vietnam in the east and Thailand and 

Myanmar in the west. The country has an area of 

23.68 million hectares and a population of 

4.5 million people. Eighty five percent of the people 

live in the rural area and rely on forestry and agriculture 

for their livelihood. 

Lao PDR is very rich in natural resources, 

especially forestry resources. There are approximately 

eight million hectares of existing forests, 

which cover more than 33% of the country’s total 

land area. Benefits derived from these forests make a 

major contribution to the national economy through 

timber production, non-wood forest products and 

quality water supply for hydroelectricity generation. 

Other important benefits are related to social and 

environmental quality. In 1994, forest product 

exports totalled US$49.2 million and were expected 

to reach approximately US$70 million in 1995. 

These products included sawn timber, logs, plywood 

and other wood products. 

Plantation Development 

Plantation establishment in Lao PDR has been 

carried out since the early 1940s and is mainly 

undertaken by the government. The main species 

1 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of 

Forestry, PO Box 4683, Vientiane, Lao PDR 

20 

planted are Tectona grandis Linn. f., Pterocarpus 

macrocarpus Kurz, Dalbergia sp., Xylia kerri Craib. 

and Hutch. Due to a lack of funds for establishment 

and proper maintenance, the area planted each year 

is irregular and relatively small and survival and 

growth rates are less than desirable. 

Since 1986, the government has adopted an open 

economic policy by welcoming both national and 

foreign companies and individuals to invest in tree 

plantations and related wood-based industries in 

various parts of the country. Huang Fat Hong have 

established a three line production plywood factory 

and a chipwood plant in Thakhek, and DAFI, a state 

enterprise, has installed an integrated wood 

processing plant at Pakse, Champasack Province. 

These facilities have created a new phase of plantation 

development. 

During the past 4 years, there has been an increase 

in interest by farmers, companies and the Department 

of Forestry, through the development of a 

forest policy to create a large viable plantation estate 

in the country. The government plantation establishment 

program has been increased from 3000 ha in 

1990 to 10 000 ha in 1995 and over 20 000 ha in 

1996 (Department of Forestry 1995). 

Importance of Swietenioideae Species 

Like other tropical forests in Southeast Asia, the 

flora of Lao PDR is very rich in tree species that 

provide many wood and non-wood products and are 

vital to the living conditions of local people. Among

them are species of the subfamily Swietenioideae of 

the family Meliaceae such as Chukrasia tabularis A. 

Juss. and Toona spp. Swietenia macrophylla King is 

an exotic species which was first introduced into the 

country in the early 1940s for roadside planting in 

the main cities. 

These species are very important and have great 

potential for a sustainable plantation program in Lao 

PDR, but shoot borers, presumably Hypsipyla 

robusta (Moore), often damage young trees and have 

discouraged plantation development using species of 

Swietenioideae. Research on the insect problem has 

not been carried out because the Lao Department of 

Forestry does not have a forest entomologist. 


Directions 

CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products in collaboration 

with Vietnam, Thailand, Lao PDR and Malaysia has 

developed a project proposal for a regional ACIAR 

project to develop a domestication strategy for 

21 

indigenous tree species in Southeast Asia using 

C. tabularis as an example. As part of this project, 

surveys monitoring the incidence and extent of insect 

damage in the field trials will be conducted 

(Applegate and Samontry 1996). 

Acknowledgments 

Thanks are expressed to the Department of Forestry 

for enabling the presentation of this information and 

to CSIRO and the Australian Centre for International 

Agricultural Research who provided the assistance 

necessary to attend this workshop. 

References 

Applegate, G.B. and Samontry, X. 1996. Forestry research 

program plan for Department of Forestry. Department of 

Forestry, Lao PDR. 

Department of Forestry, 1995. National strategy for sustainable 

plantation forestry in Lao PDR. Institutional 

strengthening to the Department of Forestry, Lao PDR. 

Lao-ADB Plantation Forestry Project, Lao PDR.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Thailand 

Supachote Eungwijarnpanya 1 

Abstract 

Several species of the Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae have been grown commercially in 

Thailand and virtually all have experienced some damage from Hypsipyla robusta (Moore). Native 

species of Swietenioideae include Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss., Toona ciliata M. Roem., T. sureni 

(Blume) Merr. and Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem. while exotic plantation species 

include Swietenia macrophylla King and S. mahagoni Jacq. Swietenia spp. and T. ciliata in 

plantations have been observed to be seriously damaged by H. robusta. A recent trial of 

meliaceous species showed that T. ciliata was much more susceptible to H. robusta damage than 

the exotic Cedrela odorata L. The number of private plantations of T. ciliata is increasing 

throughout the country, although the problem of H. robusta attack on species of Swietenioideae in 

Thailand has not been solved. 

HYPSIPYLA robusta (Moore) is known to feed almost 

exclusively on plants of the subfamily Swietenioideae 

of the family Meliaceae, of which there are 

seven species from three genera (Toona, Chukrasia 

and Xylocarpus) endemic to Thailand (Mabberley et 

al. 1995). Several exotic species belonging to the 

genera Swietenia, Khaya and Cedrela have been 

planted in Thailand for timber production. Species of 

the genera Swietenia and Toona have been recommended 

by the Royal Forest Department (RFD) for 

plantations in Thailand because of their beautiful 

wood and use for various purposes such as furniture, 

musical instruments, boats and paper pulp. However, 

some plantations have incurred serious damage from 

the Hypsipyla shoot borer. 

Mr Dumrong Chaiglom, a forester in the RFD, 

reported that the shoot borer of Swietenia spp. and 

Toona ciliata M. Roem. was Hypsipyla robusta 

(Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) (Chaiglom 1972). 

Other native hosts of H. robusta include Chukrasia 

tabularis Jacq. and Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) 

M. Roem. (Hutacharern and Tubtim 1995). 

The larvae bore into shoots and feed inside stems, 

pupate and then emerge as an adult moth. The 

damage causes the shoot to wilt and die and as a consequence, 

the tree becomes highly branched. 

1 Forest Research Office, Royal Forest Department, 

Paholyotin Rd, Bangkok 10900, Thailand 

22 

Swietenia spp. and T. ciliata are not only attacked by 

H. robusta but also by another stem borer, 

Pagiophloeus longiclavis Marshall (Coleoptera: 

Curculionidae). Hutacharern and Choldumrongkul 

(1985) listed five important insect species that attack 

T. ciliata; H. robusta, P. longiclavis, Aristobia 

approximator Thom. (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), 

Zeuzera coffeae Nietner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) and 

Sinoxylon sp. (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). 

From 1981 to 1994, the Royal Forest Department 

did not recommend Swietenia spp. and T. ciliata as 

plantation species due to the likelihood of severe 

insect damage. However, since 1994, the government 

has launched a project to subsidise private 

growers for afforestation plantings and Swietenia 

spp. and T. ciliata are included in the recommended 

species list. 



Native species of the Swietenioideae belong to the 

genera Chukrasia, Toona and Xylocarpus. Chukrasia 

spp. are sparsely distributed in mixed deciduous 

forest in the northern, northeastern, eastern and 

southern parts of Thailand (P. Wasuwanich, RFD, 

pers. comm.). The biggest tree of C. tabularis is 

found in Kanchanaburi with girth at breast height 

(GBH) of 20 m and height of 65 m.

T. ciliata grows in dry deciduous forest and can be 

found in many parts of Thailand such as Lampang, 

Uthaithani, and Songkhla provinces. Xylocarpus sp. 

is a mangrove species naturally distributed in the 

eastern and southern parts of the country. None of 

these species are harvested from native forest since 

logging concessions were terminated in 1988. Hypsipyla 

robusta has been recorded to attack each of 

these native species of Swietenioideae. 

A number of native and exotic species of Swietenioideae 

have been planted in plantations. Chukrasia 

sp. has been planted in small areas (0.5–1 ha) for 

experimental purposes in Tak Province. 

T. ciliata was recommended 15 years ago by the 

RFD for planting in the government plantation. 

H. robusta caused severe damage to the shoots 

resulting in the trees being very bushy and stunted. 

Control of H. robusta was not attempted and after 

two to three years of consistent damage, the RFD 

ceased to recommend T. ciliata for planting. However 

in 1994, because of its fast growth and good 

quality timber, T. ciliata has again been recommended 

by the RFD for afforestation projects. The 

government subsidises planting at the rate of 19 000 

baht (US$730) per ha. 

The total area of plantings of T. ciliata is about 

15 ha and most trees are less than 3 years old. Many 

growers are currently interested in planting T. ciliata 

from seed provided by Mr Chumnong Thesagate, a 

forester who has collected seed from trees that were 

planted 14 years ago. He has 3 mother trees with 

GBH of approximately 175 cm. Mr Chumnong has 

planted about 3.2 ha of T. ciliata in a mixed species 

planting. In July 1996 it was found that 50% of the 

T. ciliata aged between one and two years were 

damaged by H. robusta. Trees that were damaged at 

a height of less than 1.5 m produced bushy tops and 

were sold as shade trees or ornamentals for commercial 

recreation areas such as resorts and golf 

courses. Trees that had 2.5 m of clear bole before 

being attacked were retained for timber production. 

Since 1995, Mr Chumnong has produced many 

T. ciliata seedlings and has distributed them for 

planting in many provinces such as Ratchaburi, 

Suphanburi and Prachuabkhirikhan. At one location 

in Ratchaburi Province, a plantation as large as 8 ha 

(C. Thesagate, RFD, pers. comm.) has been established. 

Many more growers have ordered seedlings 

from him for planting in 1997. Many of these 

plantings are being damaged by H. robusta. 

Swietenia sp. was planted in government plantation, 

however, due to serious damage by H. robusta 

23 

it was no longer recommended. As a result of the 

early plantings, about 0.5 ha of 40–50 year-old 

Swietenia sp. remains in Trang Province and 0.8 ha 

in Phuket Province (S. Bunyavejchewin, RFD, pers. 

comm.). Together with some more recent plantings 

(4–5 years old) in southern and northeastern 

Thailand, the total area of Swietenia sp. plantings is 

about 6 ha. 


Directions 

T. ciliata is known to be very susceptible to infestation 

by H. robusta. Dr Chaweewan Hutacharern, a 

forest entomologist in the RFD, has established an 

insect resistance trial where a plantation of mature 

Tectona grandis Linn. f. was underplanted using 

seed of Cedrela odorata L., C. augustifolia Sesse & 

Moc., and T. sureni (Blume) Merr. obtained from 

Indonesia, and T. ciliata from Thailand. 

In these experimental plots in Lumpang Province, 

H. robusta caused greater damage to T. ciliata, (100% 

damage), than to C. odorata, (2% damage). Both 

species were also infested by P. longiclavis causing 

56% and 5% damage respectively (Choldumrongkul 

and Hutacharern 1985). Both insects also caused 

damage to T. sureni and C. augustifolia but was not 

able to be compared to the other species because of 

the low survival of seedlings. All trees were removed 

from the trial plots and substituted by other species 

because of the heavy damage caused by both insect 

pests. 

References 

Chaiglom, D. 1972. Research on prevention of forest insect 

outbreaks for forest development. Paper presented at the 

Forestry Yearly Conference. 15–21 July, 1969. Royal 

Forest Department. Bangkok, Thailand. 

Choldumrongkul, S. and Hutacharern, C. 1985. Degree of 

insect damage on four species of Indian mahogany. The 

Kasetsart Journal, 27: 257–260. 

Hutacharern, C. and Tubtim, N. 1995. Checklist of forest 

insects in Thailand. Office of Environmental Policy and 

Planning, Ministry of Science Technology and Environment. 

Bangkok, Thailand. 392 p. 

Hutacharern, C. and Choldumrongkul, S. 1985. Insect pests 

of Cedrela spp. Vannasan, 43: 13–20 (in Thai). 

Mabberley, D.J., Pannel, C.M. and Sing, A.M. 1995. Flora 

Malesiana Series I – Spermatophyta Vol. 12, Pt 1, 

Meliaceae. Foundation Flora Malesiana, 407 p.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Malaysia 

Khoo Soo Ghee 1 

Abstract 

Exotic species of the family Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae such as Swietenia spp. have 

been planted in Malaysia for more than 100 years but have incurred severe damage from Hypsipyla 

robusta (Moore) on various occasions. Khaya spp. were introduced from the late 1950s. The level 

of damage varies with location and planting type, with recent interplantings of Khaya ivorensis 

A. Chev. in a rubber plantation being free of damage. Emphasis on the exotic Swietenioideae has 

tended to overshadow the potential of the indigenous species such as Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss., 

Toona sinensis (A. Juss.) M. Roem. and T. sureni (Blume) Merr. as timber trees suitable for 

plantation forestry. Although these species are all attacked by H. robusta, there appears to be a 

distinct preference for T. sureni over the others, just as there is a preference for Swietenia over 

Khaya or Cedrela among the exotic species. However, trial plantings of C. tabularis and 

T. sinensis in urban areas in Peninsula Malaysia were free from attack by H. robusta. H. robusta 

does present a serious problem in the reforestation of logged-over forests. Mixed plantings of 

different meliaceous species are proposed to determine whether a preferred species can successfully 

act as a trap crop in order to protect a less susceptible species from attack. Close surveillance 

and chemical or biological control measures may then be directed at the preferred species. 

IN 1992, the forestry sector was only exceeded by 

petroleum and natural gas in terms of value of export 

earnings from primary commodities, and contributed 

about 10% of Malaysia’s total export earnings of 

RM103.49 billion (approx. US$40 billion). Log 

production in 1992 was 43.5 million m 3 but has 

decreased since then. 

The major forest tree species planted in Malaysia 

are shown in Table 1. About 90% of the area planted 

to forestry plantations, excluding tree crops such as 

Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg. (rubber), Elaeis 

guineensis Jacq. (oil palm) and Theobroma cacao L. 

(cocoa) (indicated by * in Table 1), is planted to 

Acacia mangium Willd., Gmelina arborea Roxb. and 

Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen for production 

of general purpose timber. Tree crops as 

listed above are generally not included in statistics 

on forestry plantations even though in recent years 

rubber logs comprised between 10% and 14% of 

total log production and have been important in 

furniture manufacture. Recently, there have been 

1 Forestry Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Kuala 

Lumpur 52109, Malaysia 

24 

trial plantings of rubber clones suitable for timber 

production and also the interplanting of timber trees 

among young plantings of rubber and oil palms by 

the private sector. 

In Peninsula Malaysia, most of the forest 

plantations are established by the government forest 

departments, but in Sabah, they are established 

mainly by the private sector. With the introduction of 

incentives for the establishment of forestry 

plantations, it is likely that there will be greater participation 

in Peninsula Malaysia by the private 

sector. Rising labour costs are also encouraging the 

conversion of rubber estates into mixed timber 

plantations. Presently, Tectona grandis Linn. f. and 

Azadirachta excelsa (Jack) Jacoby are being actively 

promoted for forest plantations by the Forest 

Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). 

Economic Importance and Success of 


Statistics on the economic importance of species of 

the family Meliaceae, subfamily Swietenioideae, 

hereafter referred to as Swietenioideae, are difficult 

to obtain since harvesting of native species is usually

Table 1. Area of forestry plantations and current rate of planting in Malaysia. 

Tree species Area planted (current or recent) Current rate of planting 

Pinus spp. 5681 ha (Peninsula Malaysia) 

1030 ha (Sabah 1991) 

negligible in Sarawak 

Acacia mangium Willd. 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. Paraserianthes 

falcataria (L.) Nielsen 

Tectona grandis Linn. f. 

High-quality timber trees including 

T. grandis 

included in the general category of ‘mixed light hardwood’. 

However, the available data on native species 

of Swietenioideae in Malaysia and their significance 

to forestry in natural forests have been summarised in 

Table 2. Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. and Chukrasia 

tabularis A. Juss. are probably the native species of 

most economic importance. Table 3 summarises the 

forestry significance and success of plantings of 

native and exotic species of Swietenioideae. 

Limits to Growth of Plantings of 


54 189 ha (Peninsula Malaysia 1994) 

90 000 ha (Sabah 1995) 

10 000 ha (Sarawak 1995) 

1918 ha (Peninsula Malaysia 1994) 

3624 ha (Sabah 1995) 

Swietenia macrophylla King 587 ha (Peninsula Malaysia 1994) 

340 ha (Sabah 1992) 

Khaya ivorensis A. Chev. 

T. grandis 

K. ivorensis 

Azadirachta excelsa (Jack) Jacoby 

Damage caused by Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) is the 

most serious limit to economical growing of species 

of Swietenioideae in Malaysia. The severity of 

damage varies with species and the type of planting, 

and some tree species have also been attacked by 

other species of insects. Limits to growth will be 

described for each of the species of Swietenioideae 

planted in Malaysia. 

Cedrela odorata L. has only been planted in small 

experimental open plantings, and from these very 

restricted trials only slight attack by H. robusta has 

been observed. 

25 

Discontinued in late 1980s in Peninsula 

Malaysia 

188 000 ha to be planted in Peninsula 

Malaysia by 1995 but halted temporarily 

in 1992 due to heart rot problems. 

Moratorium lifted in 1994. 

Planting currently being promoted 

Depending on availability of planting 

material (Peninsula Malaysia) 

≈200 ha Depending on availability of planting 

material 

1187 ha (Peninsula Malaysia 1995) Private sector, increasing 

Hevea brasiliensis* Muell. Arg. 1 807 000 ha (1992) Declining 

Elaeis guineensis* Jacq. 2 167 396 ha (1992) Slight increase in 1993 

Theobroma cacao* L. 388 700 ha (1992) Declining 

Total 168 576 ha (excluding*) 

4 531 672 ha (including*) 

C. tabularis has been planted in open plantings in 

urban areas and has been performing quite well. 

There have been no positive or negative records of 

H. robusta damage. 

Two species of Khaya have been planted in 

Malaysia. K. ivorensis A. Chev. has been planted in 

enrichment plantings or interplanted with rubber 

while K. senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. is only used in 

urban forestry. K. senegalensis has not been 

observed to be attacked by H. robusta but is 

occasionally attacked by a defoliator, Attacus atlas 

Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). K. ivorensis 

planted in enrichment plantings in Sabah has 

incurred some damage from H. robusta. However, 

this damage was not as severe as for Swietenia 

macrophylla King planted in similar situations. 

Enrichment plantings of K. ivorensis in Peninsula 

Malaysia have also incurred a small amount of H. 

robusta damage while interplantings in rubber plantations 

have been free of attack. Another stem borer, 

Zeuzera coffeae Nietner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae), 

and a bark borer have occasionally caused damage to 

trees while Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) 

(Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and some other scolytids 

have caused severe damage to seedlings of 

K. ivorensis in nurseries.

Table 2. Economic importance of native tree species of the subfamily Swietenioideae (Meliaceae) in natural forests of 

Malaysia. 

Tree species Amount harvested Scale of operation History of harvesting 

and planting 

Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. Total export production 

from all native Meliaceous 

species in Sabah in 1992 was 

92 m 3 valued at US$33 000 

1 A. Ongoing and successful; B. Ongoing but having limited or variable success; C. Preliminary or experimental only; 

D. Terminated. 

26 

Small scale local or 

community harvesting 

Toona sinensis (A. Juss.) M. Roem. No information See below for T. sureni 

Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. 34–40 m 3 in 1956 and 1957 Small scale local or 

community harvesting of 

mixed light hardwoods. 

Recently, 8000 seedlings 

of Toona spp. were used 

in mixed planting by a 

state governments in 

Peninsula Malaysia 

(Noraini pers. comm.) 

Xylocarpus granatum Koen. No information 

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) 

M. Roem. 

No information 

Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb. No information 

Table 3. Plantation forestry using species of Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae in Malaysia. 

Tree species Origin Present 

area 

planted 

(ha) 

Present 

planting 

rate 

(ha/year) 

Cedrela odorata L. Exotic Negligible – Open planting 

(experimental) 


A. Juss. 

Khaya ivorensis 

A. Chev. 

Khaya senegalensis 

(Desr.) A. Juss. 


King 

Swietenia mahagoni 

Jacq. 

Toona sinensis 

(A.Juss.) M. Roem. 

Toona sureni 

(Blume) Merr. 

Native Not available – Open planting in 

urban areas 

Exotic Less than 

200 ha 

Planting type Optimal 

rotation 

length 

(yrs) 

Planting 

status 

(A/B/C/D) 1 

– C Slight 

Currently promoted 

together with T. sinensis, 

for planting on degraded 

lands (Noraini 1993; 

Noraini et al. 1992; 

Noraini and Hanim 

1996) 

Hypsipyla damage 

? C No information 

Erratic Enrichment planting 25–30 yrs A Sabah — moderate, 

or interplanting with 

Peninsula Malaysia — 

rubber 

low, no damage when 

interplanted with rubber 

Exotic Not available – Urban forestry – A No information 

Exotic Few hundred 

hectares 

Erratic Mixed species 

plantings 

Exotic Negligible – Mixed species with 

other Meliaceae 

Native Not available – Open plantings in 

urban areas and also 

mixed plantings with 

T. sureni 

Native Not available – Open plantings in 

urban areas or mixed 

plantings with 

T. sinensis 

33–36 yrs B Some severe 

– D Very severe 

? C Not attacked in mixed 

plantings 

? C Severe

S. macrophylla and Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. 

have been grown in small areas in mixed species 

plantings and have both been severely attacked by H. 

robusta with S. mahagoni being more severely 

attacked. S. macrophylla is not always severely 

attacked but the circumstances leading to attack are 

not well understood. Trees can also be severely 

damaged by bark feeding squirrels. In nurseries, 

weak seedlings may also be attacked by scolytid 

borers and the collar borer, Pagiophloeus longiclavis 

Marshall (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). 

The native species of Toona, T. sinensis (A. Juss.) 

M. Roem and T. sureni, have been established in 

open plantings in urban areas or in mixed plantings 

with each other. T. sinensis has grown quite well, 

while T. sureni has suffered severe attack by 

H. robusta. 

Growth and Productivity of Swietenioideae 

Species 

Some growth data have been collected but no 

economic analysis of plantation operations has been 

performed. 

The growth rate of S. macrophylla has been 

described in brief accounts of trial plantations at 

FRIM, Kepong (Barnard and Beveridge 1957; 

Streets 1962; Ng and Tang 1974; Appanah and 

Weinland 1993) while Hashim et al. (1989) compared 

the growth rate at FRIM with that from other 

parts of Peninsula Malaysia. In general, the early 

growth is very variable and this is believed to be due 

to soil factors. At 9 years, the mean annual increment 

in diameter of selected dominant trees was 1.5 cm. A 

24-year-old tree growing on a moist site in well 

drained, sandy soil at FRIM had a height of 23.5 m, 

clear bole height of 8.2 m and a diameter of 66 cm. 

In Malacca, a 33-year-old tree under open conditions 

on poor lateritic soil had a height of 25 m and a 

diameter of 54 cm. S. macrophylla trees in Malaysia 

rarely have straight clear boles longer than 9.2 m. 

Brief data on growth rates for K. ivorensis are 

given in Ng and Tang (1974), Darus et al. (1990), 

Hashim (1990) and Appanah and Weinland (1993). 

The mean annual increment in height was 1.0 m and 

in diameter was 1.9 cm for a 26-year-old tree in 

Kedah (Darus et al. 1974). 

Noraini et al. (1994a, b) and Noraini and Hanim 

(1996) made some studies on the establishment and 

initial growth rates of some of the native Swietenioideae 

(Toona spp. and C. tabularis) while Ng and 

Tang (1974) reported a 33-year-old tree of 

C. tabularis with a clear bole of 15.5 m and a 

diameter of 58 cm. 

27 


Directions 

A summary of the extent of current and historical 

research into H. robusta in Malaysia is presented in 

Table 4. Overall, there has been very little previous 

research conducted on H. robusta in Malaysia except 

for reports on its attack and some attempts at 

chemical or silvicultural control. Current research is 

still at an early stage and mainly comprises preliminary 

observations on the biology of the species. 

Experimental trials on the management of H. 

robusta have been delayed pending the establishment 

of new plantings. Past reports on the attack of 

H. robusta, as well as the current observations on the 

extent of attack at different sites and on different 

plant species, have provided an insight into the 

biology and possible present occurrence of the pest. 

These observations have helped to determine the 

direction of future research and also to assess the 

planting potential of some species of Swietenioideae. 


various aspects of Hypsipyla robusta biology and control. 


research 


Historical 

research 

Biology 


Life history ** – 

Ecology in natural stands – – 

Ecology in plantations ** – 

Population dynamics ** – 

Natural enemies ** – 

Other 

Control 

– – 

Biological control ** – 

Chemical control * * 


Host resistance * * 

Pheromones ** – 


Other – – 

Swietenia mahagoni was introduced into Malaysia 

in 1876 and S. macrophylla in 1886 and again in 

1892 (Burkhill 1936). Both species were attacked by 

H. robusta although the attack was more severe on 

S. mahagoni, which is no longer being planted 

except for comparative experimental trials. 

Some good specimens of S. macrophylla established 

in these early plantings have survived as 

ornamentals in the larger towns and also as a small 

group of plantings in Bukit Bruang Forest Reserve in

Malacca. However, no plantations were established 

(Barnard and Beveridge 1957). Small experimental 

plantations were set up in the FRIM grounds in 1928 

and 1931–1933 using the seeds from trees in 

Malacca. 

In the 1950s and onwards, more plantings were 

carried out on unused land and also as enrichment 

plantings in logged forests. In the 1930s and 1950s 

(Anon. 1932, 1933, 1934, 1956–1959) there were 

reports of attacks by H. robusta and also by a weevil 

stem/collar borer (Pagiophloeus sp). These attacks 

by H. robusta intensified with the removal of overhead 

cover. There were also unsuccessful attempts in 

1958 to control H. robusta using dieldrin. 

According to Barnard and Beveridge (1957), S. 

macrophylla grows well throughout the country but 

Mitchell (1962) cautioned against large-scale 

planting of mahogany. In 1962 it was reported that 

enrichment plantings of S. macrophylla in Malacca 

suffered no attacks from shoot borers or squirrels 

whereas in Selangor the attacks by these two pests 

were quite severe. Recent line plantings of S. macrophylla 

in Sabah have also suffered severe damage 

from H. robusta shoot borers. 

Other exotic species of Swietenioideae include K. 

ivorensis which was introduced into the country in 

the late 1950s and early 1960s (Hashim 1990) and K. 

senegalensis which was introduced in the late 1980s 

for urban planting. K. ivorensis in Peninsula 

Malaysia is relatively free from serious pests except 

for an isolated attack by Hypsipyla shoot borer on 

potted seedlings in a nursery in Kedah (Darus et al. 

1990). In Sabah, K. ivorensis suffers from attacks by 

Hypsipyla but not as severe as on Swietenia spp 

(unpubl. report, Luasong Forestry Centre 1991). 

Chukrasia and Toona, the indigenous genera of 

Swietenioideae, have not attracted much attention, 

although C. tabularis has been established as plantations 

in India and elsewhere (Day et al. 1994). 

T. sureni and T. sinensis are not only suitable for 

sustainable timber plantation trials but also for rapid 

reforestation and gap regeneration projects, particularly 

on poor soils and where soil stabilisation and 

water catchment management are priorities 

(Edmonds 1993). T. sureni and T. sinensis are 

currently being promoted for planting by Noraini 

(1993) and Noraini et al. (1994a, b). C. tabularis and 

T. sinensis have also been recommended for urban 

planting by Noraini and Hanim (1996). 

Currently, the planting of S. macrophylla and K. 

ivorensis in Peninsula Malaysia has been on a small 

scale, mainly to reforest idle land or land damaged 

by illegal logging. There was a serious attempt at 

establishing line plantings of S. macrophylla in a 

logged forest in Sabah but unfortunately the plants 

were heavily attacked by Hypsipyla shoot borers. As 

28 

a result, there is now a serious attempt to study the 

biology and ecology of H. robusta. The research is, 

however, in its early stage and there are plans for 

various trials on the management of the pest. 

From the initial records of infestations by 

Luasong Forestry Centre, and also from preliminary 

observations in Sabah, it appears that H. robusta 

attack is most severe on S. mahagoni followed by 

S. macrophylla while K. ivorensis and C. odorata are 

less heavily attacked in that order. Attacks on 

T. ciliata var. australis appears to be more serious 

than that on C. odorata. H. robusta attack occurs 

both in the open and in the forest, although the infestations 

may be earlier in open plantings than in the 

forest. The presence of a highly susceptible plant 

species seems to be able to reduce the attacks on 

nearby less susceptible species. K. ivorensis at 

4.5 months of planting did not suffer from 

H. robusta attack in the presence of S. mahagoni and 

S. macrophylla. 

In Peninsula Malaysia, an experimental interplanting 

of T. sureni with T. sinensis (Noraini 

unpubl.) showed the former species severely 

damaged by Hypsipyla shoot borers while the latter 

was free from attack. 

It is known that certain plant species which are 

susceptible to Hypsipyla sp. of one region may not 

be severely attacked when they are planted in 

another region (Grijpma 1974). The exception seems 

to be plants of the genus Swietenia which seems to 

be attacked by Hypsipyla grandella (Zeller) in its 

native home as well as by H. robusta elsewhere. 

However, some species seem to be more susceptible, 

regardless of location (e.g. S. mahagoni and S. 

macrophylla are more susceptible than K. ivorensis; 

T. sureni is more susceptible than T. sinensis). 

Is this a case of plant resistance resulting from 

increased larval mortality as in T. ciliata var. australis 

against H. grandella? Or is it a case of a 

greater attraction of the adult moths to a particular 

plant species which perhaps can then function as a 

‘trap crop’ when interplanted among the less susceptible 

species of Swietenioideae? The effectiveness of 

the ‘trap crop’ would depend also on the density of 

the pest as well as on the density and phenology of 

the plant itself. Hence a study on the population 

dynamics of the borer, plant phenology and also on 

host selection by the adult moths will greatly help in 

developing appropriate strategies for the management 

of the pest. 

In a rubber estate in Peninsula Malaysia, 

K. ivorensis (age 1.5 years) interplanted with young 

rubber plants (age 2.5 years) showed no signs of 

attack by H. robusta. A single plant of S. macrophylla 

that was present in the same area was also 

free of attack. Currently in urban areas, new

plantings of S. macrophylla, K. senegalensis, 

C. tabularis and T. sinensis do not appear to be 

attacked by Hypsipyla shoot borers. Even on FRIM 

grounds, exposed seedlings of K. ivorensis and S. 

macrophylla have not been observed to be attacked 

by H. robusta. It is possible that the urban areas and 

some of the large rubber plantations are now far 

away from the natural habitat of H. robusta and that 

the threat to the planting of mahogany and other 

Swietenioideae no longer exists in such areas. There 

is a need to assess the situation through trial plantings 

in rubber estates which represent a vast area for 

future conversion to timber or mixed mahogany/ 

rubber plantations. 

If there is an intention to plant high-quality timber 

trees of the subfamily Swietenioideae in logged-over 

forests, it is important to select species that are 

resistant or seemingly less attractive to H. robusta, 

or to plant a mixture of species, using one as a trap 

crop with close surveillance and if necessary control 

measures implemented. 

Concerning the biological control of H. robusta, it 

would be interesting to study the effectiveness of 

predatory ants like Oecophylla smaragdina (F.) of 

infestations by Hypsipyla shoot borers. O. smaragdina 

has been observed locally to be effective in 

reducing damage to fruit by fruit flies (Bactrocera 

spp.) or in preventing attacks by Helopeltis sp. on 

cocoa fruits. In agriculture, the use of such ants is 

not a pleasant proposition because of their bites. In 

forest plantations, however, the situation is quite different 

because, by the time of complete canopy 

cover, both the ants and the borer would no longer be 

a problem. Apart from the study of H. robusta, it is 

also necessary to look into the silvicultural aspects 

concerning the planting of mahogany so as to 

improve the form of the tree and also to shorten the 

period when damage by H. robusta is most critical. 

Current Researchers 

Currently there is a joint research project by Forest 

Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Japan International 

Research Center for Agricultural Sciences 

(JIRCAS) and Rakyat Berjaya Sdn. Bhd (RBJ) on 

Hypsipyla shoot borers of Meliaceae at the Luasong 

Forestry Centre in Sabah where more than 300 ha of 

mahogany have been severely attacked by H. 

robusta. 

Dr S.G. Khoo of FRIM is studying the biology 

and host preference/selection of H. robusta and also 

the role of predatory ants (O. smaragdina) in 

Hypsipyla shoot borer control. 

Dr Kazuma Matsumoto of JIRCAS is currently 

based at Luasong Forestry Centre. Dr Matsumoto 

arrived in Sabah in December 1995 and is currently 

29 

studying the ecology and population dynamics of H. 

robusta, in addition to carrying out various trials on 

possible control measures, the latter being dependent 

on establishment of new plantings. 

Mr James Rubinsin Kotulai of RBJ, a subsidiary 

of Innoprise Corporation Sdn. Bhd. in Sabah is 

working closely with Dr Matsumoto on the biology 

of the borers. 

References 

Anon. 1932, 1933, 1934, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959. Annual 

report on forest administration in Malaya and Brunei. 

Kuala Lumpur. 

Appanah, S. and Weinland, G. 1993. Planting quality 

timber trees in Peninsular Malaysia — a review. Forest 

Research Institute Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 247 p. 

Barnard, R.C. and Beveridge, A.E. 1957. Exotic trees in the 

Federation of Malaya. Yau Sen Press, 39 p. 

Burkhill, L.H. 1936. A dictionary of the economic products 

of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. I & II. Ministry of Agriculture 

and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. 

Day, R.K., Rudgard, S.A. and Nair, K.S.S. 1994. Asian tree 

pests — an overview technical document, GCP/RAS/ 

134/ASB. FORSPA Publication 12. Food and Agricultural 

Organization of the United Nations, 71 p. 

Darus, A., Hashim, M.N., Abdul Rasip, A.G. and Loke, 

E.H. 1990. Khaya ivorensis and Endospermum malaccence 

as a potential species for future reforestation programme. 

In: Appanah, S., Ng, F.S.P. and Roslan, M., ed. 

Proceedings of the Malaysian Forestry and Forest 

Products Research Conference. Forest Research Institute 

Malaysia, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, 60–65. 

Edmonds, J.M. 1993. The potential value of Toona species 

(Meliaceae) as multipurpose and plantation trees in 

Southeast Asia. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 

72: 181–186. 

Grijpma, P. 1974. Contributions to an integrated control 

programme of Hypsipyla grandella (Zeller) in Costa 

Rica. PhD thesis, Wageningen, Netherlands. 

Hashim, Md. Noor, Ang, L.H. and Markandan, M. 1989. 

The growth performance of some high quality cabinet 

timber tree species in Peninsular Malaysia. Regional 

Symposium on Recent Development in Tree Plantations 

of Humid Tropics. 5–9 June 1989, Serdang, 355–373. 

Hashim, Md. Noor. 1990. Performance and potential Khaya 

ivorensis in Semenanjung Malaysia FRIM report. Forest 

Research Institute Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur (In Malay). 

Luasong Forestry Centre 1991. Report on study tour to 

Danum Valley F.C., Luasong Forestry Centre and Sabah 

Softwood Sdn Bhd, 6–11 May 1991. FRC Information 

paper No. 3. Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry 

Dept., Sandakan. 

Mitchell, B.A. 1962. The place of exotics in Malaysian 

Forestry. The Malaysian Forester, 25: 224–236. 

Ng, F.S.P. and Tang, H.T. 1974. Comparative growth rates 

of Malaysian trees. The Malaysian Forester, 37: 2–23.

Noraini, M.T. 1993. The economic importance of Toona 

species in Malaysia. In: Noraini, M.T., ed. Ecological 

Economics in Relation to Forest Conservation and 

Management, Syarikat Datar Raya Sdn. Bhd., Malindo 

Printers, Shah Alam, 95–105. 

Noraini, M.T., Hussin, K. and Edmonds, J.M. 1992. The 

promotion of Surian (Toona spp.) as plantation tree in 

Malaysia. In: Ahmad Said Sajap, Razali Abdul Kadir, 

Mohd Shahwahid Hj. Othman, Aminuddin Mohamed, 

Faridah Hunum Ibrahim, Mohd Hamami Sahri., ed. 

Indigenous Species for Forest Plantations. Universiti 

Pertanian Malaysia Serdang, 57–60. 

30 

Noraini, M.T., Sainul-Haizan, B. and Jamilah, M.S. 

1994a. Seedling establishment of two Malaysian Toona 

species (Meliaceae). Third Symposium of Applied 

Biology, 86–88. 

Noraini, M.T., Kanan, P. and Jamilah, M.S. 1994b. The 

effects of shading on the establishment of Toona sureni 

(surian wangi) seedlings. Malaysian Applied Biology, 

23: 23 – 33. 

Noraini, M.T. and Hanim, A. 1996. Forest tree species in 

biodiversity landscape designs. Fourth Symposium of 

Applied Biology, 28–29 May 1996, 23–26. 

Streets, R.J. 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. 

Oxford, Clarendon Press, 765 p.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Indonesia 

Oemijati Rachmatsjah 1 and F.R. Wylie 2 

Abstract 

In Indonesia, Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) has been recorded from the native Toona sureni 

(Blume) Merr. and several introduced species, principally Swietenia macrophylla King. Impact has 

been severe, particularly on the mahoganies, trees aged three to six years and two to eight metres 

tall being the most heavily damaged. In Java, H. robusta completes its life cycle in about five 

weeks, peak flight activity occurring around dusk in the early rainy season (October). Several 

methods have been tested to control the insect, including form pruning, closer spacing at planting, 

the use of nurse, barrier and mixed plantings, and insecticide application. However, effective 

management of H. robusta has not yet been achieved. 

THE SHOOT BORER Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) is 

known to feed on most tree species of the subfamily 

Swietenioideae in the family Meliaceae. In Indonesia, 

its most noticeable impact has been on the 

mahoganies, Swietenia macrophylla King and 

S. mahagoni (L.) Jacq., introduced into the country 

in the late 1800s and extensively attacked by the 

mid-1920s (Morgan and Suratmo 1976). These 

species are favoured for planting because of their 

high value timber. When young, they are often 

attacked by H. robusta, resulting in highly branched 

trees of inferior value due to a large reduction in 

straight bole length and timber volume. Several other 

species of Swietenioideae have been trialed, mainly 

in Java, but most have been attacked by the shoot 

borer. 

Biology of Hypsipyla robusta 

Hypsipyla robusta appears to be very widespread in 

Indonesia, being recorded from the islands of Java, 

Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Maluku. It is 

found in an altitudinal band ranging from the lowlands 

through to 1100 m above sea level (Suharti and 

Santoso 1990). 

1 Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, 

PO Box 168, Bogor 16680, Indonesia 

2 Queensland Forestry Research Institute, PO Box 631, 

Indooroopilly Qld 4068, Australia 

31 

Following on early work by Kalshoven (1926), the 

morphology and biology of H. robusta in Java have 

been studied in some detail by Indarwati (1980), and 

its host preferences by Morgan and Suratmo (1976). 

Light trap catches and observations by the latter 

authors in West Java showed that, while generations 

are continuous throughout the year, the moth is most 

active during the period early September to early 

December. Flight activity of the adult is greatest 

around dusk in the early rainy season (October) and 

copulation and egg-laying occur during the night. 

Indarwati (1980) found that individual female H. 

robusta can produce up to 472 eggs, with an average 

incubation period of seven days. Newly hatched 

larvae bore through the epidermis of the growing 

shoot and mine in the twig. There are four or five 

larval instars occupying about 19 days (Morgan and 

Suratmo 1976). Usually, each shoot contains only 

one larva. Pupation is mostly within the twig mines 

or in silken cocoons in the foliage, and takes 10 days. 

The adult lives on average four days. The life cycle 

of H. robusta in Java is thus about five weeks 

(Morgan and Suratmo 1976). 

Damage to Meliaceae 

In Indonesia, H. robusta is known to feed on the 

native Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. and the 

introduced Carapa guianensis Aubl., Cedrela 

odorata L., Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss., Khaya 

anthotheca (Welw.) C.DC., K. grandifoliola C.DC.,

K. senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss, S. macrophylla and 

S. mahagoni. Ardikoesoema and Dilmy (1956) 

report that while K. senegalensis is heavily attacked, 

K. grandifoliola and K. anthotheca are little affected. 

Surveys by Morgan and Suratmo (1976) of shoot 

borer attack on S. macrophylla in West Java showed 

that trees aged three to six years and two to eight 

metres tall were most heavily damaged, and trees 

over 15 m tall and aged 13 years or more were only 

slightly damaged or not damaged at all. Further 

results from that same study showed that degree of 

infestation decreased with increasing age and height 

of the host; infestation being 90% for trees aged 

three years or 2.5 m high decreasing to less than 5% 

for trees older than 14 years or taller than 13 m 

(Suratmo 1977). 

Management of Hypsipyla robusta 

in Indonesia 

Much of the research on H. robusta management has 

been done as thesis work and remains unpublished. 

A number of student projects at the Faculty of 

Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, have 

studied parasitoids of H. robusta eggs and larvae. 

Ibrahim (1974) reported that eggs were parasitised 

by Trichogramma sp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), 

while Kadarusman (1984) records the 

braconid Megacentrus sp. as a larval parasitoid. 

Effective management of H. robusta has not been 

achieved even though a number of approaches have 

been investigated or suggested. Kalshoven (1926) 

attempted to prune the damaged shoot to produce a 

new leading shoot but considered the method to be 

unsatisfactory. Suratmo (1977), following his West 

Java studies reported above, suggested that protection 

of trees older than 14 years or over 13 m is 

unnecessary but that control measures should be 

applied to trees younger than eight years or under 

seven metres high. Closer spacing (1 × 2 m or closer) 

was advocated to encourage height growth and 

reduce the period of susceptibility to H. robusta. In 

south Sumatra, it has been demonstrated that weeds 

left uncut around S. macrophylla plantings could be 

a physical barrier against attack by the shoot borer 

until the height of the trees exceeded that of surrounding 

weeds (Sutomo 1987, cited in Matsumoto 

et al. 1997). 

In subsequent studies by Matsumoto et al. (1997) 

in the same region, two experimental plantations of 

S. macrophylla enclosed by Acacia mangium Willd. 

trees were not attacked by the borer for three years 

(unfortunately the control plots for this experiment 

were destroyed by fire and further work is necessary 

to confirm the effectiveness of this protection 

method). Extracts of neem, Azadirachta indica A. 

32 

Juss., leaves and seed have been tested in the 

laboratory against the shoot borer in Java and 

repelled and killed the insects (Suharti et al. 1995). 

The same authors report that interplanting of neem in 

S. macrophylla plantations in East Java, particularly 

in an uneven planting design, reduced the attack of 

the insects. Based on their host preference studies of 

H. robusta in Java, Morgan and Suratmo (1976) 

suggested the use of Paraserianthes falcateria (L.) 

Fosberg as a nurse crop. Ibrahim (1974), Barlian 

(1974) and Haryadi (1986) concluded that application 

of organophosphate insecticides was the most 

effective method of control of H. robusta. 

References 

Ardikoesoema, R.I. and Dilmy, A. 1956. Tentang djenis 

kaju jang didebut ‘mahoni’ atau ‘mahogani’, terestimewa 

keluaga Khaya. Rimba Indonesia, 5: 266–328. 

Barlian, J. 1974. Utilisation of some organophosphate 

insecticides to prevent Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) attack. 

Undergraduate Thesis, Forest School Academy, 

Bandung. (Unpublished). 

Haryadi, D. 1986. Utilisation of systemic insecticide to prevent 

Hypsipyla robusta attack on the big-leaf ‘mahoni’ 

(Swietenia macrophylla King). Undergraduate Thesis, 

Faculty of Forestry, IPB. (Unpublished). 

Ibrahim, E.K.A. 1974. Control of Hypsipyla robusta 

(Moore) on ‘mahoni’ seed-bed with systemic insecticide. 

Undergraduate Thesis, Faculty of Forestry, IPB (affiliated 

to Mangkurat University). 

Indarwati. 1980. Morphology study of the larva of 

Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). 

Undergraduate Thesis, Faculty of Forestry, IPB. 

Kalshoven, L.G.E. 1926. Ziekten en Plagen in de Mahonie 

Aanplantingen op Java. Mededeelingen van het Proefstation 

Voor Het Boschwezen. 15: 62–81, 100. 

Kadarusman. 1984. Introductory study of Hypsipyla 

robusta (Moore). Undergraduate Thesis, Faculty of 

Forestry, IPB. 

Matsumoto, K., Mulyadi, K. and Irianto, R.S.B. 1997. A 

promising method to protect mahagony plantations from 

attack by the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) 

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). JIRCAS Journal 5, 23–29. 

Morgan, F.D. and Suratmo, F.G. 1976. Host preferences of 

Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in 

West Java. Australian Forestry, 39: 103–112. 

Suharti, M. and Santoso, S. 1990. Behaviour and percentage 

of attack by the mahogany shoot borer in Java. 

Buletin Penelitian Hutan, 529: 37–45. 

Suharti, M., Asmaliyah and Hawiati, W.P. 1995. Neem 

(Azadirachta indica) trees as a natural insecticide 

resource to control forest pests. Buletin Penelitian Hutan, 

589: 1–26. 

Suratmo, F.G. 1977. Infestation of the leading shoots of 

mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) by Hypsipyla 

robusta (Moore) in West Java, Indonesia. Proceedings of 

a symposium on forest pests and diseases in Southeast 

Asia, April 20–23, 1976, Bogor, Indonesia. BIOTROP, 

121–132.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Papua New Guinea 

J. Dobunaba 1 and T. Kosi 1 

Abstract 

Papua New Guinea is largely covered with forest (78% of land area) of which 3% has been commercially 

logged and about one-third is inaccessible to conventional logging techniques. Forestry 

accounts for 20% of the Nations export earnings. Two species of Toona (T. ciliata M. Roem. and 

T. sureni (Blume) Merr.) are harvested in a sustainable manner from native forests with less than 

800 m 3 of each species extracted each year. None of these species are grown in plantations. No 

exotic species of Meliaceae are grown in plantations in Papua New Guinea, largely because of the 

presence of Hypsipyla robusta (Moore). No research is currently being undertaken on this pest. 

PAPUA NEW GUINEA is well forested with more than 

78% of the total area dominated by natural forest. Of 

the forest area, only about 3% has been influenced by 

industrial logging operations. However, because of 

the extremely mountainous terrain which is typical of 

most of the country, it is probable that no more than 

42% could be harvested by conventional techniques. 

The total accessible area of forest is about 

12.6 million ha, of which 3.75 million ha is not 

productive and a further 0.88 million ha is a buffer 

area around productive forest areas. Therefore, the 

total area of accessible productive forest is about 7.97 

million ha with an estimated gross volume of about 

170 million m 3 . The best current estimate of annual 

sustainable yield is 4.9 million m 3 . Harvesting 

operations will leave sufficient advanced growth to 

enable an equivalent volume to be harvested at the 

end of a 35-year cutting cycle. 

Forestry has recently assumed a much greater 

level of importance to the national economy. 

Throughout the 1980s and the early 1990s, forestry 

contributed an average of less than 100 million kina 

(PGK) in annual export earnings. This represented 

around 6%–8% of the nations total export earnings. 

Howeve,r this has increased markedly due to the significant 

rise in the price of timber in 1993, with 

forestry contributing an anticipated 20% of the 

export earnings in 1994 (approximately 512 million 

PGK). The value of forest products exceeded all 

1 Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, PO Box 

314, Lae, Papua New Guinea 

33 

other agriculture and fisheries exports by more than 

50% and was second in export revenue only to the 

non-renewable resources sector of oil and minerals 

(Figure 1). The total volume exported during 1994 

was 3.1 million m 3 of sawn timber valued at 

5.9 million PGK which was exported mainly to 

Australia and New Zealand. Woodchip sales to Japan 

amounted to 4 million PGK. 

While Papua New Guinea is ninth among tropical 

countries in terms of forest area, its timber output is 

relatively low due to the large areas of inaccessible 

forest. Currently, the main consumers of logs are 

Japan (68%), Korea (22%) and Hong Kong (5%). 

Relatively small but significant areas of plantations 

are found in several localities (Table 1). The most 

important is the 13 000 ha of government owned and 

managed plantations of Araucaria cunninghamii 

Aiton ex D. Don and A. hunsteinii Schumann in the 

Wau/Bulolo area. These support a plywood mill and 

associated processing industries at Bulolo. In the 

Madang area, 11 000 ha of privately owned hardwood 

plantations of predominantly Acacia mangium Willd. 

contribute to the wood supply for a chip mill. Other 

significant areas of industrial plantations are at 

several localities in New Britain where 17 600 ha of 

plantations (mainly Eucalyptus deglupta Blume) have 

been established and are approaching maturity. 

Plantation establishment rates are not expected to 

exceed the present target of 4000 ha per year for the 

foreseeable future. Lack of funds and the risks 

associated with land tenure security are significant 

problems in expanding the plantation resources.

Kina (million) 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

1985 

1986 

Oil & Minerals Forestry Agriculture & Fisheries 

Figure 1. Contribution of the three major export sectors to Papua New Guinea total exports. 



Two species of the subfamily Swietenioideae of the 

family Meliaceae, Toona ciliata M. Roem. and T. 

sureni (Blume) Merr. occur in native forest in Papua 

New Guinea. These scattered trees are harvested by 

large private companies, producing a total of less 

than 800 m 3 per year of timber. The exact amount 

harvested of each species is not known since both 

species are harvested under the trade name of 

‘Toona’. The current rate of harvesting of these 

species from native forest is considered sustainable. 

There are no commercial plantations of Toona spp. 

or any other species of Swietenioideae in Papua New 

Guinea due to the severe damage caused by 

Hypsipyla robusta (Moore). 

1987 

1988 

1989 

34 

1990 

1991 

1992 


Directions 

There is no current research into H. robusta in Papua 

New Guinea and only limited research has been 

undertaken in the past year because the focus has 

been on harvesting Toona spp. from native forest 

rather than growing these and related species in 

plantations. 

In the Bulolo area (Morobe Province) in 1974, 

three line plantings of T. ciliata were established 

(3 m between lines) for experimental purposes on an 

area of open grassland dominated by Imperata 

cylindrica (L.) Beauv. Trees were established from 

cuttings treated with indole-acetic acid and indolebutyric 

acid (Merrifield and Howcroft 1975) since 

seedlings were unavailable. The trial was aborted 

1993 

1994

Table 1. Major plantation areas and tree species in Papua New Guinea. 

Project Province Ownership Total area (ha) Species (% of area of major species) 

Brown River Central Customary 1200 Tectona grandis Linn. f. (100%) 

Bulolo/Wau Morobe Government 13 000 Araucaria hunsteinii Schumann (50%) 

A. cunninghamii Aiton ex D. Don (50%) 

Customary ? Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese (80%) 

P. caribaea Morelet 

Gogol Valley Madang Private 11 000 Acacia mangium Willd. (100%) 

Government 1200 Eucalyptus deglupta Blume (60%) 

Terminalia brassii Exell 

Fayantina Eastern Highlands Government/Customary 500 Pinus patula Schldl. and Cham. (100%) 

Kainantu Eastern Highlands Government 1000 P. patula (100%) 

Kaut New Ireland Government/Customary 250 E. deglupta (100%) 

Keravat East New Britain Customary 1900 T. grandis (80%) 

E. deglupta 

Ochroma lagopus Sw. 

Kuriva Central Government 600 T. grandis (100%) 

Lapegu Eastern Highlands Government 3200 P. patula (100%) 

Open Bay East New Britain Private 9200 E. deglupta (90%) 

T. brassii 

A. mangium 

Madang Madang Government 900 E. deglupta (48%) 

North Coast 

A. mangium (48%) 

T. brassii 

Stettin Bay West New Britain Private 8400 E. deglupta (80%) 

Octomeles sumatrana Mig. 

T. brassii 

A. mangium 

Ulabo Milne Bay Government 1500 T. brassii (80%) 

E. deglupta 

A. mangium 

Waghi Valley Western Highands Government 2100 E. grandis (49%) 

E. robusta (49%) 

P. patula 

Ialibu Southern Highlands Government 900 P. patula (96%) 

E. robusta 

after the first couple of years due to very severe 

attack by H. robusta resulting in the trees being of 

shrubby form and less than 1 m high. 

Swietenia macrophylla King and Toona sp. were 

planted in a plot of less than 1 ha in the Gogol Valley 

(Madang Province) in the mid 1970s at a 10 m × 10 

m spacing as an enrichment planting following clear 

felling. Both these species were severely attacked by 

H. robusta virtually ever since planting which has 

resulted in the Toona sp. appearing as very bushy 

small trees. In contrast, the S. macrophylla has managed 

to grow through the damage and is showing 

very promising form and growth. 

35 

A few line plantings of S. macrophylla and 

Cedrela odorata L. have also been established at 

Bulolo in 1959 at a spacing of 2.4 m as a minor component 

of a plantation of A. cunninghamii and A. 

hunsteinii. The site was previously clear felled and 

logged. At Kuriva in the mid 1980s, a few line plantings 

of S. macrophylla were established on an old 

nursery site. At both locations, the trees have been 

attacked by H. robusta but have produced trees of 

good height and form. These results suggest that 

these exotic species of Swietenioideae may be 

successfully grown at low densities in mixed species 

plantings.

Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C.DC. and K. nyasica 

Stapf. ex Baker were planted at Brown River 

(Central Province) in the 1950s or 1960s as line 

plantings in a reforestation project (Skelton 1981). 

Current information is not available and land has 

reverted back to the customary landowners. 

In 1975 at Bulolo, 25 organophosphate and 

carbamate insecticides were screened for systemic 

activity in T. ciliata. The most highly systemic 

insecticides were aldicarb, dimethoate, isolan, phosphamidon, 

propoxur and trichlorfon. It was proposed 

to then test these chemicals against H. robusta. However, 

these studies have not been reported. 

Presently there is no active research into H. 

robusta or growing of species of Swietenioideae in 

Papua New Guinea. However, the Papua New 

36 

Guinea Forest Research Institute has recently established 

a new program on the domestication of 

indigenous tree species into which T. ciliata could be 

included if damage from H. robusta could be controlled. 

Hence, these Proceedings and resolutions of 

this workshop will assist greatly in determining the 

future directions of research at the Institute. 

References 

Merrifield, L.E. and Howcroft, N.H.S. 1975. Propagation of 

cedar, Toona sureni (Bl.) Merr., from cuttings treated 

with growth substances. Turrialba, 25: 54–57. 

Skelton, D. 1981. Reforestation in Papua New Guinea. 

Papua New Guinea Forestry Department, Unpublished 

report.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Solomon Islands 

M.L. Ngoro 1 

Abstract 

Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) is a major pest in the tropics including Solomon Islands. In 1996, 

there was about 3545 ha of Swietenia macrophylla Jacq. plantation and the status of the pest needs 

to be seriously considered. There are a number of experimental trials of S. macrophylla in which 

H. robusta is being studied. It is necessary to research potential biological control of this pest, as 

chemical control measures are highly uneconomical to implement in plantations. Treating 

H. robusta in the nursery using a systemic insecticide, Orthene, is currently an accepted treatment 

in Solomon Islands. Cedrela odorata, another of the Meliaceae, is also planted and is only 

minimally attacked by H. robusta. 

SOLOMON ISLANDS lies in the Southwest Pacific 

between latitude 5° and 12°S and longitude 155° 

and170°E and has a total land area of 28 300 km with 

a population of 412 902 in 1996. The economy of 

Solomon Islands relies heavily upon fishing, agriculture 

and forestry. The cultural heritage and economic 

development of Solomon Islands is dependent on 

forests. Benefits from the forest include poles, fuelwood, 

medicinal plants and a range of customary uses. 

Overview of Forestry Industry 

Solomon Islands is an independent state and relies 

mostly on its natural resources for its revenue. The 

forest and its people are almost inseparable and thus 

the forest is highly valued. Some of the fundamentally 

important aspects of forests in Solomon Islands are: 

• part of the nation’s cultural heritage and future 

economic development; 

• environmental and the ecological stability of the 

islands is conditioned by the protective covering 

of the forest; 

• forests cover more than 80% of the land area and 

supports the timber industry; 

• generate significant amounts of government 

revenue; 

1 Forestry Research Centre, Forestry Division, PO Box 79, 

Munda, Western Province, Solomon Islands 

37 

• provide employment for 4% of the national workforce; 

• earnings from log royalties by resource owners; 

and, 

• provide fuelwood, poles, food and a variety of 

customary uses including medicinal herbs. 

Revenue earned from log exports in the late 1990s 

has been the largest for any industry in the country. 

Estimates of production and revenue earned are 

shown in Table 1. However, the sustainability of 

these logging practices is currently a controversial 

issue. 

Table 1. Volume of timber and revenue earnt from 

logging in Solomon Islands. 

Year Volume (m 3 ) Revenue ($ million) 

1993 591 100 73.9 

1994 627 952 76.6 

1995 733 817 79.3 

1996 431 755 (Jan-June) 48.9 

The national inventory carried out in 1995 by the 

Solomon Island Forest Resources Inventory Project, 

funded by AusAID, found that only 8 million ha of 

forest remains and is likely to be exhausted in four to 

five years. There are many foreign logging companies 

operating in Solomon Island with a combined 

annual quota of 642 000 m 3 (Table 2).

Table 2. Foreign companies logging in Solomon Islands 

and their annual quotas in 1996. 

Company Annual quota (m 3 ) 

Kalena Timber 160 000 

Allardyce Lumber 42 000 

Dalsol Ltd 30 000 

Pacific Timber 50 000 

Hyundai 75 000 

Intergrated Forest Industry 72 000 

Kayuken Pacific 50 000 

Eagon Forest Development 93 000 

Levers Solomon 40 000 

Marvin Brothers 30 000 

TOTAL 642 000 

Government planting on logged-over crown land 

started in 1967 and through till 1996, about 26 000 

ha had been planted to various indigenous and exotic 

species. Initially, enrichment planting was the dominant 

method. Planting material was then mostly from 

wildings of major commercial indigenous species 

(e.g. Terminalia brassii Exell, Campnosperma brevipetiolata 

Volk., Eucalyptus deglupta Bl.) and Swietenia 

macrophylla Jacq. imported from Papua New 

Guinea and Fiji. Currently, six major tree species are 

recommended for large-scale plantations in Solomon 

Islands. Table 3 lists these species and gives their 

recommended espacement. 

Table 3. Tree species and espacement recommended for 

plantation forestry in Solomon Islands. 

Species Espacement 

Cedrela odorata L. 5 m × 3 m 

Eucalyptus deglupta Bl. 5 m × 3 m 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. 4 m × 3 m 

Swietenia macrophylla Jacq. 10 m × 3 m 

Tectona grandis Linn. f. 4 m × 3 m 

Terminalia brassii Exell 5 m × 3 m 

Following the Government Structural Adjustment 

Policy on Privatisation in 1995, all government plantation 

establishment ceased. Large scale forestry 

planting is now done by private companies only. The 

net planted area from 1967–1995 is as shown in 

Table 4. 


Swieteniodeae Species 

The only indigenous species belonging to the subfamily 

Swietenioideae of the family Meliaceae in 

Solomon Islands is Xylocarpus granatum Koen. This 

is a mangrove species and of little commercial value. 

38 

Fruit of X. granatum has been destroyed by feeding 

of larvae of Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) (Bigger 

1988) while shoot feeding has not been recorded. 

Two exotic high-value species of Swietenioideae, 

Cedrela odorata L. and Swietenia macrophylla 

Jacq., have been grown in Solomon Islands and are 

among the most important plantation species in 

Solomon Islands. C. odorata is minimally attacked 

by H. robusta while S. macrophylla is generally 

heavily attacked (Bigger 1988). S. macrophylla has 

been widely planted in Solomon Islands and by the 

end of 1995 the Forestry Division has planted 

3545.5 ha. 

Hypsipyla robusta Research and 

Future Directions 

Hypsipyla robusta is a major pest of species in the 

Swietenioideae which includes Swietenia spp. and 

Cedrela spp. H. robusta is found in the South Pacifc 

in Australia, Papua New Guinea and Solomon 

Islands but does not extend to Vanuatu or Fiji 

(Bigger 1988). Early specimens from Solomon 

Islands were identified at the British Museum of 

Natural History as Hypsipyla pagodella Ragonot in 

1969 while specimens in 1970 were identified at the 

Commonwealth Institute of Entomology as H. 

robusta. H. pagodella is a junior synonym of H. 

robusta (Horak, these Proceedings). 

The presence of shoot borer is quite noticeable as 

the shoot tips above the larval entrance hole rapidly 

die and turn black. The presence of larvae is also 

indicated by quantities of frass ejected from the 

entrance holes. In other countries, it has been 

reported that H. robusta attacks leaves, flowers and 

shoots (Bigger 1988). In plantations of S. macrophylla 

in Solomon Islands, the only parts of trees that 

have been observed to be attacked are the shoots of 

young plants (Wilson 1986a). The first reported 

attack of H. robusta in Solomon Islands was in 1959 

when the Mt Austen trial plot of Toona ciliata M. 

Roem. was virtually destroyed and S. macrophylla 

was also severely distorted. 

The most serious pest of S. macrophylla in 

nurseries is H. robusta, on occasions affecting a high 

proportion of seedlings (Wilson 1986b). The 

seedlings usually survive but develop multiple 

shoots, making them not acceptable material for 

planting. An insecticide that can be used to effectively 

control H. robusta in nurseries is the systemic 

insecticide, Orthene, which was applied to foliage 

using a knapsack sprayer. Chemical application in 

the field is not recommended as it is too expensive 

and the whole operation would be uneconomical. 

A nursery trial has been established to determine 

if attack of H. robusta can be reduced by randomly

mixing seedlings of S. macrophylla, C. odorata and 

Tectona grandis Linn. f. After 2 months, no attack 

was noted on any of the seedlings. It is still too early 

to conclude whether shoot borer damage has been 

reduced. 

Field experience indicates that closely spaced S. 

macrophylla are highly susceptible to H. robusta and 

wide spacing leads to invasion of the crown of the 

trees by the climbing vine, Merremia peltata (L.) 

Merr. The current recommendation is spacing at 

10 m × 3 m since damage from H. robusta was considered 

a greater risk than competition from M. peltata. 

A nurse crop was considered to be a better 

strategy to overcoming both these problems. 

A plantation of alternate rows of S. macrophylla 

and Terminalia calamansanai (Blco.) Rolfe was 

established in 1984. This trial was not successful due 

to different growth rates leading to different 

Table 4. Net area of plantation established in Solomon Islands from 1967 to 1995. 

39 

harvesting time and the S. macrophylla being 

suppressed by the fast growing T. calamansanai. 

Another mixed species trial was established using 

S. macrophylla and Schleinitschia novo-guinensis 

(Schn). Again in this trial, the nurse species grew 

faster and suppressed the S. macrophylla. 

Another nurse crop trial has been established with 

a different nurse crop species (Securinega flexuosa 

(Muell. Arg.)). The data from the trial had not yet 

been analysed but it appeared that there was a difference 

in both growth and H. robusta attack when line 

planted S. macrophylla are compared with those 

planted under a nurse crop. There is also some indication 

that small black birds while feeding on S. flexuosa 

fruit may also feed on H. robusta larva on the 

mahogany. This idea is yet to be experimentally 

tested. 

Year Area planted (ha) for each tree species Total 

Area 

AGAM CAMB CEDO EUCD GMEA SWIM TECG TERB TERCAL MINOR (ha) 

1967 47.0 47.0 

1968 173.7 173.7 

1969 279.2 279.2 

1970 177.7 55.0 232.7 

1971 498.3 442.4 940.7 

1972 543.1 394.2 937.3 

1973 75.7 14.9 39.6 130.2 

1974 778.9 265.0 92.0 297.6 1433.5 

1975 721.8 159.5 881.3 

1976 1045.4 69.0 69.0 212.3 1395.7 

1977 128.4 688.0 468.6 217.3 27.0 1529.3 

1978 528.9 1733.8 827.9 58.0 285.3 3433.9 

1979 583.7 1416.2 400.5 70.0 28.8 258.6 2757.8 

1980 66.5 281.0 133.8 774.9 388.9 1645.1 

1981 72.6 36.5 15.3 74.3 198.7 

1982 18.1 223.1 64.9 175.8 26.0 7.0 514.9 

1983 129.3 192.3 65.5 395.5 88.7 55.5 87.3 1014.1 

1984 175.4 66.2 384.3 18.2 92.9 133.4 47.8 918.2 

1985 140.4 193.5 100.7 460.1 50.9 166.9 34.1 81.1 1227.7 

1986 36.5 119.9 45.6 62.0 198.4 86.5 232.1 160.2 16.6 957.8 

1987 31.6 70.1 184.5 445.9 137.5 250.4 1120.0 

1988 106.5 15.0 357.0 359.0 173.9 26.4 1037.8 

1989 209.8 230.4 518.4 358.1 1316.7 

1990 56.3 319.5 65.1 160.2 30.1 631.2 

1991 21.6 71.4 23.9 116.9 

1992 0.0 

1993 4.2 211.3 40.3 52.3 308.1 

1994 91.1 286.3 202.9 115.2 695.5 

1995 95.0 285.8 147.9 57.7 586.4 

Total 1527.5 9295.6 897.9 1961.5 2389.8 3545.5 1210.5 2357.7 2738.0 537.4 26 461.4 

ACAM – Acacia mangium Willd.; CAMB – Campnosperma brevipetiolata Volk.; CEDO – Cedrela odorata L.; EUCD – 

Eucalyptus deglupta Bl.; GMEA – Gmelina arborea Roxb.; SWIM – Swietenia macrophylla Jacq.; TECG – Tectona grandis 

Linn. f.; TERB – Terminalia brassii Exell; TERCAL – Terminalia calamansanai (Blco.) Rolfe

Future research is required to extend this work on 

nurse crops, particularly using S. flexuosa which can 

be thinned for house poles. Other species of cover 

crop have also been suggested, including Glyricidia 

spp and Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen 

(Morgan and Suratmo 1976). 

Conclusion 

The planting of S. macrophylla in Solomon Islands is 

economically a highly attractive venture and needs to 

be properly monitored and managed. Unfortunately, 

this species is often severely damaged by the shoot 

borer, H. robusta, both in plantations and in the 

nursery. 

The attack in the nursery can be easily monitored 

and treated. 

Future research will concentrate on identifying a 

suitable and effective nurse crop for S. macrophylla. 

40 

Clearly, S. macrophylla is a high-value species and 

has potential in Solomon Islands and thus needs to 

be properly researched. 

References 

Bigger, M. 1988. The Insect Pests of Forest Plantation 

Trees in the Solomon Islands. Overseas Development 

Natural Resource Institute, Chatham, United Kingdom. 

190 p. 




Wilson, P.H. 1986a. A review of the occurrence of 

Hypsipyla robusta in Solomon Island Forestry. MNR 

Forestry Division. 

Wilson, P.H. 1986b. Control of nursery pests, shoot borers. 

Nursery Operation Job Instruction Sheet. MNR Forestry 

Division, SI No 13.

Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Australia 

M.W. Griffiths 1 , F.R. Wylie 2 , R.B. Floyd 3 and D.P.A. Sands 1 

Abstract 

Red cedar, Toona ciliata M. Roem, has been a highly favoured timber species in Australia since 

the time of European settlement. Rapid and indiscriminate felling during the 1800s led to concern 

about the future supply of this timber, and various attempts were made to grow the tree in natural 

forests and plantations. Some of the first silvicultural work on any species in Australia involved 

experimental plantings of young trees into former cedar areas in the late 1800s and early 1900s. 

These early plantings were unsuccessful, with the failure attributed primarily to damage caused by 

the tip boring moth, Hypsipyla robusta Moore (Pyralidae, Phycitinae). The Queensland and New 

South Wales forest services have tried to identify the conditions that minimise H. robusta damage 

and therefore allow successful production of T. ciliata. However, damage from H. robusta 

remained a problem, and only a few plantings produced trees with good overall growth rates and 

form. The outcomes of these trials are summarised in this paper. Despite the early recognition of 

the critical role of H. robusta in limiting growth of T. ciliata, until recently there have been few 

attempts to investigate the taxonomy, biology, ecology or life history of H. robusta in Australia. 

Work undertaken to date is described, and directions for future research are identified. 

Overview of the Forest Industry 

THE forest industry is an important part of the Australian 

economy, comparable with the barley, cotton 

and sugar industries in terms of gross value of production 

(Table 1). The industry comprises approximately 

4% of the total gross value of production for 

farming, forestry and fishing. 

Australia is a net importer of forest products. In 

1994–1995, Australia imported forest products 

valued at AU$3 billion, while exports for the same 

period were valued at AU$1 billion, or 5% of the 

value for the rural sector (ABARE 1996b). In 1994– 

1995, the forestry and logging industries employed 

12 000 people, accounting for 3% of the workforce 

employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing, and 

0.15% of the total industrial workforce (ABARE 

1996a). Forest products industries employ an 

additional 61 000 people (ABARE 1996b). 

1 CSIRO Entomology, PMB No 3, Indooroopilly Queensland 

4068, Australia. 

2 Queensland Forestry Research Institute, PO Box 631, 

Indooroopilly Queensland 4068, Australia. (Also current 

address for M.W. Griffiths) 

3 CSIRO Entomology, GPO Box 1700, Canberra ACT 

2601, Australia. 

41 

Table 1. Estimated gross value of production in selected 

primary industries. a ABARE (1996a); b Sar (1993); 

c ABARE (1995) – average gross value 1992–93 to 1994–95. 

Gross value of production 

(AU$ millions) 

1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 

Crops a 

Wheat 2097 2894 2867 1958 

Barley 693 802 845 572 

Sugar 590 805 947 1257 

Cotton lint 862 665 631 804 

Livestock a 

Beef 3802 3839 4353 3960 

Wool 2980 2569 2459 3264 

Fisheries products 1376 1493 1686 1745 

Forestry 712 b 738 b 967 c 967 c 

Total 23 474 24 658 26 280 26 302 

Australia’s forestry resource base comprised 

approximately 41 million ha of native forests and 

1.1 million ha of plantation forests at March 1995 

(ABARE 1996b). The majority of plantations were of 

softwood species, predominantly the exotic Pinus 

radiata which occupied approximately 726 000 ha 

(Table 2). Approximately 14% of plantation land was

occupied by broadleaf species, of which 97% was 

under Eucalyptus spp. (Table 2). In 1995, the total 

plantation area was expanding at a rate of approximately 

21 000 ha/year, with the greatest increase 

being in hardwood species. A number of programs 

initiated by the Commonwealth Government 

(National Afforestation Program, Farm Forestry 

Program, Community Rainforest Reforestation 

Program) supported the expansion of Australia’s 

plantation resource base. 

Table 2. Area of forestry plantations in Australia classified 

by tree species and land ownership (ABARE 1996b). 

Tree species Plantation area 

in March 1995 

(ha) 

Economic Importance of Native 


Area planted 

for year ending 

March 1995 

(ha) 

Coniferous 

Pinus radiata D. Don 725 731 8 606 

Pinus elliottii Englem. 69 170 0 

Pinus pinaster Bess. 30 853 540 

Pinus caribaea Morelet 57 539 0 

Other exotic species 33 880 235 

Total exotic 917 173 12 348 

Araucaria spp. 46 700 601 

Total coniferous 963 873 12 949 

Broadleaved 

Eucalyptus spp. 150 703 1 184 

Populus spp. 1 048 0 

Other 3 199 32 

Total broadleaved 154 950 11 216 

Total 1 118 823 20 597 

Public ownership 759 332 13 833 

Private ownership 359 491 13 034 

Four species of Swietenioideae (a subfamily of 

Meliaceae) are native to Australia; Toona ciliata M. 

Roem., Xylocarpus granatum Koen, X. moluccensis 

(Lam.) M. Roem., and X. rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb., 

of which only T. ciliata is commercially harvested. 

Toona ciliata has been an important tree in the 

history of the Australian timber industry. Harvesting 

of this species commenced along the Hawkesbury 

River, New South Wales, in 1792, shortly after 

European settlement (Baur 1962). The search for 

new stands of T. ciliata led to the exploration and 

eventual settlement of much of the Queensland and 

New South Wales coastline. Extensive logging and 

land clearing resulted in the virtual disappearance of 

T. ciliata from many regions (Grant 1989; Newport 

1904; Volck 1971) which led to a dramatic reduction 

in the quantity of timber harvested. In 1878, 2797 m 3 

42 

of timber was harvested from the rainforests of north 

Queensland alone (Vader 19887), while in 1995 less 

than 200 m 3 was harvested from the entire State 

(Table 3). Similarly, harvesting of T. ciliata in New 

South Wales declined from an average of 1585 m 3 / 

year in 1910–1917, to 570 m 3 /year in the 1940s 

(Grant 1989) and ultimately to less than 100 m 3 /year 

in the 1990s (A. Signor, State Forests of New South 

Wales (SFNSW), pers. comm.; R. Ainley, New 

South Wales Forest Products Association 

(NSWFPA), pers. comm.). The harvesting of T. 

ciliata from publicly owned lands effectively ceased 

in 1982 in New South Wales and 1994 in Queensland. 

Most logs of T. ciliata now come from windfalls 

and power line clearing, with a very small 

quantity from plantation harvesting. 

Table 3. Removal of Toona ciliata from public and 

private lands in Queensland since 1991. Compiled from 

QDPI – Forestry, Production Division Statistics. 

Year Public land 

(ha) 

Private land 

(ha) 

Total 

(ha) 

1991 41 63 104 

1992 135 120 255 

1993 393 41 434 

1994 138 171 309 

1995 5 194 199 

Small quantities of timber are harvested from 

privately-owned lands. Much of this timber is cut for 

specific users and does not come onto the open 

market. Almost 200 m 3 of timber was removed for 

sale from private lands in Queensland during 1995 

(Table 3) while about 20m 3 was harvested in New 

South Wales (R. Ainley, NSWFPA, pers. comm.). In 

addition, logs confiscated from illegal logging on 

private property, forestry reserves, or national parks 

are sold when seized. 

The value of T. ciliata is difficult to gauge due to 

its rarity on the market. Recent estimates put the 

value between $500 and $1000/m 3 for logs, and up 

to $3000/m 3 for sawn timber (G. Palmer, QDPI – 

Forestry, pers. comm.; R Ainley, NSWFPA, pers. 

comm.). Thus, T. ciliata is currently one of the most 

valuable timbers in Australia, comparable only to 

white beech Gmelina leichhardtii (F Muell.) 

F. Muell. ex Benth (Verbenaceae). 

Success of Exotic Species of Swietenioideae 

Planted in Australia 

A wide variety of introduced species of Swietenioideae 

have been trialed in Queensland and New South 

Wales (Table 4). Despite recognition of the potential

of these species, plantings have been experimental 

and small scale (details in Tables 5, 6, 7). At present 

only 16.2 ha in Queensland are planted with introduced 

species of Swietenioideae, of which 14.3 ha 

are planted with Cedrela odorata L. (Source: QDPI 

Forestry, Plantation Register, Hunted Compartments 

Report July 1996). 

Many of the introduced Swietenioideae species 

were damaged by H. robusta (Table 4). Swietenia 

macrophylla King has been consistently and heavily 

damaged, C. odorata, C. lilloi C. DC. and Chukrasia 

tabularis A. Juss. were less damaged, while Khaya 

senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. and K. nyasica Stapf. 

ex Baker received very minor damage. Damage 

invariably commenced within five years of planting, 

but was not always systematically recorded. The 

absence of recorded damage cannot, therefore, be 

assumed to indicate low damage levels. Greater 

damage has been reported on T. ciliata than on S. 

macrophylla, C. odorata, C. lilloi, and C. tabularis 

when grown in mixed species plantings or growing 

nearby. 

Many species of Meliaceae, especially those in the 

genera Swietenia and Khaya, tend to develop 

multiple leaders and heavy branching. Although 

damage from H. robusta contributes to this, poor 

form has also been attributed to wind, frost, poor 

soils and damage from browsing animals. In particular, 

many species are susceptible to frost, leading 

to the failure of many plantings in southern areas and 

43 

at higher altitudes. Trees do not readily shed lateral 

branches in plantation situations, so pruning is 

required to improve form. Even heavy and frequent 

pruning has failed to produce reasonable log lengths 

in many plantings. 

There have been many small trial plantings of 

exotic species of Meliaceae with mixed success, 

some of which are very promising. Exotic species of 

Meliaceae have been divided into three categories; 

species that have been grown with some success 

(Table 5), species that have not been adequately 

assessed (Table 6), and, species that have been 

trialed and abandoned due to poor performance 

(Table 7). Trials for species in each category are 

summarised in the following sections. 

Species grown with some success (Table 5) 

Cedrela odorata 

Cedrela odorata is capable of very rapid early 

growth in open plantings on good sites, achieving 

mean annual increment (MAI) of height generally 

above 1.0 m over 8 years and up to 4.0 m during the 

first few years. The early growth of open planted 

trees has been further improved with the use of protective 

shelters (Growtubes TM ). After one year, trees 

attained a mean height of 1.7 m in 1 m Growtubes, 

and 2.3 m in 2 m Growtubes compared to 1.5 m 

without Growtubes) (Applegate and Bragg 1989). 

Open plantings on heavy red soils or in drier 

Table 4. Exotic species of Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae planted in Australia. Source: Queensland: QDPI Forestry, 

Plantation Register, Hunted Compartments Report July 1996 (current areas); New South Wales: Wyatt 1984 – (areas at time 

of planting – 1952–1958). 

Tree species Current area of 

planting a (ha) 

Current rate of 

planting (ha/year) 

Optimal rotation 

length (yrs) 

Status 1 Hypsipyla damage 

Cedrela lilloi C. DC. 0.3 Nil C Slight 

C. microcarpa C. DC. Negligible Nil D None recorded 

C. odorata L. 14.4 Negligible B Slight/variable 

Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. Negligible Nil C Moderate/variable 

Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C. DC. 0.1 Nil D None recorded 

K. grandifoliola C. DC. Negligible Nil B None recorded 

K. ivorensis A. Chev. Negligible Nil C None recorded 

K. nyasica Stapf. ex Baker 1.1 Negligible ~30 B Slight 

K. senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. 0.3 Nil B Slight 

Entandrophragma utile 

(Dawe & Sprague) Sprague 

0.1 Nil D None recorded 

Swietenia macrophylla King 0.2 Negligible B Moderate 

S. mahagoni (L.) Jacq. 0.1 Nil C None recorded 

S. macrophylla × mahagoni Negligible Nil D None recorded 

1 A – ongoing and successful; B – ongoing but having limited or variable success; C – preliminary or experimental only; 

D – terminated.

44 

Table 5. Description of on-going experimental plantings of exotic species of Swietenioideae having some success. Mean annual increments (MAI) in height are provided 

for trees at approximately 5 years age (or nearest available measuring date). MAI for diameter at breast height (DBH) are those from the last measure available. 

Experiment Species Type of planting Planting 

date 

Seed source Planting 

density 

(sph) 

Height DBH Survival 

(%) 

Age MAI Age MAI 

(yrs) (m) (yrs) (cm) 

ATH120/1 Cedrela odorata Underplanting - thinned Araucaria cunninghamii 

plantation (18 yrs) 

02/1953 local – Atherton 946 4.2 0.7 – – high 

ATH139 C. odorata Enrichment planting - silviculturally treated 

rainforest 

02/1954 Puerto Rico 1111 4.2 0.2 8.0 0.2 24 

ATH140 C. odorata Rainforest enrichment 03/1954 local – Atherton – 1.5 0.4 13 

ATH162/24 C. odorata Interplanting – Toona ciliata 03/1955 Ecuador 772 19.1 1.5 

ATH206/135 C. odorata Increment plot – grown under rain forest 

shelterwood 

07/1927 local – Imbil – 25 1.8 39 

ATH399 C. odorata Open planting – mine rehabilitation 1972 3.3 1.6 

ATH704/5 C. odorata Open planting – provenance trial – red earth 02/1987 Coyote, Honduras 1234 4.6 0.5 

ATH704/6 C. odorata Open planting – provenance trial – red earth 02/1987 Taulabe, Honduras 1234 4.6 0.6 

ATH704/7 C. odorata Open planting – provenance trial – red earth 02/1987 Chameleon, Honduras 1234 4.6 0.5 

ATH704/8 C. odorata Open planting – provenance trial – red earth 02/1987 Matagalpa, Nicaragua 1234 4.6 0 

ATH704/9 C. odorata Open planting – provenance trial – red earth 02/1987 local Atherton 1234 4.6 0 

ATH708/5 C. odorata Open planting – provenance trial, ex rainforest 

site – kraznozem 

02/1987 Coyote, Honduras 1234 4.6 2.7 



02/1987 Taulabe, Honduras 1234 4.6 2.4 



02/1987 Chameleon, Honduras 1234 4.6 2.5 



02/1987 Matagalpa, Nicaragua 1234 4.6 2.1 

ATH709/1 C. odorata Growtube trial – control unknown 1 1.5 

ATH709/2 C. odorata Growtube trial – 1 m unknown 1 1.7 

ATH709/3 C. odorata Growtube trial – 2 m unknown 1 2.3 

HWD354 C. odorata Open planting – site of clearfall Pinus elliottii 

plantation (34 yrs) 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 1.6 

HWD355 C. odorata Open planting – originally dry sclerophyll; 

cleared and cultivated 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 2.0 

HWD374/324 C. odorata Enrichment planting – dry sclerophyll grassy 

open forest 20–30 m 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 3.0

45 

Table 5. Continued. Description of on-going experimental plantings of exotic species of Swietenioideae having some success. Mean annual increments (MAI) in height 

are provided for trees at approximately 5 years age (or nearest available measuring date). MAI for diameter at breast height (DBH) are those from the last measure available. 

HWD375/266 C. odorata Enrichment planting - dry sclerophyll grassy 

open forest 20–30 m 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 2.6 

IMB226 C. odorata Yield plot on ex hoop pine scrub 1930/31 unknown 793 20.5 42.7 1.0 

IMB291/1 C. odorata Open planting – single parent study of two high 

quality parent trees 

02/1953 local – Imbil 1540 5.5 1.8 19.5 1.5 31 

IMB291/2 C. odorata Open planting – single parent study of two high 

quality parent trees 

02/1953 local – Imbil 1540 5.5 1.8 19.5 1.2 68 

IMB302 C. odorata Underplanting – A. cunninghamii (0.5 yr) – 

ex rainforest land 

04/1953 unknown 1293 8.5 1.5 23.5 1.4 

IMB319/3 C. odorata Interplanting – T. ciliata 2.7 × 2.4m spacing 02/1953 local – Imbil 1543 5.5 1.4 12.5 2.3 

IMB355 C. odorata Open planting – testing seed stock 01/1955 Ecuador, ex Cuba – 6.8 0.9 14.8 1.3 55 

IMBROUTINE C. odorata Open planting – ex rainforest site 12/1930 unknown – 61.3 61.3 0.5 

ING459/4 C. odorata Open planting – ex dry sclerophyll forest site 01/1979 unknown 1485 5.3 0.2 

NSW Baur C. odorata Enrichment planting unknown 5 0.7 30 

G1/9.3.2a C. odorata Underplanting – A. cunninghamii on ex rainforest 

site, basaltic soil 

1953 Cuba 250 5 0.4 

YMN1868/1 C. odorata Open planting – ex A. cunninghamii scrub 12/1959 unknown 1543 4.7 0.8 11.7 1.1 78 

YMN1868/2 C. odorata Underplanting – Grevillea robusta (30 yr), 

ex A. cunninghamii scrub 

02/1960 unknown 421 8.5 0.4 11 

ATH509/4 Khaya grandifoliola Open planting – mixed species, ex rainforest site 03/1972 Ghana 1074 5.5 1.4 8.5 1.5 94 

ATH204/5 Khaya nyasica Open planting – mixed species, arboretum plots 03/1957 Nyasaland 1544 7.0 0.5 18 0.2 3.4 

IMB373 K. nyasica Open planting – ex rainforest site (frost free) 04/1956 Tanganyika 1443 5.5 0.8 26.3 0.9 

IMB378 K. nyasica Open planting – ex rainforest site (exposed to frost) 11/1956 ex H.O. 1569 5.0 1.0 20.8 0.8 ~100 

MTO008 K. nyasica Open planting – ex heavy vine scrub site 01/1957 Nyasaland 1527 5.5 1.3 23.6 1.0 100 

ATH159 Khaya senegalensis Enrichment – (refills only) – varying overwoods 04/1956 unknown varying – – – 0 

ATH204/1/11 K. senegalensis Open planting – mixed species, arboretum plots 02/1956 Nigeria 1544 5.3 0.3 19.1 2.2 88 

ATH204/2/1a K. senegalensis Open planting – mixed species, arboretum plots 02/1956 Nigeria 1544 5.3 0.3 – – 90 

ATH399 K. senegalensis Open planting – mine rehabilitation 1972 unknown 1.5 

ATH509/17 K. senegalensis Open planting – mixed species, ex rainforest site 03/1973 Uganda 1111 4.5 0.3 94 

ATH509/3 K. senegalensis Open planting – mixed species, ex rainforest site 03/1972 Uganda 1111 5.5 0.7 80 

ING511/1 K. senegalensis Open planting – coastal, well drained site 03/1972 unknown 1500 3.3 0.7 6.3 1.0 98 

ATH166/3 Swietenia macrophylla Enrichment planting – logged and treated rainforest 05/1956 unknown 347 3.2 0.4 10.3 0.3 

ING459/7 S. macrophylla Open planting – ex dry sclerophyll forest site 01/1970 unknown 1485 5.3 1.1 8.4 1.2 

ATH122 S. macrophylla Underplanting – in Araucaria cunninghamii 02/1953 ex Laguna, 

824 5.2 0.9 22.5 1.0 96 

planting (18 yrs) 

Philippines

46 

Table 5. Continued. Description of on-going experimental plantings of exotic species of Swietenioideae having some success. Mean annual increments (MAI) in height 

are provided for trees at approximately 5 years age (or nearest available measuring date). MAI for diameter at breast height (DBH) are those from the last measure available. 

ATH125/1 S. macrophylla Interplanting – T. ciliata, alternate rows 01/1953 ex Philippines 1111 7.5 0.3 58 

ATH125/2 S. macrophylla Enrichment 03/1953 ex Fiji 1111 2.6 0.1 – – 0 

ATH204/1/2 S. macrophylla Open planting – mixed species, arboretum plots 02/1956 Puerto Rico 1544 – 0 

ATH399 S. macrophylla Open planting – mine rehabilitation 1972 unknown 4.5 1.7 

ATH451 S. macrophylla Enrichment planting – lowland scrub – with 

Flindersia brayleyana 

01/1970 ex Sri Lanka 362 7.3 1.6 18 1.5 85 

ATH559/2 S. macrophylla Open planting – comparison of parent trees 03/1975 Puerto Rico 

(dry forest) 

1088 6.0 0.2 77 

ATH559/4 S. macrophylla Open planting – comparison of parent trees 03/1975 Puerto Rico 

(wet forest) 

1088 6.0 0.6 100 

ATH691/1 S. macrophylla Open planting – contour mounded, large 

mounds on ex open forest site 

02/1982 Chore, Bolivia 833 

IMB312 S. macrophylla Interplanting – A. cunninghamii (alternate rows) 02/1953 ex Philippines – 8.7 0.3 48 

IMB374 S. macrophylla Open planting 04/1956 Puerto Rico – 5.5 0.2 9.3

47 

Table 6. Description of on–going experimental plantings of exotic species of Swietenioideae that do not yet permit adequate assessment of performance. Mean annual 

increments (MAI) in height are provided for trees at approximately 5 years age (or nearest available measuring date). MAI for diameter at breast height (DBH) are those 

from the last measure available. 


date 


density 

(sph) 


(%) 



ATH120/2 Chukrasia tabularis Underplanting – Araucaria cunninghamii planting 

(18 yrs) 

02/1953 local – Atherton 946 4.8 1.0 – – high 

ATH509/12 C. tabularis Open planting – mixed species, ex rainforest site 03/1973 Batch 1 1111 4.5 0.8 92 

HWD374/134 Cedrela fissilis Underplanting – dry sclerophyll grassy open forest 

20–30 m 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 1.9 

HWD374/267 C. fissilis Underplanting – dry sclerophyll grassy open forest 

20–30 m 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 1.1 


20–30 m 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 2.6 


20–30 m 

12/1987 unknown 1111 1.8 1.8 

G1/9/2/1 Cedrela lilloi Enrichment planting – moist rainforest 1952 Argentina 1400 11 1.0 100 

G1/9.2.2 C. lilloi Enrichment planting – moist rainforest 1957 Argentina 540 6 0.5 

G1/9.2.4 C. lilloi Enrichment planting – dry rainforest 1958 Argentina 1040 5 1.1 

G1/9.2.6b C. lilloi Underplanting – A. cunninghamii ex dry rainforest 

site 

1953 Argentina 100 10 0.4 

G1/9.2.10a C. lilloi Underplanting – A. cunninghamii ex moist 

rainforest site 

1956 Argentina 430 7 0.7 

ATH166/7 Khaya ivorensis Enrichment planting – logged and treated rainforest 05/1956 unknown 412 10.3 0.7 10.3 0.8 

ATH204/1/14 K. ivorensis Open planting – mixed species, arboretum plots 02/1956 Gold Coast 1544 5.3 0.2 18.2 1.3 18 

ATH204/2/1b K. ivorensis Open planting – mixed species, arboretum plots 02/1956 Gold Coast 1544 – – – 0 

ATH509/5 K. ivorensis Open planting – mixed species, ex rainforest site 03/1972 Ghana 1081 5.4 0.6 8.5 0.8 62 

IMB372 K. ivorensis Open planting 04/1956 Gold Coast – 0 

ATH726 Cedrela augustifolia Open planting 02/1988 unknown 1.5 1.4

48 

Table 7. Description of terminated experimental plantings of exotic species of Swietenioideae. Mean annual increments (MAI) in height are provided for trees at 

approximately 5 years age (or nearest available measuring date). MAI for diameter at breast height (DBH) are those from the last measure available. 


date 


density 

(sph) 


(%) 



ATH691/3 Entandrophragma utile Open planting – contour mounded, large mounds; 

ex open forest 

02/1982 Gregbeu, Ivory Coast 833 

ATH691/2 Khaya anthotheca Open planting – contour mounded, large mounds; 

ex open forest 

02/1982 Sangoue, Ivory Coast 833 7.8 0.2 

ING459/8 Swietenia mahagoni Open planting – ex dry sclerophyll forest site 01/1970 Unknown 1500 5.3 0.7 

ING536/3 Swietenia macrophylla Open planting – ex wet sclerophyll forest site 

× mahagoni (large leaf) 

05/1974 Puerto Rico 1111 3.3 1.1 14.8 1.3 

ING536/7 S. macrophylla Open planting – ex wet sclerophyll forest site 05/1974 Puerto Rico 1111 3.3 1.1 14.8 1.5 

× mahagoni (medium leaf) 

ING536/5 S. macrophylla Open planting – ex wet sclerophyll forest site 05/1974 Puerto Rico 1111 3.3 0.8 

× mahagoni (small leaf)

locations were generally poorer, with MAI for height 

ranging from 0.2 m to 0.8 m over 4 years. Surprisingly, 

plantings on mine spoils at Weipa, North 

Queensland, produced some trees with height MAI 

of 1.5 m, despite poor soils and dry conditions. 

The performance of open-grown trees often 

deteriorated over time, as trees developed a limby 

habit and poor form even as early as two to three 

years of age. Form-pruning of young trees and 

thinning of mature stems were of little benefit. 

Cedrela odorata showed a tendency to regenerate 

and coppice vigorously, and in open situations was 

susceptible to frost and wind-lodging. 

Underplanting and enrichment plantings of 

C. odorata have resulted in MAIs of between 0.2 m 

and 0.7 m during the first few years. One comparison 

between open planting and underplanting beneath 30 

year-old Grevillea robusta Cunn. Ex R. Br. produced 

height MAI after 11 years of 0.7 m (78% survival) 

and 0.4 m (11% survival) respectively (YMN1868 – 

details of each trial code are in Tables 5, 6 and 7). 

Good growth occurred only under more open conditions, 

either beneath an open forest with a canopy 

height of 20–30 m (HWD374, HWD375) or following 

planting at the same time as the companion 

crop (IMB302). Under these conditions, MAIs 

exceeding 1.5 m of height were achieved during the 

early years. Growth beneath a canopy does reduce 

the multiple branching to which the species is prone, 

but a heavy canopy cover may restrict growth and 

may cause high mortality. Some individuals performed 

better when located in more open positions 

beneath a canopy, or following thinning of the overhead 

cover. 

Variability in the performance of trees from different 

seed sources have been noted though not 

always quantified. In 1986, trials on the coastal lowlands 

of North Queensland demonstrated variability 

in the performance of different provenances, 

including Coyote, Taulabe and Chamelecon in 

Honduras, and Matagalpa in Nicaragua. The Coyote 

provenance had the best MAI at 4.6 years of 2.7 m, 

compared with 2.1 m, 2.4 m, and 2.5 m for other 

provenances. 

In general, Cedrela odorata received minor 

damage from H. robusta and in mixed plantings 

were less damaged and grew better than T. ciliata. 

Khaya grandifoliola 

This species has been planted in one trial on the 

Atherton Tableland and has performed well. At age 

5.5 years, there was 94% survival and trees had a 

MAI of 1.4 m in height and 2 cm in diameter at 

breast height (DBH). These growth rates were at 

49 

least twice those of K. senegalensis, K. ivorensis and 

C. tabularis at the same site. Despite these very 

promising results, no further plantings were trialed in 

the area. 

Khaya nyasica 

Khaya nyasica has grown well (> 1 m MAI for up to 

20 years) in open plantings on frost-free sites in 

southern Queensland. This species was generally not 

attacked by H. robusta but has a strong tendency to 

develop multiple leaders and heavy branching while 

still young, requiring heavy and frequent pruning. 

Frost damage also increasing the tendency for 

branching. Some individual trees had better form, 

indicating potential for genetic selection. 

Khaya senegalensis 

This species grew best under the dry open forest conditions 

near Darwin and Weipa (Leggate 1974; 

Nicholson 1974; D. Riley, Department of Primary 

Industry and Fisheries, Northern Territory, pers. 

comm.), responded well to application of fertilisers, 

especially phosphorous and potassium, and low 

stocking rates, and was resistant to termite damage 

(Nicholson 1985). Unfortunately, K. senegalensis 

was prone to develop multiple leaders, heavy 

branching, and a crooked bole. The reasons for this 

poor habit are unknown, but site factors, including 

nutrient deficient soils, seasonality of rainfall and 

exposure to wind may have contributed. Early formpruning 

at approximately 2 m was recommended to 

improve form (Nicholson 1985). 

Khaya senegalensis did not grow well in enrichment 

plantings in north Queensland, and was generally 

considered a failure (Keys and Nicholson 1982). 

In enrichment plantings, mortality was invariably 

greater than 90% within ten years, and growth rates 

were poor. In open plantings, mortality was lower 

but form and/or growth rate were poor. Damage 

from H. robusta was reported at only one site in 

north Queensland, when trees were 7 years old and 

approximately 2.6 m high. 


Growth of S. macrophylla has been very variable in 

Australia. Most underplantings and enrichment 

plantings were not successful due to poor survival, 

growth and/or form. In some plantings, trees grew 

well, producing MAI in height of 0.9 m and 1.6 m 

during the first few years (ATH122, ATH451). 

Similarly, many open plantings resulted in high 

mortality and poor height growth. Among the more

successful open plantings was a coastal site originally 

carrying wet sclerophyll forest (ING442) that 

produced height MAI of 1.2 m over 8.8 years. Steady 

growth continued to produce height and DBH MAIs 

of 1.0 m and 1.24 cm by 20.8 years (Cameron and 

Jermyn 1991). Swietenia macrophylla trees survived 

well in the hot, dry, conditions of Weipa (ATH399), 

resulting in trees with MAI of 1.7 m and 0.47 cm at 

4.5 years for height and diameter respectively. 

Unfortunately, form was generally poor with 

problems including crown breaks at an early age, 

multiple leaders, heavy lateral branching, and 

crooked boles. 

The success of some plantings in north Queensland 

led to the establishment of further trials investigating 

provenance differences (ATH559, ATH691). 

One trial demonstrated differences in survival and 

growth rates of young trees from two families from 

Puerto Rico. Overall, the results were disappointing, 

possibly due to site degradation following clearing 

and burning (Cameron and Jermyn 1991). A second 

trial (ATH691) used seed collected from Bolivia, but 

results have not been recorded. 

Failure of most plantings was attributed to the 

combined effects of H. robusta feeding, cattle 

browsing and severe competition from grass. Trees 

were damaged by H. robusta in all trials, but damage 

levels were often low to negligible during the first 

few years of growth. When planted with T. ciliata, 

damage levels were lower on S. macrophylla than on 

T. ciliata and S. macrophylla showed better recovery 

following attack. 

Species not adequately assessed (Table 6) 

Cedrela augustifolia Sesse & Moc. 

An open planting of C. augustifolia was established 

in North Queensland (ATH726). The area was badly 

affected by frost in the first year, resulting in 53% 

mortality. The surviving trees showed good growth, 

with mean height of 2.08 m after 1.5 years. 

Cedrela lilloi C. DC. 

Experimental plantings of C. lilloi were established 

in subtropical forests of New South Wales between 

1952 and 1958 (Wyatt 1984). The species generally 

grew best in enrichment plantings with height MAI 

of up to 1.1 m for the first few years. Trees grew less 

well when under-planted to Araucaria cunninghamii. 


Chukrasia tabularis showed good survival (>90%) 

and early growth in plantings in North Queensland, 

achieving MAI in height of 0.8 m to 1.0 m in the first 

5 years. However, tree form was poor with heavy 

50 

branching as a result of repeated damage by H. 

robusta. This species merits further genetic resource 

trials since some individual trees grew well (Shea 

1992). 

Khaya ivorensis A. Chev. 

The best growth of K. ivorensis occurred in an 

enrichment planting on logged and treated rainforest 

in North Queensland. After 10 years, MAI of 0.67 m 

for height and 0.75 cm for DBH were recorded 

(ATH166). Under these conditions, K. ivorensis outperformed 

K. senegalensis and S. macrophylla. Open 

plantings have been less successful, due to high 

mortality, slow growth and poor form caused in part 

by frost damage. 

Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq. 

The growth rate and form of this species was poorer 

than that of S. macrophylla. Damage from H. 

robusta was not recorded. 

Species in terminated trials (Table 7) 

Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague 

An open planting of E. utile was established in north 

Queensland in 1982; however, results of this trial 

have not been reported. 

Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C. DC. 

A single trial of K. anthotheca was established in 

1982 as an open planting on a silty clay loam cleared 

of open forest in north Queensland. Very poor 

survival and growth was reported after 8 years. 

Swietenia macrophylla × mahagoni 

Swietenia macrophylla × S. mahagoni hybrids have 

been planted in North Queensland (ING536). Hybrid 

trees grew at comparable rates to S. macrophylla 

achieving MAI of 1.1 m in height and 1.4 cm in 

DBH and after 14 years (Cameron and Jermyn 

1991). Despite showing good early growth, the 

hybrid has not been planted since the early 1970s. 

Cedrela microcarpa C. DC. 

A single planting of this species near Imbil in southeast 

Queensland was a failure but the reason for 

failure was not recorded. 

Hypsipyla Research in Australia 

Many areas of H. robusta biology and control have 

received some attention in Australia (Table 8).


various aspects of Hypsipyla robusta biology and control. 

o – none; * minor; ** major. 


research 

Biology 

Past 

research 

Biology 

Taxonomy * o 

Life history ** * 

Ecology in natural stands * * 

Ecology in plantations * * 

Population dynamics * * 

Natural enemies * * 

Other o o 

Control 

Biological control o o 

Chemical control o * 

Silvicultural control * ** 

Host resistance * o 

Pheromones * o 

Genetic engineering o o 

Other o o 

There have been few attempts to investigate directly 

the biology, ecology or taxonomy of H. robusta in 

Australia. This is despite the recognition of the 

critical role of the species in limiting the commercial 

planting of T. ciliata. Early biological observations 

were made by Froggatt (1923, 1927) and staff of the 

Queensland and New South Wales forestry services, 

much of which is contained in unpublished reports. 

More recent work has been undertaken by Griffiths 

(1997) and Mo (1996). These studies confirmed that 

the shoots, fruits and the flowers of T. ciliata and the 

fruit of the closely related Xylocarpus mangrove 

species are fed upon by H. robusta in Australia. 

Infestation of young T. ciliata trees was positively 

correlated with rainfall and, to a lesser extent, temperature. 

Infestations were concentrated on opengrown 

trees, trees greater than 1.5 m high, and shoots 

in the upper canopy. The percentage of shoots 

attacked per tree decreased as tree size increased. 

More than 75% of eggs were laid on leaves. When 

ovipositing on young trees, H. robusta preferred the 

upper leaf surface to the lower leaf surface, and was 

least inclined to choose the stem and petiole. When 

laid on fruits, eggs were often deposited among or 

close to the frass and borings of previous damage. 

Losses of both eggs and early instar larvae were high 

on young T. ciliata trees. Initial feeding was concentrated 

in the terminal foliage with larvae wandering 

extensively before and in the few days following 

their first feeding. Feeding bioassays confirmed the 

existence of feeding stimulants in the ethanol 

extracts of young shoots. 

51 

The number of larval instars ranged from five to 

seven under laboratory conditions. This developmental 

polymorphism is also likely to be a characteristic 

of natural populations. Success of matings was 

increased by exposure to light and wind. Observations 

on the patterns of female calling, mating and 

flight activity indicated that mated females are 

responsible for host finding. 

There are considerable differences in the biology 

and behaviour of the species in Australia when compared 

with other regions. For example, Australia and 

northern India share a similar climate and have the 

same species of host trees, however, Australian 

populations lack a distinct sequence of larval generations 

feeding on different plant parts, have a very 

low incidence of flower feeding, and have other 

behavioural and physiological differences in larvae 

feeding on fruit. These differences call into question 

the assumption that H. robusta is one species. 

Biological control 

Although there has been some reference to the possibility 

of obtaining control of H. robusta in Australia 

through utilising natural enemies (Jolly 1914; 

Queensland Forest Service 1921; K.G. Campbell, 

formerly of the Forestry Commission of New South 

Wales, pers. comm.) this possibility has never been 

addressed. A number of reports have identified insect 

parasitoids and insect, bird and mammal predators 

associated with H. robusta in Australia (Queensland 

Forest Service 1921; Girault 1938; Campbell pers. 

comm.). However, most of these are generalist 

species and offer little potential as biological control 

agents (Sands and Murphy these Proceedings). 

Chemical control 

Chemical control of H. robusta has been investigated 

in Australia since the early 1920s with the initiation 

of at least 13 insecticide trials utilising 12 different 

compounds. Most trials failed or were terminated 

after only one season. The insect has proved difficult 

to control due to its concealed feeding habit, long 

period of activity, the tropical climate in which it 

occurs, low damage threshold of the host, and long 

protection period required. Many trials have been 

hampered by logistical problems including a lack of 

moth attack, severe damage from other insects, 

equipment failure, and loss of trees to frost, cyclones 

and hormone spray. In addition, the scheduled spray 

regimes were frequently disrupted by rain and 

flooding. 

Contact poisons such as DDT and endrin provided 

reasonable to good control in some trials. However, 

the required frequency of application, particularly in 

the tropical north where the period of heaviest

infestation coincided with the wet season, rendered 

their use economically and environmentally 

unfeasible. Some systemic compounds (e.g. monocrotophos 

and azinphos methyl) provided limited 

control but were generally ineffective. For further 

details refer to Wylie (these Proceedings). 

Silvicultural control 

Concern regarding the unregulated exploitation of T. 

ciliata in natural forests led to attempts to grow the 

species in plantations. Most trials have been small 

scale (less than 0.5 ha), unreplicated, carried out on 

variable sites, and include treatments that vary 

during the course of the experiment. In addition, the 

interval between observations was often long, and 

records of damage were not consistent. Shoot 

damage from H. robusta represents the major but not 

the only limitation to growth of T. ciliata. Trees were 

also damaged by the elephant beetle, Xylotrupes 

gideon (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), 

especially in northern Queensland and are occasionally 

seriously defoliated by Pingasa chlora (Stoll) 

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae). The species is very 

susceptible to frost and generally does poorly in the 

presence of heavy weed growth. However, it is the 

high incidence and severity of damage from H. 

robusta that has largely precluded commercial 

growing of T. ciliata. 

Natural regeneration 

Early observations revealed that T. ciliata regenerates 

rapidly in gaps and clearings that occur naturally 

in the forest or created during logging operations. 

Trials encouraging natural regeneration demonstrated 

that seedling survival rather than seed production 

or germination was the critical stage in early 

establishment of T. ciliata. Trees require good soils, 

adequate moisture and ample overhead light, to 

achieve highest rates of establishment and growth. 

Growth was fastest in areas receiving both overhead 

and lateral light following brushing of the undergrowth 

and opening of the canopy. Heavy thinning 

of the canopy can lead to higher mortality due to 

desiccation, mammal browsing, frost, fire and competition 

from regrowth species. 

The timing of silvicultural treatment is critical to 

the success of natural regeneration. Establishment is 

likely to be optimised under quite intensive site preparation 

in two main stages. Firstly, the canopy needs 

to be opened up well in advance of seed spotting or 

seed fall to avoid smothering of young plants by 

falling debris from recently treated overstorey 

(ATH115). Secondly, brushing and treatment of 

undergrowth are necessary as soon as possible before 

52 

seed fall or seed sowing to allow seedlings to establish 

in advance of the regrowth. 

Enrichment plantings 

Toona ciliata grew well in enrichment plantings 

(Haley 1954; Keys and Nicholson 1982; Queensland 

Department of Forestry 1983a). Planting into 

relatively small gaps or along cleared lines with 

lateral shade provided some protection from 

H. robusta damage during early growth. The gaps 

must be sufficiently large to remain open during the 

early growth of the tree, but not so large that they 

increase susceptibility to damage from H. robusta or 

allow proliferation of weeds and regrowth species 

which may smother young trees. Cleared plots may 

also be susceptible to falling debris from thinning 

operations and plantings are likely to require continued 

canopy management throughout their life. 

The high costs associated with enrichment techniques 

have limited their adoption as general management 

practice in Australia (Nicholson et al. 1983; 

Queensland Department of Forestry 1983b). Silvicultural 

operations opening up the overstory to 

encourage growth of T. ciliata are not only expensive 

but also risky to the under-plant trees which 

may be damaged during thinning. 

Growth in existing plantations 

A number of plantings were established to assess the 

growth of T. ciliata within existing plantations as an 

interplanted or underplanted species or through 

natural regeneration. 

Cover or companion species assessed were: 

• Araucaria cunninghamii Aiton ex D. Don 

Hoop Pine 

• Grevillea robusta Cunn. ex R. Br. 

Southern Silky Oak 

• Flindersia brayleyana F. Muell. 

Queensland Maple 

• Agathis robusta (C. Moore ex F. Muell.) Bailey 

Kauri Pine 

• Cedrela odorata L. 

Spanish Cedar 

• Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) 

• Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden 

Flooded Gum 

• Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell. 

Red Mahogany 

• Eucalyptus saligna Smith 

Sydney Blue Gum 

• Zea mays L. 

Maize 

Some trials demonstrated that T. ciliata performed 

better when grown beneath a canopy; either levels of 

H. robusta damage were reduced under cover, or the

growth response and resultant form of the tree was 

improved. An overhead canopy also provided protection 

from frost and hail at some sites. 

Hypsipyla robusta damage was never prevented in 

any trials and in most sites, trees were damaged 

within a few years of planting. 

The success or otherwise of the various plantings 

depended on the cover crop species. Tree species 

with a very dense canopy, e.g. A. cunninghamii, 

failed to allow adequate light to reach T. ciliata 

under-plants, and thus growth was poor. This 

problem was less severe with more sparsely-crowned 

species such as G. robusta, F. brayleyana and A. 

robusta. Initial growth was generally better, although 

this often slowed considerably after a few years if no 

further thinning was carried out. Under a less dense 

canopy, damage from H. robusta was more of a 

problem. In many trials the density of the overstory 

of any particular species had little or no effect on tree 

performance or damage intensity. 

Flindersia brayleyana 

Toona ciliata grew well under F. brayleyana and 

a mixed stand of the two species was obtained. The 

technique was not ideal silviculturally because it 

requires thinning of potentially valuable but currently 

unmerchantable F. brayleyana stems. 

Grevillea robusta 

The growth of T. ciliata under G. robusta was 

highly variable, but often good, particularly under 

younger G. robusta aged 0 to 2 years at the time of 

planting of T. ciliata. Some of these plantings provide 

the most promising results from underplant 

trials. 

Araucaria cunninghamii 

Araucaria cunninghamii has been the most widely 

tested of the companion species, but has been 

unsuccessful. Attempts to establish T. ciliata under 

A. cunninghamii by planting or through fostering 

natural regeneration generally failed. Araucaria 

cunninghamii quickly formed a closed canopy, 

which did not allow adequate light to reach the 

T. ciliata trees. Growth was either suppressed from 

an early age or trees grew to the nearest canopy gap, 

resulting in bent and useless stems. The canopy 

required heavy thinning and the creation of large 

gaps to allow establishment of underplants. The 

heavy canopy generally failed to prevent damage 

from H. robusta. When damage was absent, it was 

probably due to the very poor growth or condition of 

the plants. 

53 

Agathis robusta 

Agathis robusta has a much sparser crown than A. 

cunninghamii, allowing better survival and growth of 

underplants. Under this lighter canopy T. ciliata was 

heavily damaged by H. robusta and developed poor 

form. Initial growth was good under A. robusta aged 

six years but later slowed. Natural regeneration 

under a planting of A. robusta resulted in some 

useful trees with minimal management, offering 

potential for further investigation. 

Other species 

Plantings in New South Wales beneath E. saligna 

and E grandis had some success; however, insufficient 

information was available to fully assess their 

potential as cover species. Plantings beneath E. 

pellita, P. falcataria and Z. mays were unsuccessful. 

In mixed plantings with C. odorata, T. ciliata was 

consistently the poorer of the two species with 

respect to height and incidence of H. robusta 

damage. 

Open plantings 

Open plantings of T. ciliata were generally susceptible 

to damage from H. robusta, desiccation, flooding, 

frost, weed competition and mammal browsing. 

Despite these problems, a number of open plantings 

have performed well in the long term and have 

produced merchantable trees. The establishment 

phase of these more successful plantings was poorly 

documented and trees may have received protection 

in the early stages of growth, either from an interplanted 

species which subsequently failed, surrounding 

forest, or the addition of a fast-growing 

underplant species shortly after establishment. 

Improving early growth rates 

Toona ciliata grows rapidly under optimal conditions. 

The choice of good sites, manipulation of the 

overhead canopy, and use of fertilisers and artificial 

shelters can improve establishment and further 

encourage early growth. Such techniques reduce the 

duration for which trees are exposed to H. robusta 

attack before achieving a straight bole of merchantable 

length. 

A series of fertiliser trials in New South Wales in 

the late 1950s and early 1960s assessed the impact of 

nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on growth of 

T. ciliata and on susceptibility of trees to H. robusta 

(Forestry Commission of New South Wales 1959, 

1961). Trees responded well to application of 

potassium. The increase in tree vigour did not influence 

the incidence of H. robusta damage (Campbell 

1966).

The use of artificial growth shelters, comprising 

UV stabilised polyethylene tubing (Growtubes TM ) 

increased growth rates up to five times that of unprotected 

trees (Applegate and Bragg 1989). Such 

growth rates were maintained in Growtubes up to 

3 m high but the resultant trees were very slender 

and required continued support after their emergence 

from the Growtube. By protecting against exposure, 

stock, browsing animals, herbicide drift, and weed 

growth, Growtubes could reduce maintenance costs 

which would offset the high establishment costs. 

Growth in areas remote from Toona ciliata 

Several plantings of T. ciliata have been trialed in 

sites a long way from existing stands of T. ciliata in 

the hope that isolation will protect them from H. 

robusta. Some of these, most notably those on 

Norfolk Island (N. Taverner, Administration of 

Norfolk Island) and around Darwin, Northern 

Territory (D. Riley, Department of Primary Industries 

and Fisheries, Northern Territory, pers. comm.), 

have produced trees of good growth rate and form, 

which have remained undamaged by H. robusta 

many years after planting. The success of such plantings 

depends on the careful choice of sites, ensuring 

isolation from all H. robusta hosts, and taking into 

consideration the soil preferences, moisture requirements 

and frost susceptibility of the trees. Trees 

planted on unsuitable sites trees perform poorly 

regardless of the incidence of H. robusta. Successful 

site selection requires an adequate understanding of 

the flight capacity and host location ability of 

H. robusta adults. 

Host resistance 

The existence of naturally-resistant strains or 

individuals of T. ciliata in Australia has been frequently 

alluded to but little investigated (FAO 1958; 

Campbell 1966; Entwistle 1967). The species shows 

great phenotypic variability under natural conditions 

with variation in the degree of pubescence, growth 

rates, form, degree of deciduousness, level of 

anthocyanin in young leaves, and temperature tolerance 

(Herwitz 1993; Griffiths 1997) Some of these 

traits are likely to be heritable and have potential to 

influence damage levels, therefore offering the 

potential to breed for resistance. Recent trials in 

southeast Queensland found differences in the level 

of oviposition by H. robusta when comparing T. 

ciliata trees from different regions of Australia 

planted at a single site (Griffiths 1997). Trees from 

the most northern collection site (Iron Range: 

12 o 43′S 143 o 18′E) consistently received fewer eggs 

than trees from five more southerly collection sites, 

54 

although the success of early instar feeding did not 

differ between provenances. 

A series of trials undertaken in the 1950s aimed to 

determine appropriate propagation techniques for T. 

ciliata in the event that a resistant strain was located 

(Sub-Department of Forestry 1956). Although some 

success was achieved with both cutting and grafting 

techniques, the potential of such methods for propagation 

of resistant trees was never tested. In the 

majority of experiments, resistance to H. robusta 

was not a criterion for selection of the parent trees. 

Most experiments were terminated prior to planting 

out. 

Current Researchers 

Dr Tom Bellas (CSIRO Entomology) has conducted 

much work investigating the pheromone blends of 

numerous insect species in Australia. Tom has 

undertaken a preliminary analysis of the chemical 

components present in volatiles collected from 

female H. robusta. 

Dr Rob Floyd (CSIRO Entomology) is project 

leader for the Australian Centre for International 

Agricultural Research (ACIAR) funded project to 

review the ecology and control of H. robusta in Asia 

and the Pacific (these Proceedings). His specific 

research interests are in the areas of host-plant resistance 

and forest pest management. 

Dr Manon Griffiths (CSIRO Entomology) completed 

her Ph.D. studies addressing aspects of the 

biology and host relations of H. robusta in Australia. 

Her study highlighted differences in the biology of 

H. robusta in Australia to that described from other 

countries, confirms the host range of the species in 

Australia, and investigates interspecific variability in 

host use. Dr Griffiths contribution to these Proceedings 

has been funded by ACIAR project FST/95/103. 

Dr Marianne Horak (CSIRO Entomology) is a 

leading taxonomist of the Pyralidae, and is currently 

undertaking preliminary taxonomic analysis of H. 

robusta in Australia. 

Dr Jianhu Mo (Department of Forestry, Australian 

National University) completed his Ph.D. on 

the ecology and behaviour of H. robusta. Dr Mo 

investigated temporal and spatial patterns of infestation, 

temperature-dependant development, feeding 

behaviour of larvae, reproductive activities and host 

selection behaviour. 

Dr Don Sands (CSIRO Entomology) is assisting 

in the ACIAR project FST/95/103 to review the 

ecology and control of H. robusta in Asia and the 

Pacific. He has significant expertise in the biological 

control of insect pests which he is interested in 

applying to Hypsipyla.

Mr David Spolc (University of Queensland) is 

currently studying for his Ph.D. by modelling the 

impact of H. robusta damage on form and size of T. 

ciliata. David’s work uses a virtual plant modelling 

system developed at the University of Calgary in 

Canada and CSIRO Entomology in Australia. The 

graphical form of the model allows viewers to view 

the possible responses to pest attack and management 

practises. 

Dr Ross Wylie (Queensland Forestry Research 

Institute) is assisting in the leadership and direction 

of the ACIAR project FST/95/103 reviewing the 

ecology and control of H. robusta in Asia and the 

Pacific. Ross has extensive expertise in the management 

of forest insect pests, which he is keen to apply 

to the control of Hypsipyla. 

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The Forest Resource of Ghana and Research on Hypsipyla 

robusta (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Control in 

Mahogany Plantations in Ghana 

S.K.N. Atuahene 1 

Abstract 

The forestry sector is a major contributor to the national economy of Ghana, employing some 

75 000 people and contributing between 6% and 8% of the Gross Domestic Product. Overexploitation 

of the timber resource, particularly from the unreserved forests, has led to severe 

depletion of the highly desirable, traditional mainstays of the Ghanaian timber trade such as 

Pericopsis elata (Harms) van Meeuwan (‘Aformosia’), Milicia spp. (‘Odum’ or ‘Iroko’) and the 

Meliaceae. Previous management policy promoted the sustained supply of forest produce for the 

timber industry. There are currently 50 000 ha of plantations in Ghana, of which nearly 90% are 

exotic species, mainly Tectona grandis L., Cedrela odorata L. and Gmelina arborea Roxb. 

Attempts by the Forestry Department to establish indigenous tree species in open plantations have 

failed for several reasons, including poor tending operations, poor seed sources, fire, and pests and 

diseases. Overall success rates in all plantations were poor, ranging from 20–58%, but were 

particularly so among native Meliaceae, of which only 9% survived, largely as a result of damage 

by the shoot borer Hypsipyla robusta (Moore). With a projected increase in demand for wood and 

increasing interest in plantation development among individuals and private companies, there is an 

urgent need for an effective method of control of H. robusta. This paper outlines past and current 

research on H. robusta in Ghana, and discusses future research strategies that could help to reduce 

shoot borer impact on plantations of native Meliaceae in Ghana and the rest of West Africa. 

THE HIGH forest of Ghana is located in the south and 

southwest of the country and covers an area of 

82 580 km 2 or 34% of the total land area (Hawthorne 

1995). Some 16 340 km 2 of the forest estate has been 

demarcated as reserves managed by the Forestry 

Department. Of this area, 7600 km 2 are said to be 

reasonably well stocked, and have been set aside for 

timber production. The rest of the reserved forests 

are either permanent protection areas (3500 km 2 ) or 

conversion areas (1220 km 2 ) where the forest is 

degraded but could be rehabilitated through natural 

regeneration and protection over one felling cycle 

(about 40 years). The remaining reserve area is so 

degraded that it requires replanting (Aninakwa 

1996). 

The unreserved forest has been declining at about 

750 km 2 per year since the turn of the century. This 

1 Forestry Research Institute of Ghana University PO Box 

63, Kumasi, Ghana 

58 

deforestation has resulted from conversion to agriculture, 

logging and fuelwood gathering, mining, 

infrastructure development, and fires (World Bank 

1988). 

Importance of the Forestry Industry in 

Ghana 

West Africa is home to some of the most valuable 

timber species in the world. The export trade in 

timber began in 1891 and initially focussed on the 

Meliaceae (Taylor 1960). The Meliaceae species of 

greatest economic importance in Ghana today are 

species of Khaya and Entandrophragma, although 

Lovoa species are also harvested (Table 1). Timber 

from native Meliaceae is extracted from the natural 

forests. 

The forestry sector employs 75 000 people and 

provides a livelihood to some 2 million people. The 

sector contributes between 6% and 8% of Ghana’s

Gross Domestic Product, a contribution exceeded 

only by cocoa and gold. In 1994, exports of forest 

products amounted to US$244 million or about 18% 

of total export earnings of that year. Native 

Meliaceae contributed substantially to these as over 

34 000 m 3 of wood, valued at approximately US$20 

million were exported, mainly as sawn lumber or 

sliced veneer, plywood and furniture parts (Table 1). 

Like most sub-Saharan countries, Ghana consumes 

more wood internally than is exported (Forest 

Products Inspection Bureau 1995). The major 

domestic markets for timber are the construction 

industry and fuelwood; thus economic and population 

growth are key factors leading to increased 

domestic consumption of wood. Real economic 

growth rates are currently 3.8% per year and population 

growth rate is 3.3%. It is estimated that at 3.5% 

economic growth, future levels of domestic demand 

of wood would rise from around 0.7 million m 3 in 

1995 to nearly 1.0 million m 3 in 2005 (UK Forestry 

Commission 1995). 

Although the annual allowable cut of timber set 

by the Ghana Forestry Department is 1.0 million m 3 , 

since 1989 the forest has been consistently over cut, 

with between 1.2 and 2.0 million m 3 harvested per 

year. As a result, supply of many of the highly desirable, 

traditional mainstays of the Ghanaian timber 

trade, such as Pericopsis elata (Harms) van 

Meeuwan (‘Aformosia’) Milicia spp. (‘Odum’ or 

‘Iroko’) and the Meliaceae, are severely limited 

(Ghartey 1989). 

Internationally, demand for African mahogany is 

likely to increase as supplies of hardwoods from 

Southeast Asia and Brazil decline (Elliot and Pleydell 

1992). However, supply from natural forests is 

limited; at current rates of extraction, the resource is 

likely to be exhausted within 20 years (Alder 1989). 

The Government has recently taken legal measures 

to restrict the exploitation and depletion of the offreserve 

forests, which will further restrict supply and 

export revenue. 

59 

Forest Plantations in Ghana 

As the forest reserves alone are inadequate to sustain 

a viable timber industry and meet the growing 

domestic demand for timber, the FAO proposed for 

Ghana a national forest plantation estate of 59 000 

km 2 commencing with the planting of 50 km 2 in 

1968 (FAO/UNEP 1981). This figure was later 

revised downward by a national land use planning 

committee which targeted an estate of 1000 km 2 to 

be established over a 10-year period from 1970/71 

(Nsenkyire 1992). A plantation program involving 

indigenous hardwood species including the 

Meliaceae was widely undertaken in eastern and 

western regions of Ghana. The annual target was set 

at 65 km 2 and limited to the forest reserves where the 

stocking of current valuable species was poor. 

Native Meliaceae that have been planted in Ghana 

include the native species Entandrophragma utile 

(Dawe and Sprague) Sprague, E. cylindricum 

(Sprague), E. angolense (Welw.), DC, K. ivorensis 

A. Chev., K. anthotheca (Wehu) C.DC, and K. 

grandifoliola C.DC (Table 2). Most native Meliaceae 

were established in the forest reserves by enrichment 

planting in previously logged forests or in ‘Taungya’ 

systems (Osafo 1970). 

Cedrela odorata L. and Swietenia spp. from Latin 

America have also been planted. Swietenia macrophylla 

King and S. humilis ZUCC. were planted in 

experimental pure stands at Pra-Anum Forest 

Reserve between 1961 and 1967 from seeds obtained 

from Costa Rica. The oldest C. odorata plantation 

was established at Dunkwa in the Central Region in 

1922. Since then, there have been other plantations at 

Offin Headwaters and Pra-Anum Forest Reserves. 

Cedrela odorata has been planted largely as pure 

stands, although it has sometimes been included in 

mixed species plantation established in the Taungya 

systems (Quaynor 1971). 

Enrichment planting was found to be costly to 

manage and frequently produced poor growth due to 

Table 1. Volume and value of native species of the subfamily Swietenioideae of family Meliaceae exported in 1994 and 

1995 (Forest Products Inspection Bureau, Takoradi 1996). 

Species Volume m 3 Value (US$) 

1994 1995 1994 1995 

Khaya spp. 17 130 12 753 9 146 969 6 000 407 

Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague 6 966 2 855 5 465 827 1 998 354 

E. candollei (Harms) 429 470 198 870 213 128 

E. cylindricum (Sprague) 4 065 2 877 2 441 543 1 614 440 

E. angolense (Welw.) DC 5 186 3 819 2 510 157 1 658 984 

Lovoa trichiliodes (Harms) 801 639 399 636 297 101

Table 2. Native and exotic tree species of Meliaceae subfamily Swieteniodeae planted in Ghana (Forest Products Research 

Institute, Ghana, Annual Reports 1969–1979). 

Tree species Origin Present area planted 

(ha) 

excessive shade, while the Taungya system restricted 

the farmers’ choice of crops and gave the farmers no 

stake in the trees, as a result of which tending 

operations were not well executed. Other reasons for 

plantation failures include fire, poor seed sources, 

poor species-site matching, inappropriate choice of 

species, and pests and diseases. 

The main plantation species that have been grown 

with some success are exotics such as Tectona 

grandis L., C. odorata and Gmelina arborea Roxb. 

(Table 3). Overall establishment success of all 

species was generally poor, however they were 

particularly so for native Meliaceae, of which only 9 

per cent survived. 

Table 3. Principal tree species in plantations and survival 

rate in Ghana (Forestry Department, Planning Branch 1992). 

Tree species Area planted 

(ha) 

Survival 

(%) 

Tectona grandis L. 25 800 34 

Cedrela odorata L. 7 900 39 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. 6 500 58 

Mansonia ultissima A. Chev. 3 000 22 

Native Meliaceae 2 400 9 

Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum 100 20 

Terminalia ivorensis A. Chev. 150 27 

Eucalyptus spp. 2 000 n/a 

Although the poor establishment of all species in 

Ghana was largely due to fire, the particularly high 

failure-rate of plantations of native Meliaceae has 

been attributed to shoot borer attack (Ofosu-Asiedu, 

et al. 1991). Shoot borer also resulted in slow growth 

and poor form (Britwum 1976). Similarly, planting 

of the exotic Swietenia spp. has been discontinued 

due to poor fire tolerance and serious shoot borer 

attack: the trials invariably failed through die-back 

resulting from shoot borer attack and fire (Ofosu- 

Asiedu, et al. 1991). 

Roberts (1966) lists native and exotic Meliaceae 

that are susceptible to H. robusta in West Africa. 

The only member of the sub-family Swieteniodeae 

60 

Present planting rate 

(ha/Year) 

of which there is no record of attack by the shoot 

borer in Ghana is the exotic C. odorata, which is one 

of the most successful plantation species (Table 3). 

In Ghana, C. odorata is a fast growing tree and at 

Pra-Anum, which is in the moist semi-deciduous 

forest zone with an annual rainfall of 1200–1800 

mm, sample plots in a 20-year old plantation had an 

average height of 39.9 m (Nkansa-Kyere 1974). No 

pests or diseases of importance have ever been 

reported on C. odorata although the plant is susceptible 

to attack by ambrosia beetle Doliopygus condradti 

Strohm. (Platypodidae), especially during 

long, dry periods (Wagner et al. 1991). 

Recently, the Forestry Department has recognised 

the increasing interest of individual farmers and 

community associations in plantation establishment 

and is promoting woodlot establishment on private 

land and farms through the Collaborative Forest 

Management Unit. In addition, several private companies 

have embarked on large-scale, commercial 

planting of exotic species outside the Forest Reserve. 

However, efforts by foresters to plant indigenous 

Meliaceae and Swietenia species in the various 

countries of West Africa have been frustrated by H. 

robusta damage and there are currently no plans by 

the Forestry Department to plant these species in 

plantations (Table 2). Only one company, the Swiss 

Lumber Company in the southwest region, has 

recently invested in planting indigenous Meliaceae. 

Hypsipyla Research in Ghana 

Optimal rotation 

length (yrs) 

K. ivorensis A. Chev. Native 2400 Planting ceased in forest reserves Not known 

E. utile (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague Native 2400 Planting ceased in forest reserves Not known 

E. cylindricum (Sprague) Native 2400 Planting ceased in forest reserves Not known 

E. angolense (Welw.) DC Native 2400 Planting ceased in forest reserves Not known 

Cedrela odorata L. Introduced 7900 50 About 40 yrs 

Swietenia humilis Zucc. Introduced 0 Planting ceased n/a 

S. macrophylla King Introduced 0 Planting ceased n/a 

The research into H. robusta in Ghana is summarised 

in Table 4. The Forestry Research Institute of Ghana 

(FORIG) have successfully reared H. robusta on an 

artificial diet and described the stages of the life 

cycle (Atuahene and Souto 1983). The medium used 

was the McMorran Grisdale Diet (MGD) generously 

supplied by Prof. G.I. Gara of the College of Forest 

Resources, University of Washington, USA. The 

results revealed differences in the life cycle of H. 

robusta from those reported in Nigeria (Roberts 

1966) and Ivory Coast (Couillard and Guiol 1980).

A number of parasitoids have been bred in the 

laboratory from field-collected insects (Atuahene 

and Souto 1983). Parasitoids collected from Hypsipyla 

spp. in West Africa include Braconids, Eulophids, 

and Tachinids among others (Roberts 1966, 

Atuahene and Souto 1983). A parasitic nematode, 

probably Hexamermis sp., is also common in Ghana. 

The specific names of most of these parasites have 

not been determined, and their effects on the pest 

population are yet to be studied. 


various aspects of Hypsipyla spp. biology and control. 



research 

In the context of developing strategies for integrated 

pest management of H. robusta in Ghana, 

FORIG has collaborated with the Dept. of Zoology, 

University of Oxford on the potential use of insect 

pathogenic viruses to control mahogany shoot borers 

(Hauxwell 1997). Larvae were collected from the 

shoots of K. ivorensis in FORIG’s research nursery 

at Mesewam in the moist, semi-deciduous forest 

zone, and from a 5-year-old plantation at the Swiss 

Lumber Company in Manso Amenfi in the south 

western moist evergreen forest zone. Larvae were 

reared on modified tobacco hornworm diet, a 

general-purpose diet for lepidoptera, emerging adults 

were preserved for species identification and dead 

larvae were preserved by freezing and subsequent 

examination for baculoviruses (Hauxwell 1997). 

Research Requirements 

Historical 

research 

Biology 


Life history * ** 

Ecology in natural stands * – 

Ecology in plantations * – 

Population dynamics – – 

Natural enemies * * 

Other 

Control 

Biological control ** * 

Chemical control – – 


Provenance trials * – 

Pheromone studies – * 


Other 

In studies involving the use of artificial diets we 

have observed high incidence of insect mortality 

(10–70%) among young instar larvae due to non- 

61 

feeding, a high incidence of infertile eggs, and low 

pupal widths and weights (Atuahene and Souto 

1983). Future research must look into perfecting a 

diet for rearing H. robusta. 

The taxonomy of H. robusta is still not fully 

understood in West Africa. Entwistle (1968) states 

that H. robusta probably comprises several races and 

subspecies. Recent collections from Ashanti and 

Western Regions of Ghana (Opuni Frimpong and 

Atuahene, unpublished data) confirmed that the 

taxonomy of Hypsipyla requires further investigation. 

While a few natural enemies have been collected, 

most have not been sufficiently described and their 

effect on the H. robusta population is not known. 

The occurrence, impact and possible manipulation of 

natural enemies should be further investigated. 

Brunck and Mallet (1993) emphasised the need to 

bring the experience gained in Latin America and 

Europe together with work in West Africa, particularly 

on the selection of resistant or tolerant stock. 

Recent work in Latin America has identified partial 

resistance to H. grandella within S. macrophylla and 

C. odorata (Newton et al. 1993). Although no work 

has been conducted on resistance in the Meliaceae in 

Ghana, experience of similar research in other 

systems support the use of such an approach. 

Cobbinah (1990) has demonstrated that considerable 

variability exists in intensity of infestation of 

seedlings of Milicia spp. by the noxious psyllid, 

Phytolyma lata (Walker), thus presenting an opportunity 

for control of the psyllid. 

Conservation of the germplasm of West African 

Meliaceae is urgently required before the loss of the 

natural forests further depletes genetic diversity. 

FORIG, in collaboration with the Ghana Forestry 

Department Planning Branch, the Institute of Terrestrial 

Ecology and Edinburgh University in the UK, 

have proposed the development of an integrated pest 

management strategy. The proposed strategy is based 

on the incorporation of pest resistant planting stock 

in silvicultural systems to reduce H. robusta impact 

(Atuahene et al. 1996). This proposal was submitted 

to the International Tropical Timber Organisation 

(ITTO). 

Conclusion 

Since plant resistance or any other method alone is 

unlikely to reduce the impact of Hypsipyla spp. to less 

than economic levels, an integrated pest management 

strategy is recommended (Newton et al. 1993). In 

order to implement and effective integrated 

programme of H. robusta management in West Africa 

we need to build the capacity to research the critical 

issues of its biology. Research efforts should then:

• describe the relationship of H. robusta populations 

with the host plants; 

• identify if there is variation in susceptibility of 

West African Meliaceae; 

• determine if there is a genetic and biochemical 

basis for susceptibility or resistance; 

• test silvicultural systems such as the use of tree 

mixtures as an effective strategy in managing the 

insect; 

• acquire better knowledge of the efficacy of natural 

enemies and determine their potential use in biological 

control. 

To provide funds for all these is a considerable 

undertaking. I wish, therefore, to recommend the 

assistance of international organisations and institutions 

such as the ITTO, the Department of International 

Development (DFID) and others in providing 

the necessary funds for forestry research in West 

Africa and hope for their continued support. 


The author would like to thank DFID for funding 

which has allowed the author to attend this workshop. 

The author would like to acknowledge the 

work of Mr Emmanuel Opuni-Frimpong, FORIG, in 

rearing and collection of H. robusta. The author 

would also like to thank Dr Caroline Hauxwell and 

D. Martin Speight of the Department of Zoology, 

University of Oxford for permission to reproduce 

unpublished results and reports from the DFID Forestry 

Research Program project R6055. 

References 

Aninakwa, B. 1996. Present status of the forest resource 

base. Paper presented at the Workshop on Forest Plantation 

Development in Ghana at the Wood Industry 

Training Centre, Ejisu, Ashanti, 27–29 February 1996. 

Alder, D. 1989. Natural forest increment, growth and yield. 

In: Ghana Forestry Inventory Project Seminar Proceedings. 

29–30 March 1989, Accra. 

Atuahene, S.K.N. and Souto, D. 1983. The rearing and 

biology of the Mahogany Shoot Borer Hypsipyla robusta 

(Moore) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) on an artificial 

medium. Insect Science Application, 18: 319–325. 

Atuahene, S.K.N., Aninakwa, B., Watt, A.D., and Hauxwell, 

C. 1996. Development of an integrated strategy for 

reduction of shoot borer impact on West African 

mahogany plantations. Pre-project proposal to the International 

Tropical Timber Organisation serial no. PPD 19/ 

96 Rev.1 (F), 50 p. 

Britwum, S.P.K. 1976. Natural and Artificial Regeneration 

Practices in the High Forest of Ghana. Ghana Forestry 

Journal, 2: 45–49. 

Brunck, F. and Mallet, B. 1993. Problems relating to pests 

attacking mahogany in Cote d’Ivoire. Bois et Forêts des 

Tropiques, 237: 9–29. 

62 

Cobbinah, J.R. 1990. The biology, seasonal activity and 

control of Phytolyma lata. IUFRO Regional Workshop 

on Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantations. 5–10 June 

1988. Bangkok, Thailand. 

Couillard, R. and Guiol, F. 1980. Elevage en laboratoire de 

Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) (Lép. Pyralidae). Revue Bois 

et Forêts des Tropiques, 194: 36–40. 

Elliot, G. and Pleydell, G. 1992. Report on marketing and 

utilisation of plantation species, Ghana. Report for the 

Government of Ghana under assignment from DFID. 

Entwistle, P.F. 1968. The current situations on shoot, fruit 

and collar borers of the Meliaceae. 9th British Commonwealth 

Forestry Conference, Oxford, U.K. 

FAO/UNEP. 1981. Tropical Forest Resources Assessment 

Project. Forest Resources of Africa. Part II: Country 

Briefs. FAO, Rome. 

Forest Products Inspection Bureau: Annual Report 1995. 

Takoradi, Ghana. 

Ghartey, K.K.F. 1989. Results of the Inventory. In: Ghana 

Forest Inventory Project Seminar Proceedings. Accra, 

29–30 March, 1989. 

Hauxwell, C. 1997. Final report on project R6059 to the 

UK Overseas Development Administration Forestry 

Research Program. 

Hawthorne, W.D. 1995. Ecological profiles of Ghanaian 

forest trees. DFID Tropical Forestry Paper No.29. 

Newton, A.C., Baker, P., Ramnarine, S., Mesen, J.F., and 



57: 301–328. 

Nkansah-Kyere, M. 1974. Cedrela odorata in Ghana. 

Forest Products Res. Inst. Newsletter 8. (3/ 4), 14–18. 

Nsenkyire, EO. 1992. Ghana: Progress towards the year 

2000 sustainable management of tropical forest. Forestry 

Department, Accra. Unpublished report. 

Ofosu-Asiedu, A., Nani-Nutakor, J.M., Foli, E.G., Nkyi, 

K.A. and Tufour, K.A. 1991. Man made forests of 

indigenous species in Ghana. A pre-project report 

sponsored by the ITTO prepared on behalf of Ministry of 

Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana. 

Osafo, E.D. 1970. Evolution and trends in silvicultural 

techniques applied to natural forests in Ghana. Forest 

Products Research Institutes Technical Note 13. 

Quaynor, S.O.A. 1971. Espacement trials of Cedrela spp at 

Pra Anum Research Station. Forest Products Research 

Institute Newsletter, 5 (1/2). 

Roberts, H. 1966. A survey of the important shoot, stem, 

wood, flower and fruit boring insects of the Meliaceae in 

Nigeria. Nigerian Forestry Information Bulletin (New 

Series), 15–38. 

Taylor, C.J. 1960. Synecology and Silviculture in Ghana. 

Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, London. 

UK Forestry Commission. 1995. Policy recommendations 

for sustainable Management of the Forest Resource in 

Ghana. Overseas Consultancy Service, Forestry Commission, 

U.K. 

Wagner, M.R., Atuahene, S.K.N. and Cobbinah J.R. 1991. 

Forest Entomology in West Tropical Africa: Forest 

Insects of Ghana. Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, 

210 p. 

World Bank. 1988. Ghana Forest Resource Management 

Project working papers 1–6. Unpubl.

A Review of Hypsipyla grandella Zeller Research in 

Pará State, Brazil 

M.M. Maués 1 

Abstract 

The shoot borer Hypsipyla grandella Zeller is the most important pest of the forest trees of the 

Meliaceae family (Swietenia macrophylla King, Cedrela odorata L. and Carapa guianensis Aubl.) 

in Pará State, Brazil. Despite the economic importance of these species and interest being shown 

by the timber industry in establishing plantations of S. macrophylla, little attention has been given 

to attempting to solve this problem. Two approaches to diminish the occurrence of attack have 

been investigated: firstly, to control the insect by the use of light traps; secondly, to use line 

planting and planting in species mixtures. The light trap proved ineffective even in small-scale 

plantations. The silvicultural methods reduced the level of attack but did not completely eliminate 

damage from H. grandella. No large-scale trials have been established. Due to the importance of 

these timbers in the local economy and in the international market, systematic research on 

H. grandella in the Amazon region is recommended as a priority. 

TIMBER products are the fourth most important 

source of export earnings in Pará State, Brazil. The 

most commercially important species of Meliaceae 

of the sub-family Swietenioideae are Swietenia 

macrophylla King (Mogno or ‘big leaf’ mahogany), 

Cedrela odorata L. (Cedro or Cedar) and Carapa 

guianensis Aubl. (Andiroba or Crabwood). These are 

exported in significant volumes from the state 

(Carvalho 1994a, b) (Figure 1) but are produced by 

selective logging from native forest at a rate that is 

considered unsustainable. 

Native species of Swietenioideae have been 

planted by enrichment of forests, in mixed species 

plantations and in agroforestry. Areas planted for 

each species are given in Table 1, with S. macrophylla 

being the most extensively planted. The 

greatest limitations to planting of these species are: 

damage caused by Hypsipyla grandella Zeller, competition 

for light in enrichment plantings, nutrient 

deficiencies and poor genetic makeup of the planting 

stock (Lyhr 1992). In addition, Khaya ivorensis A. 

1 Embrapa Eastern Amazon, Entomology Lab. Cx. P. 48, 

CEP. 66.095-100 Belém, Pará, Brazil, E-mail: marcia@ 

cpatu.embrapa.br 

63 

Chev. from west Africa and Toona cilliata Roem 

from Asia have been introduced on an experimental 

scale. 

Species of the genus Hypsipyla are found 

throughout the Americas (Berti Filho 1973; Newton 

et al. 1993). In Pará State, H. grandella is the most 

important pest of Meliaceae, attacking growing 

shoots of S. macrophylla, C. odorata and C. guianensis. 

Hypsipyla ferrealis only attacks the fruit of C. 

guianensis (Newton et al. 1993). There is no 

published information about H. grandella attack on 

T. ciliata in Pará State, despite an experiment that is 

being conducted in order to evaluate the ‘preference’ 

of H. grandella attack in a mixed 1:1 T. ciliata and 

S. macrophylla plantation. In an experimental K. 

ivorensis plantation in eastern Amazon, there was no 

damage caused by H. grandella, but there was severe 

damage by Trigona sp. causing either abnormal 

sprouting or atrophy of the stem (Falesi and Baena 

1999). 

Control of H. grandella investigated in the 

Brazilian Amazon 

In Brazil, despite the economic importance of the 

Swietenioideae and the interest shown by the timber

industry in planting S. macrophylla, little attention 

has been directed at the problem of attack by H. 

grandella. Berti Filho (1973) determined methods 

for the laboratory production of H. grandella using 

artificial and natural diets and studied its life cycle as 

a first step in the search for biological or chemical 

control methods. The research that has been conducted 

on control has followed two approaches 

(Table 2); firstly control of the insect by the use of 

light traps, and secondly control through silvicultural 

systems that reduce insect prevalence. 

Volume (m 3 ) 

180 000 

160 000 

140 000 

120 000 

100 000 

80 000 

60 000 

40 000 

20 000 

0 

1987 

1988 

64 

Light trapping 

A light trap experiment was implemented from 1993 

to 1995 in a two-year old plantation of S. macrophylla 

in secondary vegetation in the State of Acre 

(Fazolin and Oliveira 1994). The objectives were to 

determine the insect population patterns associated 

with the S. macrophylla plantation and to test the 

effectiveness of the trap in the control of H. grandella 

by capturing adults on an adhesive-coated 

plastic sheet. Based on three years observations, this 

method was determined to be ineffective. 

Figure 1. Volume (m 3 ) of sawn timber exported from Pará State, Brazil in the period of 1987 to 1994. Source: Carvalho 

(1994a, b). 

Table 1. Native and exotic species of Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae planted in Pará State, Brazil. 

Tree species Origin Present area planted (ha) Program status 1 

Swietenia macrophylla King Native 603 A 

Cedrela odorata L. Native 100 A 

Carapa guianensis Aubl. Native 100 A 

Toona ciliata M. Roem. Introduced 100 B 

Khaya ivorensis A. Chev. Introduced 100 B 

1 A. Ongoing but having limited or variable success, B. Preliminary or experimental only. 

1989 

1990 

1991 

Period (years) 

Cedrela odorata Carapa guianensis Swietenia macrophylla 

1992 

1993 

1994


various aspects of Hypsipyla grandella Zeller biology and 

control. – none; * minor; ** major. 


research 

Historical 

research 

Biology 


Life history – ** 

Ecology in natural stands – – 

Ecology in plantations – – 

Population dynamics – * 

Natural enemies – – 

Other 

Control 

Biological control – – 

Chemical control * – 

Silvicultural control * ** 

Provenance trials – * 



Other 

Silvicultural control 

Two alternative strategies of silvicultural control 

have been attempted; however, the results are inconclusive 

(Yared and Carpanezzi 1981). The first was 

to promote rapid establishment and early growth so 

that the plant quickly passes through the period when 

it is most susceptible to damage. This can be through 

site selection and soil preparation (including fertilisation), 

giving abundant overhead light and lateral 

shade to promote vertical growth, intensive plantation 

maintenance (e.g. weeding), and pruning of 

attacked plants to concentrate vertical growth on one 

stem. The second strategy was to screen the trees 

from attack through planting a low density of plants 

per hectare, creating a dense matrix of other vegetation 

and maximising forest heterogeneity, thus 

attempting to reproduce forest conditions. 

Ohashi et al. (1993) recommended the first 

strategy, emphasising rapid growth for the first 4.5 

metres and not exceeding 50% shade. Citing Dubois 

(1978) based on plantations at Curuá-Una Experimental 

Station, located in the Amazon basin, they 

recommend that plantations of Meliaceae in the 

Amazon use wide spacing, partial shading and 

control of competing vegetation in mixtures with 

non-susceptible species in groups or lines with less 

than 100 trees per hectare. 

The absence of attack on four year-old S. macrophylla 

and C. guianensis in enrichment plantings (the 

‘recru’ method) in 25-year old secondary vegetation 

was attributed to the screening (Yared and Carpanezzi 

65 

1981). Furthermore, Marques et al. (1993) reported 

the results of fertilised mixed plantations of S. macrophylla 

with other tree species, including Cordia 

goeldiana Cham., Dipteryx odorata Aubl., Vochisia 

maxima Ducke, Bagassa guianensis (Aubl.) and 

Bertholletia excelsa (Humb. & Bompl.), and fruit 

species including Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. 

ex Spreng.) Schum., Inga sp. and banana (Musa sp.) 

in Santarém, Pará. In these trials, H. grandella attack 

was only observed in the second year (21% attack) 

when the S. macrophylla had reached 5.7 m, whereas, 

at three years and height of 6.9 m, there was little 

attack. The authors considered that even the attacked 

trees would produce timber if pruned. It is believed 

that the lateral barrier provided by banana could 

explain the reduced and delayed attack. 

S. macrophylla and C. guianensis have been 

grown in Taungya along with maize, manioc, and C. 

goeldiana, in Santarém. Attack on one-year-old, 

0.8 m high C. guianensis was 4%. In the same area, 

82% attack was reported on 2-year-old, 5 m high 

S. macrophylla that was planted with maize, banana, 

C. goeldiana and Cordia alliodora Huber (Brienza 

Júnior et al. 1983). 

Experimental or commercial-scale plantations of 

native Meliaceae in Amazonia have been shown to 

suffer severe attack by H. grandella when grown in 

full sun, but that attack may be reduced in shade. 

Yared et al. (1988) found 56.8% mortality in plantations 

of S. macrophylla at 3.4 m high in full sun in 

Belterra, Pará, and up to 100% mortality of C. guianensis 

and C. odorata by 6.5 years. The high mortality 

rates were caused by intolerance to full sun and a 

severe H. grandella attack. Brienza Júnior et al. 

(1990) report H. grandella attack in S. macrophylla 

plantations in Capitão-Poço, Pará, being more pronounced 

in plantations in full sun, although there 

was also damage to line enrichment plantings in 

secondary vegetation. The authors recommended that 

S. macrophylla should not be planted in pure plantations 

but in conditions of partial shade or in mixed 

plantations with fast-growing species. Similarly, 

Kanashiro et al. (1983) reported severe attack by H. 

grandella on provenance trials of C. odorata planted 

in full sun in Belterra, Pará: 50% of plants were 

attacked at six months and subsequently all plants 

were attacked, while plants in secondary vegetation 

in partial shade were not attacked at six months. 

Berti Filho (1973) also observed less attack in 

Cedrela sp. planted in partial shade compared to full 

sun in southern Brazil. 

Results of growing under shade do not provide 

consistent protection. Ohashi et al. (1993) conducted 

an experiment on enrichment planting with C. 

odorata and C. guianensis in different light regimes 

at different spacing in primary and logged humid

Amazonian forest in the Curuá-Una Experimental 

Station. H. grandella attack increased with reduced 

light and spacing. According to the above-mentioned 

authors, this happened because more than 50% shade 

inhibiting growth of the tree and consequently 

increased of H. grandella attack. Rate of growth of 

Meliaceae in enrichment plantings can be slow. At 

age 4 years in enrichment plantings in secondary 

forest, S. macrophylla and C. guianensis have been 

reported to have a height increment of 1.3 m per year 

and a diameter at breast height increment of 1.3 cm/ 

year and 1.5 cm/year respectively (Yared and 

Carpanezzi 1981). Mean height increment C. odorata 

was recorded as 0.7 m/year after 6 years in enrichment 

planting in native forest (Ohashi et al. 1993). 

Based on the studies described above, partial 

shade (not surpassing 50% shade), mixed planting 

and intensive maintenance (fertilisation, weeding and 

pruning) may reduce H. grandella attack in 

Meliaceae plantations. 

Conclusion 

Research on H. grandella attack on Meliaceae in the 

Amazon region is preliminary. However, promising 

results have been shown with measures to accelerate 

growth and plantings in situations similar to natural 

forest habitat with a low density of plants per hectare 

and high species diversity. 

Silvicultural methods that avoid attack in the first 

two years and ensure fast growth can produce a 

worthwhile timber log. However, adequate protection 

cannot be assured. It will be necessary to 

initiate studies on the population dynamics of the 

insect and further investigate the productivity and 

economics of different plantation systems on different 

sites. The potential for genetic resistance 

through chemical composition or strong recovery 

following attack also warranted further study. 


Thanks to Dr Jorge G. Yared and Dr Sílvio Brienza 

Jr. of the Embrapa Eastern Amazon, for reading and 

offering suggestions on the manuscript and providing 

bibliographic material, and to Dr Ian Thompson of the 

DFID (former ODA) /Embrapa Eastern Amazon for 

help with the revision of the English and comments. 

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