REPORT OF MAJOR RESEARCH PROJECT - Center of Excellence

EERC 

Theme: Wetlands and Biodiversity 

EERC Working Paper Series: WB-4 

Economics of Protected Area: 

A Case Study of Pench National Park 

Anjali Kulkarni and V M Vaidya 

Nagpur University, Nagpur 

Mrunalini Phadanavis 

Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur 

MOEF IGIDR WORLD BANK

ECONOMICS OF PROTECTED AREA – A CASE STUDY OF PENCH 

NATIONAL PARK 

FINAL REPORT 

SPONSORED BY 

INDIRA GANDHI INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH 

(MUMBAI) 

UNDER WORLD BANK CAPACITY BUILDING PROGRAMME 

Dr. V. M. Vaidya 

Retired Professor and Head 

Department of Economics 


Mr. Sarang Bhakre 

Mr. Babarao 

Principal Investigator 

Dr. A. P. Kulkarni 

Head, 



Co- Investigators 

Research Team 

Dr. Mrunalini Phadanavis 

Head, 


Mahila Mahavidyalya 

Nandanvan, Nagpur 

Mr. Prashant Tambe 

Mr. Milind Narnaware 

P. G. T. D. Of Economics, Nagpur University Campus, Nagpur, 2002

PREFACE 

Sustainable economic development and environmental protection are the key 

aspects of modern economic development. Importance of biodiversity conservation 

through environmental protection and policy of creating protected areas has received 

worldwide attention as manifested in various conventions on bio-diversity. Biodiversity 

conservation has not only ethical and aesthetic implications but also have 

various economic and social dimensions. These concerns are being increasingly 

reflected at National and International levels through research and policy 

programmes as well as related activities undertaken by NGO’s. 

The present study endeavours to estimate the benefits and cost of P.A. of Pench 

National Park (PNP) located in central India. This study focuses on rational for 

creation of protected areas and its direct as well as indirect benefits and costs. It is 

also an exercise in research methodology where internationally accepted methods 

like IFRI, TCM etc. have been used for estimation of costs and benefits of PNP. 

This project has been awarded by IGIDR (Mumbai) under The World Bank Capacity 

Building Programme. Hon. Chairperson Prof. Jyoti Parikh deserves sincere thank for 

her valuable feedback at various stages of the project. Our sincere thank also due to 

Dr. Sudarshan Iyangar who was a guiding sprit behind this work. Dr. Raghu Ram 

Tata from IGIDR also helped from time to time in the completing this project. 

The authors acknowledges the facilities extended by the Nagpur University and are 

grateful to the Hon. Vice-chancellor Dr. A. S. Satputaley, Registrar Mr. S. T. Belsare, 

Finance Officer Mr. W. S. Kalode and Deputy Registrar (Development) Mr. Puran 

Meshram and his staff. 

Our special thanks are due to Shri Ram Indurkar Retd. CCF wildlife, Shri Muzumdar 

CCF wildlife, Shri Bhagawan, CF wildlife, Shri Chowdhari Deputy CF Wild Life. We 

are highly indebted to them for their valuable guidance and providing vital 

information regarding Pench Tiger Project. Deputy C. F. Wildlife, Dr. Jafri, Director 

Forest Survey of India Nagpur, also deserves special thanks for his willing 

cooperation and providing valuable information about Pench National Park- Shri. A. 

R. Khan Dy. Conservator of Forest Research Wing, and Shri B. S. Giri R.F.O. 

extensively helped during entire project work. We fall short of suitable words to 

express our deep sense of gratitude for their valuable help. Dr. S. Dwivedi from 

i

Maharashtra Fisheries Development Corporation also willingly extended his help for 

providing statistical data. 

‘SHODH’ the research institute, deserves special thanks for offering consultancy 

services. The secretary of the institute Dr. Rucha Ghate offered her constructive 

comments which helped to enrich the quality of work. 

Our colleagues in the department have been very co-operative in extending all 

possible help in completion of this project. Dr. Mahore, Dr. Deshpande, Dr. Ghate, 

deserve sincere thanks for their valuable comments on the research methodology of 

the project. 

The research team of the project, Mr. Sarang Bhakre, Mr Milind Narnaware, Mr. 

Bhushan Lanjewar and Mr. Prashant Tambe spared no pains in bringing this project 

to the final stage. They need special thanks from us. 

The non-teaching staff of the department had been very co-operative in extending 

their helps at various stages on the project. 

One debt we have to acknowledge, which runs all through this efforts, is that to our 

family members, who were compelled to bear inconvenience because of our non 

availability at home and providing us a moral support in completion of the work. 

They were also a constant source of inspiration to us. 

Vijay Vaidya 

ii 

Anjali Kulkarni 

Mrinalini Fadnavis

1.1 Prologue 

CHAPTER I 

Protected Areas have received a special attention from the cross section of the 

population for their unique role in biodiversity conservation. Increasingly more 

geographical areas are being reserved for conservation of natural resources and 

biodiversity. Bio-diversity represents the very foundation of human existence and a 

rich source of resources. The loss of biological diversity is causing a major concern 

all over the world. However, population explosion and changing character of 

human wants are eroding this very essential capital at an alarming rate. Today, the 

biological wealth is threatened by an overexploitation of natural resources, resulting 

in devastation of habitat and ecosystem. In this situational matrix, conservation of 

biodiversity has rightfully received an impetus in the form of coming into force the 

Convention on Biodiversity in December 1992. 

The current debate is centered around demonstrating the economic values of 

biological resources in the contexts where the values are often not reflected in 

market process. There is also a need to explain why despite those economic 

values, biodiversity continues to be threatened. The debate is also concerned 

about the ways to capture or realize economic value. 

1.2 Private & Social Costs of Biodiversity Use: 

Private costs and benefits refer to those losses or gains as perceived by the 

immediate user of the environment: the farmer, the industrialist, the consumer. 

Social costs and benefits refer to the losses and gains that accrue to the society as 

a whole. Social and private interest often do not coincide. What is good for one as 

an individual, may impose costs on the rest of the society (externalities). 

Sometimes what is good for the world as a whole is also good for a person as an 

individual. But no institution exists to capture the “global value”. 

1.3 Biodiversity & Market: 

The need to declare certain areas as protected areas arises out of the need to 

conserve valuable natural resources or to prevent loss of biodiversity. Since 

markets may fail to reflect the benefits and costs of protected area, the need arises 

to highlight the issues associated with creation of Protected Areas- National Parks 

or Tiger Projects.

1.4 THE PRESENT STUDY: 

The present study has been undertaken to focus the benefits as well as costs and 

other issues related to Pench National Park (PNP) arising from the conservation of 

its rich natural resources. PNP is considered as a custodian of the valuable flora 

and fauna, which is representative of this region. 

‘It is argued that creation of network of national parks or Tiger Project is a transition 

from Anthropocentric (human centered) to bio-centric (human as only one element 

in the ecosystem) philosophy’. Emerging from this philosophy are some radical 

conclusions drawn by the deep ecologists that intervention in nature should be 

guided primarily by the need to preserve biotic integrity rather than need of 

humans. i 

It is also argued that the Project Tiger, hailed by the International Conservation 

Community as an example of outstanding success, sharply protects the interests of 

the tiger against those of the poor peasants living in and around the reserves. This 

exclusive concept of management of PAs does not take into account the livelihood 

implications of wild-lands/life preservation. Until recently wild-land/life preservation 

has been identified with environmentalism by the state and conservation elite. As a 

result of which the problems which impinge far more directly on the lives of poorfuel, 

fodder, soil erosion, air and water pollution have not been adequately 

addressed. 

1.5 Forest of Pench: 

Pench in Maharashtra was declared as 25 th Tiger Project in 1999. It is a 

magnificent forest and it boasts a healthy population of predators and prey. 

Previously in 1975, it was declared as a protected area entitled ‘Pench National 

Park’. Years of protection have paid off and ultimately it was included in the 

Network of Project Tiger. Project Tiger is committed to the philosophy of total 

habitat protection, with management practices restricted to reamelioration of the 

land and selective repair of damage caused by past biotic interference. 

The Pench Tiger Reserve (blessed with National Park Status of 257.26 sq. km.) 

derived its name from the river Pench that flows through the reserve in a northsouth 

direction. It is about 67 Km from Nagpur by road on Nagpur Jabalpur 

National Highway No. 7. 

2

The rich diversity of flora and fauna has already found it a deserving place in 

literature dating as far back as 17 th century. The track has been mentioned by 

several famous naturalists like Captain J Forsythas the high lands of Central India, 

A.A. D. Brander Wild Animals in Central India and even the famous Rudyard 

Kipling, author of ‘The Jungle book’. An exceedingly vital ecological zone, Pench is 

fortunate to be blessed with contiguous forests extending east, north and 

southwards. 

The general physiognomy and floristic of the tiger reserve are indicative of two main 

types of forests- southern tropical dry deciduous teak, and southern tropical mixed 

deciduous forests. There are, of course, numerous other co-dominants and 

associates of teak, along with many other species of trees, shrubs and climbers. 

There is also a great variety of herbs and palatable grasses for the wild ungulates 

to subsist on. The park supports a high density of mammalian prey-species such 

as chital, Nilgai, Wild pig and Languor. Tiger scats and tracks are found plenty but 

sightings are always a matter of luck. 

As with most natural forests, Pench is bird watcher’s paradise. There are over 175 

species listed from within the reserve and surely more await. Bulbul, tailor birds 

etc. 

1.6 GEOLOGY ROCK & SOIL 

1.6.1 GEOLOGY: The area falls in North West fringe of Sausar-meta Sedimentary 

belt of Central India with intensely folded and faulted structurally disturbed rocks. 

1.6.2 ROCK: Metamorphic rocks of archaen age. They are comprised of schist’s, 

gneisses, marble and quartzite. Rocks are with deep and sleep cut across the river 

and are folded into major syncline and Anticline with mansar formation at core of 

syncline and Kadbikheda member at the core of anticline. Granulites and marble 

bands repeated due to folding. 

1.6.2 SOIL: The metamorphic rocks from sandy loose soil with patches of lateritic 

soil at places. Soil is well suited for teak and miscellaneous trees growth. 

1 Sandy Loam: The soil derived from the weathering of granitic gneisses and 

biotic gneisses is dark brown loamy soil. Most of the area inside the park is 

covered with this type of soil. These soil are fairly fertile on gentle slopes & very 

fertile in deep valleys. 

3

2 Red Soil: Some parts have red soil derived from rapid disintegration of the 

present rocks due to excessive folding and faulting with steep dips. 

3 Kankar and saline soil: In some areas kankar and saline soils are found. These 

can be seen in compartment 568, 567 etc. Obviously these areas generally with 

sparse growth. 

4 Alluvial soil: The Alluvium is confined to the banks of major streams and Pench 

river. Alluvial soil consists mostly of the siliceous debris, washed down from the 

nearest hills, mixed with humus. Alluvium derived from the trap rocks in the 

upper reaches of Pench river is deposited by the river in a narrow belt along its 

bank. Due to steep gradient of the river, no sand deposits and also mollusks are 

seen. 

Soil and vegetation are mutually dependent on each other. The soil influences 

growth of vegetation which in turn enriches the soil. 

1.6.3 TERRAIN: The Park is located in the southern lower reaches of the Satpura 

hill ranges, which form the catchment for river Pench National Park. The Pench 

river flows almost through the centre of the Park in North-South direction. The 

folding and upheavals in the past resulted in formation of a series of hills and 

valleys. 

In West Pench range areas the land from river Pench gradually rises towards west 

forming a plateau between Lamandoh to Gawalioghat. After gradually sloping down 

towards Narhar, the land again rises forming a series of undulating hills. Again the 

land rises and continues as highly undulating plateau upto Totladoh. Most of the 

low lying lands on eastern side of river Pench have come under submergence area 

of the Pench Hydro Electric Project. 

Terrain of whole of the West Pench National Park range area has a slope on 

eastern side to form a major watershed for the Pench river. Whereas, nearly half of 

the East Pench range along North – south line slopes towards Pench river to West 

while the eastern fringes of the Park has slopes towards east. 

The highest peak in East Pench is located in compartment no. 525 with a height of 

583 m. while that on the West Pench side is located in compartment no.685 with a 

height of 574 m. 

4

A marked species preference towards certain topography is observed in that, 

herbivores like Sambar prefer hilly, undulating terrain with valleys while Chital and 

Gaurs prefer moderate undulating terrain with gentle slope, through Chital has 

preference for flatter areas. Nilgai and four horned antelope also seem to prefer 

flatter areas. 

The hilly and undulating terrain of the Park poses various problems in its 

management. Due to steep slopes and resulting flash floods, cross drainage works 

and roads are washed away. Roads are in need of frequent repairs. This in turn 

adversely affects the communication and thus the protection aspect. 

Effective fire control is hampered as remote to be made accessible by climbing up 

& down the hills. The fire is deliberately lighted on scattered hilltops, which then 

soon advances downwards to join and cover a large area. 

In drains and steams, water does not remain for long and building a series of 

closely spaced check dams becomes essential. Soil erosion in the form of rill and 

gully erosion on slopes and sheet erosion in plains is also enhanced. 

1.6.4 HABITAT ii : Sufficient data regarding the various habitats one comes across in 

the P.A. and its classification is not available at present for proper prescriptions. 

However, the area can be broadly classified as under. 

1.6.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HABITAT: 

Actual delineation of the various habitat types and covers has not so far been done 

to prepare distinctive cover maps. Similarly, help from aerial photographs or 

satellite imagery has not been taken. Nevertheless based on the field observations 

in relation to various plant assemblages, crop density and other features, habitats 

of the conservation unit have been roughly classified as follows: 

1 Very dense forest with good ground cover 

2 Moderately open forest with good ground 

3 Cover 

4 Sparse forest with ground cover 

5 Open forest with weed cover 

6 Meadows 

5

7 Riparian habitat 

8 Aquatic habitat 

1.7 Importance Of Pench National Park 

The Pench National Park contributes significantly to such tangible and intangible 

benefits to the mankind which have local to global values. It has such potential 

values so as to perceive the real worth of this beautiful treasure house of nature 

which must be protected as a part of our national heritage. 

1 Ecological Values: The National Park, in its Biogeographic Location is a true 

representative of the Central Highland which comes under the Deccan Peninsula. 

The bio geographic subdivision or region which it represents is Satpuda Maikal 

division. 

2 Faunal Value: Pench National Park is so rich in its faunal representation that 

most of the wild animals which identity with this area, have taken shelter here. It 

is home of many endangered species including tiger. The Pench National Park is 

the abode of innumerable invertebrates including insects. A significant diversity 

of butterflies, moths, beetles, spiders etc. also exist here. A lot of nature’s 

treasure is hidden in the PA which still needs to be explored to its hilt to become 

aware of the faunal richness of this area. 

3 Floral Value: The Pench National Park is very rich in floral diversity pertaining to 

this area. The forest type is “Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest” and is 

grouped as 5Ac3 under revised classification of the forest by Champion and Seth. 

The diverse vegetation type ranges from such climax forests as Dry Teak forest 

and Southern dry deciduous mixed forests to edaphic type as Boswellia forest, 

Mowai forest, Garari forest and primary stages like dry tropical Riparian forests. 

The PA serves a living repository of various economical, medical, aromatic, 

ornamental plant species diversity. 

4 Value as a Conservation Unit: The expanse of the forest of Pench National Pak 

is contiguous to the forest of Pench National Park, M.P. all along is northern 

boundary adjoining to Chhindwra and Seoni district of M.P. It provides an 

unfragmented habitat to the fauna thriving in this part of central part so as it form 

a “Maharashtra-Madhya Pradesh joint Conservation Unit”. 

6

5 Value of Catchments Area: The Pench River, which emerges from Mahdeo hills 

of Satpura range and the various nallas and streams which bear the forests of the 

PA act as excellent watershed area for the Totladoh as well as lower Pench 

reservoirs. 

6 Role in Irrigation Projects: The network of root systems of the vegetation and 

geological formation functions as a sponge for conservation of moisture and also 

restrict the silt from being deposited in the Totladoh as well as Navegaon Khairy 

reservoirs. The PA thus plays a vital role in helping to maintain the life 

expectancy of these reservoirs. 

The Totladoh reservoir located on northern boundary of the PA helps in generation 

of electricity for supply to both MP and Maharashtra and also in maintaining water 

level for the lower Pench reservoir located at Navegaon Khairy on the Southern 

boundary of the P.A. This reservoir helps in irrigation as well as supply of drinking 

water to Nagpur city. It also supplies water for electricity generation to Koradi and 

Khaparkheda thermal power stations. Therefore, the P.A. plays a significant role in 

being the “Life Line” of Nagpur city and other benefited areas by ensuring life 

expectancy of the reservoir and improvement of catchment capability. 

1 Value in employment generation: All these contributions made by the PA in 

ensuring water supply to the related activities, industries etc. for a longer period 

has helped indirectly in generation of employment to a lot of people. Fishing 

activity in lower Pench also generates a major employment for the local people. 

2 Environmental Value: Role of P.A. in maintaining vital environmental attributes 

is important. It acts as sponge for the population and other hazardous fumes, 

works as a storehouse of moisture. This way it acts as a “Green Lung” for the 

surrounding human settlement and helps in maintaining the environmental 

balance. 

3 Educational And Research Value: Proximity of the P.A. to a metropolitan city 

Nagpur has resulted into a number of people visiting the park to seek solace 

from the hustle-bustle of city life into the serene tranquillity of the deep woods. 

The mainly day visitors through their preferred sites mostly on weekends and 

holidays. This is because the P.A. has tremendous recreational values in its 

hilly undulating terrain with gentle slopes and forest rich with activities of nature. 

7

Recreation along with education and awareness about nature conservation is 

brought about by observing and interpreting the forest and wildlife. 

1.8 Wildlife 

In the following paragraphs a birds eyeview about the wildlife of the PNP is 

presented. 

Range Of Wildlife iii 

Pench national Park is quite diverse in its faunal and also floral wealth. This 

includes a number of endangered species. The faunal range is as given below in 

brief. 

1 Invertibrates: The P.A. harbours a wide range of insects including beetles and 

species. Butterflies and moths belonging to a wide range also occur here. A 

host of Arachnids have taken shelter here. Appendix No. XV gives a list of 

Butterflies found in the Park. It includes Danaid egg fly which is a Schedule I 

(Part IV) species listed in Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 

2 Mammals: About 33 species of mammals are observed in the Park, a sizeable 

number of which are of endangered status, namely, Tiger, Panther, Jungle Cat, 

small Indian Cievet, Palm Civet, Jackal, Sloth bear, Ratel, Common Giant, 

Flying Squirrel, Gaur, Four horned antelope etc. List of mammals found in the 

National Park is given in Appendix XVI. 

3 Birds: Diversity in the wealth of avifauna in the park is quite remarkable. Well 

over 164 species of birds belonging to 46 families of 16 different orders have 

been recorded here. These include some migratory and endangered birds 

including peafowl. See Appendix No. XVII. 

4 Reptiles: The P.A. is abode of a number of reptiles out of which 6 species are 

of endangered status, namely, Indian Cobra, Indian Rock Python, Rat snake, 

Russel’s viper, Checkered keelback and common Monitor Lizard. 

5 Amphibia: A number of representatives of class amphibia are found in these 

forests. 

6 Fishes: The Pench river, reservoir at Totladoh and lower Pench at Gavalighat 

and other water bodies shelter a variety of aquatic fauna in the shape of fresh 

water fishes a number of which are also hill stream fishes. 

8

1.9 Research Methodology 

Research methodology adopted to study the various aspects of the PNP is detailed 

out in the following paragraphs. 

1.9.1 Short Run Objectives: 

1 Identification of major stakeholders of Pench National Park. 

2 Estimating the dependence of local communities in the proximity of PNP on 

forests of PNP. 

3 Assessing the impact of existing resource use pattern as well as human 

activities on the status and vegetation composition of PNP. 

4 Assessing the benefits of PNP to tourists, fishing and other related facilities. 

5 Identifying the cost-direct as well as indirect- of PNP. 

6 Preparing inventory of flora and fauna to represent biodiversity status of PNP. 

1.9.2 Long Run Objective: 

In the interest of ‘sustainable development’ and optimum use of natural resources, 

preparing a management plan of PA with focus on eco-tourism and ecodevelopment. 

1.9.3 Methods of Data Collection: 

Data are collected at two levels (1) Village level and (2) Forest level. 

The methods adopted to study the resource dependency of local communities 

involved following major steps: 

1. Questionnaire Survey. 

2. Personal Observations 

3. Monitoring of entry points at village boundary. 

4. Monitoring of selected households. 

5. IFRI Method 

9

Econometric Methods 

6. Multiple Regression 

7. TCM Method 

8. Log Linear Method 

1.9.4 HYPOTHESES: 

Following hypotheses are tested in the course of study to examine the dependence 

on PNP. 

1 There is a heavy dependence of local communities in and around PA on the 

forests of PNP 

2 Dependence of local communities on the forest for biomass extraction has 

inverse relationship with the distance from PA boundary i.e. longer the distance 

from the PNP lesser is the dependence of the PNP and vice-versa.. 

3 Dependence of local communities is determined by their economic status or 

their ability to purchase alternative forest resources. 

4 Extraction of biomass resources by local communities does not cause any 

adverse impact on the regenerative potential of the forest. 

1.9.5 SAMPLING: For testing the above hypotheses census of Fulzari village was 

undertaken and stratified sample of surrounding villages has been drawn. Villages 

within 10 Kms., of PNP boundary have been first identified and stratified into three 

distance categories iv : 

Criteria for stratification – 

a) Villages within 0 to 3 Kms from the boundary of PNP 

b) Villages within 3 to 5 Kms from the boundary of PNP 

c) Villages within 5 to 10 Kms from the boundary of PNP 

Criteria for dependence. 

1) Income criteria or ability to purchase substitutes. 

2) Accessibility criteria or access to forest resources 

3) Fuel use criteria. 

10

1.9.6 Methods Used For Quantification Of Dependence: The estimation of 

dependency on the PNP has been worked out for: 

(a) Fodder Consumption 

(b) Firewood Consumption 

(a) Fodder Consumption: Quantification of fodder consumption by livestock 

owned by the sample households was done by monitoring the time period for which 

they grazed in the forest of PNP. 

(b) Fuel Wood Consumption: Information is being collected through two 

methods: 

1) Household surveys 

2) Monitoring of consumption by giving pre-weighed quantity of wood. 

3) Reports of the various committees for standardized consumption 

Multiple Regression is carried out at three levels to study the dependency 

a) For households of Fulzari village 

b) For households of the sample village 

c) For the all households of Fulzari and the sample villages. 

It follows- 

P1 = f (ntfp, hunting, forest labour, fishing, livestock, P2, qty number, firewool, 

firewood.) 

P2 = percentage of non-forest income. 

IFRI- Internationally accepted IFRI method has been used to examine the impact of 

human intervention on status of bio-diversity in PNP. 

TCM method with following functional form has been used to estimate the total 

cost of visiting the site- 

Ζjm /nj = F (Yi, TCjm + Pm, Xj, TCjk + Pk, Qm, Qk, NL, TS) 

Log linear method has been used for the estimation of stocking and harvesting of 

fishes in and around PNP. 

11

Section II 

Review of Literature 

Contribution to commons literature has travelled a long way since Olson’s (1965) 

‘zero contribution thesis’ through Hardin’s (1968) ‘tragedy of commons’, to many 

scholars taking cognizance of voluntary associations that are creating and 

enforcing rules that protect natural resources. Literature published in last two 

decades provided ample evidence of this. Field research has established today that 

though temptation to free ride on the provision of collective benefit is a universal 

problem, self-organized resource governance too has survived in multiple 

generations (Ostrom, 1990). It is also found that when the users of a common-pool 

resource organize themselves to devise and enforce some of their own basic rules, 

they tend to manage local resources more suitably than when rules are externally 

imposed on them (Tang, 1992; Baland and Platteau, 1996; Wade, 1994). 

Looking at the writings of many scholars, it is found that, three independent works 

that have come up with some ‘requirements’ that are critical to the sustainability of 

commons institutions, are those of Robert Wade, Elinor Ostrom, and Jean-Marie 

Baland & Jean-Philippe Plateau. After wide ranging discussions and considerations 

of many factors, each arrive at a summary set of conditions and conclusions that 

they believe to be critical to sustainability of commons institutions. Wade’s ([1988], 

1994) important work examines when it is that corporate institutions arise in villages 

and what accounts for their success in resolving common dilemmas, and it provides 

a set of reasons about successful management of commons. Small group size, 

clear boundaries, and ease in monitoring and enforcement are some of the 

conditions, according to him, which determine the effectiveness of rules. He has 

given, in all, 14 conditions, that are important for successful management of the 

commons. 

After studying many cases of collective action all over the world, with the help of 14 

case studies, Ostrom (1990) has designed 8 principles i.e. “essential elements or 

conditions that help to account for the success of these institutions in sustaining the 

CPRs and gaining the compliance of generation after generation of appropriators to 

the rules in use” (1990:90). These are: clearly defined boundaries, congruence, 

12

collective-choice arrangements, monitoring, conflict-resolving mechanisms, minimal 

recognition of rights to organize, and nested enterprises. Later on, she further 

suggested attributes of the resource and attributes of the appropriators that are 

conducive to an increased likelihood that self-governing associations will form 

(Ostrom, 1999a). Attributes of the resource are: possibility of feasible improvement 

of the resource, availability of reliable and valid indicators of the condition of 

resource system, predictability, and sufficiently small spatial extent for the 

appropriators to have appropriate knowledge of external boundaries. Attributes of 

the appropriators are: salience of the resource, common understanding, low 

discount rate, trust and reciprocity, autonomy, and prior organizational experience 

and leadership. 

Baland and Platteau, too, have reviewed large number of studies on commons. 

They suggest that the failure of CPRs in comparison to privatization “rests on the 

comparison between an idealized fully efficient private property system and the 

anarchical situation created by open access” (1996:175). They suggest 

incorporation of cultural and political factors into analysis to know when people 

cooperate, and when inverted opportunists dominate, and make collective action 

impossible. Small size of user group, location close to the resource, homogeneity 

among group members, effective enforcement mechanism, and past experience of 

cooperation are some factors necessary to achieve cooperation. Characteristics of 

the resource as substantive factor affecting effectiveness of institutions governing 

the commons too are varied. Volatility and unpredictability in the flow (Wade, 1988), 

mobility of resource (Naughton-Treves and Sanderson, 1995), stationarity and 

storage (Blomquist et al 1994) are some of the aspects in addition to the ‘attribute 

of the resource’ (Ostrom, 1999b) mentioned earlier. Role of technology, population 

pressures, property rights regimes, heterogeneity, are some of the many other 

variables studied by different scholars. 

However, in the absence of a well-integrated and accepted theory of collective 

action in commons, substantial gap still exists in theoretical predictions, and the 

scholars of the commons themselves are now accepting this fact (Agrawal, 

Forthcoming). The literature on commons has only partially succeeded in 

answering questions like how aspects of the resource system, of user group, and 

13

the external social, physical and institutional environment affect institutional 

durability and long term management at the local level. 

On JFM 

Joint forest management strategy can prove to be advantageous from all these 

aspects if practiced in the right spirit. The experience with JFM, however, has been 

different. Ostrom has also discussed the limits of self-organized resource 

governance systems: some appropriators will not organize; some self-organized 

efforts will fail; local tyrannies may prevail; stagnation may occur; access to 

scientific information may be limited; conflicts may arise; and appropriators may be 

unable to cope with larger-scale resources. Studies of various scholars and 

experiences of grassroots organizations have brought up several additional 

limitations specific to JFM. Some are discussed here. 

The reasons for the government’s shift from a centralized management system to 

decentralization in the form of participatory JFM have intrigued scholars ever since 

the inception of JFM. Thompson (1995) best summarizes the probable reasons: 

fiscal crisis, exacerbated by structural adjustment/economic liberalization policies; 

pressure from donor agencies for greater accountability and transparency; the 

recognition of the failure of past approaches by state agencies; and the 

demonstration effect of successful pilot efforts by non-government organizations or 

other government agencies in other sectors. 

Environmental activists and the rural communities have been skeptical about the 

intentions of the government in sharing powers with the people, especially in the 

forest sector as it is one of the revenue-generating sectors. Their apprehensions 

are based on past experience as well as the inherent limitations of the provisions of 

the JFM scheme. 

It is a well-established fact that measures designed to conserve biodiversity must 

provide economic incentives to increase the net local benefits from conservation 

and sustainable resource use. Such measures should be targeted to link 

biodiversity conservation with improvement in human welfare (McNeely et al, 1988). 

Earlier, in all the government forestation programs, participation of the rural poor 

was largely limited to wage employment. As users of forest products, the poor were 

seen as destroying forests through overuse and overgrazing. The forest-poverty 

14

elationship was defined negatively—if people continue to be poor they will destroy 

forests. JFM talks about the positive role that forests can play in poverty alleviation 

and the role that people can play in forest protection. 

The JFM strategy implies an increase in the collective ability of the communities 

adjacent to forests to manage, grow, and equitably share common resources. Yet 

there have been few efforts to involve people in the planning process or in 

establishing plan priorities. Rarely can the communities decide which species are to 

be taken up for plantation. There is no correlation between the amount of land that 

is brought under JFM and the amount of land required to meet the biotic 

requirements of people and livestock. The fact that village-level institutions might be 

better able to manage these commons is accepted. However, the fact that the 

management objectives of the locals may be very different and may not coincide 

with those of the state (Ligon and Narain, 1999) is totally neglected. While the JFM 

agreement talks about sharing long-term benefits from timber, the harvesting of 

non-timber forest produce and sharing its returns is not discussed. It thus remains 

hazy as to what the fate of the forests will be after they have been successfully 

regenerated (Arora & Khare, 1994). Another major limitation is that the important 

question of “tenure” that includes clear, secure, and exclusive rights of access to 

the resource is kept ambiguous in the JFM scheme (Lele and Rao, 1996). 

The much-advertised idea behind JFM is to transform the age-old authoritative and 

policing role of the state forest department into that of a facilitator for the local 

communities. The JFM resolution assumes a symmetrical relationship between the 

government and the local institutions. Yet state governments and their forest 

departments still refrain from conceding legal status to FPCs, retain the right to 

dissolve FPCs, and appropriate a large share of forest produce (Pattnaik and Dutta, 

1997). Although JFM is a shift from centralized management to decentralization, 

from revenue orientation to resource orientation, and from unilateral decision 

making to participatory decision making, the final decision regarding site selection 

and regulation of harvest is vested in state authority. JFM remains an institutionally 

challenging strategy as ownership of forest lands remains with the state while the 

communities are involved in its protection and regeneration. It is strongly felt that 

only because the governments found it difficult to monitor and manage the village 

forest commons directly, and enforcement was becoming expensive, the state 

15

found it prudent to involve local communities in management (mainly protection). 

The participation envisaged in JFM is more in execution than in planning, “the 

structures more puppetish than autonomous” (Lele, 1998a.). It is often mentioned 

that as long as the ultimate control of all these aspects, including right of land, is 

retained by the state, one cannot expect the communities to attain the level of local 

responsibility needed for self-reliant, cost-effective, and sustainable conservation 

management (Wily, 1999). 

As mentioned earlier, impoverishment due to deforestation has encouraged many 

rural communities to start managing state-owned forests on their own. These selfinitiated 

efforts have proved quite effective at regenerating forests. Due to serious 

limitations regarding technical skills and finance, often these local initiatives can be 

sustained only if supported by external institutions (Krishnaswamy, 1995), yet there 

is no conscious effort to give them the necessary backing through JFM. Although 

there is a new and joint “construction of needs” within the limited degree of choice 

the JFM allows, the basic agenda of the program is pre-determined and cannot be 

considered very participatory in nature (Sundar, 2000). 

It is also observed that the need to design formal institutions that are 

complementary to existing informal institutions (Kant and Cooke, 1998) is 

neglected. The common experience is that sociopolitical overlap between new 

induced institutions and the existing forms of local government, such as the village 

panchayat, are proving to be counterproductive (Andersen, 1995). The most 

successful FPCs charge fees for collection of forest produce, although this practice 

is strictly contrary to the forest act. Although the state governments recommend the 

formation of FPCs, the committees have no legal or statutory basis. FPCs are 

recognized only by the forest department; all other government departments 

recognize panchayats, making them more powerful than FPCs. The relationship 

between FPCs and the village panchayats is not well defined. The lack of legal 

authority may affect the power of the FPCs to check free riding and may make it 

difficult for them to manage resources in long term. Often, in the case of grouppanchayats, 

the sarpanch (one who heads panchayat) is not interested in the FPC 

of a particular village. This is very much resented by the villagers who would prefer 

one amongst them to head their FPC (Ghate, 2000a). The legal standing of FPCs 

needs to be defined to make them strong grassroots organizations. 

16

The different demarcation of boundaries by two different governmental departments 

(in this case the Revenue Department and the Forest Department) is also creating 

some internal conflicts. Communities joining the JFM program are unsure of their 

areas of operation from which access can be denied to outsiders. This territorial 

conflict is reflected at the management level as well. The confusion can be 

appreciated by the fact that, at present, as many as 52 rural development schemes 

are operational through several state units. Often, more than one state department 

will bring in the same schemes in a single village, incurring huge duplication costs 

in the process. 

Another important aspect that is criticized as being neglected is the lack of 

acknowledgement of women’s special values, knowledge, and uses of forest 

produce (Locke, 1999). Gender relations are neither understood nor are there any 

special provisions to accommodate women’s specific knowledge, needs, and 

capacities in the JFM program. Similarly, the strong historical sense of place and 

(particularly tribal) identity that can prove to be effective in mobilizing interest in and 

concern for local resource management and protection have not been adequately 

considered in the JFM program. Nor has the influence of charismatic leaders in 

overcoming intra-village tensions been recognized (Jewitt, 1995). 

Linking Livelihoods and Conservation: A Conceptual framework and Scale for 

addressing the integration of human needs and biodiversity by NICK SALAFSKY, 

Biodiversity support programme; Washington D.C. U.S.A. and Eva Woolenberg 

Center for International Forestry Research, Jakarta, Indonesia: 

The above research paper published in World Development vol. 28 No. 8 has 

developed a conceptual framework for defining the linkage between livelihood 

activities and conservation. Three approaches that can be characterized as no 

linkage, indirect linkage and direct linkage have been described by the authors. 

Each approach has strength and weakness and therefore best shifted to certain 

conditions. 

The first approach assumes no linkage between livelihood and conservation of 

protected areas. 

A common approach to protecting biodiversity has been the creation of parks and 

P.A.s that exclude livelihood activities. The key feature of the protected areas 

17

strategy is that local livelihood is assumed to conflict with conservation. P.A.s have 

strictly defined borders that are unauthorized. People are not supposed to cross 

them. People are meant to use resources outside the park, and plants and animals 

are meant to stay in the park. 

Second approach is based on indirectly linking livelihoods and conservations, 

economic substitutions; one of the earliest indirectly linked approaches was the 

biosphere reserve (UNESCO,1972, Sayer, 1999). In a biosphere reserve, people 

are entitled to use biological resources according to defined spatial zones. A core 

zone is designated as a strict protection area where people’s consumptive use of 

resources is prohibited. The core is surrounded by one or more buffer zoners that 

allow use within limits that ensure protection of core zone. The original buffer 

zones were designed as rings of more or less arbitrary width. 

The key feature of buffer zone strategy is that Zonation is used to create a spatial 

compromise that enables local people to continue to meet their livelihood needs 

while still protecting key species and habitats. In particular, the theory is to 

decrease reliance on natural biodiversity by substituting other livelihood activities. 

The idea here is that providing substitute economic activities will keep local people 

on livelihood. Activities that damage the local biodiversity are indirectly linked 

activities have been found difficult to implement. Perhaps the biggest problem is 

that their approaches have not been directly tied to conservation behaviour as in 

the case of PAs, Local people often have continued to use resource in the core 

reserves even if prohibitors were posted or otherwise made public. Second, 

economically attractive activities in the buffer zone have often created incentives or 

expanding the buffer zones into the core area. Finally these approaches have not 

provided local people with the incentives to stop external threats to the biodiversity 

such as logging, company clear cutting the forest from the other side of the reserve 

or for a fishing boat coming in and unsustainable harvesting marine resources. 

The third approach is directly linking livelihood and conservation. Link incentive for 

conservation. The key feature of the link incentive strategy involves developing 

independent relationship between the biodiversity and surrounding peoples. The 

local stakeholders are given opportunities to benefit directly from the biodiversity 

and thus presumably have an incentive to stop external threats to biodiversity. It is 

livelihood drive conservation rather than simply being compatible with it. 

18

Furthermore this strategy recognize local peoples’ role in maintaining biodiversity. 

Under this strategy, conservation might, for example, help local communities 

N.T.F.P. harvesting enterprise as a live tourism enterprise. 

To analyse linkages, five dimensions of linkage have been mentioned. 

1. Species dependence. 

2. Habitat dependence. 

3. Spatial Dependence. 

4. Temporal dependence. 

5. Conservation association 

The linkages between them have been studied in the above dimensions 

The Principal and Practice of Buffer Zones and Local Participation in Bio-diversity 

Conservation: Michel P. Wells and Katrina E. Brandon- AMBIO Vol. 22, 2-3 May 

1993. 

Recognition is growing that successful management of protected areas ultimately 

depends on the cooperation and support of local people. The study is based on the 

analysis of 23 Integrated Conservation Development Projects (ICDPs) in 14 

developing countries. This paper explores the challenges, which have arisen in 

operationalizing two key concepts which lie at the heart of community based 

conservation. 

a) Buffer Zones around park boundaries. 

b) Greater participation of local people in conservation and development. 

c) Important practical constraints, which have so far limited the effective 

implementation of these two concepts, have been described in the above 

paper. The paper concludes that, innovative well-designed projects at 

carefully selected protected area sites that constructively address local 

people- park relationships will be essential to the conservation of 

biodiversity, and thus to sustainable development. 

The Economics of Third World National Parks-Issues of Tourism and 

Environmental Management- Arun Shah Published by Edward Elgan Publishing 

Ltd. 

19

This book analyses the impact of economic activity on the management of Buffer 

area as well as protected area. Various models of management with flow effects of 

buffer area activity on the national park have been discussed at length. The effect 

of stock externality a thinner buffer area biomass makes management success 

harder to achieve. The paper identifies spactical externalities arising from grazing of 

cattle in the buffer area and work out the solutions to internalize the externality. 

Issues in Social Policy: - 

Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the 

Context—Garza Borrini – Feyerbend-IUCN- The World Conservation Union Sept. 

1996. 

This article discusses essential feasibility conditions for collaborative management. 

It discusses the conditions for collaborative management to be effective and 

sustainable. It also discusses the obstacles most likely to stand in the way of 

collaborative management. It also discusses the legal and ethical bans for 

exploitation of natural resources by local stakeholders. 

State of the World’s Protected Areas at the end of the 20 th Century: by Michael J.B. 

Green and James Paine, World Conservation Monitoring Center, Cambridge, U.K. 

This article discusses various categories of protected area. It describes Matrix of 

protected area management objectives and IUCN categories. The network of 

global protected area is also described in the present article. 

Valuing Tropical Forest: - Randall Krame, Priya Shyamsundar, Evan Mercer and 

Mohan Manasinghe. 

This article is a case study of Madagascar and the Mantadia National Park. The 

study has examined the economic impacts of a new national Park on a variety of 

stakeholders. The work suggests that while proper tailoring to local conditions, 

environmental valuation methodologies can be useful in assessing resource value 

changes in developing countries. 

Planning for People and Park : Design dilemmas by Katrina Eadie Brandon and 

Michel Wells – The World Bank, Washington (D.C.) published in World 

Development Vol. 20. 

20

The authors highlight the evolution and performance of integrated conservationdevelopment 

projects. These projects try to link biodiversity conservation in PAs 

with social and economic development. The performance of ICDPS thus far has 

been hampered by numerous difficulties, many of which are strikingly similar to 

those encountered in rural development efforts, while many of these difficulties can 

be stressed to speatic design implementation flows, more fundamental conceptual 

issues pose a challenge to the approach. 

Management Plan of Pench National Park & Pench Tiger Reserve Maharashtra 

Vol. II & I: 

This plan depicts the entire profile of PNP with its floristic and faunistic composition. 

The management aspects of PNP have been dealt at length the tourism sub-plan is 

a remarkable contribution of PNP. 

Wood Consumption Survey of Nagpur District published by Forest Survey of India, 

Nagpur GOI 2000-01: 

This study is an attempt to estimate consumption of wood for different income 

groups within the periphery of 5 Kms. of forest area in Nagpur district (Rural). The 

study gives separate estimates for different income groups and different categories 

of wood consumption 

END NOTES 

21

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27

i 

Ramchandra Guha; Radical American Environmentalism and wilderness 

Preservation: A Third World Critique; Environmental Ethics ; Spring 1989. Vol. 11 

ii 

Pp. 39-41 -Management Plan of Pench National Park & Pench Tiger Reserve 

Maharahtra; Plan Period 20001-2002 to 2009-2010; Dhamge Kamlakar and Sunil 

Banubakode; Volume I 

iii 

Pp. 45 -Management Plan of Pench National Park & Pench Tiger Reserve 

Maharahtra; Plan Period 20001-2002 to 2009-2010; Dhamge Kamlakar and Sunil 

Banubakode; Volume I 

iv Please refer to Annexure No. 1 

28

CHAPTER II : ECONOMICS OF PROTECTED AREA 

Establishment of Protected Areas is one of the important ways of ensuring 

conservation of World’s natural resources with the goal of meeting the material and 

cultural needs of present as well as future generations. 

Conservation has some times been thought of as a protective, ‘Locking away’ of 

resources by powerful elite who have time to enjoy the beauty of nature, an 

essentially selfish and anti development activity. On the contrary, protected areas, 

when designed and managed appropriately are now recognized as offering major 

sustainable benefits to society. 

2.1 World Conservation Strategy 

The World Conservation Strategy (WCS) prepared by four of the world’s leading 

conservation agencies- the International Union For Conservation of Nature and 

Natural Resources (IUCN), World Wild Life Fund (WWF), Food and Agricultural 

Organisation (FAO) of United Nations and the United Nations Environment 

Programme (UNEP)- launched in 1981, demonstrates how the conservation of living 

resources is essential for sustaining development by: 

• Maintaining the essential ecological process and life support system on which 

human survival depends; 

• Ensuring that man’s utilization of species and eco-system, which supports 

millions of rural people as well as major industries is sustainable. 

2.2 Genesis Of Protected Areas: 

Most nations accept the desirability of protecting outstanding examples of their 

natural heritage and acknowledge that this is a contribution to the worldwide effort to 

protect living resources and conserve biological diversity. The national park has 

been the most common and popularly known form of protection, but national parks 

can be complemented by many other categories of protected area. The Commission 

on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) is the Commission of IUCN 

specifically responsible for promoting the establishment of a worldwide network of

effectively managed terrestrial and marine protected areas and has distribution 

guidelines on this topic (IUCN, 1978a, 1984 b). 

A protected area by definition should be saved from unrestricted use of its resources. 

Designating large tracts of lands as national parks may be desirable from 

conservation point of view, but it is simply not feasible for most countries. Any 

country limiting itself to protected areas suitable for national park status might find 

that it is doomed to have very small reserves or only areas of no alternative 

production value. Moreover, the protection agency would have no authority over 

extensive forestry and other wildlands, although such tracts would certainly contain 

most of the country’s wild natural resources. 

2.3 What Is A PA? 

The first section of the National Wildlife Plan (NWAP) says- The establishment of a 

network of PAs such as national parks (NPs), sanctuaries (WLs) and biosphere 

reserves (BRs) to cover representative samples of all major wildlife ecosystems and 

with adequate geographic distribution.’ It is clear, therefore, that a PA may be legally 

established NP or WLS under the provisions of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 or 

Biosphere Reserve (BRs) under the provisions of the World Conservation Strategy 

formulated by IUCN or any other PA with the objectives. A Protected Area is 

essentially an area to play the roles in [i] the conservation of biodiversity; [ii] 

contribution to the mitigation of global warming and, [iii] adaptation to new global 

initiatives (IUCN 1990). Other definitions of a PA are: 

• A protected Area is defined by the convention on biodiversity as ‘a 

geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to 

achieve specific conservation objectives.’ 

• At the fourth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, held in 

Caracas. Venezuela, in 1992 (IUCN) 1994b). PAs were defined as an ‘area 

of land’ and or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of 

biodiversity, and of national and associated cultural resources, and managed 

through legal or other effective means.’ 

30

• The Global Biodiversity Strategy (WRI/ IUCN/ UNEP 1992) defines a PA as 

‘legally established land or water area under either public or private ownership 

that is regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation goals.’ 

The PAs can play a variety of roles in nation’s economy and provide a range of 

benefits. They can be managed to meet different objectives ranging from strict 

preservation of natural ecological process to provision of sustainable level of timber, 

wildlife, water, or recreational use. Many nations accept the desirability of protecting 

outstanding examples of their natural heritage and acknowledge that this is a 

contribution to the worldwide effort to protect living resources and conserve 

biodiversity. In practice, most of the countries find it advantageous to have several 

categories of PAs, each with different management objectives and each permitting 

different level of manipulation. 

2.4 Categorization Of PAS 

In the year 1959, IUCN was given the task of maintaining a list of the world’s 

National Parks (NPs) and equivalent reserves. It had defined ten categories of 

conservation areas representing different levels of protection (from strict nature 

reserves to multiple use areas) and varying degrees of local, regional and global 

importance; each category is designated to meet different objectives (IUCN 1990). 

In the year 1994, IUCN revised the PA categories. At present, PAs are classified by 

IUCN (1994) under six broad management categories (Box-2.1) These range from 

strict nature reserves, managed primarily for research and/or environmental 

monitoring to managed resource PAs, established for the long-term protection and 

maintenance of biodiversity. As well as providing for the sustainable use of natural 

products and services to meet community needs. Within these six generic 

categories are hundreds of country specific designations of PAs, many of which have 

the potential to provide locations for research and monitoring. In addition, there are 

three international conventions, namely world heritage convention (WHC), UNESCO 

man and biosphere program (MBP) (see Box-2.2), and Ramsar convention and 

regional agreements such as ASCEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) 

and for Africa Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural resources by 

which natural sites can be assigned as being of global and regional importance (Box- 

2.4). The countries may not need to develop all the categories listed, but through a 

31

mix of several different categories a country can design a system that reflects its own 

objectives and constraints (IUCN 1984). The Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are sites of 

exceptional richness concerning the diversity and integrity of biotic communities of 

flora and fauna within natural ecosystems, e.g., Sinharaja Forest Reserve of Sri 

Lanka, Kanha NP in Madhya Pradesh [India], Mount Kulai in Kenya. The primary 

use of BR is for research, education and training. WHC are unique natural and 

cultural sites considered to be outstanding universal significance. e.g., Serengeti NP 

in Tanzania, Sagarmatha NP in Nepal, Everglades NP in USA. Kanha NP in India. 

There are at present 10 BRs and 15 WHS in India. While all PAs control human 

occupancy or use of resources to some extent, considerable latitude is available. 

The IUCN categories of PAs, illustrated in the following paragraph, are arranged in 

ascending order of degree of human use permitted in the area. 

IUCN Revised categories of PAs i 

Group-A (Area of particular interest to CNPPA) 

Category-I : Strict Natural Reserve/ Wilderness Area 

Objectives: To protect nature and maintain natural process in an undistributed area 

in order to have ecologically representative examples of natural environment for 

scientific study, environmental monitoring education and maintence of genetic 

resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state. 

There are two sub-categories: 

(a) PAs managed mainly for scientific research and monitoring. 

(b) PAs managed mainly for wilderness protection, subsistence and recreation. 

Examples: Yala Strict Nature Research in Sri Lanka, the island of Barro Colorado in 

Panama, Gombe Stream NP in Tanzania. 

Category II: National Park 

Objectives: To protect outstanding natural and scenic areas of national or 

international significance for scientific educational and recreational use. These are 

relatively large areas not materially altered by human activity and where extractive 

resource uses are not allowed. 

32

Examples: Royal Chitwan NP in Nepal, Bandhavgarh NP in Madhya Pradesh (India), 

Etosha NP in Nambia, Iguazu NPs in Argentina and Brazil. 

Category III: Natural Monuments/ Natural Landmarks 

Objectives: To protect and preserve nationally significant natural features because of 

their special interest or unique characteristics. These are relatively small areas 

focused on the protection of specific features. 

Examples: Angkor Wat NP in Kampuchea, Petrified Forests Nature Monuments in 

Argentina, Gedi National Monument in Kenya. 

Category IV: Habitat/ Species Management Area 

Objectives: To assure the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally 

significant species, groups of species biotic communities or physical features of the 

environment where these may require specific human manipulation for their 

perpetuation Controlled harvesting of some resources may be permitted. 

It is new category, so these PAs is to be established. 

Category V: Protected Landscapes and Seascapes 

Objectives: To maintain nationally significant natural landscapes that are 

characteristics of the harmonious interaction of man and land while providing 

opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism. These are mixed 

cultural/ natural landscapes of high scenic value where traditional land uses are 

maintained. 

Examples: Pulluhua Geobotanical Reserve in Ecuador, Machu Piechu Historic 

Sanctuary in Peru, the national parks of England. 

Group-B (Area of particular interest to IUCN in general) 

Category VI: Managed Resource Protected Area 

Objectives: This is a new category designed to include areas that ensures long-term 

protection and maintenance of biodiversity while providing a sustainable flow of 

natural products and services to meet community needs. They are intended to be 

relatively large and predominantly unmodified natural systems where a traditional 

and sustainable resource uses are encouraged. 

33

Examples: The state parks of the United States, the provincial parks of Canada, the 

community forests and grazing lands of Africa, and the sacred forests of India, 

Indonesia and the Amerindians of the west Hemisphere. 

Group-C Internationally recognized/ afflicted designations 

(These categories are international levels which overly PAs in the above categories) 

Category-VII: Biosphere Reserves 

Objectives: To conserve for present and future use the diversity and integrity of 

representative biotic communities of plants and animals within natural ecosystem 

and to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution 

depends. 

Examples: Sinharaja Forest Reserve of Sri Lanka, Mt. Katal in Kenya and Rio 

Platano Reserve of Honduras. 

Category-VIII: World Heritage sites 

Objectives: To protect the natural features for which the area was considered to be 

of world heritage quality and to provide information for the public Worldwide. 

2.5 Functions And Values Of Protected Areas 

The natural ecosystems in PAs due to their ecological diversity fulfil many different 

functions. Which functions are most relevant for a given protected area depends on 

the ecological characteristics, the cultural and socio-economic setting and the 

management objective of the area in question. Many of the functions are provided 

by all natural ecosystems regardless of their management status; that is, these 

functions can be attributed to both protected area and unprotected areas: 

These functions come under the following categories (1) Regulation functions; (2) 

Carrier Functions; (3) Production Functions; (4) Information Functions. 

2.6 Benefits Associated With Protected Areas ii 

These benefits to individuals or society at large are frequently referred to as social 

benefits and are said to be a primary justification for PAs. 

34

1. Ecological Processes: In their natural state, PAs provides a number of 

environmental services, viz., fixing and cycling of nutrients, soil formation, 

circulation and clearing of air and water, and global life support. 

2. Biodiversity: By protecting habitats, one protects the variety of species they 

contain and these biological resources from the basis of numerous industries 

and are major sources of food, medicines, chemicals and other products used 

in both traditional and industrial societies. A lot of benefits are related to 

biodiversity conservation, viz., gene resources, species protection, ecosystem 

diversity, and evolutionary processes. 

3. Education and Research: PAs instill people with an understanding and 

appreciation of the environment, making them more aware of the harmful 

consequences. Certain types of behaviour research is often integrated with 

education, the PAs provide fertile ground for field study by students at all 

level. 

4. Consumption Benefits: PAs can lead to various (timber and NTFP) products 

including timber, forage, food, wildlife, fish, herbs and medicines that may only 

be harvested on sustainable basis. 

5. Non-consumption Benefits: These benefits include the values people derives 

from PAs that are not related use, viz., aesthetic, spiritual, cultural/historical. 

Existence value. 

Future Values: The protection of certain areas ensures a variety of benefits from 

their potential use in future, viz., optional value, quasi-optional value. 

6. Recreation/Tourism: These are services which not only yield direct financial 

benefits from PAs but stimulate employment and rural development in 

surrounding areas, as well. 

7. Watershed Protection: Maintaining the natural vegetative cover helps control 

erosion, reduces sedimentation and flooding down stream and regulates 

stream flows. The extent of the benefit depends on the type of the soils, 

topography, and natural cover in PA, the alternative usage available and the 

35

type of investment and land-use down stream. These benefits include erosion 

control, local flood reduction, and regulation of stream flows. 

2.7 Proteced Areas And Agriculture 

Protected areas often perform a useful service for neighbouring agriculture areas in 

safeguarding against floods, by providing water through dry periods and fertile soil in 

the rainy season (as in the Mekong and Red River areas of Vietnam). 

Water sources may have serious ecological impacts. Chemical pollution of 

waterways from urban or industrial waste poses a similar threat. 

Spread of fire into protected areas from deliberately burned fields, wind erosion of 

protected areas resulting from clearing of neighbouring agricultural lands, and the 

invasion of protected areas by agriculture weeds, exotic species, domestic animals 

and man himself, are other threats to reserves. These further underlines the need for 

the protected area management authority to develop close links with neighbouring 

agriculture communities to avoid such negative interactions and to settle any 

problems that may arise. 

As a general principal, intensive agriculture and protected areas do not make good 

neighbouring and the development of buffer zones or some areas of intermediate 

land use is needed between the two. 

2.8 Tiger Reserves 

“Project Tiger” was launched in 1973 based on the philosophy that: “The ‘tigers’ 

cannot be preserved in isolation. It is the apex of large and complex biotope. Its 

habitat, threatened by human intrusion, commercial forestry and cattle grazing, must 

first be made inviolate” [Dept. of Environment, undated-a]. Under this Project, 

certain areas (constituted from existing national parks or sanctuaries, with additions 

of surrounding areas in some cases), were declared as Tiger Reserves (TRs). 

These reserves in themselves are not legal entity, but they all contain national parks 

or sanctuaries as their core and in some cases their buffer zones, and the entire 

Reserve comes under the control of wildlife authorities. As of 2000, India has 27 

TRs spread over 17 states. 

36

ANNEXURE- 2.1 

Protected Areas (PAs) in India: 

• India has 92 NPs and 480 WLS (572 PAs) occupying 

4.58% of the geographical area. 

• The oldest protected area is Corbett National Park in 

Uttaranchal, notified on 8 th March 1936, and the youngest 

are Mahadei and Netravali Wildlife Sanctuaries in Goa 

notified on 4 th June 1999. 

• The largest national park is Hemis in Jammu & Kashmir 

with an area of 3,350 sq. kms while the smallest 

national park is South Button Island in Andaman & 

Nicobar Islands with an area of 0.03 sq. kms. 

• The largest wildlife sanctuary is Great Indian Bustard in 

Maharashtra with an area of 8496.64 sq. kms and the 

smallest wildlife sanctuaries are Goose Island and 

Rowe Island in A&N Islands with an area of 0.01 sq. kms 

each. 

• The largest biosphere reserve is Gulf of Mannar in 

Tamilnadu with an area of 10,500 sq. kms. 

• The largest tiger reserve is Nagarjunasagar Srisailam in 

Andhra Pradesh with an area of 3,568 sq. kms. 

• A & N Islands has the highest number of PAs (105) 

while three Union Territories- Dadra Nagar Haveli, 

Lakshwadweep Islands and Pondicherry do not have 

any PAs. 

• Chandigarh has the highest proportion of land under 

PAs (22.81%) while Gujrat has the largest area of land 

under PAs (17,224 sq. kms.). 

Haryana has the lowest proportion of land 

under PAs (0.51%) while Daman & Diu has the smallest 

area of land under PAs (2.18 sq. Kms). 

37

Sr. 

No. 

State/Union 

Territory 

1. Andaman & 

Nicobar 

Islands 

2. Andhra 

Pradesh 

3. Arunachal 

Pradesh 

Annexure – 2.2 State-wise Break-up of Protected Areas of India 

National Parks Wildlife 

Total Protected Total % Area 

Sanctuaries Areas 

Geogra- under 

No. Area No. Area 

phical Protection 

No. Area (sq.km.) 

(sq.km.) 

Area 

(sq.km.) 

(sq.km.) 

9 (excl. Marine 

NP areas) 

616.50 

96 389.33 105 1005.83 8249 12.19 

4 373.26 20 11500.57 24 11873.83 275045 4.31 

2 2468.23 11 7606.36 13 10074.59 83743 12.03 

4. Assam 5 1548.81 12 532.77 17 2081.58 78438 2.65 

5. Bihar 1 335.60 11 2949.17 12 3284.77 94163 3.48 

6. Chandigarh 0 0.00 2 26.01 2 26.01 114 22.81 

7. Chhattisgarh 3 2929.50 10 3417.46 13 6346.96 135100 4.69 

8. Dadra & 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 491 0.00 

Nagar Haveli 

9. Daman & Diu 0 0.00 1 2.18 1 2.18 112 1.94 

10. Delhi 0 0.00 1 13.20 1 13.20 1483 0.89 

11. Goa 1 107.00 6 647.91 7 754.91 3702 20.39 

12. Gujarat 4 479.67 21 16744.28 25 17233.95 196024 8.78 

13. Haryana 1 1.40 9 223.25 10 224.65 44212 0.51 

14. Himachal 

Pradesh 

2 1429.40 32 5086.88 34 6516.28 55673 11.70 

15. Jammu & 4 3925.07 13 10279.80 17 14204.87 222236 6.39 

Kashmir 

16. Jharkhand 1 231.67 10 1868.31 11 2099.98 79714 2.63 

17. Karnataka 5 2472.18 20 4732.10 25 7204.28 191791 3.75 

38

Sr. State/Union National Parks Wildlife 

Total Protected Total % Area 

No. Territory 

Sanctuaries Areas 

Geogra- under 

No. Area No. Area 

phical Protection 

No. Area (sq.km.) 

(sq.km.) 

Area 

(sq.km.) 

(sq.km.) 

18. Kerala 3 536.52 12 1788.36 15 2324.88 38863 5.98 

19. Lakshwadeep 0 0.000 0 0.00 0 0.00 32 0.00 

20. Madhya 

Pradesh 

12 2857.20 25 6806.47 37 9663.67 308346 3.13 

21. Maharashtra 5 956.48 34 14363.46 39 15319.94 307690 4.97 

22. Manipur 1 40.00 1 184.80 2 224.80 22327 1.00 

23. Meghalay 2 267.48 3 34.20 5 301.68 22429 1.34 

24. Mizoram 2 250.00 5 874.00 7 1124.00 21081 5.33 

25. Nagaland 1 202.02 3 20.35 4 222.37 16579 1.34 

26. Orissa 2 1212.70 17 6576.40 19 7789.1 155707 5.00 

27. Pondicherry 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 492 0.00 

28. Punjab 0 0.00 10 316.63 10 316.63 50362 0.63 

29. Rajasthan 4 3857.03 22 5691.64 26 9548.67 342239 2.79 

30. Sikkim 1 850.00 5 265.10 6 1115.1 7096 15.71 

31. Tamil Nadu 5 307.83 19 2616.53 24 2924.36 130058 2.25 

32. Tripura 0 0.00 4 603.64 4 603.64 10486 5.75 

33. Uttaranchal 6 4920.73 6 2867.71 12 7788.44 55845 13.94 

34. Uttar Pradesh 1 488.29 23 5221.05 24 5709.34 238566 2.39 

35. West Bengal 5 1693.25 16 1201.90 21 2895.15 88752 3.26 

Total 92 353557.82 480 115451.8 572 150809.6 3287231 4.58 

Source: Pp.2-4, Table 1: State-wise break-up of Protected Areas of India; Protected Areas In India- 

A Profile; Roshni Kutty & Ashish Kothari ; Kalpavriksh (2001) Pune 

39

ANNEXURE –2.3 

Wildlife Sanctuaries In Maharashtra 

Sr. No. Name District Area (in ha.) Date of 

Notification 

1. Ambabarw Buldhana 12,711 09.07.97 

2. Andhari Chandrapur 50,927 25.02.86 

3. Aner Dam Dhule 8,294 10.10.86 

4. Bhamragarh Gadchiroli 10,438 06.05.97 

5. Bhimashankar Pune, Thane 13,078 16.09.85 

6. Bor Game Wardha, Nagpur 6,110 27.11.70 

7. Chandoli Sangli, Satara, 

Ratnagiri, Kolhapur 

30,897 16.09.85 

8. Chaprala Gadchiroli 13,478 25.02.86 

9. Deulgaon-Rehekuri 

Black Buck 

Ahmednagar 217 29.02.80 

10. Dnyanaganga Buldhana 20,523 07.05.97 / 

09.05.97 

11. Gautala Autramghat Aurangabad, 

Jalgaon 

26,061 25.09.79 

12. Great Indian Bustard Solapur, 

8,49,664 27.09.79 

(Nanaj) 

Ahmednagar 

13. Jaikwadi Bird Auragabad, 

Ahmednagar 

34,105 10.10.86 

14. Kalsubai 

Harishchandragadh 

Ahmednagar 36,181 25.02.86 

15. Karanja Sohal Akola 1781 1997 

(Kalvit) 

16. Karnala Fort Bird Raigad 448 06.05.68 

17. Katepurna Akola 7,369 08.02.88 

18. Koyna Satara 42,355 16.09.85 

19. Malvan (Marine) Sindhudurga 2,912 13.04.87 

20. Mayureshwar Pune 515 19.08.97 

21. Melghat Amravati 76684 20.06.67 

22. Nagzira Bhandara 15,281 06.08.69 

23. Naigaon Peacock Beed 2,989 08.12.94 

24. Nandur 

Nasik 10,013 25.02.86 

Madhmeshwar 

25. Narnala Akola 1,235 02.05.97 

26. Painganga (Kinwat) Yavatmal 32,463 27.05.71 

27. Phansad Raigad 6,979 25.02.86 

28. Radhanagari Kolhapur 35,116 02.12.58 

29. Sagreshwar Sangali 1,088 16.09.85 

30. Tansa Thane 30,481 12.02.70 

31. Tipeshwar Yawatmal 14,863 30.04.97 

32. Wan Amravati 21,100 28.07.97/ 

29.07.97 

33. Yaval Jalgaon 17,752 21.02.69 

34. Yedsi- Ramling Ghat Osmanbad 2,238 16.05.97 

Total 14,36,346 

Source: Table 2: Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Protected Areas In India- A Profile; Roshni Kutty and 

Ashish Kothari; Kalpavriksh (2001), PP. 22-23. 

41

TABLE – 2.4 

National Parks In Maharashtra 

Sr. Name District Area Date of 

No. 

(In ha.) Notification 

1. Gugamal Amravati 36,184 27.11.87 

2. Nawegaon Bhandara 13,388 22.12.75 

3. Pench Nagpur 25,726 22.11.75 

4. Sanjay Gandhi Mumbai- 8,696 1950 

Suburban, 

Thane 

16.01.96 ϒ 

5. Tadoba Chandrapur 11,654 31.03.55 

Total 95,648 

Source: Table 3: National Parks of India; PP 40; Protected Areas In India- A Profile; 

Roshni Kutty and Ashish Kothari; Kalpavriksh (2001). 

Notes and References 

i Source: IUCN 1994): Guidelines for PA management Categories. CNPPA with the 

assistance of WCMC, IUCN, Gland: Switzerland. 

ii (Source: adapted from Dixon & Sherman, 1991) 

Economics of Protected areas and its effect on biodiversity Pp 104-105; 108-109) 

42

CHAPTER III 

Dependence of Village Fulzari on the Forests of Pench National 

Park 

This chapter is divided in three sections; Section-I outlines a brief profile of 

village Fulzari and its dependence on PNP. 

Section – II gives dependence of 11 villages around PNP. 

Section – III Estimation of dependence by using multiple regression analysis. 

SECTION- I 

3.I Struggling And Suffocating Village –Fulzari 

3.I.1 Human Settlements In Pnp And Fulzari Village: 

There were three human settlements in Protected area of Pench National Park 

i.e. Fulzari, Totladoh and Bodalzira. Out of these three, only Fulzari still 

continues within the geographic limits of PNP. Village Bodalzira, which was 

located in compartment 521, has gone under submergence. Totladoh was a 

human habitation and was not a revenue village (only recently the entire 

encroachment in Totladoh has been demolished). It was in the form of colonies 

of irrigation department, MPEB, police outpost, School, Bank and other village 

settlers. Totladoh settlement was initially formed in order to facilitate the 

construction of Pench Hydal Dam; but subsequently the ‘labourers, traders, 

contractors, etc. gradually encroached upon the land to form a sprawling human 

settlement. It was a population of about 1200 persons with approximately 2000 

cattle heads. The people did not practice agriculture but resorted to illegal 

fishing, grazing, firewood collection, daily labour works etc. Fulzari will soon be 

shifted to village Sawara located outside PNP. From last 10 years the local 

people of Fulzari have been asked to vacate the area. Number of notices has 

been given to them in this respect. However, it is yet to be shifted to village 

Sawara, keeping the status of village communities indeterminate. 

43

3.I.2 Village Profile 

Fulzari village is a human settlement located within the geographical limits in 

compartment number 565 of protected area of Pench National Park. It lies to the 

east side of Pench with human population of 213 in 44 households and cattle 

population of 432 as per the management plan of the forest department (1991). 

Gond communities (Tribal population) constitute a major proportion in total 

population with some Korkus. 

3.I.3 Area 

The total area of Fulzari Village is 262.75 hectares. The land use pattern of the 

village is shown in the following table: 

Table – III-I-1Land Use Pattern of Village Fulzari 

Land use Area 

(Hectares) 

1. Forest 88.84 

2. Irrigated by source -- 

3. Unirrigated 40.09 

4. Cultivable waste (including 

Gouchar and grains) 

5. Area not available for 

Cultivation 

Source: Land Records, Ramtek 

3.I.4 Socio-Economic Attributes 

44 

4.88 

128.94 

Total Area 262.75 

The information about socio-economic attributes of the village has been 

collected through a census of households in Fulzari. This is supplemented by 

the secondary source of data obtained from Tehsil Offices and Forest 

Departments wherever required. As has been mentioned in the chapter on 

research methodology a census of village Fulzari has been undertaken to assess 

the dependence of this village on the forests of PNP. The results of the 

household surveys have been used to describe socio-economic-demographic

characteristics of the village, while conducting surveys only 42 households could 

be traced. 

3.I.4.1 Basic Amenities In The Village: The village has one community temple, 

one primary school for imparting education to the villagers. Medical, Post & 

Telegraph and Market facilities are accessible to them within 5 to 10 kms. 

Transport facilities (Bus Stop) are within the reach of 5 kms. The village has only 

one well providing drinking water facilities to the residents of the village. No 

electric connections, tap water facilities are provided to them. All roads are 

kuccha roads. 

3.I.4.2 Population: Total population of village Fulzari is 188. As per 

management plan of the forest Department, in 1991, the total population of the 

village was 213 displaying a fall by 25. People seem to have migrated to other 

areas in proximity of Fulzari. Distribution of population according to sex shows 

that there are 101 males and 72 females. The distribution of population 

according to caste is given in the Table-III.I.2. 

Human population in the Fulzari village is dominated by Gond, a schedule tribe, 

with Hindu as their religion (100%). The distribution of 42 households (2 

households have left the village) shows 83.3% of the households belonged to 

ST, 14% belong to NT and only 2.4% percent belonged to SC. 

Table- III.I.2 :Caste wise Distribution of Population 

Caste 

Name 

Percentage 

S.C. 02.4 

S.T. 83.3 

N.T. 14.3 

45

3.I.4.3 Educational Status: 

Table- III.I.3 : Educational Status of the Household Heads 

46 

Frequency Percent 

1.00 Primary 16 38.1 

2.00 Middle school 1 2.4 

3.00 High School 

Education 

4.00 Higher 

Secondary 

1 2.4 

- - 

5.00 Graduation - - 

7.00 Illiterate 24 57.1 

Total 42 100 

A cursory glance at the table- III.I.3 shows that 57 percent of the heads of the 

village households are illiterate. Mass illiteracy is a common feature of native 

population in and around PNP. However, 38.1 % of the population has level of 

education up to primary. Only 2.4 percent of the households have level of 

education up to middle school and high school. 

3.I.4.4 FAMILY SIZE: The average size of the family is estimated at 5 members 

per household. As per secondary source of data obtained from the tehsil office 

in 1991, the highest number of families (36.36%) shows 5 members in each 

households. Only two households (4.5%) have seven family members each. 

The average size of the family for the village is 5. 

3.I.4.5 AGE COMPOSITION OF POPULATION: The distribution of population in 

Fulzari village shows 60 family members in the age group of 0-18, 95 family 

members in the working age group (18-50) and 33 family members in the age 

group of above 50 years .The dependency ratio (child +old age dependency) is 

almost 1:1, i.e. 1 person in the working age group has to support the population 

of one person in the child and old age group. The following table shows the 

distribution of population of Fulzari village according to different age groups.

Table- III.I.4 : Age composition 

Age group No of 

persons 

47 

% of total 

0-18 60 31.91 

18-50 95 50.54 

50 and above 33 17.55 

Total 188 100.00 

Child dependency ratio = 1: 0.63 

Old age dependency ratio = 1: 0.34 

Total Dependency ratio = 1: 0.97 

3.I.5 NUMBER OF YEARS OF SETTLEMENT: Majority of households 

reported their settlement period in Fulzari exceeding 30 years. Households 

having settlement period with duration of 20 to 30 years constitute 21.4 per cent 

of the total. Only two households have had less than 10 years of duration of 

stay. Most of the households have almost two generations of stay in Fulzari 

village. They were initially settled in Fulzari village to work for forest related 

activities. The development of Fulzari village is suffocated due to hanging sword 

of rehabilitation to village Sawara since last 25 years, which does not provide any 

incentive to them for their development either at micro or at macro level. Any 

initiative of investment in land to improve productivity of soil or make their 

occupational structure diversified has been found to be missing in the village 

community. Most of the development work in Fulzari has come to a standstill 

due to suspension of Working plan by the forest department. 

Table –III.I.5: Years of Settlement in the village 

Frequency Percent 

1 0 to 10 yrs 2 4.8 

2 10 to 20 yrs 3 7.1 

3 20 to 30 yrs 9 21.4 

4 More than 30 yrs 28 66.7 

Total 42 100

3.I.6 HOUSE CONSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL: Use of timber in construction 

of house in Fulzari village is seen as a natural choice. The wooden material 

used in the form of wooden ballya, wooden plates and mayali; gives estimates of 

the value of timber in construction of houses in the village. In household surveys 

attempt has been made to count their use and then quantify the value on the 

basis of market price. The timber used in construction gives once for all 

investment or it may be taken as fixed capital used in construction. The value of 

wooden ballya, wooden plates and mayali gone in the construction of house is as 

follows: 

Table- III.I.6 : Dependence on forest for construction of Houses- Use of 

Timber 

Ballya* Wooden 

plates 

48 

Mayali 

Units 3955 8747 27 

Value (Rs) 9,88,750 87,470 14,850 

* Ballya= 250 Rs Wooden plates= Rs. 20 Mayali= Rs. 550 

The recurring (repair) expenditure may be taken at 15% of the value of timber 

used in construction of a house. Household surveys revealed that they replace 

some part of wooden material (specially wooden plates) after every 5 to 7 years. 

As per the report of Forest Survey of India per capita requirement of bamboo is 

29 for the villages in the distance of 5 kms from boundary of forest. In Fulzari it 

may be more than 29. However minimum per capita consumption may be 

assumed at 29. The total consumption (29 * 153) may be estimated at 4437 

units i . For the construction of additional shed in summer, additional wooden and 

grass material is required.

3.I.7 THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF FULZARI VILLAGE: Agriculture 

forms the major occupation of the people in Fulzari village. Of the total workforce 

of 95 persons in the village, 18 are engaged as cultivators (principal occupation) 

and 22 are engaged as agricultural labourer. The remaining working population 

is, in a major way, is also engaged in agriculture, which constitute their 

secondary source of livelihood. 

3.I.8 OCCUPATIONAL STATUS: The distribution of households in Fulzari 

village, as per principal occupation, shows 18 heads of the households (42.9%) 

are cultivators. Whereas13 households (31%) are working as labourers either in 

forest or in agriculture. Fishing is a principal occupation of only 5 (11.9%) 

households. In spite of huge livestock population of the village (400 cattles), only 

two households reported their principal occupation as milkmen. Government 

service is a rare phenomenon in Fulzari as only one household is engaged in 

government service (In Forest Department as guard). 

Almost equal proportion of households is found working as agricultural labourer 

or forest labourers (27 1 households have reported as working in agriculture as 

labourers and 26 have reported as forest labourers). Since agriculture is mainly 

rain fed, it fails to provide a source of livelihood for the entire year to the 

agricultural labourers. Due to suspension of working plans for the Fulzari village, 

even work in forest does not provide employment for more than 3 months in a 

year. Rural Development Works and Micro plans implemented by the forest 

department do not benefit village communities in Fulzari as it is being shifted to 

village Sawara. 

The area of land that can be cultivated in any year depends to a large extent on 

the availability of water either through the expansion of irrigation or through the 

capturing the large part of run off with the help of soil and water conservation and 

management measures. Agriculture in Fulzari is mainly rain fed and the village 

community is observed to be practicing no method of soil conservation. The 

1 The total will not add up to 42, as many households have reported 

their occupation as both agriculture as well s forest labourer 

49

forest cover of Pench helps in ensuring soil conservation without resorting to 

special measures of soil and water management. 

Source: Survey 

Table III.I.7: Principle Occupation 

Frequency Percent Cumulativ 

e Percent 

1 Cultivator 18 42.9 42.9 

2 Fishing 5 11.9 54.8 

3 Self Employment 2 4.8 59.5 

4 Labourer 13 31.0 90.5 

5 Govt. Service 2 4.8 95.2 

6 Milk Man 2 4.8 100.0 

Total 42 100.0 

3.I.9 PATTERN OF LAND OWNERSHIP IN THE VILLAGE: The total area 

under land ownership in Fulzari is 70.4 hect. The average size of land holding in 

the village is 10.6 hect. 

The distribution of landholdings among the households is highly skewed with 

maximum size of landholding at 10.1 hect and minimum zero acre showing the 

range of 10.1 hect. The estimate of standard deviation shows the inequality in 

the distribution of landholdings. The following table explains this: 

Table- III.I.9: Pattern of Land Ownership 

Land holding/ Land No. of % To total 

ownership 

(Hectors) 

households 

0 20 47.6 

1 to 2 09 21.4 

2 to 5 09 21.5 

05 to 7.5 03 7.1 

7.5 to 10.5 01 2.4 

Source: Primary Source – based on household survey 

Total 42 100 

50

The above table shows that 47.6% of the households do not own any land, 

whereas 2.4 percent of the households own 18.18% of the land. Almost 43% of 

the households own land between 1 to 5 hect. Thus, most of the cultivators in 

village Fulzari are small and marginal farmers with uneconomic size of land 

holding. Average size of cultivated land is 1.3 hect. 

Human & Livestock Population 

3.I.10 RIGHTS & PRIVILEGES OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES: 

The rights and privileges of the local communities in village Fulzari came to be 

legally restricted and they were prohibited to use the resources from Pench forest 

consequent to the status of Protected Area (1975) and Project Tiger (1999) 

accorded to the Reserve Forests of Pench. It is said that Project Tiger, a network 

of Park is held by the international communities as an outstanding example of 

success, sharply posits the interest of tigers against those of poor peasants living 

in and around the reserve. The designation of tiger reserves was made possible 

only by the physical displacement of existing villages and their inhabitants. Their 

management requires continuing exclusion of peasants and livestock 

(Ramchandra Guha 1989). Same is the case with Fulzari village which will be 

shifted to Sawara- out side the geographical limits of PNP. Declaration of Pench 

as Protected Areas has created an adverse impact on the village community by 

depriving them of the opportunity to augment their income from forest produce. In 

the absence of alternate source of livelihood, Fulzari village still continues to 

depend heavily (though illegally) on the natural resources of Pench, which 

substantially supports their income. However, since Fulzari village does not have 

any commercial orientation towards collection of forest produce, most of it is 

being used for self consumption, the rate of extraction may not create any 

adverse impact on regenerative potential of the forests of PNP. Dependence on 

the forest of PNP by villagers can be studied by using various parameters. In the 

present analysis the dependence of local communities has been assessed by 

studying the resource use pattern of the village community of Fulzari. The 

dependence of local population for biomass collection from the forest of PNP has 

51

een estimated through household surveys and monitoring of entry points in the 

village. 

3.I.11 RESOURCE USE PATTERN: The resource use pattern of the villagers is 

studied by collection information about: 

a) Firewood consumption pattern of Village community. 

b) Fodder/grass consumption pattern of Village community for livestock 

population. 

c) Use of medicinal plants extracted from the forest by Village community. 

d) Use of forest produce either for self-consumption or for social purpose by 

Village community. 

The resource use pattern with the above objectives has been studied to find out 

the dependence of village community for biomass collection. The degree of 

dependence can be studied by three criteria: 

1 )Income Criteria 2) Accessibility Criteria 3) Fuel use Criteria 

3.I.11.1 The dependence of village will be first studied by observing annual 

activity pattern. 

Annual Activity Pattern: Observations based on the household surveys at 

different points of time as well as monitoring of their activities, show that the 

inhabitants of Fulzari village are dependent on natural resources of PNP for six to 

nine months in the year either for collection of fuel wood or for NTFPs or 

fodder/grass for livestock grazing. In monsoon, they are mainly engaged in 

activities connected with agriculture. In winter and summer they mainly 

concentrate on NTFP collection. In summer they build up inventory of grass 

augmented from the fresh forest of PNP for feeding the livestock population in 

rainy season. In winter they take their livestock population to forest for grazing 

purpose. Normally they spend one to two hours in the morning for fuel wood 

collection by walking a distance of about one to two kms daily. For grazing 

purpose, they spend about one to two hours in the morning and one hour in the 

evening. Collection of tendu leaves, a very important economic activity of the 

52

local population is confined to a period of two months (April-May) or collection of 

Moha flower (two months). All this shows their dependence on forest. 

Thus, monitoring of their activities at various points of time during a day, and at 

various seasons shows that forest of PNP constitutes their major source of 

livelihood. 

Estimation of Dependence on PNP: 

3.I.11.2 Income criteria: Dependence of Fulzari village is reflected in 

income earned through forest labour, NTFPs collection, hunting, fishing, and 

other activities having direct or indirect links with forests of PNP. Through 

questionnaire surveys, information regarding source of income of villagers has 

been collected. Even though agriculture has been reported as the main 

occupation of the village, the income from agriculture crops does not occupy a 

place of prominence to local population. The following table – III.I.9 shows 

distribution of income according to different sources. 

Income from agriculture, forest etc. is self explanatory. However, in case of 

Fulzari village, all households reported income from other sources as nil. The 

discussions with the forest department about the village Eco-developement 

schemes and their implementation in the villages in and around PNP shows 

suspension of theses schemes due to non availability of funds from 1991. The 

survey of households pertains to the year 2002. Other agencies also reported 

almost same scenario as Fulzari village has to be shifted to Sawara leading to 

lack of development activities in the village 

Table- III.I.9: Annual Average Income of Fulzari from Different Sources 

Total Income from different sources (Annual Average) (Rs) 

Avg. Agricultu NTFP Fishin Hunt 

inc per re (Rs.) g 

house (Rs.) 

(Rs.) 

hold 

Rs. 

ng 

Self-emp Agri - Forest Incom Oth 

(Rs.) (Rs.) Labor Labor e from r 

(Rs.) (Rs.) Milch srs 

animal 

s 

17509 3012.98 7902.32 2757.9 628.05 646.15 2234.4 653.37 39.42 -- 

In (%) 16.87 44.22 15.42 3.51 3.61 12.50 3.65 0.22 -- 

53

As is discernible from the table, agriculture contributes only 16.87 percent to the 

average annual income of the households. The small-uneconomic size of land 

holdings and lack of incentives on the part of village community to improve land 

productivity seems to be the main factor behind a low level of income originating 

from this sector. Small size of land holdings fails to provide employment to all 

the members of family, thereby compelling them to work as agriculture labourer 

in other farms and supplement the income. The average annual income from 

agricultural labour is estimated as Rs. 2234.4 (12.50%). This gives 29% 

contribution of agriculture to the total income of the village community. The 

major crops grown by the villagers and income from these crops is given in the 

following table: 

Table- III.I.10 :Annual Production of Agricultural Crops 

Name 

of the 

crop 

Annual 

production 

(Quintal) 

Rates 

(Per Quintal) 

(Local arket) 

54 

Income from 

Agriculture 

(Rs.) 

Dhan 98.65 550.00 54270.5 

Jwari 84.00 500.00 42000.00 

Tur 25.40 1700.00 43180.00 

Chana 10.00 1000 10000.00 

Javas 1.8 500 900 

Wheat 4 600 2400 

Total (Rs.) 174337.00 

Since most of the production is for self-consumption, the market price obtaining 

in the nearby local market has been taken to quantify the value of production of 

various crops in estimating their income from agriculture. 

3.I.13 DEPENDENCE OF FULZARI VILLAGE ON NTFPs: Non-timber forest 

products (NTFPs) have provided an important source of livelihood to a large 

number of forest communities. The income and consumption from NTFPs have 

complemented that from agricultural activity in most of the better-forested regions 

of the country. Forests are traditionally considered as suppliers of timber. 

Perhaps due to overwhelming significance of the market as an economic 

institution, this function of forest has been given somewhat exaggerated 

importance. Of late, however, a large number of goods and services have come 

in prominence. Preservation of biodiversity being recognized as an important

objective of natural resource management, NTFPs have come to occupy a 

significant position. All kind of tropical forests occupy a critical niche in this 

context because tropical forests are distinguished by the availability of large 

variety of NTFPs. India, for instance, possesses about 320 of the world’s 425 

families of flowering plants, or about 21000 species of which 3000 are known to 

yield NTFPs ii . Forest communities have derived sustenance from NTFPs in 

periods of stress and have used NTFPs as inputs of raw materials into 

production of items of daily use in normal time. In effect, NTFPs, if harvested 

and used judiciously, is a kind of renewable resource available for exploitation 

from year to year. 

NTFPs play a crucial role in supporting sustenance of village communities in 

Fulzari village. However, consequent to declaration of Pench as protected area 

in 1975 and Tiger Project in 1999. It has prohibited village communities in PA to 

extract NTFPs from forests of Pench. 

Pench National Park is gifted with abundant variety of NTFPs. Though legally 

prohibited villagers collect these NTFPs for self-sustenance. The major NTFPs 

found in the forests of Pench and collected by the villagers are Charoli, Amla, 

gum and Bamboo, Tendu leaves, Moha leaves, grasses etc. Through household 

surveys the information regarding NTFP collection by the residents of Fulzari 

village was obtained. The information collected from household surveys was 

supplemented by monitoring the entry points of PNP to estimate their daily 

extraction of NTFPs. 

3.I.13.1 Valuation of NTFP in Fulzari Village: Treating NTFPs as renewable, 

user valuation is estimated by attempting to find out how the collector views an 

NTFP. Such a user’s perception of the value of the product may be in terms of 

either use or exchange value. As communities become more and more 

monetized, and as linkages with market are forged, the distinction between 

community’s perception of use value and market value is reduced. Sale 

becomes an available option through which purchasing power is obtained, which, 

in turn, can be used to acquire access to other necessary articles of 

55

consumption. It is, in the final analysis, the perception of the value of a 

commodity, whether for self-use or exchange, that should be paramount in 

determining the utility that accrues from it. 

The value of NTFPs whether it is a use value or exchange value, accrues first 

and foremost to forest communities, although they are also consumed by large 

units both within the district and outside. As long as factor and product market 

imperfection continue to exist, this value will continue to be place and product 

specific. In the context of Fulzari village, since NTFPs are collected by the local 

communities for self-consumption only, the market price in the local market in 

proximity of Fulzari has been taken as a proxy for valuation of NTFP or income 

derived from NTFPs. 

3.I.13.2 Collection of Tendu Leaves: Collection of Tendu leaves constitute a 

separate category by itself since almost the entire population is involved in 

harvesting them during the collection period of about one month. As there is 

nationalization of Tendu leaves, the villagers earn a fixed income per bundle of 

collected Tendu leaves. The annual income from collection of Tendu leaves for 

the village is estimated at Rs. 6754.5. Total mean income per household is 

Rs.5510.40. Annual income from bamboo is estimated at Rs. 1900, fuel wood 

& firewood at Rs. 112704, grass Rs. 73,000; Charoli Rs. 3305, Amla Rs. 375; 

Gum Rs. 780. 

3.I.13.3 Income/Consumption of NTFPs: The table- III.I.15 gives estimated 

income/ consumption of major NTFPs in Fulzari. All available evidence therefore 

indicates that NTFP collection is not only a part of survival strategy followed in 

period of stress but constitutes a legitimate part of economic activity of the local 

community in Fulzari village. The total annual value of NTFP has been estimated 

at Rs. 2,31,441/-. 

56

Table – III.I.15: Total Household Income from collection of NTFPS in Fulzari 

1 2 3 4 

NTFP Annual Mean Income 

(Type of Income per 

Commodity) (Rs) household 1 

Percentage to 

total 

(Rs) 

1. Charoli 3305 78.69 0.96 

2. Amla 375 8.92 0.23 

3. Gum 780 18.57 0.11 

4. Bamboo 1900 45.23 0.55 

5. Fuel-wood / 

Fire-wood 

112704 2683.42 32.74 

6. Grass 73000 1738.09 53.97 

7. Moha 32123 764.83 9.33 

8. Tendu 

Leaves 

6754 160.80 1.96 

9. Honey 500 11.90 0.15 

10. Total 2,31,441 5510.45 100 

3.I.13.4 Collection Calendar: Collection calendar for NTFPs On the basis of 

Survey, and presented in the following table- III.I.16 

Table – III.I.16: Collection Calendar 

Product Collection Months 

Nationalized 

Tendu leaves April 15 to May 30 

Sal Seed Mid May to second week of 

June 

Gum June 

Harda Feb. 15 to March 15 

Non Nationalized 

Aonala Sept to Oct 

Bamboo June to July 

Chironji March 

1 Mean Income per household is calculated by dividing total income by 

total number of households i.e. 42 

57

Product Collection Months 

Grass for Sept. to Oct 

Grass for fodder Throughout the year except 

Monsoon 

Honey March 

Kusum Seeds June to July 

July 

Lac Feb to March 

Mahua Flower March 15 to April 15 

Mahua Mid Apr to Mid June 

3.I.14 DEPENDENCE OF LIVESTOCK POPULATION ON THE FOREST OF 

PNP FOR FODDER AND GRASS: Livestock can be treated both as a resource 

and as an economic entity and consequently as a source of demand for other 

resources. A dynamic link exists between this resource, agricultural and 

forestlands and water. Livestock as a resource supplies inputs such as draught 

power and organic manure for agriculture, and milk, meat and skin for human 

consumption. Its existence also impacts the nature of forest existing in a 

particular region, in particular if their number exceed the carrying capacity of the 

area. 

On the other hand, the food and water requirement of the livestock population 

constitutes a demand on the land and water resources of the region. Cropresidue 

from agriculture land, leaf biomass and forest grass and forage from 

pastureland are sources of food. Climate impacts livestock existence indirectly 

through its influence on food and fodder availability and directly by affecting rates 

of natality, mortality and migration. 

3.I.14.1Livestock population of Village Fulzari: The total livestock population 

of village Fulzari (based on household survey) is estimated at 216 iii . The 

composition of livestock population is given in the Table- III.I.17 

58

Table – III.I.17: Livestock Population 

Type Number Percentage 

Bullock 65 30.01 

Cows 105 48.61 

Goat 46 21.29 

Total 216 100 

3.I.14.2 Distribution of Livestock Population: The distribution of livestock 

population is depicted in the following table: 

Table – III.I.18 : Distribution of Livestock Population 

Size 

Livestock % To total No. of 

% To total 

distribution of Population population Households households 

Livestock (No.) 

0 0 - 04 10.26 

1-5 87 40.27 27 69.23 

6-10 32 14.81 04 10.26 

11-20 17 07.88 01 02.56 

21-35 80 37.04 03 07.69 

Total 216 100.00 39* 100 

* 3 missing 

The average ownership of livestock population in Fulzari village is 5.00. 

However, the distribution of livestock ownership is highly skewed. Three 

households in the village own more than 20 cattles, whereas 27 households own 

up to five (1 to 5) cattles. Four households do not own any livestock (0). 69.2% 

of the households own only 40.27% of the cattle population, whereas 7 per cent 

of the households own 37.04% of the livestock population. 

3.I.14.3 Livestock Grazing Pattern: Results of door-to-door survey revealed 

that the entire cattle population of village Fulzari is being illegally grazed on the 

fringe of the village or within 2 to 3 kms inside the PNP. Villagers send their 

cattle to the forest twice a day, 2 to 4 hours in the morning and two hours in the 

evening (Based on interview of herdsmen and monitoring). One herdsman from 

the entire village (with some lum-sum payment per cattle population) is entrusted 

59

the responsibility of grazing the cattle population of village Fulzari. Normally in 

the morning, the livestock population is taken for grazing inside the forest of PNP 

up to 2 to 3 kms. The evening trip is rather short and restricted to only 1 to 1.5 

kms on the boundary of the village. 

The livestock population of the village has shown a fall in the current year as 

compared to 1991 livestock population. The falling livestock population of the 

village is indicative of the declining dependence of the village on the forest of 

PNP. In 1991 it was reported at 432 (Management plan of Forest Department for 

Pench). However, household surveys show only 216 as cattle population of the 

village. 

3.I.15 Fodder Availability: Fodder supply for purposes such as animal feed 

comes from three different sources namely, grass, leaf bio-mass and crop 

residue (Kadba/Kutar) Depending upon the edibility of these biomasses and 

corresponding areas and crop yield rates, the total availability of fodder can be 

estimated for the Fulzari village. From the demand side, precise data or surveys 

giving magnitudes of demands from livestock do not exist for either Fulzari village 

or villages around the periphery of Pench National Park. At best, norms of feed 

requirements based on scientific methods of estimation can be used to estimate 

demand for fodder for feeding the livestock population of the village. 

The type of areas which produce grass as fodder are generally forests, barren 

and uncultivable land, other uncultivated land, land under miscellaneous tree 

crops and groves, cultivable wastelands, and fallow land other than current 

fallow. The output and yield varies for each category of land. Tree leaf fodder is 

available from forest and miscellaneous tree crops in farmers’ own lands. Cropresidue 

is obtainable out of cultivated lands. 

The quantity and quality of grass produced depend on the type of areas, soil 

fertility, and type of grass, climate condition and biotic factors. Broadly eight 

major types of grassland are recognized in the country. Out of these 

Diachanthium, Sehma Hatroposan types of grasslands are found in Fulzari 

60

village. In Fulzari, 132.97 hectors of land (Cultivable waste + area not available 

for cultivation) is available for grass. 

No local level information about productivity of grass is available for the village or 

for the surrounding areas of PNP. The productivity of grass in the forest areas is 

generally higher than in other grass producing areas. The production of dry 

grass is reported to vary generally from 0.5 to 6.0 tones per ha, per year. The 

average grass yield from the forests in the proximity of Fulzari may be taken to 

be 5.0 tonnes per hectors based on accessibility and other considerations. It can 

also be assumed that about 25% of the grass growing in the forest area near 

Fulzari is presently utilized (though illegally). 

Leaf fodder from trees constitutes the second major source of fodder. It is 

difficult to estimate the quantity of leaf fodder available from forest areas, as this 

will depend on several factors including the type of forest, proportion of fodder 

trees to total growing stock, density of the forest, the practice and intensity of 

harvesting leaf fodder, distance of forest areas from village etc. 

SECTION- II 

A STUDY OF SAMPLE VILLAGES 

SOCIO ECONOMIC PROFILE OF SAMPLE VILLAGES: 

3.II.1 In the present world, no entity whether it be an individual or family or 

village or city or state or a nation is self-sufficient. The interdependence is the 

rule of the day. A village has to depend on a number of other entities. The 

dependence of a village can be defined in terms of the proportion of total 

household income derived from the surrounding environment. In case of the 

village, in the proximity of a national park, the dependence is reflected in the 

proportion of total household income derived form the forests, or forest related 

activities, the accessibility to the national park resources or availability of 

alternative fuel and purchasing power of the households to have the alternatives. 

The criteria normally used for assessing the degree of dependence are: (a) the 

61

income, (b) Accessibility; and (c) Fuel use. A sample of villages in the vicinity of 

PNP is drawn to have an idea of dependence on the PNP. 

3.II.2 SELECTION OF SAMPLE: As mentioned in the Chapter I the selection of 

villages in the proximity of the PNP has been made on the basis of the distance 

of these villages from the PNP. Three distance categories are used for selecting 

the sample villages. Selection of villages in each distance category is done by 

giving weightage to human as well as livestock population. The selected eleven 

villages are shown in the following table: 

Table – III.II.1: Sample Villages 

Distance 

Category (in 

Kms) 

Selected Villages 

1 to 3 Ghatpendhari, Kolitmara, Narhar, 

Kirangisarra, Khapa, Wagholi 

3 to 5 Tuyapar, Ghoti-Dahoda 

5 to 10 Ambazari, Kadbikheda, Chargaon 

The second step is to select sample households from the selected villages. A 

sample of minimum 5 per cent of the households has been selected for the 

further study. Since the villages lying on the boundary of the PNP are expected 

to have more dependence, a larger weightage is assigned to the first category of 

villages (within the vicinity of 3 Kms.) 

3.II.3 Socio-economic Characteristics- Out of the selected villages, Tuyapar, 

Ghoti- Dahoda, Wagholi, Khapa, Kadbikheda are on the East side of Pench and 

Kirangisarra, Ghatpendhari, Kolitmara, Chargaon, Ambazari, Narhar are on the 

West side. The socio-economic characteristics like the total geographical area, 

caste, religion and occupational status of the sample villages are discussed in 

the following paragraphs. 

3.II.4 AREA: The total area under sample villages is 2077.17 hectors Village 

wise area of land for the sample villages is given in the following table. 

62

S.N 

. 

Table- III.II.2 : Sample Village wise Area 

Village Total 

population 

63 

No of 

household 

s 

East Pench 

Cattle 

population 

Distance 

from PNP 

(km) 

Area Ha. 

01. Ghoti (Dahoda) 797 130 705 3.5 426.08 

02. Kadbikheda 467 83 382 10 261.00 

03. Khapa 323 58 433 1 313.16 

04. Tuyapar 85 17 284 4 261.00 

05. Wagholi 420 77 282 1 657.24 

West Pench 

06. Ambazari 606 117 900 6.5 485.95 

07. Chargaon 448 87 1752 7 528.29 

08. Ghatpendhari 916 166 2146 1.5 260.25 

09. Kirangisarra 142 27 305 1 48.24 

10. Kolitmara 268 54 026 2 313.81 

11. Narhar 398 79 569 1 220.0 

Total 4870 895 7784 0 to 10 2077.17 

3.II.5 POPULATION: Total population of these eleven sample villages according 

to 1991 census is 4870 with 895 households. The sample population is 378 

consisting of 143 males and 129 females. 

The population settled in the surrounding villages is mostly tribal and the area 

falling within Ramtek and Parseoni Taluka has been classified by the revenue 

dept. They are mostly Gonds and a small percentage of it on the M.P. side is 

known as korku. A very small proportion of non-tribal population has got 

intermixed with the local populance, which are mostly in the form of traders and 

contractors. 

3.II.6 SEX Ratio: Village wise sex ratio of the population is given in the 

following table. It is 143: 129 for all the villages i.e. 1: 0.902 

3.II.7 CASTE: There is a predominance of Tribal population in these villages. In 

Tuyapar, Kolitmara, Kadbikheda, Kirangisarra, Khapa and Wagholi the proportion 

of tribal population is 100 percent only 60 percent schedule tribes are found in

Ghatpendhari village. Table IV.4 gives village wise distribution of population 

according to caste. 

RELIGION: 100% of the respondents in these villages are Hindus 

Table- III.II.3 : VILLAGEWISE SEX RATIO 

S. Village No of No of Children Total Male 

N. 

Males Females 

population :Female 

Ratio 

01 Ghoti (Dahoda) 19 

East Pench 

18 26 63 1:0.947 

02 Kadbikheda 14 17 11 42 1:1.214 

03 Khapa 23 19 09 51 1:0.826 

04 Tuyapar 18 15 10 43 1:0.83 

05 Wagholi 14 10 

West Pench 

06 30 1:0.71 

06 Ambazari 07 08 08 23 1:1.14 

07 Chargaon 14 10 05 29 1:714 

08 Ghatpendhari 13 15 16 44 1:1.153 

09 Kirangisarra 09 04 04 17 1:0.444 

10 Kolitmara 06 05 04 15 1:0.833 

11 Narhar 06 08 07 21 1:1.333 

Total 143 129 106 378 1:0.90 

3.II.8 STATUS OF LITERACY: Out of the total sample, 82 per cent of the 

household heads in the sample villages are literate. The distribution of 

households according to different levels of education is shown in the table III.II.5 

3.II.9 STATUS OF EDUCATION: It may be seen from the table III.II.5 that out 

of the total sample population, 46.25 per cent of the households in sample 

villages has level of education up to primary, 11.25 per cent have educational 

level up to middle school, whereas 17.5 per cent have this level up to high school 

and 11.25 per cent of the households have some extra qualifications like ITI. 

The highest proportion of households with extra qualifications is reported by 

Wagholi (40%) followed by Tuyapar 2.5 per cent of the population which is 

64

graduate. Level of illiteracy is the highest for village Ambazari (57.14%) and the 

lowest for Ghatpendhari (10.00%). 

3.II.10 LAND UTILIZATION PATTERN: Pattern of land utilization (area under 

different types of land use) for sample villages is given in Table- IV.6 

For the eleven villages under investigation, 33.14 per cent of the land is under 

forest. Only 1.20 per cent land is irrigated or as high as 39.26 per cent of the 

land is unirrigated. Area not available for cultivation is 21.17 per cent. 

Ghoti (Dahoda) and Ambazari village reported more than 75 per cent unirrigated 

land. The lowest proportion of unirrigated land is found in Tuyapar. Kadbikheda 

showed highest proportion of irrigated land (3.95%) followed by Chargaon (2.21 

%).(Table III.II.6) 

The importance of irrigation in the area surrounding P.N.P. has special 

significance from the point of view of dependence on forest. Since irrigation is an 

essential input for agricultural production and higher productivity, it may help in 

raising the productivity of land thereby raising income from agriculture. Higher 

production and productivity in agriculture may help in reducing their dependence 

on forest for livelihood purpose. 

65

Table- III.II.4 :Distribution of Sample households according to Caste 

Village Name Caste Total with Village Name Caste Total with 

Percentage 

Percentage 

East Pench West Pench 

Ghoti S.C. 0 Kolitmara S.C. 00 

S.T. 9 (66.28%) S.T. 03 (100%) 

N.T. 2 (14.28%) N.T. 00 

O.B.C. 3 (21.42%) O.B.C. 00 

Total 14 Total 03 

Tuyapar S.C. 00 Kirngisarra S.C. 00 

S.T. 08 (100%) S.T. 03 (100%) 

N.T. 00 N.T. 00 

O.B.C. 00 O.B.C. 00 


Wagholi S.C. 00 Chargaon S.C. 00 

S.T. 05 (100%) S.T. 04 (66.7%) 

N.T. 00 N.T. 01 (16.7%) 

O.B.C. 00 O.B.C. 01 (16.6%) 


Khapa S.C. 00 Ambazari S.C. 00 

S.T. 10 (100%) S.T. 03 (42.9%) 

N.T. 00 N.T. 00 

O.B.C. 00 O.B.C. 04 (57.1%) 


Kadbikheda S.C. 00 Ghatpendhari S.C. 03 (30%) 

S.T. 09 (100%) S.T. 06 (60%) 

N.T. 00 N.T. 00 

O.B.C. 00 O.B.C. 01 (10%) 


- - - - - - Narhar S.C. 00 

- - - - - - S.T. 05 

- - - - - - N.T. 00 

- - - - - - O.B.C. 00 

- - - - - - Total 05 

66

Sr 

no 

Table- III.II.5: Number of households and their level of Education 

Village 

Name 

Sample 

size 

Primary Middle 

school 

1 Chargaon 6 - 2 

(33%) 

2 Narhar 5 3 

(60%) 

3 Ambazari 7 1 

(14.28%) 

4 Ghatpendhari 10 5 

(50%) 

5 Kirangisarra 3 1 

(33.33%) 

6 Kadbikheda 9 5 

(55.55%) 

7 Ghoti 14 7 

(50%) 

8 Tuyapar 8 4 

(50%) 

9 Wagholi 5 1 

(20%) 

10 Kolitmara 3 2 

(66.66%) 

11 Khapa 10 8 

(80%) 

Total 80 37 

(46.25%) 

* Extra Qualification 

1 

(20%) 

67 

High 

School 

1 

(16.66% 

) 

1 

(20%) 

- 1 

(14.28% 

) 

1 

(16%) 

3 

(30%) 

- 1 

(33.33% 

) 

1 

(11.1%) 

1 

(7.14%) 

1 

(12.5%) 

Higher 

Seconda 

ry 

Graduati 

on 

- 1 

(16.66% 

) 

ITI* 

1 

(16.60 

% 

Illiterate 

2 

(33.33% 

- - - - 

1 

(14.28% 

) 

- 2 

(28.57 

% 

4 

(57.14% 

- - - 1 

(10%) 

- - - 1 

(33.33% 

- - - - 3 

(33.33% 

2 

(14.28% 

) 

2 

(25%) 

- 2 

(40%) 

1 

(33.33% 

) 

1 

(10%) 

9 

(11.25% 

) 

2 

(14.28% 

) 

1 

(7.14%) 

1 

(7.14 

% 

- - 3 

(37.5 

% 

1 

(20%) 

- 2 

(40%) 

1 

(7.14%) 

1 

(12.5%) 

1 

(20%) 

- - - - - 

1 

(10%) 

14 

(17.5%) 

- - - - 

4 

(5%) 

2 

(2.5%) 

9 

(11.25 

%) 

14 

(17.5%)

3.II.11 PATTERN OF LAND OWNERSHIP: Distribution of households according 

to different size group of land holdings shows that most of the farmers are either 

marginal farmers or small farmers. Table III.II.6 gives villagewise distribution of 

households into marginal farmers and small farmers 

As can be seen from the table III.II.6 out of 80 households, 4 households (5%) 

are landless and livestock less and 11 households (13.75%) are landless but with 

some livestock. 15 households are landless households. The distribution of 

landholdings is also skewed in most of the villages under study. In Kolitmara 

66.66 per cent of households do not own any land, whereas 33.33% of the 

households own more than 6 acres of land. 

The landless status combined with zero ownership of livestock population 

increases their probability of dependence on forest of PNP. Lack of subsidiary 

sources of income as reflected in non diversified occupational structure in these 

villages has further added to their dependence on the forest. 

3.II.12 OCCUPATION: The chief occupation of the people in sample villages is 

agriculture that is mostly rainfed and primitive in character. Agricultural crops 

which are mainly cultivated in this area are wheat, jawar, gram, cotton, tur etc. 

The villages located along the West Pench Range mainly rely on cultivating good 

quality wheat owing to flatter terrain. They also cultivate cash crops such as 

turmeric, garlic, ginger etc. Paddy is also cultivated to a small extent where 

irrigation, facilities are available. 

The cattle population in these villages is quite significant. It mainly consists of 

bullocks and cows to a larger proportion along with goats, whereas buffalos are 

relatively small in number. It is note-worthy that cows and bullocks are not 

mainly used in the agricultural operations or as milk cattle but are kept as assets 

for easy liquidity in hard times. Buffalos are mainly kept for dairy purposes. 

68

S.N. Village Total area 

of the 

village (in 

hectares 

rounded 

upto two 

decimal 

places) 

1. Ambazari 326.19 

(100%) 

2. Chargaon 528.29 

(100%) 

3. Ghatpendhari 378.53 

(100%) 

4. Ghoti 

463.95 

(Dahoda) (100%) 

5. Kadbikheda 261.75 

(100%) 

6. Khapa 279.16 

(100%) 

7. Kirangisarra 48.24 

(100%) 

8. Kolitmara 313.81 

(100%) 

9. Narhar 220 

(100%) 

10. Tuyapar 548.36 

(100%) 

11. Wagholi 657.24 

(100%) 

Total 4025.52 

(100%) 

Table- III.II.6 :Village wise Land Utilization 

Land use (i.e. area under different types of land use in hectares 

rounded up to two decimal places) 

Forest Irrigated 

by source 

-- WE (1.61) 

(0.49%) 

242.55 

(45.91%) 

GC (5.00) 

(0.94%) 

WE 

(11.70) 

(2.21%) 

69 

Un-irrigated Culturable 

waste 

(including 

gouchar and 

groves) 

253.70 

(77.78%) 

181.84 

(34.42 %) 

117.66 --- 243.90 

(31.08%) 

(64.43%) 

-- WE (9.75) 365.45 

(2.10%) (78.77%) 

91.51 TK 62.46 

(34.96%) (10.36) 

(3.96%) 

(23.86%) 

190.91 WE (0.20) 77.05 

(68.38%) (0.07%) (27.60%) 

-- -- 36.75 

(76.18%) 

117.05 -- 80.55 

(37.30%) 

(25.67%) 

111.84 -- 78.11 

(50.84%) 

(35.50%) 

-- W (2.00) 52.70 

(0.36%) (9.61%) 

467.74 W (10.50) 148.00 

(70.40%) (1.69%) (22.52%) 

1334.26 51.12 1580.51 

(33.14%) (1.27%) (39.26%) 

7.31 

(2.24 %) 

8.25 

(1.56%) 

10.42 

(2.75%) 

53.14 

(11.45%) 

65.20 

(24.91%) 

5.00 

(1.79%) 

11.49 

(23.81%) 

9.51 

(3.03%) 

18.78 

(8.54%) 

5.47 

(1.00%) 

13.00 

(1.98 %) 

207.57 

(5.16%) 

Area not 

available for 

cultivation 

63.57 

(19.48%) 

78.95 

(14.94%) 

6.55 

(1.73 %) 

35.61 

(7.67%) 

32.22 

(12.31%) 

6.00 

(2.15%) 

-- 

106.70 

(34.00%) 

11.27 

(5.12%) 

488.19 

(89.03%) 

23.00 

(3.50 %) 

852.06 

(21.17%)

Table- III.II.7 : Distribution of Households according to Landholding Size 

Village Name Sample Landless Landless Small land Small land Marginal 

size with no with holding holding with Land with 

(No.) livestock livestock without Livestock Livestock 

(No.) (No.) Livestock 

Ambazari 7 1 (14.29%) -- 5 (71.42%) 1(14.29%) - - 

Chargaon 6 - - -- 5 (83.33%) - - 1(16.67%) 

Ghatpendhari 10 - - 3 (30%) 6 (60%) 1 (10%) -- 

Ghoti 14 2 (14.29%) 2 (14.29%) 8 (57.14%) - - 2 (14.29%) 

Kadbikheda 9 - - 2 (22.22%) 5 (55.55%) - - 2 (22.22%) 

Khapa 10 - - 1 (10%) 6 (60%) 1 (10%) 2 (20%) 

Kirangisarra 3 - - - - 3 (100%) - - - - 

Kolitmara 3 1 

(33.33%) 

1 (33.33%) 1 (33.33%) - - - - 

Narhar 5 - - - - 3 (60%) 2 (40%) - - 

Tuyapar 8 - - 2 (2.5%) 5 (62.50%) - - 1 (12.5%) 

Wagholi 5 - - - - 2 (40%) 1 (10%) 2 (40%) 

Aggregate 80 4 (5%) 11 

(13.75%) 

Much of the employment opportunities are not available in these areas except for 

agricultural work, fishing in reservoir area outside the park, collection of minor 

forest produce like tendu, gum, moha, lac, and fuel wood etc. in surrounding area 

out side the park. Skilled workers such as masons, carpenters are engaged on 

construction works undertaken by the irrigation department, forest dept, Zillah 

Parishad etc. People are engaged in soil and moisture conservation works which 

are regularly undertaken by Soil Conservation Department on agricultural land. 

Wells are also being dug under various developmental schemes under block 

levels. Thus, a significant proportion of population shows dependence on the 

forest either directly or indirectly. 

3.II.13 OTHER ACTIVITIES: Though mining of manganese, Ferro alloy, and 

coal goes on in full swing at a distance away from the park no mining operators 

or industrial development likely to be detrimental to the conservation efforts, is in 

70 

49 (61.25%) 6 (7.50%) 10 (12.50%)

existence in the vicinity of P.A. at present but it is a future threat as these 

activities may extend in the areas. 

3.II.14 VILLAGEWISE OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION: Even though most of 

the households in the sample villages have reported cultivation or agriculture as 

their main occupation, wide variations are observed in this proportion. This is 

presented in the Table- III.II.9. 

As is clearly discernible from the table, the village wise variations range from 

20% to 100%. Distribution of households according the different occupations for 

the sample villages shows that in 80% of the villages, the proportion of 

households working as cultivators is more than 70 percent. Only in Wagholi 

village it is 20 per cent, which is the lowest. 

Village Name hects of 

land 

Table- III.II.8 :LAND OWNERSHIP 


househol 

ds 

Percentage Village 

Name 

71 

hects of 

land 


households 

Percenta 

ge 

01 to 03 Km 3 to 5 Km 

Ghatpendhari 0-0 3 30% Tuyapar 0-0 2 25% 

1 to 2.5 3 30% 0-0 3 37.5% 

2.5 to 7.5 - - 1 to 2.5 2 25% 

7.5 above 4 40% 2.5 to 7.5 1 12.5% 


Kolitmara 0-0 2 66.66% Ghoti 0-0 3 27.77% 

1 to 2.5 0 0-0 3 27.77% 

2.5 to 7.5 1 33.33% 1 to 2.5 3 27.77% 

7.5 above - 2.5 to 7.5 2 18.18% 


Kirrangisarra 0-0 00 - 5 to 10 Km 

1 to 2.5 2 66.66% Ambazari 0-0 1 14.28% 

2.5 to 7.5 1 33.33% 1 to 2.5 3 42.85% 

7.5 above - - 2.5 to 7.5 2 28.57% 

Total 3 7.5 above 1 14.28% 

Khapa 0-0 1 10% Total 7 

1 to 2.5 5 50% Kadbikheda 0-0 2 22.22% 

2.5 to 7.5 2 20% 1 to 2.5 5 55.55% 

7.5 above 2 20% 2.5 to 7.5 1 11.11% 

Total 10 7.5 above 1 11.11% 

Wagholi 0-0 - - Total 9 

1 to 2.5 3 60% Chargaon 0-0 0 - 

2.5 to 7.5 1 20% 1 to 2.5 3 60% 

7.5 above 1 20% 2.5 to 7.5 2 33.33% 

Total 5 7.5 above 1 16.16% 

Narhar 0-0 - - 

1 to 2.5 3 60% 

2.5 to 7.5 2 40% 

7.5 above - - 

Total 5

The villages under study have been classified into three groups as per distance 

from the PNP. In category A, villages lying within 0-3 KM from the boundary of 

PNP has been shown. They are Ghatpendhari, Kolitmara, Narhar, Kirangisarra, 

Khapa and Wagholi. The two villages Tuyapar and Ghoti-Dahoda are lying 

within 3 to 5 KM from boundary (B –category) and Ambazari, Kadbikheda, 

Chargaon are three villages within 5 to 10 KM of boundary (Category- C). The 

following table gives occupational distribution of households as per three 

categories mentioned above. 

The proportion of households working as labourer (Agricultural + forest) amount 

to 80 per cent in Wagholi,50 percent in Ghatpendhari and 33.33 per cent in 

Kolitmara. It is the lowest (12.5%) in Tuypar. Distance variable does not seem to 

be influencing the variations either in cultivation as main occupation or labourer 

as subsidiary occupation. Absence of diversified occupational structure appears 

as a distinguishing feature of occupational distribution. The village Kolitmara 

presents a unique picture as 1/3 rd households are engaged in fishing and another 

1/3 rd households are pursuing self-employment. Next to this village, is village 

Ghatpendhari where 14.2 per cent of the households are engaged in selfemployment. 

As agriculture fails to provide them a regular source of income 

throughout the year, they are forced to work either as agricultural labourer or any 

other type of work. Most of the population in these villages have a subsidiary 

occupation as labour, or fishing and hunting. 

Table- III.II.9 :Villagewise and Categorywise Occupational Distribution 

Village Name (1) 

Cultiva 

tor 

(2) 

Labourer 

(Agri +Forest)) 

(3) 

Hunting 

Category- A 

72 

(4) 

Fishing 

(5) 

Selfemployment 

(6) 

Govt. 

Service 

Ghatpendhari 50% 50% - - - - - - - - 

Kolitmara - - 33.33 % - - 33.33 

% 

33.33 % - -

Narhar 80 % - - - - - - - - 20 % 

Kirnagisarra 100% - - - - - - - - - - 

Khapa 70 % 30 % - - - - - - - - 

Wagholi 20 % 80% - - - - - - - - 

Category- B 

Tuyapar 75 % 12.5 % - - - - - - - - 

Ghatpendhari 64.3 % 21.1 % - - - - 14.2 % - - 

Ambazari 85.71 14.29 

Category- C 

Kadbikheda 77.8 % 22.2 % - - - - - - - - 

Chargaon 100 % - - - - - - - - - - 

DEPENDENCE OF SAMPLE VILLAGES ON FOREST OF PNP: 

3.II.15 The dependence of local communities, belonging to the village Fulzari, on 

forests of Pench National Park has been studied with the help of its census. 

Fulzari lies within the geographical boundaries of PNP. The dependence of it 

has been studied by estimating the income derived by the local communities 

from NTFPs as well as by studying their resource use pattern and daily activity 

status. 

This chapter also attempts to study the dependence of the local communities in 

proximity of PNP. The same criteria as used in the earlier chapter, have also 

been used to assess their degree of dependence on PNP i.e. income and 

employment derived from forest, fuel wood and fodder consumption, accessibility 

to PNP etc. Their dependence on bio-mass consumption from the forest of PNP 

as reflected in their resource use pattern has also been studied for the sample 

villages. Use of pre-structured questionnaire, interviews with the members of the 

households and monitoring of their activities has been followed to collect the 

relevant information. 

73

Prima facie it is expected that villages in close proximity of PNP boundary will 

exhibit a higher degree of dependence on PNP than those lying away from PNP 

boundary. To study their dependence as reflected in income from the forest and 

its relative share in total income, all villages have been classified into three 

categories depending upon their distance from PNP boundary. The relationship 

between proximity to PNP and proportion of income earned from sources having 

direct or indirect links with forest resources vis-à-vis other non-forest sources of 

income has been observed. The Table- III.II.10 focuses on this relationship iv . 

It may be observed from the table [III.II.10] that out of six villages within the 

distance of 1 to 3 km of PNP boundary, four villages have shown a high degree 

of dependence based on the criterion of the percentage of income derived from 

forest or forest related activities. Wagholi, Ghatpendhari and Kirangisarra have 

shown a lower degree of dependence in so far as income derived from forest is 

concerned. 

The villages lying within 3 to 5 kms. of PNP boundary have shown relatively low 

degree of dependence as compared to villages within the distance of 1 to 3 KM 

from PNP boundary. 

Out of three villages in the third category (5 to 10 KM) except one (Kadbikheda) 

two remaining villages have shown low degree of dependence. However, almost 

all the villages (except Wagholi) within 10 KM have shown that their share of 

income from the forest exceed 20 per cent. This factual evidence goes to 

substantiate the hypothesis that, closer the village from the PNP boundary, 

higher the degree of dependence on PNP or villages lying away from the PNP 

boundary show lower degree of dependence. 

Income from non-forest sources i.e. agriculture (cultivation), self-employment, 

and agricultural labour for the above three distance categories shows wide 

variations. 

In case of Ghatpendhari Wagholi and Kirangisarra the villages within the distance 

of 1 to 3 Km, the dependence on agriculture as reflected in income earned 

thorough cultivation, the agriculture labour, and self-employment is high. 

74

In Narhar and Khapa, agriculture supports the income of the village communities 

only marginally inspite of the fact that in both Khapa and Narhar more than 70% 

of the sample households have reported their major occupation as cultivators. 

Kirangisarra and Kolitmara villages have alternate sources of income by way of 

self-employment. The common feature of all the sample villages is, where 

dependence on agriculture is high, it has contributed to reduce the pressure on 

forest of PNP to some extent. Except Chargaon and Kolitmara, self-employment 

opportunities contributing to reducing their dependence on PNP have played a 

marginal role. 

Table –III.II.10 : Dependence of villages as per the distance from the PNP 

boundary 

Name of the 

village/Distance form PNP 

boundary 

a) 1 to 3 KM 

Percentage of income from forest related activities (%) 

NTFP Forest 

labour 

Fishing Hunting Total income 

from forest 

(%) 

1) Ghatpendhari 25.1 03.71 - - 28.72 

2) Kolitmara 37.62 01.40 31.52 - 70.54 

3) Narhar 37.55 12.51 0 0 50.06 

4) Kirangisarra 15.13 1.48 1.97 0 21.58 

5) Khapa 38.61 10.80 00.26 05.30 54.97 

6) Wagholi 17.54 01.76 - - 19.20 

b) 3 to 5 KM 

1) Tuyapar 40.20 03.35 - - 43.55 

2) Ghoti Dahoda 33.94 07.21 - - 41.15 

c) 5 to 10 KM 

1) Ambazari 23.25 02.42 01.24 - 26.91 

2) Kadbikheda 42.58 07.38 02.91 - 52.87 

3) Chargaon 19.43 01.99 - - 21.42 

3.II.16 DEPENDENCE FOR LIVESTOCK CONSUMPTION: In the following 

paragraphs it has been attempted to examine the status of dependence of 

livestock population for grazing purpose 

Two estimates of dependence of livestock population on the forests of PNP have 

been worked out: 

75

1. On the basis of household surveys; 

2. On the basis of estimates of per capita consumption of fodder as given in 

various Reports i.e. on the secondary source of data. 

3.II.16.1 ESTIMATES OF DEPENDENCE OF LIVESTOCK POPULATION ON 

PNP: The livestock population of sample villages has been estimated at 447. 

The village wise break up of this is given in Table- III.II.12. 

The highest cattle population is for the village Ghoti- Dahoda (81), followed by 

Chargaon (65) and Tuyapar (64). The lowest cattle population is in Kirangisarra 

village (11), followed by Kolitmara (12). 

The total annual consumption of grass for the 79 households is reported at 

3,35,720 bundles of grass weighing 3,35,720 kg. Per capita annual consumption 

of grass by livestock population is estimated at 757.05, which gives daily 

consumption of 2.05 Kgs. The estimates based on local market rates (Re 1 per 

Kg) show the monetory value of the total dependence at Rs. 3,35,720 or 

Rs.757.05 per capita dependence of livestock for grazing purpose. This provides 

an estimate of daily dependence of Rs.2/- for grazing. 


village/Distance 

form PNP 

boundary 

a) 1 to 3 KM 

Table- III.II.11: Income from Non-Forest Sources 

Income from Non-Forest Sources 

Cultivation Agri. 

Labour 

Selfemp 

76 

Milch 

income 

Other 

income* 

Total 

1) Ghatpendhari 51.43 17.35 06.45 0.15 -- 75.38 

2) Kolitmara 0 05.90 14.21 0.14 -- 20.25 

3) Narhar 40.84 9.1 0 0.16 -- 50.1 

4) Kirangisarra 69.11 4.84 4.47 0.29 -- 78.71 

5) Khapa 24.43 16.52 02.37 0.17 -- 43.49 

6) Wagholi 75.81 04.25 01.06 0.15 -- 81.27 

b) 3 to 5 KM 

1) Tuyapar 42.98 13.42 00 0.17 -- 56.57 

2) Ghoti Dahoda 39.71 11.35 07.49 0.26 -- 58.81 

c) 5 to 10 KM 

1) Ambazari 64.22 02.42 06.45 0.01 -- 73.1 

2) Kadbikheda 34.49 12.64 - 0.14 -- 47.27 

3)Chargaon 36.43 05.08 37.07 0.12 -- 78.7

*Other income includes income from various rural development schemes as well as schemes implemented 

by forest department as well as NGO’s (for details refer Annexure-III) 

The above estimates are gross underestimation as the estimate of consumption 

as reported by them pertain to a period of only eight months. For remaining four 

months they are dependent on crop residue from agriculture. The daily per capita 

consumption (for eight months in the year) of grass by livestock population is 

estimated at (757.05/240 days) 3.13Kg. The fodder consumption in the form of 

agricultural waste or crop residue supplements the consumption of livestock 

population in the sample villages. 

Table-III.II.12 : Livestock Population (Sample) 

Village Name Total Livestock Village Name Total 

Population 

Livestock 

Population 

Ambazari 30 Kirangisarra 11 

Chargaon 65 Kolitmara 12 

Ghatpendhari 36 Narhar 23 

Ghoti- Dahoda 81 Tuyapar 64 

Kadbikheda 46 Wagholi 30 

Khapa 49 Total 447 

3.II.16.2 DEPENDENCE OF POPULATION ON FOREST OF PNP FOR 

FUELWOOD: For estimating dependence on forest of PNP, the relative share in 

total income of the villagers originating from the forest sources has been 

estimated. The income from forest mainly consists of income from firewood or 

fuel-wood and income from grasses and other NTFPs. For valuation of this, 

income from these sources has been reduced to a common denominator. Each 

village has its own measure of the quantity of each product harvested. This local 

unit of measure can be converted into standard metric unit of kilograms where a 

bundle is equal to 15 kg for fuel-wood and 20 kg for fodder (residue of jawar 

crop). For timber, the conversion is equal to 12 kg. In some villages, the local 

unit used to measure quantity of the products harvested is different for all the 

three products. In case of timber, the measure used is number of poles which 

when converted in the standard metric units comes to one pole measuring 10 kg. 

77

The measure for fuelwood is cartload and when converted into standard metric 

units comes to one cartload equalling to 300 kg. For fodder, in almost all 

villages, no real measure existed as the animals were left in the forest for open 

grazing. In 90% of the villages, the measure of quantity defined for the three 

products is head load. One head load of fuel would be 15 to 20 kg and cartload 

of bamboo equal to 200 kg to 300 kg. In estimating the dependence of these 

villages on PNP above method was used to reduce them into common 

denominator of monetory value. The price in the settlement area or in the local 

market in proximity of PNP has been used to quantify the dependence. 

The estimates of fuel-wood consumption for the local communities in 11 villages 

show their dependence to the tune of 17305 bundles of fuel wood or cart load 

converted into head-loads of bundle of wood reduced further to uniform category 

of (17305 * 15 KG) 2,59,575 kgs. The quantification in monetory units is 

estimated at Rs. 2,66,135 annually. This in turn works out to annual per capita 

consumption of Rs. 704 or in terms of physical units (17305 bundle /88 

households) 196.65 bundles of fuel-wood per household (annually). 

The requirement of fuel-wood for the village communities in 11 villages has also 

been estimated on the basis of secondary source of data v . The estimates of fuelwood 

consumption are based on the Report on Wood Consumption Study in 

Nagpur district by Forest Survey of India, Nagpur. Assuming per capita 

consumption of fuel wood at 0.99 m 3 or 297 Kgs (as per the estimates for the 

rural area of Nagpur district), the total consumption of fuel wood comes to 374.22 

m 3 for the sample population of the 11 villages. An average of 300 KG per cubic 

meter for quantification is taken which gives estimates of (374.22 m 3 * 300 Kg) 

1,12,266 Kgs. 

These alternative estimates based on primary and secondary sources of data 

have been presented to show the range within which consumption of fuel wood 

of the local communities in 11 villages would lie. This would give the lower limit 

(1,12,266 Kgs) as well as upper limit (2,59,575 Kgs) of dependence for fuel wood 

on the forest of PNP, and help in minimising the error in reporting. 

78

Proportionate share of population of 11 villages (as per 1991 census) to the total 

rural population of Nagpur district (as per 1991 census) has been worked out to 

estimate the demand for timber, fuel wood, agricultural waste, etc. On the basis 

of total rural consumption of above products, proportionate share of 11 villages in 

total consumption has been estimated. 

The per capita estimates based on the Report on Wood Consumption Study are 

given below. For sample population of 11 villages, total consumption for the 

following uses has been worked out. 

Table- III.II.13 : Estimates of consumption 

Sr. 

Item Annual per capita Total In Kg (1 M 

No. 

consumption* consumption 

3 = 

300 Kg) 

1. Bamboo 29 (No.) 11542 - - 

2. Building construction 0.507 M 3 201.79 M 3 60537 Kg 

3. Agri., Implements 0.037 M 3 147.26 44178 Kg 

4. Total Timber 0.574 M 3 228.45 68535.6 Kg 

5. Fire wood 0.99 M 3 / annum 394.02 118206 

* Estimates based on the Report on Wood Consumption Study 2000-01 

In the same manner, for low and medium income groups the estimates of 

consumption for cow dung/ agri. waste, kerosene, fire wood have been worked 

out by assuming uniform distribution of total population in two income groups, i.e. 

50 per cent in low and 50 per cent in medium income group. Population in high 

income group is assumed to be zero. 

Table-III.II.14: Consumption of Cow-dung, Agri. waste, Kerosene oil, 

Firewood 

Sr. 

No. 

Item Low 

income** 

(Kg) 

79 

Medium 

income** 

(Kg) 

1. Cow dung 5390.28 7592.13 

2. Agri. Waste 13,900.95 13,774.32 

3. Kerosene il* 2052.54 1744.47 

4. Fire wood 60,480 60,480 

* Kerosene oil is measured in terms of litres

** 50% of the population is assumed to be from low income group and 50% from 

medium income group. Population in high income group is assumed to be zero. 

REGRESSION ANALYSIS 

SECTION- III 

3.III.1 The purpose of this section is to investigate the dependence of the 

households on the forest of PNP with the help of regression analysis and 

particularly to identify the determinants of the dependence. The methodology 

consists of multiple regression and employs cross sectional data set. The 

ordinary least squares method is used to estimate the parameters. The estimates 

of the parameters provide the direct and indirect effects. The estimated 

coefficients of the equation indicate the relative strength (magnitude), direction 

(sign) and significance of the contribution of exogenous variables to the 

endogenous variable. The results of the regression analysis will be useful for 

deriving policy implications. The regression analysis is carried out at three levels: 

For the households of Fulzari village 

For the sample households of the sample villages 

For all the households of Fulzari and the sample villages 

The Model: The dependence of the households on forests and its various 

components are already explained in the earlier sections. For regression 

analysis, the dependence is defined as the percentage of forest income (sum 

total of income from NTFP, income from hunting and wages of forest labour), 

denoted by p1, in the total income of the family. The regression model 

considered for investigating the dependence of the households in and around the 

PNP, the multiple regression, is as follows: 

p1= f(ntfp, hunting, forlab, fishing, livestock, p2, qtynumer, firewoo1, firewoo2) 

where 

p1= dependence on forest of PNP 

ntfp= imputed value of NTFP 

80

hunting= imputed income from hunting 

forlab= income (wages) of forest labour 

livestock= total number of livestock 

p2= percentage of non-forest income (sum total of income from agriculture, 

wages income from agricultural labour and income from self-employment, other 

income like eco-development, rural development schemes) 

qtynumer= estimated value of headload of feed for livestock 

fishing = income from fishing 

firewoo1 and firewoo2 are the dummy variables used to capture the effects of 

collection of firewood from reserve forest and core forest respectively and are 

defined as 

firewoo1=1 if the firewood is collected from the reserve forest 

=0 otherwise 

firewoo2=1 if the firewood is collected from the core forest 

=0 otherwise 

3.III.2 Dependence: For the data set obtained by interviewing the households in 

the Fulzari village and the sample households in the selected villages the 

estimated dependence on the PNP is presented in the following tables. 

The comparison between the cumulative percentages of table1 and table2 brings 

out that the dependence of the households on the PNP varies inversely with the 

distance of the village. Fulzari being in the core forest area its dependence on 

the PNP is naturally the maximum. 

81

Table III.III.1:Dependence on the PNP (% of forest income in the total income of the 

family): Fulzari Village 

Dependence 

(%) 

Number of 

Households 

Cumulative total greater 

than lower boundary of 

class 

82 

Cumulative 

percentage 

0-10 2 41 100.00 

10-20 0 41 100.00 

20-30 7 39 95.12 

30-40 3 32 78.05 

40-50 5 29 70.73 

50-60 9 24 58.54 

60-70 5 15 36.59 

70-80 2 10 24.63 

80-90 3 8 19.51 

90-100 5 5 12.20 

Total 41 

Table III.III.2 :Dependence on the PNP (% of forest income in the total income of 

the family) : Other Villages 

Dependence 

(%) 

Number of 

Households 

Cumulative total greater 

than lower boundary of 

class 

Cumulative 

percentage 

0-10 8 80 100.00 

10-20 9 72 90.00 

20-30 5 63 78.75 

30-40 10 58 72.50 

40-50 12 48 60.00 

50-60 14 36 45.00 

60-70 11 22 27.50 

70-80 1 11 13.75 

80-90 5 10 12.50 

90-100 5 5 6.25 

Total 80 

Table III.III.3 :Dependence on the PNP (% of forest income in the total income of 

the family): Combined Sample 

Dependence Number of Cumulative total greater Cumulative 

(%) Households than lower boundary of 

class 

percentage 

0-10 10 121 100.00 

10-20 9 111 91.74 

20-30 12 102 84.30 

30-40 13 90 74.38 

40-50 17 77 63.64 

50-60 23 60 49.59 

60-70 16 37 30.58 

70-80 3 21 17.36 

80-90 8 18 14.89 

90-100 10 10 8.26 

Total 121

The households in the PNP with 40 per cent or more dependence accounts for 

more than 63 per cent of the total sample. 

3.III.3 Interlinkages: The estimates of correlation coefficients indicate the degree 

of relationship or, interlinkages between the variables. The bivariate correlations 

between the dependence and other variables are presented in the following 

table. 

Table III.III.4: Correlations 

Dependence & Fulzari Other Villages Combined Sample 

Correlation t-value Correlation p-value Correlation p-value 

NTFP 0.267 0.092 0.488** 0.000 0.378** 0.000 

Hunting 0.212 0.183 0.161 0.154 0.189* 0.038 

Forest Labour 0.317* 0.043 0.191 0.090 0.183* 0.05 

Fishing --0.503** 0.001 --0.069 0.542 --0.221* 0.015 

Livestock 0.221 0.166 0.180 0.111 0.184* 0.043 

p2 --0.605** 0.000 --0.065 0.565 --0.65 0.482 

qtynumer 0.291 0.065 0.202 0.072 0.150 0.099 

The NTFP, hunting and forest labour, are the direct contributors to the 

dependence on the PNP. The correlations of these variables with the 

dependence are positive. For households of other villages and the combined 

sample, the correlations are not only positive but they are also statistically 

significant. Similarly livestock and qtnumer also positively contribute to the 

dependence. The correlations of these variables with the dependence are also 

positive. Agricultural income plus the agricultural labour (p2) and fishing 

constitute the components of the total income of a family besides the forest 

income. A priori the relationships of dependence with the p2 and fishing are 

assumed to be negative because the increase in any of these variables will 

decrease the p1. The estimates of correlation coefficients are observed to be 

negative for all the three situations. For the households of Fulzari and the 

combined sample, the correlation coefficients between the dependence and 

fishing are found to be statistically significant. The correlation between 

83

dependence and p2 is observed to be statistically significant for the households 

of Fulzari village. 

3.III.4 Regression Results: The linear multiple regression results are presented 

in the following paragraphs. The multiple regression under estimation is 

p1= f(ntfp, hunting, forlab, fishing, livestock, p2, qtynumer, firewoo1, firewoo2) 

The regression results are presented first for the households of Fulzari village. 

Table III.III.5 : Regression Results :Dependent Variable: p1 

Independent 

Variable 

84 

Fulzari 

Estimate t-value p-value 

Constant 94.5980** 15.879 0.000 

NTFP 0.000180 0.508 0.615 

Hunting 0.000672 1.351 0.186 

Forlab 0.000644 0.673 0.506 

Firewood2 6.839* 2.038 0.050 

Fishing --0.00331** --10.400 0.000 

Livestock 0.219 0.991 0.559 

Qtynumer --0.00971 --0.620 0.539 

P2 --0.865** --11.289 0.000 

R 2 = 0.889 

Fishing, income from agriculture plus agriculture labour (p2) and Firewood2 are 

the variables that have significant impact on the dependence. Out of these 

variables, p2 and fishing have negative impact whereas firewoo2 has positive 

impact. The estimate of the coefficient of determination brings out that the 

exogenous variables explain almost 89 per cent variation in the dependence of 

the households in Fulzari village on the PNP. When the insignificant variables are 

dropped from the model, the model reduces to 

p1= f(fishing, p2, firewoo2,) 

The results are presented in the following table.

Table III.III.6 :Regression Results for Fulzari: Dependent Variable: p1 

Independent 

Variable 


Constant 97.940** 26.274 0.000 

Firewood2 7.061* 2.22 0.033 

Fishing --0.00341** --11.442 0.000 

P2 --0.899** --13.366 0.000 

R 2 = 0.873 

The three variables, fishing, income from agriculture plus agriculture labour (p2) 

and collection of firewood together explain more than 87 per cent of the 

dependence of Fulzari households on the PNP. As compared to the previous 

model wherein all the determinants were considered the decline in the coefficient 

of determination is only marginal. 

3.III.5 Other Villages: 

The regression results for the sample households from the selected villages are 

presented in the following table. 

Table III.III.7: Regression Results : Dependent Variable: p1 

Other Villages 

Independent Variable Estimate t-value p-value 

Constant 26.943** 3.109 0.003 

NTFP 0.002221*** 4.361 0.000 

Hunting 0.00204 1.326 0.189 

Forlab 0.00105 0.950 0.346 

Firewood2 2.187 0.257 0.798 

Fishing --0.000801 --0.475 0.636 

Livestock --0.404 --0.693 0.491 

Qtynumer 0.000120 1.929 0.058 

P2 --0.000203 --0.637 0.526 

R 2 = 0.323 

In case of these households, the exogenous variable, NTFP seems to be playing 

a very important role in determining the dependence on the PNP. Although the 

85

signs of the other variables are in the proper direction, their impact is statistically 

insignificant. The model after dropping the insignificant variables is as follows: 

p1= f(ntfp) 

The results of the estimation of the model are furnished in the following table 

Table III.III.8 :Regression Results for Households of other villages 

Dependent Variable: p1 

Combined Sample 

Independent 

Variable 


Constant 25.93** 5.556 0.000 

NTFP 0.002093** 4.934 0.000 

R 2 = 0.238 

The regression results for the sample households of the combined sample are 


Independent 

Variable 

Table III.III.9 :Regression Results 




Constant 40.449** 6.730 0.000 

NTFP 0.001614** 3.688 0.000 

Hunting 0.002071** 2.297 0.023 

Forlab 0.001397 1.444 0.151 

Firewood2 7.015 1.266 0.208 

Fishing --0.00141** --2.270 0.025 

Livestock --0.271 --0.558 0.578 

Qtynumer 0.0001113 1.739 0.085 

P2 --0.000256 --0.782 0.436 

R 2 = 0.269 

In case of the combined sample households, NTFP, hunting and fishing seem to 

have statistically significant impact. All the exogenous variables together explain 

about 27 per cent variation in the dependence of the households of villages in the 

PNP. The model after dropping the insignificant variables is as follows: 

86

p1= f(ntfp, hunting, fishing) 

The regression results for the sample households of the combined sample are 


Table III.III.10 :Regression Results 


Independent 

Variable 


Estimate t-value pvalue 

Constant 36.198** 9.579 0.000 

NTFP 0.001489** 4.478 0.000 

Hunting 0.002137** 2.369 0.019 

Fishing --0.00134** 

R 

--2.182 0.031 

2 = 0.216 

All the four exogenous variables together explain 21.6 per cent variation in the 

dependence of the households of villages in the PNP. 

The significant positive effect that the constant term in all the equations suggests 

clearly the synergy that The PNP dependence performance can derive from the 

general socio-economic, political and resource-related within the PNP 

framework. 

87

Annexure-III 

Income under the category of ‘Other’ includes income from various rural 

development programmes and the schemes implemented by the Forest 

Department under Eco-Development or micro plan. Through field surveys, 

information regarding rural development programmes was collected both at 

village level (sample villages) and at the level of households. Benefits under 

Indira Awas Schemes, water supply and Sanitation Schemes, S. G. S. R. 

Schemes etc. are available to the local communities at the village level. (for 

some of the sample villages like Tuyapar, Khapa, Kolitmara). However, the 

sample households, selected randomly, did not get benefits or those who were 

benefited, experienced only marginal growth in their income. The respondents of 

the sample households did not report any information regarding income received 

through these rural development programmes. 

The benefits of Eco-development and micro plan executed by the forest 

department were not received by the respondents in sample villages as it was 

suspended in 1999 (as reported by Forest Dept.). 

The column showing income from ‘other’ sources therefore shows nil income for 

villages under consideration. 

Notes and Reference 

i The estimates of consumption of wood for construction purpose are given in the 

Report of Wood Consumption Study 2000-01, Nagpur, Forest Survey of India. 

ii Gupta (1991) and Prasad and Bhatnagar (1991 a) 

iii 

The livestock population of Fulzari has witnessed a fall from 422 in 1991 to 216 

in 2002 (survey period) which may be indicative of falling dependence of it on 

PNP. 

iv 

The sample design is discussed in detail in methodology 

v As per Report on Wood Consumption Study of Nagpur District, Forest Survey of 

India Ministry of Environment and Forests, GOI 200-2001 

88

CHAPTER- IV: BIODIVESITY–An OVERVIEW 

4.I.1 Having analysed the dependence of the village communities on the natural 

resources of the PNP for biomass consumption in the preceding chapters, it is now 

attempted to discuss the impact of human intervention may be for recreational 

purpose. Such an intervention is likely to have an adverse impact on the biodiversity 

of the PNP. In the present chapter, it is attempted to present biodiversity 

status of PNP by giving inventory of flora and fauna. In order to examine the impact 

of human intervention on biodiversity status or vegetation structure, an attempt has 

been made to present botanical information collected by using the ‘International 

Forestry and Resources Institution (IFRI) technique. The medicinal value of sample 

plots or marketable medicinal value of sample plots or major three species (timber, 

firewood, movai, saja etc.) in the biodiversity plots has been attempted in the same 

chapter. 

With above purpose in view, the present chapter is divided into following sections, 

Section I gives general profile of biodiversity at global as well as at the level of PNP. 

Section- II depicts vegetational status by taking a sample of plots in PNP by using 

IFRI method. It also tries to analyse impact of human intervention on the 

vegetational structure of PNP. Section-III attempts to measure marketable value of 

major tree species in the sample plots. Section IV gives inventory of medicinal 

plants in PNP. 

SECTION- I 

BIO-DIVERSITY –A GENERAL PROFILE 

4.I.2 Maintaining biodiversity through creation of National Park and Tigers Reserve is 

gaining increasing importance. Worldwide, numerous species are going extinct, and 

even more that have not yet been identified are likely to be threatened. Perhaps the 

most comprehensive data about extinction and threats of extinction are found in Red 

Lists and Red 1 Data Books published by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 

(WCMC1992; IUCN 1995; UNEP 1995) Those data indicate that in 1994, just for the 

species about which enough is known to assess their status, nearly 5,400 animal 

species and more than 26,000 plant species were threatened; that is, they were 

listed as endangered, vulnerable, rare or indeterminate. The loss of even a specie 

diminishes the earth’s store of biological diversity, for once eliminated the specie 

89

cannot be recovered or regenerated. It is important to be concerned about the loss 

of species or any other loss of biodiversity because biodiversity is the very stuff of 

life. It includes the variety or list the millions of different species and unique genes 

that each individual of each species carries- and the process through which all 

species interact. 

INDIAN SCENARIO: Indian flora comprises of 46,620 species of plants of which, 

about 15000 species are of flowering plants, 2500 species of algae, 1,600 lichens, 

23,000 fungi , 2584 bryophytes, 1,022 pteridophytes, 64 gymnosperm and 850 

bacteria. There are about 75000 species of animals including 50,000 insects, 4,000 

molluscs’ 2,000 fishes, 140 amphibians, 420 reptiles, 1,200 birds and 340 mammals 

and other invertebrates. It is estimated that 79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 

of reptiles, 3 of amphibians and about 3000 plant species are going to be extinct in 

the near future. To conserve these species, we have to protect their viable habitats 

and specific measure have to be taken to prevent poaching and prevent trade of wild 

life products such as ivory, rhino horns, furs, skins, musk, peacock feathers, etc. 

A glimpse of biodiversity scenario and conservation measures needed to be adopted 

are enumerated below: 

BIODIVERSITY 

A Total plant species in the World 

Medical and aromatic plants known globally 

B Plant species in India 

Flowering plants 

Algae 

Lichens 

Fungi 

Bryophytes 

Pteridophytes 

Gymnosperm 

Bacteria 

(Source: BSI 1980 ) 

C Biodiversity in Himachal Pradesh 

Number of flowering plants in HP 

Medical plants 

Aromatic plants 

Plants of Ethonobotanical Importance 

D Commercial medicinal and aromatic plants 

available 

Commercial medicinal and aromatic plants 

90 

4,00,000 

8,000 

15,000 

2,500 

1,600 

23,000 

2,584 

1,022 

64 

850 

3,500 

900 

150 

050 

150- 200

available in PNP 80-100 

E Plants species harnessed for trade and industry 

Plants species which can be harnessed in PNP 

F Threatened /endangered species of medicinal 

and aromatic plants 

Threatened /endangered species of medicinal 

and aromatic plants inPNP 

G Medicinal and aromatic plants species that can 

be cultivated in different agroclimatic zone of 

Himachal Pradesh 

Medicinal and aromatic plants species that can 

be cultivated in different agroclimatic zone of 

PNP 

H Plant species under threat 

World 

India (endangered species) 

Himachal Pradesh (endangered species) 

4.I.3 BIODIVERSITY OF PNP: 

91 

85- 100 

20-25 

36 

00 

375 

40 

20,000-30,000 

>3000 

>100 

The PNP is endowed with such biodiversity of flora and fauna which has local as well 

as global value. It is a treasure house of wide ranging species with life saving 

medical value and has potential of improved foodstuff to feed a burgeoning human 

population. The attempt, in the present study, has been made to provide an 

inventory of floristic composition of PNP. The objective is to provide forest 

biodiversity spread over PNP. 

4.I.4 Structure and Composition of Tree Vegetation in PNP: 

Vegetation constitutes one of the major components of natural resources of any 

ecosystem, because it acts as an ecological indicator of all aspects of environment. 

It acts as an important source of food to the wild as well as domestic animals and 

human beings and provides habitat to the wild animals. Any change in the 

vegetation structure due to human activities directly creates impact upon the 

population structure of faunal species, which signifies important role of vegetation in 

the ecological studies. To study the impact of human activity induced change in the 

ecosystem, it is necessary to understand floral aspects of the ecosystem from 

conservation and management viewpoint. The process involves, assessment of 

certain parameters such as floristic inventory, quantification of vegetation cover and 

various uses like commercial, medicinal use of plants. 2

4.I.5 GENERAL CAUSES OF THREAT TO PLANT SPECIES 

Both natural as well as man-made causes are posing a great threat to the survival of 

may medicinal and aromatic plant species. Certain natural disaster leading to 

destruction of habitats cannot be blamed for, but certain factors can be controlled or 

their effects can be diluted to a great extinct. The major causes leading to loss of 

biodiversity are listed below : 

Abiotic Factors 

• Floods, droughts, earthquakes, landslides, etc 

• High rate of endemism 

• Critically low population (less than 100 

• Individuals) plants) 

• Pathogens/ Disease 

• Absence of pollinators 

• Invasion by exotics or other aggressive species 

• Land, water and air pollution 

Biotic Factors 

1. Destruction or modification of habitats 

2. Over exploitation for commercial, scientific and educational purposes 

3. Over grazing by domestic animals 

4. Regeneration of obnoxious weed 

5. Change/ expansion in farming activities 

6. Distribution 

92

SECTION- II 

BIO-DIVERSITY OF THE SAMPLE PLOTS AND IMPACT OF HUMAN 

INTERVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY 

4.II.1 Methodology 

For the present study IFRI method has been used for collecting botanical 

information. 

‘International Forestry and Resources Institutions’ (IFRI) has developed 10 

instruments to collect socio-economic data. Of these, one is the Forest Plot form, 

which are used to collect forest data. ‘Plots’ are demarcated areas for studying the 

ecology of a forest. IFRI researchers use them to identify trees, saplings, and 

herbaceous matter found in the forest they are examining. By carefully determining 

the number and distribution of plots according to the major objective of the study, 

IFRI researchers can hypothesize how the local population uses (or abuses) forest 

resources. Plots, in other words, are the key link between the social and institutional 

data collected on most forms and the biological data collected on the Forest Plot 

form. 

The purpose of the Forest Plot Form is to record names, extent of cover, and the 

size of plant species within each forest. The information collected on each plot is 

aggregated to describe the forest as a whole. Important values of tree species 

based on density, frequency, and dominance, as well as diversity indices, can be 

readily calculated from this data. Biodiversity, size class structure, and abundance 

of plants ranked as priority species by local user groups can also be calculated. 

This method requires placing a grid over a map of the forest and, using a random 

number table, selecting coordinates of a “random point” in the forest. Using the table 

of random numbers, plots are determined. The team locates the random points in 

the forest by using established landmarks such as streams, trails, or large trees that 

have been marked on the map. If the forest is small, it may be possible to pace off 

and mark two reference lines crossing the forest perpendicular to each other. Once 

one plot is found, teams can use compass bearings and paces to reach the other 

plots. For this study, however, GPS is used for identifying the marked plots. Once 

the pre-determined plot is reached, center is marked with a stick or surveying flag, 

and a boundary of the 1-meter radius circle is also marked. The other two circles are 

93

also easily marked off by walking around the center stake at radial distances of 3 

and 10 meters. Once the plot is demarcated, measuring and counting plants starts 

in the small circle, working outward. 

Diagram of Radial Dimensions (meters) for Concentric Circles of a Forest Plot 

10 1 

Ground cover includes species of grass and other ground cover. In the 3 meter circle 

all the sapling, their DBH and height is taken, and in 10 meter radius circle DBH and 

height is enumerated for all trees with the help of Clinometer. 

4.II.2 OBSERVATIONS 

Trees 

= ground cover 

=shrubs/sampling 

= trees 

Pench National Park is very rich in floral diversity pertaining to this area. The forest 

type is "Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest" and is grouped as 5AC under 

revised classification of the forests by Champion and Seth. The diverse vegetation 

type ranges from such climax forests as Dry Teak forest and Southern dry deciduous 

mixed forests, edaphic types as Boswellia forest, Mowai forest, Garari forest and 

primary several stages like dry tropical Riparian forests. The PA serves as a living 

repository of various economic, medicinal, aromatic, ornamental plant species 

diversity. 

The entire protected area of the park shows that, around 622.94 Ha. Forest area is 

cleared for construction of approach roads, saddle dam, colonies, stores, power 

house, and quarries. Around 1993.78 Ha area is under submergence. Although 

94 

3 Shrubs and saplings 

ground 

cover

several compartments have been demarcated as ‘tourism zone’, only areas that are 

most frequented by tourists are being considered. In this study, area around the 

dam as well as the river is taken as tourism area. Forest area surrounding villages, 

used by them for grazing and fuelwood collection is taken as human affected area. 

Area where no human intervention is present is taken as core area 

Vegetation around the villages shows presence of dominance of tree species, 

Tectona grandis, Terminalia alata, Buchanania lanzan, Lannea coromandelica, 

Sterculea urens, Anogeissus latifolia, Bauhinia racemosa, Buteamonosperma. Other 

woody elements comprises Chloroxylon sweitinia, Dalbergia paniculata, Diospyros 

melanoxylon, Grewia tilifolia, Ixora arborea, Acacia catechu, Aegle marmelos, 

Madhuca longifolia, Schleichera oleosa, Mitragyna parvifolia, Bombax ceiba, Butea 

monosperma, Ficus sp., Mallotus philipenses, Mimosa hamata, Soymida febrifuga. 

Bridelia retusa, Cassia fistula, Cichlospermum religiosum, Echnocarpus sp., Eugenia 

jambolaena, Flacourtia indica. Most obvious perennial monocots include Bambusa 

arundinacea and Dendrocalamus strictus. Most common woody climbers are 

Tinospora cordifolia, Ventilago denticulate, Zizyphus glaberrima, & Butea superba 

(Table 4-7). 

This area also shows presence of saplings of number of woody plants. It is 

dominated by Lagerstroemia parviflora, Tectona grandis, Diospyros melanoxylon, 

Terminalia alata, Chloroxylon swietenia, Buchanania lanzan, Ixora arborea, Bauhinia 

racemosa, Acacia catechu, Annona squamosa, Butea superba, Echnocarpous sp., 

Flacourtia indica, Grevia hirsuta, Semecarpus anacardium, Tamarindus indicus & 

Zizyphus glaberrima, dominating saplings of woody climbers are of Argyeria 

nervosa, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Gymnosporia montana, & Tinospora cordifolia 

(Tables 1-3). 

Ground flora of the area around the villages shows great bio-diversity of herbs and 

seedlings. It is dominated by annuals, Desmodium dichotomum, Lagascea mollis, 

Rostellularia diffusa, Chrysopogon fulvus, Andrographis paniculata, Andropogon 

pumilus. Weeds also make their presence around villages like, Parthenium 

sp.,Tephrosia purpurea,Aerva lanata, Sida species and many more grasses. Most 

frequent seedlings belong to Butea monosperma, Ixora arborea, Diospyros 

melanoxylon, Tectona grandis, and Terminalia alata. Seedlings of xerophytic 

95

perennials, such as Zizyphus sp., Mimosa hamata,Grewia tilifolia, Flacourtia indica 

are also very common (Figure 2). 

Tourism zone shows comparatively lesser number of species. This area is 

dominated by trees of Pterocarpus marsupium, Lannea coromandelica, Anogeissus 

latifolia, Bauhinia recemosa, Butea monosperma, Lagerstroemia parviflora, 

Sterculea urens, Tectona grandis, Zizyphus glaberrima, Buchanania lanzan, Ficus 

racemosa, Butea superba, Bauhinea vahlii, Diospyros melanoxylon, Phyllanthus 

emblica, Soymida febrifuga & Terminalia alata species (Tables 4-6). 

Tourism area also shows lesser regenerative capacity, as only few saplings are 

observed in this area belonging to Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, 

Helectris isora, Flocourtia indica & Chloroxylon swietenia (Tables 1-3). Annual flora 

of tourism zone shows very few species of grasses , like, Chrysopogon fulvus, 

Andropogon pumilus, Iseilema laxum and few herbs. Seedlings are totally missing 

(Figure 3). In this area pressure of tourists, developmental plans of the government 

in the interest of the tourist industry [development of Dam site as picnic spot, fair 

weather roads etc.] resulted in, if not complete obliteration but depletion of herb on 

this land (Figure 4). 

Core area, which forms around 230.35 sq.km., shows dominance of tree species 

Tectona grandis, Terminalia alata, Lannea coromandelica, Pterocarpus marsupium, 

Sterculia urens, Anogiessus latifolia, Bauhinia racemosa, Bombax ceiba, Boswellia 

serrata, Cassia fistula, Dalbergia paniculata, Diospyros melanoxylon, Madhuca 

longifolia, Ougeinia ougeinensis, Terminalia tomentosa and some small woody 

elements like Grewia tilifolia, Ixora arborea, Zizyphus glaberrima & Bauhinia vahlii 

(Tables 4-6). 

Saplings & Tree species of the core area belong to Lagerstroemia parviflora, 

Tectona grandis, Terminalia sp., Bauhinia recemosa, Butea superba, Grewia tilifolia, 

Mimosa hamata and Asparagus racemosus. Borassus flabellifer also shows its 

appearance in the form of saplings (Tables 1-3). 

Ground cover of core area is dominated by grass species, like, Andropogon pumilus, 

Apluda mutica, Heteropogon contrtus and few members of family Acanthaceae, 

Malvaceae and Asteraceae. Common seedlings of core area are of Diospyros 

96

melanoxylon, Bambusa sp., Grewia hirsuta and Zizyphus species [ Appendix I] 

(Figure 2). 

4.II.3 Discussion 

It is a general belief that increasing population of Fauna particularly cattle, promotion 

of tourism as an industry, and other anthropogenic pressures influence the quality 

and quantity of vegetation. On the foundation of this dicta exclusive model of 

National parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves came into existence to preserve 

natural habitat for survival of wild life as well as flora in their natural state. 

Demarcation of core area within these protected areas as sanctum sanctorium, is to 

preserve the genetic diversity and to allow it to grow naturally without any outside 

impact, mainly human intervention. 

Observations and analysis of the study area, i.e., Pench national park depicts an 

interesting picture. Comparison of vegetation of village boundaries, tourism area 

and core area suggests that in the area around villages, influence of biota has 

resulted in increase in the biodiversity. It could be due to the fact that initial 

introduction, followed by naturalization and spread of plants of human interest. For 

example, presence of Acacia catechu, Buchanania lanzan, & Chloroxylon swietenia 

are found around villages, but they are absent in the core area. Similarly trees which 

are growing around villages are equally good in height and D.B.H [Tables 7-10], 

which also substantiate the fact that all the villagers living around the PA do not cut 

down trees for trade or commercial purposes. Top strata (15-20 meters) of the 

forest is occupied by Terminalia alata, Tectona grandis, Anogeissus latifolia, 

Dalbergia paniculata. Sterculia urens, Lannea coromandelica & Madhuca longifolia. 

Middle strata (10-15 meters) of the forest shows presence of Diospyros 

melanoxylon, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Chloroxylon sweitenia, Buchanania lanzan, 

bauhinia racemosa [Figure 8]. Sapling flora of these trees [Tables 9,10] shows that 

the saplings are taller in height but lesser in diameter. Probably this is because of 

either coppicing or high density of saplings. 

This forest is characterized by a preponderance of random distribution and the rarity 

of regular distribution, as it is evident from abundance and frequency of trees and 

saplings [Tables 1-6]. The occurrence of contagious distribution of natural vegetation 

has been reported by several workers, [Greig- Smith, 1957; Kershaw, 1973; Singh 

97

and Yadav,1974]. According to Odum [1971], clumped [contagious] distribution is the 

commonest pattern in nature, where as random distribution occurs in uniform 

environments, and the regular distributions occur in areas where severe 

competitions between the individuals exist. 

Core area shows regular distribution of Lagerstroemia parviflora Sterculia urens 

and Tectona grandis. Contiguous distribution is shown by Anogeisus latifolia, 

Buchanania lanzan, Dalbergia paniculata, Lannea coromandelica and Terminalia 

alata. While rest of the trees species are characterised by random distribution. 

However, same species show variation in abundance and density. Anogeisus latifolia 

and Tectona grandis show highest degree of abundance, followed by Lagerstroemia 

parviflora and Sterculia urens and then Lannea coromandelica, Diospyros and 

Terminalia alata. 

Village boundary flora exhibits contigious distribution of Tectona grandis and 

Terminalia alata, while the rest of the species are random in distribution. At the same 

time Bauhinia racemosa shows highest abundance, followed by Tectona grandis 

Lagerstroemia parviflora, Dalbergia paniculata, and Chloroxylon sweitenia. 

In Tourism area Grewia telifolia and Lagerstroemia parviflora are more regular in 

their occurrence, but most abundant specie in this region is Lannea coromandelica, 

followed by Bauhinia racemosa, Anogeisus latifolia, Sterculia urens , Tectona 

grandis and Lagerstroemia parviflora. 

Comparison of relative frequency, relative density and abundance of the three 

different land use area shows higher values for Tectona grandis, Terminalia alata 

around villages. Grewia telifolia and Lagerstroemia parviflora in Tourism zone and 

Tectona grandis , Sterculia urens and Lagerstroemia parviflora in Core area (Tables 

IV.11, 12). 

Regeneration of trees is of special interest because of high economic and ecological 

importance. The regeneration rate of these trees in natural forests is quite low. It is 

also affected by degradation of habitats, livestock, population pressure, shrinking 

water resources, unregulated extraction of natural forest produces, and threats from 

trade. 

Growing population and its dependence upon bounties of nature, particularly for fuel 

wood, fodder and other NTFP, has resulted in degradation of the habitat. Livestock 

98

population, which is reported to be half of that of human population, places an 

unacceptable pressure on shrinking biomass. 

Sapling flora shows relatively higher frequency and dominance of Tectona grandis, 

and Lagerstroemia parviflora in village boundary; Chloroxylon sweitenia, 

Lagerstroemia parviflora and Tectona grandis in tourism zone and Anogeisus latifolia 

Lagerstroemia parviflora, Tectona grandis and Terminalia alata in core area. 

Analysis of saplings shows complete elimination of Anogeisus latifolia, Dalbergia 

paniculata, Lannea coromandelica and Madhuca longifolia. While saplings of, 

Lagerstroemia parviflora and Tectona grandis find their place in each categories with 

higher number, density and frequency. Presence of Chloroxylon sweitenia, Acacia 

catechu and Dendrocalamus strictus around villages suggest their introduced nature 

[Tables IV.1-3]. 

Tourism area shows poor representation of number of species in terms of frequency, 

abundance and density. Most affected species are Dalbergia paniculata, Lannea 

coromandellica, Madhuca longifolia , Tectona grandis, and Terminalia alata.[ Tables 

IV.1-3]. 

Saplings are also very few in number and diversity in the core area because of 

dense crown cover. Regeneration of plants is less in case of Grewia tilifolia, 

Lagerstremia parviflora & Tectona grandis. Clearing, thinning and other 

management practices could be taken up if regeneration and growth of vegetation in 

this area is targeted. 

Among the shrubs dominant species are Ixora arborea, Helectris isora, Grewia 

species, Lantana camara, Mimosa species,Woodfordia fruticosa, Nyctanthus, 

Zizyphus and Kirginalia reticulata. Common climbers of the area are Cissus 

quadrangularis, Tinospora cordifolia, Mucuna prurians, Butea superba, Cryptolepis 

buchanani, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Hemidesmus indicus, Discorea bulbifera, 

Cocculus hirsutus, Combratum ovalifolium and Bauhinia vahilii. These climbers are 

more frequent in core area than other parts of the protected area. Only few epiphytic 

species observed in this area are Dendrophthoe falcata and Vanda tesellata 

(Appendix – IV.1). 

Analysis of Truncated trees around Village boundries suggests more pressure on 

Tectona grandis, Bamboosa arundinacea, Diospyros melanoxylon, Dendrocalamus 

99

strictus, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Buchanania lanzan, Acacia catechu, and Aegle 

marmelos, Circumference range [Figure 1] of these cut trees shows their primary use 

as timber. 

Other plants which find their place as utility plants (fuel plants) belong to species of 

Grewia, Helectres, Maytenus, Mimosa, Zizyphus , acacia, Calycopteris, Flacourtia,. 

It seems that the pressure of grazing and browsing, being sustainable, results in 

higher reproductive capacity. In some cases vegetative propagation and small life 

span is the basic cause of increased biodiversity and density of ground flora around 

settlements. In the tourism area and the core area, it is the total loss of the flora 

because of unfavorable conditions [ Figure 2]. 

Analysis of Biodiversity of Pench National Park [Figure 5] present dominance of 

Leguminosae followed by Poaceae, Acanthaceae, Combrataceae and Rubiaceae. 

In sum total 175 species are distributed in 134 genera and 56 families. 93 percent of 

families, 87 percent of genera and 90percent of species belong to Dicots [Figure 6- 

8]. Biological spectrum of the Pench National Park potrays sixty herbs, twenty five 

shrubs, seventy five trees and seventeen climbers. Herbs are more in number in the 

village area while Trees are more in the Core area. 

Conclusions 

Pench biodiversity is negatively affected by Tourism, but not necessarily due to 

grazing and construction and other extractions by the people living close to the park 

boundary. Because of the proximity to Reserved forest and Protected forest, the 

locals fulfill their major needs from there. They are utilizing natural resources only 

for small timber fuel and some other non-timber forest products like fruits, leaves, 

gum, medicinal plants, grass for thatching and some other minor uses. Development 

of roads and pressure of tourists are the main causes for disturbance of biota of the 

area. 

100

Section-III 

Pench 

National Park 

[Present 

Study, 2002] 

Dominant Families 

Nagpur District 

[Ugemuge, 

1986] 

101 

Central India 

[Hooker, 1872- 

1897] 

Leguminosae Leguminosae Poaceae 

Poaceae Poaceae Leguminosae 

Acanthaceae Cyperaceae Acanthaceae 

Rubiaceae Asteraceae Orchidaceae 

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Cyperaceae 

Combretaceae Acanthaceae Euphorbiaceae 

Malvaceae Rubiaceae 

Convolvulaceae Asteraceae 

Scrophulariaceae Lamiaceae 

Lamiaceae Asclepiadaceae 

4.III.1 MEASURMENT OF MARKET VALUE * 

The quantification of timber and firewood is based on secondary source of data 

collected from the forest department. Forest Department has adopted conservation 

plots from which the information about species is collected. The quantification of nine 

species has been done. Namely- Tendu, Dhawda, Salai, Miovai, Bija, Haldu, Kalam, 

Shivan and Saja. The information about girth size class, volume of tree, number of 

trees, and rate of timber and firewood has been calculated on the basis of following 

method. 

The information for different girth classes, volume per tree in cubic meters for these 

species has been obtained from local volume tables of Government of Maharashtra 

working plan for reserved and protected forests of Nagpur division and price lists for 

the timber and firewood for the year 1990-91 to 1999- 2000. 

The volume of trees in cubic meters depends upon the no. of trees species and 

volume per tree for girth class. 

Each girth size class (per c.m.) has been taken into consideration to get total value 

of each specie. This gives the idea about the marketable value of each specie for 

* This quantification is related to the size of plot 250m*400m

that area i.e. PNP. However, the various adjustments like transportation cost, 

middleman’s commission etc. have also been taken into consideration. 

The existence value of the trees in the forest has been calculated which provides 

separate valuation of timber as well as firewood. This way the intrinsic valuation of 

the species has been shown in the following table- 

Table- IV.1: Quantification According to species Rate for timber and firewood 

Species Rate for 

timber (Rs.) 

102 

Rate of 

Firewood 

(Rs.) 

Total (Rs.) 

1. Tendu and 

Dhawada 

1,00,908.37 175.39 1,01,083.96 

2. Salai and 

Movai 

25,770.16 176.06 25,946.22 

3. Bija 46,245.96 2050 48,295.96 

4. Haldu, 

Klam and 

Shivan 

33,913.45 2200 36,113.45 

5. Saja 2,45,756.00 27,491.00 2,73,247.00 

Grand Total 4,52,593.94 32,092.65 4,84,686.59 

Source: Lal J. B. – Economic Value of India’s Forest Stock; P. 46; The Price 

of Forest Edited by Anil Agrawal 

The estimates have been made on the basis of per cubic meter rates in rupees for 

every species for timber and firewood. 

The table shows that out of nine species the most important is Saja in terms of 

valuation/ environmental accounting. The availability of this species at PNP 

shows the richness of forest cover. Tendu and Dhawada are contributing a lot 

because of its timber, firewood quality in the forest. Followed by these species, 

Bija is also one of the important species in the context of environmental benefit 

from this area. Other species are also remarkably important from the point of view 

of timber and firewood valuation. Haldu, Kalam, Shivan, Salai and Movai species 

are worth mentioning for calculating environmental gain from the forest. 

The grand total of the species for rate of timber (per C. M.) is Rs. 4,52,593.94 and 

for firewood (per C. M.) is Rs. 32,092.65 for the preservation plot of 250 m * 400 m. It 

means the well maintained thick forest cover is rich in terms of timber availability for these 

nine species. The environmental benefit from these species are worth mentioning.

SECTION- IV 

MEDICINAL PLANTS IN PNP 

4.IV.1 MEDICINAL PLANTS: India’s diverse agro-climate zones, variations in 

regional topography, wide variations in flora and fauna has contributed to the 

richness of its biological diversity. This diversity is a rich source of various 

medicinal inputs. Depending on the availability of medicinal plants, the country 

has been divided into eight phyto-geographic regions. The principal medicinal 

and agromatic plants found in different regions and the respective tribal 

population 3 who are the custodian of the treasure, are given in Table-IV.1 

The majority of the medicinal plant species (70 percent) occur in the forest areas 

and the remaining 30 percent are found in non forest lands including land under 

cultivation. The tribal people and the forest dwellers collect a variety of leaves, 

fruits, seeds, nuts, roots, bark, tubers and rhizomes which have rich medicinal 

value. 

4.IV.2 The tribal people collect such items during the lean season, i.e., when they 

are left with no other option of livelihood and they sell or exchange their 

collections for their daily needs. However, sporadic spatial distribution of plants 

makes bulk collection impossible. Inadequate knowledge about the medicinal 

values of many of the plants occurring locally is also responsible for local 

collection. There has also been shrinkage of Common Property Resources 

(CPRs) and areas under forests. Population pressure and diversion of forestland 

are mainly responsible for such reduction in forest area. 

4.IV.3 Collection of medicinal plants and other non-timber forest produce (NTFPs) 

from forest provides for income for the tribal population for their subsistence. A 

study conducted by Administrative Staff College of India, Hydrabad, indicated that 

agricultural production from tribal land is inadequate to maintain a household at 

subsistence level. The tribal people, hence, depend on collection of medicinal 

plants and other NTFPs for their livelihood (N.C. Saxena 1996) 

Realizing the importance of collection of wild medicinal plants and other NTFPs in 

the tribal economy the Indian Forest Policy 1988 provided for safeguarding the 

customary rights and interest of the tribal people. 

103

Protected areas are custodians of the wild medicinal plants. One of the reasons 

for granting status of PA to the forest is to preserve valuable biodiversity of these 

medicinal plants. Pench National Park is also endowed with rich biodiversity of 

flora possessing high medicinal values. This PA serves as a living repository of 

various economical, medicinal, aromatic, ornamental plant species. Nearly 2000 

species of medicinal and economical importance are seen in this National Park. 

So far, there is no record of any endemic or rare species from this PA. No detaile 

study has so far been carried which could give the extent of floristic diversity in the 

National Park. 

An inventory of medicinal plants found in PNP and their medicinal use for various 

diseases is given in the Annexure-I 

104

Table- IV.3 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF PENCH NATIONAL PARK 

Family Name Botanical Name Marathi Name 

Timber Yielding Plants 

Anacardiaceae Buchanania lanzan 

Anacardiaceae Lannea coromandelica Mohwai 

Anacardiaceae Semecarpus anacardium Bibba 

Burseraceae Boswelia serrata Salai 

Burseraceae Garuga pinnata Kakad 

Ceasalpinoideae Cassia fistula Bahawa 

Ceasalpinoideae Tamarindus indica Chinch 

Cochlospermaceae 

Cochlospermum religiosum 

Gogal 

Combretaceae Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 

Combretaceae Terminalia alata Ain 

Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna Aajan 

Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica Behada 

Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Hirda 

Combretaceae Terminalia tomentosa N/a 

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippensis Shendi 

Euphorbiaceae Bridelia retusa Kutgi 

Flocourtiaceae Flacourtia indica Kakai 

Lecythidaceae Careya arborea Kunbhi 

Leeaceae Lea crispa Kuram 

Lytheraceae Lagerstroemia parviflora Sinha/lendi 

Malvaceae Kydia calycina 

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Kadu Neem 

Meliaceae Melia azadirachta Bhaka neem 

Meliaceae Soymida febrifuga Rohan 

Mimosoideae Albizzia lebbeck Sirish 

Mimosoideae Albizzia odoratisima Chichuva 

Mimosoideae Albizzia procera Sirish(pandra) 

Mimosoideae Cassia siamea Kashid 

Mimosoideae Leucaena leucocephala Subabul 

Papilionoideae Dalbergia paniculata Dhobin 

Papilionoideae Dalbergia sisso Sisam 

Papilionoideae Pongamia pinnata Karanj 

105


Papilionoideae Psoralea corylifolia Bawchi 

Papilionoideae Pterocarpus marsupium Bija 

Papilionoideae Erythrina variegata Kasai 

Rubiaceae Mitragyna parvifolia Karam 

Rutaceae Aegle marmelous Bel 

Rutaceae Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 

Sapindaceae Schleichera oleosa Kusumb/kojab 

Verbenaceae Tectona grandis Sagwan 

Plants which are having Medicinal value 

Acanthaceae Andrographis paniculata Bhui neem 

Acanthaceae Peristrophe bicalyculata N/a 

Amaranthaceae Achyranthus aspera 

Anacardiaceae Semecarpus anacardium Bibba 

Apocynaceae Ichnocarpus frutescens N/a 

Apocynaceae Holarrhena antidysenterica Pandra kuda 

Apocynaceae Wrightia tinctoria Kala kuda 

Burseraceae Boswelia serrata Salai 

Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna Aajan 

Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica Behada 

Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Hirda 

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus emblica Awla 

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus virgatus 

Laminaceae Hyptis suaveolens N/a 

Laminaceae Leucas biflora 

Liliaceae Asparagus racemosus Shatawari 

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Neem 

Meliaceae Melia azadirachta Kadu neem 

Meliaceae Soymida febrifuga Rohan 

Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana Pivla dhotra 

Sterculiaceae Helicteres isora 

Attai 

Verbenaceae Lantana camara N/a 

Verbenaceae Vitex nigunda Nirgundi 

106 

Murad sheng/


Plants which are having Industrial value 

Bombacaceae Bombax ceiba Kate sawari 

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippensis Shendi 

Graminae Bambusa arundinacea Katang bamboo 

Graminae Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 

Mimosoideae Acacia catechu Khair 

Mimosoideae Acacia nilotica Babul 

Papilionoideae Butea monosperma Palas 


Papilionoideae Butea superba Palas vel 

Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus collinus Garadi 

Graminae Bambusa arundinacea Katang bamboo 

Graminae Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 



Palmae Borassus flabellifer Sindhi 

Plants which are useful for Fuel wood 

Combretaceae Calycopteris floribunda Gilibuli 

Combretaceae Combretum ovilifolium Piwarvel 

Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus collinus Garadi 



Rhamnaceae Zizphus glaberrima Ghoti 

Tiliaceae Grewia hirsute Gaturli 

Tiliaceae Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 

Plants which are useful for Edible purpose 

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus blitum 

Annonaceae Annona squamosa Sitaphal 

Ceasalpinoideae Tamarindus indica Chinch 

Ebenaceae Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus emblica Awla 

107


Moringaceae Moringa critifolia Aal 

Myrtaceae Eugenia jambolana Jambhul 

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus oenoplia Aroni 

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Bhor 

Alcoholic beverage / Beedi manufacturing plants 

Ebenaceae Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 

Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 

Plants which are having Religious Importance 

Amaranthaceae Achyranthus aspera 

Ceasalpinoideae Bauhinia racemosa Apta 

Cyperaceae Cynodon dactylon 

ob 

Moraceae Ficus benghalensis Wad 

Moraceae Ficus racemosa Umber 

Moraceae Ficus religiosa Pimpal 

Plants which are useful for Grazing 

Acanthaceae Andropogon pumilus Diwartan 

Acanthaceae Barleria cristata 

Acanthaceae Dyscoriste depressa N/a 

Acanthaceae Dyscoriste vagans N/a 

Acanthaceae Justicia procumbens N/a 

Acanthaceae Lepidagathis cristata N/a 

Acanthaceae Peristrophe bicalyculata N/a 

Acanthaceae Rostellularia diffusa N/a 

Acanthaceae Rungia repens N/a 

Amaranthaceae Aerva lanata 

Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis N/a 

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus blitum 

Ceasalpinoideae Cassia tora Tarota 

Compositeae Ageratum conyzoides N/a 

Compositeae Glossogyne pinnatifida N/a 

Compositeae Lagascea mollis N/a 

108 

Durva/haialli/do


Convolvulaceae Evolvulus alsinoides N/a 

Convolvulaceae Evolvulus nummularius N/a 

Cyperaceae Cynodon dactylon Durva/haialli/doob 

Graminae Apluda mutica Phulkia 

Graminae Aristida funiculata Datanbahari/dusara 

Graminae Arundinella setosa Fuler 

Graminae Dichanthium annulatum MARVEL(small) 

Graminae Dichanthium aristatum MARVEL(big) 

Graminae Eragrostis tenella Bhurbusi 

Graminae Heteropogon contortus Kusal 

Graminae Chrysopogon fulvus Gadasheda 

Graminae Cymbopogon martinii Tikhadi 

Graminae Iseilema laxum Mushan 

Graminae Mazus sp N/a 

Graminae Themeda quadrivalvis Ghonyad 

Malvaceae Malvastrum tricuspidata 

Malvaceae Sida acuta N/a 

Malvaceae Sida cordata N/a 

Malvaceae Sida cordifolia N/a 


Papilionoideae Alysicarpus monilifer 

Papilionoideae Alysicarpus rugosus 

Papilionoideae Crotalaria ramosissima 

Papilionoideae Desmodium dichotomum N/a 

Papilionoideae Desmodium gangaticum N/a 

Papilionoideae Desmodium triflorum N/a 

Papilionoideae Indigofera linifolia 

Papilionoideae Tephrosia purpurea Divali 

Climbers 

Asclepidaceae Pergularia doumia Utaranvel 

Celastraceae Celastrus paniculata Dhimarbel 

Combretaceae Calycopteris floribunda Gilibuli 

Combretaceae Combretum ovilifolium Piwarvel 

109


Convolvulaceae Cuscuta reflex Amar vel 

Convolvulaceae Argyria nervosa Rakath vel 

Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera Akas vel 

Liliaceae Asparagus racemosus Shatawari 

Menispermaceae Cocculus hirsutus Vasan vel 

Mimosoideae Mimosa hamata Chillati 

Minispermaceae Tinospora cofdifolia Gulvel 

Papilionoideae Butea superba Palas vel 

Periplocaceae Cryptostegia grandiflora Rabarachavel 

Periplocaceae Hemidesmus indicus Khobar vel 

Rananculaceae Cleome viscosa Pivili tilwan 

Rhamnaceae Ventilago denticulata Lokhandi 

Vitaceae Cissus quadrangularis Kand vel 

Local Name Medicinal uses 

Table: IV.4: Medicinal use of plant 

Char Seed---Brain Tonic ,Stomach Muscle Oil---For Black Hair 

Amaltas/ Bahawa Root—TONIC ,Fever Leaves—Skin Disease 

Seed---Diabetes Dissenter 

Aonla 

Fruit----Purification of blood ,Vitamin C and for 

Lungs disease . 

Arjun/ Kahu Skin—Bone and joint 

Babul skin—Dental Disease ,Mouth Disease ,Throat 

Bad / Wad Gum—Foot crèches 

Bel Fruit juice—Cough ,Acidity Sperm 

Leaves juice---Jodi’s , sperm fall 

Bibs/ bhilwa Skin juice— 

Flower--- 

Oil---Bacteria dying (child) 

Bija Leaves—Skin disease 

Gum—Dental pain disease 

Flower—Acidity to improve hunger ,Urinary 

Bor/ Ber Leaves--- Diabetes 

Chandan Small wood—Pimples ,Cough 

Oil—Heat 

Dhaman Skin—Bloodful Dissenter 

Dhaora 

Dhawada 

/ Gum—Tonic in the period of delivary 

110


Dikamali Stomach ,Germs ,Digestive Skin disease 

Ghpoti / Ghot Fruit—Stomach pain 

Gogal / Ghongal Leaves paste—To cool the head 

Gum—Urine disease (Ladies) 

Haldu Leaves juice--- Jerome’s 

Hiwar Skin juice—on stomach pain 

Hirda / Hira Use for pickle to improve the digestion 

Use for tooth paste 

Imli / Chincha Vitamin ABC to decrease heat 

Jambhul / Jamun Skin juice—Teeth, Throat Bodypain 

Seed powder+powder+milk on dibeates 

Leaves—On burning 

Kakad pickle use for undigest 

Karanj 

Fresh skin and leaves use for Mulvyadha 

Oil—Skin disease 

Flower—on dibeates 

Seed--- Cough 

Root--- Sandhiwat 

Karaswad/ Semal Night fall ,for improve strong sperm 

Khair Juice of fresh skin—when spit is out 

From mouth with blood 

Kullu Gum—Throat disease 

Kumbhi Skin juice—Snake bite, on burn ,Dental 

Disease,To make the strong teeth. 

Kusum Seed—skin disease 

Skin—Headuche 

Medsing Leaves juice—Abortion 

Moha / Mahuwa Flower—Tonic 

Skin juice—On Tonsils 

Seed—Snake poison 

Padar Flower—Tonic to make strong sperm 

Skin—on acidity 

Palas Skin juice – cold cough 

Leaves juice—on diabetes 

Sees—to decrease the swell 

Pangara To kill the germs, to clean the eyes 

Leaves juice—Teeth ,Ear pain sex passion 

Rohan Root—shwetpadar 

Sag / sagwan Seed—urine dsease 

Oil ---- for Hair ,Snake poison 

Salai Leaves powder+Butter+Coconut oil ,to 

Remove the burning scar . 

111


Shisham Leucorrhoea + with honey to improve 

Sperm , anemia 

Siwan Paste—on headache 

Juice—Urine disease, Assiduity 

Sras(Black) Skin powder—to strong the brain tonic, 

Sitaphal 

Night blindness 

Root—Tissue disease 

Leaves juice+sault= abolish the ringworm 

Tendu Fruit juice –Dirrhoea,on wound 

Umber Skin and leaves—To strong a gum, scorpion Bite 

Gum—Piles, to use in diabetes 

Dudhi/ Kalakudi Young leaves juice ----Jaundice 

Skin –Skin disease, piles,Tonic 

Kaladhotra Asthama, Heated leaves on scabies swell on bras 

Katekoranti Dry skin powder –use on monkey cough 

(with honey) 

Leaves juice—Scratches on leg, make a strong gum 

Katumbar Fruit- with boil milk (Goat) to reduce Jaundice 

Kharasani/ Leaves & Skin juice on snake bite, Small vomit. 

Kharasi 

Paste-To dilute cough. Seed-on piles, scabies, Skin disease. 

Murad sheng/ Root- on diabetes 

Marorphed Seed on stomach rheumatism; stomach ache 

Neel Leaves juice – Dog bite (with milk) 

Nirgundi Root paste- on piles; Leaves juice- on swell; as antibacterial; 

Seed- on skin disease 

Rui Dry leaves powder on wound 

Sindhi/ chhindi Digestive and excite (Juice) 

Waghnakhi For T.B. 

Goakru Root paste- urine stone 

Kamarmodi Clogged the blood, heel starches 

Ratulsi 

Rantur 

Seed- urine diseases 

Leaves- for fever 

Tarpta Leaves- Scabies 

Root- 

Seed- half headache 

Bans/ Bamboo Pickle, Root-cough of any type, Bamboo eye- T.B. cough, 

asthma, to clean m.c. 

Durva/ Harialli Root- Urine disease, Root juice- on piles 

Tikhadi Boiled leave juice on fever, Oil- for digestion to improve for 

hairdressing 

Chilati Boiled leave juice on leprosy 

Dhimarvel/ Seed- To improve brain 

Malkagni 

Oil – To improve memory 

Seed paste – Rheumatism 

Root- snake bite 

112


Gunj Root- cough, urine diseases 

Gulvel Boiled juice- fever, Best tonic for digestion, to decrease 

rheumatism, to increase blood, on cough and T.B. 

Kajkuiri Root- on paralysis, mouth disease, Seed powder on worms, 

Hill scratches (leaves juice) 

Khaynag/ Langali Use in delivery period, Use in cancer 

Kobarvel All urine disease o snake bit 

Mahulvel Seed used as tonic 

Palasvel Gum tonic 

Vasanvel Root stomach ache 

Leaves juice- on night blindness 

113

APPENDIX –IV.1 : Tables and Charts 

Frequency of saplings 

Botanical name Local Name Village boundary Tourism Zone core area 

Acacia catechu Khair 0.1 0 0 

Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 0 0 1 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 0.15 0 0.8 

Buchanania lanzan Char 0.2 0 0.6 

Butea superba Palas vel 0.1 0 0.2 

Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 0.25 0.2 0 

Dalbergia paniculata Dhobin 0 0 0.8 

Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 0.1 0 0 

Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 0.3 0 0.4 

Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 0 0 0.2 

Lagerstroemia parviflora Lendi/Sinha 0.4 0.2 1 

Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 0 0 0.8 

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 0 0 0.8 

Streculia urens Karai 0.2 0 0.8 

Tectona grandis Saagwan 0.35 0.2 1 

Terminalia alata Ain 0.2 0 1 

77

Density of Saplings 

Table no-IV.2 

Botanical name Local name Village boundary Tourism Zone core area 


Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 0 0 2.2 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 0.15 0 1 









78




Tectona grandis Saagwan 0.55 0.6 2.4 

Terminalia alata Ain 0.3 0 1.6 

79

Table no-IV.3Abundance of Saplings 

Botanical name Local Name Village boundary Tourism Zone Core area 

Acacia catechu Khair 1 0 0 


Bauhinia racemosa Apta 1 0 1.25 

Buchanania lanzan Char 1 0 2 

Butea superba Palas vel 1 0 1 

Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 0 1 0 


Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 1 0 0 

Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 1.33 0 1 

Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 0 0 1 

Lagerstroemia parviflora Lendi/Sinha 1.63 2 3 




Tectona grandis Saagwan 1.57 3 2.4 


80

Frequency of Trees 

Table no-IV.4 



Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 0.3 0.2 0.8 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 0.15 0.4 0.4 

Buchanania lanzan Char 0.35 0.4 0.8 

Butea superba Palas vel 0.3 0.2 0 

Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 0.2 0 0 

Dalbergia paniculata Dhobin 0.2 0 0.8 


Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 0.25 0.2 0.6 

Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 0.2 0.8 0.4 


Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 0.45 0.2 0.8 

81

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 0.2 0 0.6 

Streculia urens Karai 0.4 0.2 1 


Terminalia alata Ain 0.8 0.2 0.8 

82

Table no-IV.5 

Density of Trees 






Butea superba Palas vel 0.3 0.2 0 





Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 0.25 1 0.4 

Lagerstroemia parviflora Lendi/Sinha 0.6 1.6 2.2 



Streculia urens Karai 0.5 0.4 2.2 


Terminalia alata Ain 0.9 0.2 2 

83

Abundance of Trees 

Table no-IV.6 



Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 1.5 2 3 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 3 2 1 

Buchanania lanzan Char 2 1 1 

Butea superba Palas vel 1 1 0 



Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 1 0 0 

Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 1 1 2 

Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 1.25 1.25 1 

Lagerstroemia parviflora Lendi/Sinha 2.4 2 2.2 

Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 1.56 3 2 



Tectona grandis Saagwan 2.44 2 3 

Terminalia alata Ain 1.13 1 2 

85

Table no –IV.7 

Different D.B.H classes of Trees 

Botanical name Local name Village boundary Core area 

Acacia catechu Khair 14.1 0 

Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 25.1 27.2 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 20.3 22.3 

Buchanania lanzan Char 19.1 17 

Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 17.5 0 

Dalbergia paniculata Dhobin 27.3 41.7 

Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 26.6 39.1 

Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 15.3 13.8 

Lagerstroemia parviflora Lendi/Sinha 21.5 27.9 

Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 22.9 26.3 

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 21.6 25.4 

Streculia urens Karai 22.4 26.7 

Tectona grandis Saagwan 28.4 32.2 

Terminalia alata Ain 30.8 31.9 

86

Table no –IV.8 

Different Height classes of Trees 



Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 17.9 18.2 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 11.9 12.1 

Buchanania lanzan Char 13 16.1 


Dalbergia paniculata Dhobin 19 19 

Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 14.4 16 

Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 12.4 12.5 


Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 16.4 16.4 

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 16.4 17 




88

Table no –IV.9 Different D.B.H classes of Saplings 



Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 0 3 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 5 4.7 





Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 0 7 


Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 0 6 

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 0 2 




89

Table no -IV.10Different Height classes of Saplings 



Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 0 6.1 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 3 3 





Grewia tilifolia Dhaman 0 7.7 


Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 0 2.3 

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 0 4 

Streculia urens Karai 7.5 16 


Terminalia alata Ain 5.6 15 

90

0.09 

0.08 

0.07 

0.06 

0.05 

0.04 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01 

0 

Village boundary 

Saplings 

Shanon index Simpson index 

Village boundary 0.0698 0.021 

Core area 0.192 0.043 

Tourism zone 

Trees 

0.213 0.019 

Shanon index Simpson index 

Village boundary 0.054 0.016 

Core area 0.067 0.029 

Tourism zone 0.078 0.024 

Core area 

Trees 

Tourism zone 

Shanon index 

Simpson index 

0.25 

0.2 

0.15 

0.1 

0.05 

0 

Village boundary 

91 

Core area 

Saplings 

Tourism zone 

Shanon index 

Simpson index

Biodiversity Status of PNP: For the sample plots, vegetation parameters such as density, frequency, 

dominance and Important Value Index (IVI) have been estimated to examine the status of biodiversity. IVI has 

been calculated for each species using integrated measure of relative frequency (rF), relative density (rD) and 

relative abundance (rd). Following formulae were used to calculate vegetation parameters; 

Density (no. ha)= Total number of individuals * 100 

Sample area 

Frequency = No. of plot species occurred 

Total number of plot studies 

Dominance = Total basal area covered by a species * density of a species 

Species Diversity has been calculated with the Shnnon and Wiener (1963) formula: 

H = Σ s I=1 (Ni/N) log (Ni/N) 

Where Ni = number of individuals of a species 

N = number of individuals of all species 

Species richness (R) has been calculate by using following formula: 

R = S√n; 

Where S = number of species in a community, 

n = total number of individuals of all the species 

92

Sapling analysis 

Table - IV.11 

Saplings Village Boundary Tourism zone core area 

Botanical name Local name 

RF RD A RF RD A RF RD A 

Acacia catechu Khair 3.08 2.47 1 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 

Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 0 9.43 4.39 2.2 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 4.62 3.7 1 0 0.00 0 7.55 4.76 1.25 

Buchanania lanzan Char 6.15 4.94 1 0 0.00 0 5.66 5.26 2 

Butea superba Palas vel 3.08 2.47 1 0 0.00 0 5.56 4.76 1 

Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 7.69 6.17 1 20 12.50 1 0.00 0.00 0 

Dalbergia paniculata Dhobin 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 0 7.55 9.65 2.75 

Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 3.08 2.47 1 0 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0 

Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 9.23 9.88 1.33 0 0.00 0 3.77 1.75 1 

Grewia tilifolia 

Lagerstroemia 

Dhaman 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 0 1.9 0.20 1 

parviflora Lendi/Sinha 12.31 16.05 1.63 20 12.50 2 9.43 13.16 3 

Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 0 7.55 7.89 2.25 

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 0 7.55 7.89 2.25 

Streculia urens Karai 6.15 6.17 1.25 0 0.00 0 7.55 7.89 2.25 

Tectona grandis Saagwan 10.77 13.58 1.57 20 37.50 3 9.43 10.53 2.4 

Terminalia alata Ain 6.15 7.41 1.5 0 0.00 0 9.43 7.02 1.6 

F = Frequency 

R.F = Relative 

Frequency 

D = Density 

R.D = Relative Density 

A = Abundance 

93

Table - IV.12 Tree analyis 

Trees Village Boundary Tourism zone core area 

Botanical name Local name 

RF RD A RF RD A RF RD A 

Acacia catechu Khair 4.62 6.17 1.67 0 0.00 0 0 0 0 

Anogiessus latifolia Dhawda 9.23 11.11 1.5 3.44 4.00 2 4.71 8.39 3 

Bauhinia racemosa Apta 4.62 11.11 3 6.89 8.00 2 2.35 1.40 1 

Buchanania lanzan Char 10.77 17.28 2 6.89 4.00 1 4.71 8.39 3 

Butea superba Palas vel 9.23 7.41 1 3.44 2.00 1 0 0.00 0 

Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 6.15 8.64 1.75 0 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0 

Dalbergia paniculata Dhobin 6.15 8.64 1.75 0 0.00 0 4.71 4.20 1.5 

Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 3.08 2.47 1 0 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0 

Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu 7.69 6.17 1 3.44 2.00 1 3.53 4.20 2 


Lagerstroemia 

Dhaman 6.15 6.17 1.25 13.79 10.00 1.25 2.4 1.40 1 

parviflora Lendi/Sinha 7.69 14.81 2.4 13.79 16.00 2 5.88 7.69 2.2 

Lannea coromandelica Mowhai 13.85 17.28 1.56 3.44 6.00 3 4.71 5.59 2 

Madhuca longifolia Mohwa 6.15 6.17 1.25 0 0.00 0 3.53 2.80 1.33 

Streculia urens Karai 12.31 12.35 1.25 3.44 4.00 2 5.88 7.69 2.2 

Tectona grandis Saagwan 24.62 48.15 2.44 10.34 12.00 2 5.88 10.49 3 

Terminalia alata Ain 24.62 22.22 1.13 3.44 2.00 1 4.71 6.99 2.5 

F = Frequency R.F = Relative Frequency 

D = Density R.D = Relative Density 

A = Abundance 

94

Table no – IV.13 

Importance value Index 

Trees 

Botanical name Local name Village Boundary Tourism Zone Core Area 

Acacia catechu Khair 10.79 0 0.00 




Butea superba Palas vel 16.64 5.44 0.00 

Chloroxylon swietenia Behru 14.79 0 0.00 


Dendrocalmus strictus Bamboo 5.55 0 0.00 



Lagerstroemia 

Dhaman 12.32 23.79 3.75 

parviflora Lendi/Sinha 22.5 29.79 13.57 



Streculia urens Karai 24.66 7.44 13.57 


Terminalia alata Ain 46.84 5.44 11.70 

115

Table no - IV.14 

Importance value Index 

Saplings 

Botanical name Local name Village Boundary Tourism Zone Core Area 



Bauhinia racemosa Apta 8.32 0 12.31 








Lagerstroemia parviflora Lendi/Sinha 28.36 32.5 22.59 






116

Figure no. 1 

Frequency % 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Acacia catichu 

Figure no.2 

1 

Aegle marmelous 

APPENDIX – IV.3 : Figures 

Human pressure on Pench National Park 

3 

Bamboosa arundinaceae 

52 

Buchanania lanzan 

3 1 

Chloroxylon swetinia 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dendrocalmus strictus 

117 

5 

Diospiros melanoxylon 

11 

Lagerstroemia parviflora 

Cut trees 

3 1 

Sterculia urens 

Ground flora Frequency% of Pench National 

Park 

24% 

Tectona grandis 

13% Village Boundary 

63% 

Tourism Zone 

Core area 

20 

Series1

Figure no.4 

Figure no.3 

Seedling Frequency% of Pench National 

park 

24% 

29% 

Figure no.5 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

0% 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

71% 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

118 

 

Village Boundary 

 

 

Core area 

Tourism Zone 

Herb Frequency of Pench national park 

 

16% 

Village Boundary 

60% 

Bio-diversity of Pench national Park 

Acanthaceae 

Caesalpinodeae 

Combretaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

Graminae 

Mimosoideae 

Familys 

Papilionoideae 

 

Core area 

 

Rubiaceae 

Tourism Zone

Figure no.6 

Figure no.7 

Frequency % of Generas 

13% 

Figure no.8 

87% 

Frequency % of Families 

7% 

93% 

Frequency % of Species 

10% 

90% 

END NOTE 

119 

Dicots 

monocots 

Dicots 

Monocots 

Dicots 

monocots

1 Measuring and Monitoring Forest Biodiversity; The SI/ MAB 

Model Francisco DA Limeir, ASI/MAB Bio-diversity Program 

2 Sale and Berkmuller (1998), Manual of Wildlife Techniques 

for India, Wild Life Institute of India Dehradun. 

3 S.K. Datta- Marketing of Wild Medicinal Plants Tribal Economy in 

India., EPW , Vol. XXXVI No. 38, Sept 22, 2001. 

120

CHAPTER- V: TOURISM 

Protected areas as major attraction can make a substantial contribution to the 

development of a region in general and rural areas of that region in particular 

because tourism can open new vistas of employment and income generation. The 

additional income earned by the local people will help to raise their living standards 

and will set into motion the process of multiplier effect. However, this requires a 

proper and careful planning for the development of the region and also appropriate 

motivation of the local people towards the changing scenario. In many tropical 

countries like Kenya, protected areas have brought significant economic benefits. 

They (PAs) are the significant foreign exchange earners. In Kenya, tourism is the 

largest earner of foreign exchange. Foreign exchange earning from tourism in the 

year 1977 was US $ 125 millions. Out of this almost one-third was from the seven 

National Parks. It is the experience that in tropical countries, there is a significant 

contribution to revenue generation due to internal travel, hotels, souvenir sales etc. 

However, in order to reap these economic advantages, it is necessary to attract the 

tourists to the protected areas. This requires creation of proper infrastructure and 

facilities. 

5.2 POSITIVE ASPECTS OF PAs: Tourism as an industry with proper planning and 

investment can yield spectacular results in terms of economic growth and PAs can 

contribute a lot towards this. Tourism development in and around PAs can be utilised 

for attracting the tourists and thereby bringing economic benefits to remote areas by 

creating opportunities for local employment, stimulation of local markets, 

improvement of transportation and communication infrastructure, providing facilities 

of adventure tourism etc. However, this needs careful planning. It also requires 

dispelling the apprehension of the local people that the tourism development is being 

done for the foreigners and urbanites and they (local people) are not going to be 

benefited. Efforts should be made to strongly motivate the local people in this regard. 

5.3 NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF PAS: Though the authorities, the local people, the 

NGOs are aware of the danger inherent in promoting tourism, unplanned 

development of tourism may create the problems which may endanger the 

conservation of ecological resources. If the primary objective of the park authorities 

is to maximize revenue from the park without consideration for preservation of

natural resources, it will certainly lead to the degradation of the environment and also 

depletion of environmental resources. This necessitates the appropriate strategies of 

development that will not only optimise the revenue but will also reduce the cost of 

conservation to a greater extent. Another negative effect of prompting tourism in 

PAs is the marginalisation of the local interests. Other dangers inherent in promoting 

the idea of PAs as places of tourist attraction are as follows: 

1. Many areas of important conservation value like extensive tracks of tropical 

forest, mangrove swamps etc. have little appeal to the tourists. 

2. If the decision-makers are led to believe that parks exists primarily for 

economic gain and if their expectations in this direction are not fulfilled, they 

may begin to look for more profitable uses of the available land. 

3. The governments may seek to maximize economic returns from the parks 

through inappropriate development. Large hotels, highways, golf-courses etc,. 

designed to attract more and more tourists, can diminish park’s natural values 

and eventually turn it into an area of mass tourism rather than conservation. 

To control the negative impact of tourists, it is necessary to know the types of 

negative effects, which are likely to occur. Some of these negative effects are given 

in the Appendix 1. These will go a long way in planning and regulation of ecotourism 

in the PNP. 

5.4 DEFINING ECOTOURISM i : A small number of scholars have been attempting to 

define ecotourism for some time. Ceballos-Lacurian (in Ziffer, 1989) suggest that: 

Ecological tourism implies a scientific, aesthetic or philosophical approach, although 

the ecological tourist is not required to be a professional scientist, artist or 

philosopher. The main point is that the person who practices ecotourism has the 

opportunity of immersing him or himself in nature in a way most people cannot enjoy 

in their routine, urban existence. This person will eventually acquire a 

consciousness that will convert him/her into somebody keenly involved in 

conservation issues (p. 5). 

122

Boo (1990) and Lindberg (1991) define ecotourism as tourism that involves travelling 

to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated nature areas with the specific objective 

of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as 

well as any existing cultural areas. Scace, et. al., (1992) and Wight (1994) also 

suggest that ecotourism is nature travel that actually contributes to conservation. 

Wight (ibid., pp. 39-40) provides the following principles on which the ecotourism 

experience must be constructed: 

• it should not degrade the resource and should be developed in an 

environmentally sound manner; 

• it should provide long- term benefit to the resource, to local community and 

industry ( benefits may be conservation, scientific, social , cultural , or 

economic); 

• it should provide first-hand , participatory and enlightening experiences; 

• it should involve education in all parties – local communities, government, 

non-governmental organization, industry and tourists (before, during and after 

the trip); 

• it should encourage all party recognition of the intrinsic value of the resource; 

• it should involve acceptance of the resource on its own terms, and in 

recognition of its limits, which involve supply-orientated management; 

• it should involve understanding and involve partnership between many 

players, which could include government, non-governmental organization, 

industry, scientists and locals (both before and during operations); 

• it should promote moral and ethical responsibilities and behaviours towards 

the natural and cultural environment by all players. 

Boo (1990) continues on to say that ecotourism development is the process of 

change to reach symbiosis between nature conservation, sustainable socioeconomic 

development and nature tourism. 

123

Perhaps an even more compelling ingredient in this definition is the notion of 

‘spirituality ‘ which Jaakson (1997) introduces into the discussion he suggest that 

many of the defination of ecotourism leave out the human component which is the 

spiritual Jaakson (ibid) suggest. 

An insistent equating of ecotourism with nature over shadows a human dimension of 

deep spirituality which I speculate is the motivation, consciousness or subconscious, 

for all ecotourism travel. This spirituality is akin to the travel of devout pilgrims to 

worships at sacred and holy sites. Ecotourism in pristine natural sites is a form of 

secular pilgrimage where nature is the sacred holy site. The premise here is that the 

essence of ecotourism is an ethic that makes ecotourism different from other types 

of tourism (p.34). 

One additional consideration needs to be raised when discussing the meaning of 

ecotourism. That consideration is the definition of rural tourism, given that most, if 

not all, ecotourism occurs in the countryside or in small settlements. Reid, Fuller, 

and Haywood (1995, p. 23) suggest: 

Rural tourism is distinguished buy its projection of traditional (authentic or 

unauthentic)rural life into the attractions which constitutes its core. It is generally 

constructed around the built or natural environment and includes programs such as 

festivals and cultural activities which often reenact or provide a flavour of the 

traditional local or rural culture and history. 

While rural tourism quite often reconstructs either natural or human made 

environments that have been destroyed, ecotourism would not likely to participate in 

reconstructed or artificial interpretation of natural phenomena unless it was for the 

purpose of study or education. (Pp. 33-34) 

Ecotourism is a term that is quickly being adopted by many tourism enterprises, 

whether their activity is driven by values of conservation and preservtion or not. The 

term cannotes notions of sustainability which all in the enterprise, either, those 

served or the servers, can embrace. It is often referred to as the feel-good term, 

which, in fact, can hide many sins. As Jaakson (1997, p.33) states” the popularity of 

ecotourism has backfired and the term ‘ecotourism’ has become jargon. ‘Ecotourism’ 

has become a word-play on ‘eco-tourism’.” (Pp. 29) 

124

5.5 ROLE OF PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT IN PROMOTING TOURISM: 

The role of Protected Area Management in providing infrastructure for tourists must 

be developed in close connection with the national, regional and local authorities. 

The Forests Boards may sometime even provide financial assistance for developing 

tourists facilities in reserves. The managers of the PAs are expected to advise the 

tourists authorities in respect of the limits of the PAs to be utilized for the tourists 

purposes. Unless carefully planned, the volume of visitors may have a deterous 

impact on Parks and eventually destroy the very resources on which tourism 

depends. 

In Amsoli National Park, Kenya, for instance, heavy ‘visitors traffic’ concentrated in a 

small area and numerous vehicles located around single predator have resulted in 

such a severe stress on sensitive species such as cheetah, unnecessary habitat 

destination and deteriorating visitors satisfaction (Western, 1984). 

5.6 ECO-TOURISM & FUNDING MECHANISM: Protected areas are a source of 

foreign exchange earnings through development of tourism. Expenditure of Nepal 

tourist whose visits are directly attributable to PAs and is very conservatively 

estimated to have been $ 9 million in 1988 while the annual protected area 

management budget was only about $ 3 million (Wells). This apparently high benefit 

to cost ratio implies that there is inadequate public sector investment to ensure 

effective management of these PAs due to insufficient appreciation of the economic 

contribution of PAs, and to significant imbalances between economic costs and 

benefits at local levels. 

Filion, Foley and Jacquesmot ii estimated that in 1988, some 235 million people 

participated in international tourism to enjoy and appreciate nature generating 

economic benefit (or contribution to the national income of the countries involved) 

amounting to as much as $ 233 billions. This impressive figure can be put into 

perspective by considering that domestic tourism, which is not included in these 

figures is larger than international tourism by a ratio of 10:1. 

The authors also indicated that some 32 per cent of tourists stated that scenery, 

nature and wildlife were the most enjoyable part of their trip, while approximately 

80% of tourists come to Kenya and Zimbabwe primarily for wild life. In North 

125

America, some 70% of Japanese and European tourists visit national parks. In five 

Latin American countries, 41 to 75% of foreign tourist visited PAs. 

Birdwatchers visiting the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, a prime location for 

observing the spring migration of passerine birds, brings in at least $ 6 billion per 

year in net economic value (Butter, Hvenegaard and Kry stofiak iii ). 

5.7 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF ECO-TOURISM: On the economic 

side , overall tourism is a major source of revenue for many developing nations; in 

1988 alone, tourism generated 855 billion dollars for developing countries (South 

Magzine 1989). Mexico’s tourist trade accounts for almost 4 percent of its GDP, 

surpassed only by petroleum exports (south Magzine 1989). Similar statistic could 

be given for countries such as Kenya, Costa Rica and Equador among others. Nor 

is tourism not only a third world trade; Travel and tourism to the United State 

generates higher revenue, from export of automobiles, agriculture goods or chemical 

products (the Washington post, May21, 1990) 

While statistics do not separate mass tourism figures, the market for eco-tourism has 

been expanding rapidly. Witness to this is the growth in visiting rates to national 

park in Ecuador, for example, has gone from 7500 in 1975 to 32595 in 1987 (Lidberg 

1989). The share of eco-tourism in overall tourism is also indicated by a recent 

study which found that natural history was an important motivating factors for 

international visitors to Ecuador, Costa Rica and Belize (B00 1990). In Ecuador, 

76% of the international visitors surveyed reported natural history as a reason for this 

visit. Of the visitors surveyed in Belize 51 percent considered natural history an 

important factor in choosing that country and 63 percent toured a protected area 

during their stay (Bor 1998). 

This interest in visiting natural parks often translates into appreciable revenues. In 

Rwanda’s Park National des Volcans tourist going to see the gorillas generate 

annually about $1 million in entrance fee, and $2 million to $ 3 million in other 

expenditures. Costa Rica’s Corcovado National Park; one of the many parks in that 

country generates over $ 1 million in foreign earnings per year (Heyman 1988). 

Advocates of Eco-tourism assert that nature travel to the tropics fits well with other 

worldwide initiatives to protect biological diversity by making non consumptive use of 

126

esources (Laarman and Dust 1987). Western and Henrry (1979) maintain that the 

economic exploitation of Parks need not be at odds with conservation. These 

authors use Kenya as an example to argue that an economic motivation for 

protecting wild life is not only compatible with conservation but adds greatly to its 

viability. In fact, Kenya’s recent strong stand on ivory poaching can likely be traced 

to its need to maintain revenues. 

In addition to generating foreign exchange and providing economic incentives for the 

establishment and protection of natural areas, proponents of eco-tourism list several 

other economic benefits. These include generation of employment, stimulation of 

local economic and the creation and improvement of infrastructure and recreational 

facilities for local use (McNeely and Thorsell 1988). Additionally, since nature 

tourism tends to occur in zonal areas it can lead to economic development in 

otherwise neglected regions. 

5.8 PNP & TOURISM: There are a number of places in the PNP which are of 

interest to the tourists. Some of the tourists spots worth visiting are scattered around 

the PNP. Proximity of the PNP to a metropolitan city, Nagpur, well connected by the 

air, rail and road, should have resulted in making it one of the most favoured spots. 

However, the PNP development in respect of tourism is far away from the threat to 

disturbing the ecological balance. The visitors fevour this place primarily for picnic, 

merrymaking etc. Religious tourism also plays an important role in PNP. Wildlife 

tourism is a seasonal one and is mostly concentrated from March to June. Wildlife 

tourism is mostly concentrated in East Pench region because of a greater surety of 

spotting of wild animals on the Salama Kolalzira road. 

Tourism resource inventory of the PNP reveals a number of areas and points of 

tourists’ interests. Some of these are mentioned below: 

1. Ambakhori: Naturally beautiful place called Ambhakhori situated in 

compartment no.538 at Totladoh attracts a large crowd of tourists, mostly fun 

and frolic makers on weekends and or holidays. It is a small waterfall located 

in low-lying area on the banks of river Pench. It shows various interesting 

rocks formations. There is certain religious area attached to this place. The 

local populace frequently visit this spot to worship Lord Shiva. Since last few 

127

years locals congregates here on the eve of Mahashivaratri (Magha) for 

religious sentiments. 

2. Totladoh: Totladoh dam and Meghdoot Jalashaya as the reservoir, named 

after the famous epic written by great Poet Kalidas, attracts a large number of 

tourists who appreciate the sheer grandeur and vast expanse of water spread 

up about 70 sq. km. cordoned with green hills. 

3. Underground Power Generation House: Many people who visit this park are 

also interested in having a look of the underground power generation station, 

being managed by MPEB, which has underground approach tunnel of about 1 

km. length 

4. Owl Fall: A place called ‘Owl Fall’ in the opening of the 8 km. long 

underground tunnel which comes from the underground power house, an 

engineering marvel, at a place called Gavalighat situated in compartment No. 

546. Where swirling water rushes to meet the main flow of Pench river which 

gives an occasional glimpse of crocodile, lots of birds, fishes etc. 

5. Nagdeopahodi: It is a hillock located in compartment no.525 where all 

religious sentiments of tribal populace are attached to their deity, a 

reincarnation of Lord Shiva. Hoards of villagers throng this spot workship and 

prey for fulfilment of their cherished wishes especially in the months of Chaitra 

(April). This also happens to be highest peak in the Park with a height of 583 

m. above MSL. 

6. Guggusgarh: This is an ancient fort in region spread over an area of 2 sq. km. 

Situated in compartment. No. 671 of West Pench Range. After exploration of 

this area, the State Archaeological Department has determined its existence 

since 3 rd or 4 th century A.D. say 1700 years old. Research by Dr. Welsted has 

revealed that this fort happens to be the capital of ‘Wakataka Dynasty’. The 

places as Nandpur and Kolitmara situated in its vicinity have also show 

evidences of historic habitation. 

128

Places of tourists’ interest in the vicinity of the PNP are: 

1. Ramtek: Ramtek situated at a distance of 47 km from Totladoh is a burgoing 

tourist centre. It is a famous religious pilgrimage having Lord Ram’s temple. 

It is belived that he stayed here in his days of exile. Kalidas Smarak is 

constructed here as the memoir to the great poet of Chandragupta era. 

2. Khindsi: A reservoir on the river ‘Sur’ called Khindsi distanced at 54 Km from 

Totaldoh is a spot much sought after by tourists and picknickers which offers 

water sports, eatery, resort, camping facility etc. 

3. Khekra Nalla: Khekra Nala Project situated in Parseoni Taluka is a medium 

irrigatin project, which attracts a lot of tourists. 

4. Kaurav Bhimsen: A religious place called as Kuvara Bhimsen located in 

Parsivani Taluka also attracts a lot of tribal and other populace who throngs 

this area in the summer months of May. 

5. Navegaon Khairi: The dam and reservoir at Navegaon Khairi also witness a 

lot of tourists and is slowly assuming nature of promising tourist centre with lot 

of ambitious plans for tourist on unveil. 

6. M.P.side of PNP: Tourists are also interested in visiting adjoining Pench 

National Park of M.P. 

5.8.1 TOURISTS INFLOW: Situation of this serene and clam place of tranquillity 

very near to a busy city attracts lots of tourists. On average 1,00,000 tourists visits 

this park per annum. Details of tourists inflow with month wise distribution is given in 

the following table. 

129

Table – V.1:STATEMENT SHOWING NUMBER OF TOURISTS VISITING PENCH 

NATIOANL PARK 

S. 

N. 

Month Year 

89- 

90 

90- 

91 

91- 

92 

92- 

93 

93- 

94 

130 

94- 

95 

95- 

96 

96-97 97- 

98 

98-99 

01 April -- -- -- -- 1324 2186 2342 1579 1704 3466 

02 May -- -- -- -- 1644 2093 3077 2151 2560 1717 

03 June -- -- -- -- 2258 2765 2966 5013 4352 3815 

04 July -- -- -- -- 2228 1466 1920 2481 2527 2776 

05 August -- -- -- -- 4405 3738 5068 6048 7417 5987 

06 Septemb 

er 

-- -- -- -- 4450 2106 2111 3563 4665 2492 

07 October -- -- -- -- 3569 3341 4547 4717 3459 6776 

08 Novembe 

r 

09 Decembe 

r 

-- -- -- -- 5865 9086 9795 7538 9059 11256 

-- -- -- -- 1583 

8 

10 January -- -- -- -- 2546 

0 

11 February -- -- -- -- 1285 

3 

1718 

2 

2447 

6 

1082 

3 

2032 

5 

2847 

7 

1093 

6 

21952 1153 

4 

32172 2038 

8 

15245 1264 

3 

25291 

26669 

10334 

12 March -- -- -- -- 4290 4220 -- 5527 5292 3862 

Total 7551 

0 

4779 

2 

3821 

8 

9057 

6 

8418 

4 

8358 

2 

9156 

4 

107968 8560 

0 

104437 

5.8.2 MONITORING OF TOURISTS INFLOW: The monitoring of tourist inflow is 

done at the Peoni Gate. Most of the tourists are only day visitors who come on the 

way after visiting various tourist spots. Only a small parentage of tourists makes 

night halt of a day or two for the sheer enjoyment of it. Tourists inflow increases on 

weekends and also on holidays seasonal fluctuations are markedly significant. The 

most preferred place of tourist interest is Ambakhori where visitors enjoy social 

gathering so much that at times in peak visiting period, the carrying capacity comes 

under pressure. 

5.8.3 REVENUE FROM TOURISM: Forest department in its management plan has 

projected revenue from tourism or tourist related activities.

Table –VII.2 : Revenue from Tourism 

Revenue head Rs. 

1. Entry Fees 50,000 

2. Vehicle Entry fee 20,000 

3. Camera fees 15,000 

4.Binocular/ Telescope charges 05,000 

5.Portable hide/ Machan 05,000 

charges 

6. Minibus charges 1,00,000 

7. Accommodation charges 15,000 

8. Penalty for breach of rules 05,000 

9. Other miscellaneous revenue 05,000 

Total 2,45,000 

The attempt has been made by the revenue team to estimate revenue generation in 

PNP on the basis of Travel Cost Method and demand for Tourism. The difference 

between the number of tourists who want to enter at PNP and actually allowed to 

enter in this park is very large especially in winter (November and December) still the 

revenue generation from the allowed tourists is not disappointing. This is given in the 

Appendix 2. 

5.8.4 TOURISM ZONES: For the purpose of giving a wilderness experience 

recreation accompanied with duration through interpretations a separate zone is 

proposed to be carved out of the existing forest area and it is named as “Tourism 

Zone”. The description of tourism zone is given in the following chart. Tourism is 

allowed on following routs and in water body near Kolitmara. The tourism envisioned 

as low impact eco-tourism with emphasis on nature education. 

Table –V.3 :Tourism Zones 

Tourism Zone Approach Distance 

1. Sillari Totladoh Tat road 15 Km 

2. Totladoh Ambhakhori Tar Road 2.5 km 

3. 

Sataldam 

Salama No. 7 Murum Road 

4. Salama Old Bodalzira Road 3 km 

5. Salam 

Murum Road 

Fefdikuna-Totladoh road 12 km 

6. Navegaon Water body near Kolitmara 

Khairi 

7. Nature-trail West PNP 4 km 

8. Salama Bakhani- khapa-Sillare 12 km 

9. Sillari Kirangisara 13 km 

131

5.8.5 EMPLOYMENT GENERATION FROM TOURISM: 

A. An approximate average generation of 4000 man-days per year is estimated 

through tourism related activities. The employment generated is in the form of 

(1) Tourist guides (2) Vendors (3) Eateries (4) Shopkeepers (5) Vehicles for 

hire (6) Skilled and unskilled labour and (7) Sale of articles manufactured by 

local artisans viz. Burads, Kumchars etc. 

B. Staff deployment for tourism: 

For carrying out smooth operation of tourist activities, following staff is employed by 

the forest department. 

1. Interpretation officer for overall control of tourist complex and tourism 

related activities- 1 No. 

2. For controlling tourist activities- 1 No. who would also work as reception 

officer 

3. For maintenance of tourist complex, monitoring and management of 

‘tourist’ activities- 4 No. (Forest Guard) 

5.8.6 TOURIST RELATED PROBLEMS: Ambakhori – a tourist place is heavily 

guarded due to tourist inflow on weekends and holidays. Garbage resulting from 

expensive pressure of tourists creates problems related to garbage disposal. Noise 

pollution from vehicles is another problem with far reaching environmental 

implications threaten sensitive species of wild animals, birds in PNP. This is more or 

less common in all the laces in the PNP. 

5.10 THE CONTIGENT VALUATION (C.V.) METHOD: 

To estimate the revenue generation figure, the following four variables are taken into 

consideration: 

1. Wildlife watching 

2. Expenditure on tea, coffee etc. 

3. Time spent 

132

4. Nature liking attitude 

5.9 COSTS AND BENEFITS OF TOURISM IN PNP: 

Following flow chart will be very useful to understand the costs and benefits of 

tourism in the PNP: 

for 

PNP 

of 

ourism at PNP 

Costs Benefits 

1. Training program for local people (Gond ) 1. Involvement of Gond people 

as the guides and managers for hotels and tourism activity at 

restaurants. 

2. Screening trips at PNP 2. Planned screening of trips 

helpful for conservation tourists 

3. Minimum investment in park management 3. Protection and planning for social and 

so that .biotic characteristic will not be environmental issues 

disturbed. 

4. Entrance fees and other charges for 4. Moderate entrance fees 

recreation have to be used conservation 

of natural resources. 

5. Sources to monitor and evaluate impact 5. Fees should be charged on the 

basis 

of tourism of visitors WTP approach or category 

6. Expenditure for eco tourism education 

and facilities 

6. Prevention of infrastructure 

7. Educate tourist in the context 

of eco-tourism 

From the C.V. method, it is observed, based on the 72 tourists from Nagpur, 48 from 

M.P. and 29 from Mumbai (as given in the Appendix 2) that the tourists are prepared 

to spend the following amount on an average: 

133

1) Wildlife watching: Rs. 550/- 

2) Expenditure on tea, coffee etc.: Rs. 30/- 

3) Time spent: Rs. 240/- 

Nature liking attitude: Rs. 150/- 

Hence, little increase in the basic facilities of the park will boost the revenue 

generation at very satisfactory level 1 . At present the lack of basic facilities is the main 

hurdle to avail the benefits from tourism. The tourist are definitely attracted by the 

scenic beauty of the park but their longer stay is restricted due to lack of facilities. 

They always prefer to come down to Nagpur or M.P. side. It is sure that this park is 

having its classical value in terms of above items. Proper planning and development 

will increase its commercial value in future 

5.11 THE TRAVEL COST METHOD (TCM) FOR PNP: 

Of the many reasons for having and demand conserving a National Park, the 

important one is that it provides recreational benefits to visitors. Although there are 

several dimensions of recreation in a national park (wilderness experience, 

photography, learning and educational etc) the primary one appears to be wild life 

viewing. Although a National Park provides recreational benefits to tourists, in turn 

tourists bring problems. The background to this is relatively simple to understand in 

terms of demand and supply. In recent years the demand for outdoor recreation in 

general and wildlife viewing in particular has grown rapidly. It has to do with rising 

income, a shift in value towards nature conservation and perhaps, education. It is 

also thought that demand for such recreation is income elastic. Although the 

demand for wildlife viewing has grown fast, the supply has diminished. Although 

some large national parks (Vidarbha and MP's) have a very small flow of tourists, 

there are other small parks, which experience a large in flow. 

1 This point is elobrated in policy recommendation chapter. 

134

There are three main tourist related problems 

1. Congestion 

2. Wildlife disturbance 

3. Eco -damage 

The objective of in this paragraph is to evaluate the PNP on the basis of its benefits 

to individual users of three zones, namely 

1. Nagpur 

2. Madhya Pradesh 

3. Mumbai 

It is observed that in case of PNP congestion is not the problem. Even Eco damage 

is not on higher side. Wildlife disturbance can be considered as a minor problem, 

various steps have been taken to curb it from time to time. Illicit works has been 

reduced to a great extent 

It is highly appreciating fact that approximate precise estimate of the optional number 

of tourists has been analysed by PNP management. Hence the certain number of 

tourists and vehicles are allowed to enter in PNP in the winter season. This shows 

that (table no 1) congestion is not the main problem of this park. This also shows 

that the question of tourists classification due to congestion doesn’t arise in the case 

of PNP. The theory, related to this concept has been discussed many times but it is 

not applicable to this Park 

It is postulated that if a National Park has use value then with free access and with 

an entrance fee held down, excessive congestion and disturbance could readily 

occur. Privately, the marginal individual may find a visit to park worth making but 

socially it reduces the aggregate economic surplus. 

PNPs case is different from what normally we assume about national parks because 

of restricted entries of tourists and vehicles. 

This shows that there are a couple of gaps between assumptions and practice. 

Apart from the distribution effects of the price changes, revenue earnings, categories 

135

of the visitors, the importance has been not to permit the visitors to enter the park 

simply because the conservation part is more important than the recreation aspect. 

Hence the recreational benefit are supposed to be a part of the park with certain 

limitations. Though it is equally true that the demand for this park is very limited a 

small number of tourists are regularly visiting this park. The number of international 

tourists is also microscopic (elaborated in the Eco-tourism plan in last chapter). 

5.12 TRAVEL -COST APPROACH 

The travel cost approach estimates demand function for Pench National Park from 

obsessed visit rates corresponding to the travel costs (or supply price) from origins 

surrounding the site. In earlier studies this method was used by Clawson's (1959) 

work on Yosemite, Grand Canyon , Glacier by Knetsch's (1964) study of the Kerr 

reservoir in North Carolina and Brown, Singh and Castle (1964) study fishing in 

Oregon for Salmon - steelhead . The original work using contingent valuation an 

outdoor recreation is a study by Davis (1963) on the main woods. This was followed 

by Knestch and Davis (1966) study carried out in the same area. 

In this method the following consideration are taken into account. 

1. Travel cost must be an important determinant in visiting the site 

2. The primary purpose of the recreation trip into visit the site 

3. Recreationsist will view travel cost increases as being equivalent to entrance fee 

increases 

Following functional forms has been used to estimate the total cost of visiting the 

site. 

Ζjm /nj = F (Yi, TCjm + Pm, Xj, TCjk + Pk, Qm, Qk, NL, TS) 

where- 

Ζjm = total number of visits from zone ‘i’ to site m 

nj = population of zone j users. 

Yi = Mean income for zone j 

136

TCjm = travel cost from zone j to site m. 

Pm = Entrance fee at site m. 

Xj = characteristics of individuals of zone j 

TCjk =Vector of travel cost from zone j to substitute sites, K≠ M 

Pk = Vector of entry fee from zone j to substitute sites, K≠ M 

Qm = Vector of quality characteristics of wildlife viewing experience available at site 

m 

Qk = Vector of quality characteristics of wildlife viewing experience available at 

substitute sites, K≠ M 

NL = Nature likening attitude 

TS = Time spent at site j / zone j 

The three zones studied in the context of above-mentioned variables and the 

numbers of observations are: 

1. Nagpur - 72 observations 

2. Madhya Pradesh - 48 observations 

3. Mumbai -- 29 observations. 

The various functional forms like linear, log-linear etc. were estimated. The results 

are presented for the best fit. The details of the results which has been derived using 

SPSS package are shown in (Appendix - 3). The least square method is used. 

The dependent variable is Zjmi and independent variables are c, NL, Qk, Qm, Tcjk, 

Tcjm, Ts, Xi, Yi. 

5.13 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS: The regression model given above defines 

a set of variables to capture the various aspects of tourism in the PNP. Since the 

estimated coefficients of the equations indicate the relative strength, direction and 

statistical significance of the performance impact of policy variables, they can be 

137

used as basis for identifying some of the most desirable features of the tourism in the 

PNP. 

The constant term in the equation is considered to capture the combined effects of 

general environment facing the process of tourism development within the PNP. 

This term also captures the intervening effects of factors exogenous to the PNP. 

The positive estimates of the constant inmost context suggests the synergy that the 

tourism in the PNP can derive from the general socio-economic, political, and 

resource-related environment within which tourism development occurs. 

The endogenous variable is total number of visits from zone ‘I’ to site ‘m’. The 

exogenous variables are population of zone, mean income of zero, entrance fee, 

characteristics of zone, of travel cost from zone ‘j’ to substitute site, of entry fee from 

zone ‘j’, to substitute site of quality characteristic of wild life viewing experiences 

available at site ‘m’, quality characteristics of wild life viewing experiences available 

at substitute sites, nature likening attitude and time spent at site. 

The magnitudes of the coefficient bring out the direct and indirect effects of the 

exogenous variables. Similarly, the direction (positive or negative sign), of the 

coefficient throws light on the increasing or declining impact. 

It may be observed from the result presented in the Appendix-3 that all the estimated 

coefficients are statistically insignificant. This implies that all the policy variables, for 

all the three samples, do not have perceptible impact on target variable, i.e. tourism 

in the PNP. 

Speaking of the role of the general environment, the constant term that capture the 

joint effects of the factors exogenous to tourism in the PNP has a statistically 

significant positive effects. This implies that the general environment in the PNP has 

not been able to develop the tourism. However, the positive signs of the constant 

terms for all the three samples indicate the conducive situation for tourism 

development in the PNP. The conductive atmosphere along with weak effects brings 

out that serious efforts on the part of the authorities are needed to exploit the general 

environment. 

138

There is another side of the story. The imperceptible effects of all policy variables 

indicate that the condition of the environment in the PNP is little disturbed. The 

tourism so far has not posed threat to the environmental aspects of the PNP. 

5.14 LIMITATIONS : There are some limitations in the measurement of these 

variables and assumption related to it. Some main limitations are 

1. Visits to this park are made by visitors from a wide variety of regions and for a 

wide variety of purposes. They are of different duration and different points at 

time. All those points are not covered though primary data in the study due to 

the duration of work is limited. However, from the secondary sources some 

information is possible to collect. But not from this method at one or two 

points of time clear identification of the measurement of value of time how to, 

and what time- travel time, on site time etc. are not fully considered. Because 

the travels are admitting that they had visited this place along with other 

works. And adjusted there time for visiting this park. 

2. The limitations of taking account of substitute park is that the range of 

substitutes is dependent on the perception of the visitors. 

3. The limitations of multipurpose trips at local level are difficult to solve. The 

cost can be associated with the circuit trip, but assigning cost of each park 

visited on the circuit is problematic. Similar limitations also arise out of 

different zones. The visitors coming form the long distance are more likely to 

be an a multipurpose trip whereas those nearer the park are more likely to be 

on a single destination trip. 

5.15 SUGGESTIONS: Following suggestions are made for the proper planning of 

tourism: 

1. There is a wide scope for improvement in the infrastructure related to tourist 

activity but due care must be taken while developing it related to the minimum 

disturbance to ecology of the park. 

139

2. The tourists have to educate in the context of Eco-tourism and nondisturbance 

to wildlife. 2 

3. Creation of meadows at Fulzari and then opening it for tourist will take a lot of 

investment and time. Hence local and tribal people can be trained for 

employment and income generation purpose. At the same time they can 

protect the park assets if the tourist are non-co-operative. 

4. Some development has been done for tourist to get the idea about park (See 

appendix- IV) similar pattern can be develop in the main entry point of the 

park. 

While developing Eco-tourism activities local and tribal people must be invited and 

various local issues can be solved due to such discussion. 

2 

Educating training and creating awareness among tourists and locals regarding this aspect has been covered in 

chapter on policy recommendations. 

140

APPENDIX: 1 

Potential environmental effects of tourism in protected areas (E. Africa): the types of 

negative visitor impact that must be controlled 

Kenya, 

Factor Involved Impact on Natural Quality Comment 

Examples 

Overcrowding Environmental stress, Irritation, reduction Amboseli 

animal show changes in quality, need for 

in behaviour carrying-capacity 

limits or better regulation 

Overdevelopment Development of rural Unsightly urban-like 

Mweya , slums, excessive 

development Seronera, 

Manmade Structures Keekorok, 

01 Tuka 

Recreation 

Powerboats Disturbance of wildlife Vulnerability during 

and quiet nesting seasons, 

Murchison 

noise pollution Falls 

Fishing None Competition with Ruaha, Nile 

natural predators 

Foot safaris Disturbance of wildlife Overuse and trail Mt 

Pollution 

141 

Erosion Kilimanjaro 

Noise Disturbance of natural Irritation to wildlife Many 

(radios, etc.) sounds and other visitors 

areas 

Litter Impairment of natural Aesthetic and health Many areas 

scene hazards 

Vandalism Mutiliation and facility Removal of natural Sibiloi 

destruction features, facility damage 

Feeding of animals Behavioural changes Removal of habituated 

of animals animals—danger to Masai Mara, 

tourists Ruaha 

Vehicles 

Speeding Wildlife mortality Ecological changes, Amboseli, 

dust Mikumi

areas 

Kili- 

Off-road driving, Soil and vegetation Disturbance to 

Ngorongoro, 

night driving damage wildlife 

Amboseli 

Miscellaneous 

Souvenir Removal of natural Shells, coral, horns, All areas 

Collection attractions trophies, rare plants 

Firewood Small wildlife mortality Interference with 

All areas 

Collection and habitat destruction natural energy flow 

Roads and Habitat loss, drainage Aesthetic scars All 

murram pits changes, natural scars if not Ecotones damaged 

well-sited and constructed 

Power lines Destruction of vegetation Aesthetic impacts 

Tsavo, Bale 

Artificial Unnatural wildlife Replacement of soil Mts 

water holes concentrations, vegetation required 

Aberdares 

and salt provision damage 

Introduction of exotic Competition with Public confusion 

Many areas, 

plants and animals wild species Mt 

Source: Thorsell, 1984a 

SOURCE: Pp. 84 – 88; Integrating Protected Areas in 

Regional Land-use Programmes; compiled by John and Kathy 

MacKinnon, Graham Child and Jim Thorsell; Natraj Publishers Dehra 

Dun; 1996 

142 

ma 

njaro, 

airstrips

APPENDIX-2 

Benefits from Tourists 

Observations Interested T. Not Allowed 

Entered T. Entered 

(A) WILD LIFE WATCHING – Rs. 550/- 

Nagpur Tourists 72 (Rs. 3,96,000) 1,40,000 8000 (4400,000) 

(NT) 

(77,000,000 

M.P.T. 48 (2,64,00) 25000 

(13,75,000) 

3000 (5,50,000) 

Mumbai via Ngp. 

T. 

29 (15,950) 5000 (27,50,000) 1000 (5,50,000) 

Rs. 66,00,000 

(B) INTERNAL EXPENDITURE TEA, COFFEE, ETC. – Rs. 30/- 

NT 72 (2160) 1,40,000 

(42,000,000) 

8000 (2,40,000) 

MPT 48 (1440) 25000 (7,50,000) 3000 (90,000) 

29 (879) 5000 (1,50,000) 1000 (30,000) 

Rs. 360,000 

(C) TIME SPENT Rs. 240/- 

NT 72 (17280) 1,40,000 

(33,600,000) 

8000 (1,920,000) 

MPT 48 (11520) 25000 

(60,000,000) 

3000 (720,000) 

MNT 29 (6960) 5000 (1,200,000) 1000 (240,000) 

Rs. 2,880,000 

(D) NATURE LIKING ATTITUDE Rs. 150/- 

NT 72 (10800) 140,000 

(21,000,000) 

8000 (1,200,000) 

MPT 48 (7200) 25000 

(3,750,000) 

3000 (450,000) 

MNT 29 (4350) 5000 (750,000) 1000 (150,000) 

Rs. 12,600,000 

143

APPENDIX- 3 

TCM Method 

Variables Estimate of Co-efficient t- Statistics 

Nagpur 

(72) 

M.P. (48) Mumbai 

(29) 

144 

Nagpur M.P. Mumbai 

C 1.717E-05 8.520E-05 8.028E-07 2.4705635 1.767719 0.1731983 

NL -1.316E-09 -2.300E-06 -1.2681E- 0.4173075 - 

0.6138107 

07 

0.2448930 

QK -1.479E-09 1.412E-08 -1.096E-09 - 

0.1729480 - 

0.2563477 

0.7069335 

QM -5.477E-09 -9.706E-09 -1.874E-09 - 

- 

-0.976557 

0.8704171 0.1669829 

TCjK 6.04E-10 -2.038E-08 -1.094E-10 0.3267938 - 

- 

0.8767289 0.0358222 

TCjM 4.012E-09 -3.213E-08 -1.838E-09 0.426120 0.3290337 - 

0.9056609 

Ts 1.512E-08 1.719E-08 1.9621E-09 0.3616712 0.3290337 0.419337 

Xj 2.609E-09 1.408E-08 7.687E-09 0.6742372 0.2562435 1.1889988 

Yi -1.166E-10 2.703E-10 3.594E-11 - 

0.7155137 

R 2 = Nagpur – 0.032143 

M.P. - 0.173422 

Mumbai – 0.272635 

1.8038138 1.5422517

Notes & REFERENCES 

i 

Ed. Reid Donald G.; Ecotourism Development;1999; 

Weaver Press., P.O. Box A1922, Avondale, Harare, Zimbabwe 

ii 

The Economics of Global Tourism- Feres A Filian, James P 

Foley, and Andre J Jacquenemot- Protected Area Economics and 

Policy ed. By Mohan Munasinghe & Jeffrey McNeely distributed for 

the IUCN by World Bank Washington 

iii 

Economic Value of Bird-watcher at Point Pelee National 

Park, Canada- Protected Areas Economics and Policy, ed. by 

Munasinghe, Jeferey Mcnaccty. 

145

CHAPTER- VI : Fisheries 

In India fisheries play a very important role as compared to other countries of the 

world. About 40% of the total harvest comes from inland fisheries. The bulk of which 

comprises of fresh water fishes, which inhabit ponds, tanks, rivers, and reservoirs 

spread over about 5.5 million hectares in India. The total production from fresh 

water in 1991 was about 1.54 million tons which rose to 1.85 million tons only by 

1994. It has been estimated that Indian water can produce about 35-40% of this 

huge potential. 

Fisheries are living resources like forests. It is also regenerative resource but 

migratory in character. Valuation of fisheries is difficult because of lack of data 

availability. However, with the help of limited data, one can estimate stocks of 

fishery to some extent. One may try to measure the productivity of lake, river, sea 

etc. of a particular area, just as we measure the productivity of soil. We measure 

yield of crops which is a function of soil quality and inputs of fertilizers, water, labour 

etc. Similarly, the fishery catch also depends on the stock of fish in the fishery 

grounds as well as on inputs in terms of fishing effort (No. of hours) and the quality of 

fishing gear used. 

7.2 COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCE 

Common property resources (by it we mean a resource that is not recognized as 

private property until it is captured) such as fisheries are a significant source of 

subsistence and livelihood, especially for poor people in developing countries. 

Normally fisheries are studied in terms of chronically over fishing problem. The 

problem arises when there is unregulated access and harvesting of this common 

property resource. 

7.3 FISHERIES IN THE PNP 

In case of Pench National Park over-fishing is not a problem. The problem is 

related to continuation of fishing in PA which has become a part and parcel of 

livelihood of tribal communities in the PA which needs to be sorted out. At present 

fishing activity is not a threat to the environment as it is not permissible under the 

norms of PA. The continuance of fishing in long run may result into the problem of

over-fishing. The situation regarding fishing constrained by the restrictions on fishing 

at PNP can be studied in the following ways: 

1. Totladoh Reservoir of Nagpur district 

2. Dependence on fishing at Fulzari village, and 

3. Fishing in lower Pench. 

7.4 TOTLADOH RESERVOIR OF NAGPUR DISTRICT: 

The northern boundary of Nagpur district of Maharashtra state adjoins the Seoni 

and Chhindwara districts of Madhya Preadesh. The interstate boundary between 

Maharashtra and M.P. in the above mentioned districts is partly separated by a river 

called Pench river. Rest of the boundary is separated by boundary pillars. These 

forests are the reserved forest. They were reserved in 1879 under the provision of 

India, Forest Act 1878 and were known as Satpura Reserve. During that period the 

whole area was in the Central Provinces and Berar. After the reorganisation of 

states in 1956 the interstate boundary between M.P. and Maharashtra was drawn. 

The portion of the reserved forest lying in Maharashtra is covered in the gazette 

notification No. 917 9b0 and (g) issued by Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces. It 

was published in the Central Provinces Gazetteer dated 1 st March, 1879. During the 

survey of these forests in 1975 by Survey of India they have been described as 

Sillari - Khapa reserved forest. 

During the year 1968 an interstate agreement was signed between the Chief 

Ministers of M.P. and Maharashtra State for the construction of Pench Hydro Electric 

Project on the Pench river, at a site known as Totladoh. This site is located at a 

place where the Pench River forms the interstate boundary. As per the agreement 

the benefits from the power part of the projects are to be shared between the two 

states in the proportion of two thirds of the cost of Totladoh dam was to be charged 

to irrigation and one third to power. In the year 1971 supplementary agreement was 

singed. As per this agreement Pench Hydro Electric Project was taken up purely as 

a joint Hydro Electric Project. No cost of the Totladoh Dam was to be charged to 

irrigation. 

All the forest area acquired for the dam is reserved forest. 

147

For the construction of this Dam a colony was established at Totladoh in the 

reserved forest compartment No. 537 and 530 at the time of starting of construction 

work in 1974-75. In this colony, some permanent and some temporary structures 

were erected for powerhouse, office, residential and other ancillary purpose. The 

Irrigation Department of Maharashtra executed the dam construction and the M.P. 

Electricity Board executed the construction of under ground powerhouse. The water 

from the powerhouse is taken out through an underground canal, 8 KM. Long, and is 

released in the downstream of Pench river. This water is collected in the downstream 

of Pench River. This water is collected in another dam, constructed down below and 

is known as Navegaon Khairi. From this dam, water is distributed for irrigation, 

drinking and other purposes. This dam lies wholly in Maharashtra and is independent 

of Pench Hydro Electric Project at Totladoh. 

Table- VII.1: Totladoh Dam: Area under various heads 

Sr. No. Particulars 

148 

Area (Ha.) 

Maharashtra MP. Total 

1 2 3 4 5 

1. Government Forest 

a) Submergence 1993.78 3072.61 

1724.00 

6790.39 

b) Strengthening of hillocks -- 127.00 127.00 

c) Colonies 280.80 -- 280.80 

d) Dam Seat and Quarries 120.74 -- 120.74 

e) Approach Road 41.14 -- 41.14 

f) Approach Road to 

Hattigota, 

Gawalighat and Saddle 

No.7 

55.52 -- 55.52 

g) Saddle No. 7 Tri Outfall 

Adit No. 2 etc. 

19.21 -- 19.21 

2509.19 4923.61 7432.80 

2. Govt. revenue Land 22.48 459.68. 482.16 

3. Private Land 25.24 278.93 304.17 

Total 2556.91 5202.14 8219.13 

In the Totladoh dam, apart from forest area, seven villages have submerged. Out of 

this one village namely Bodalzira was in Maharashtra and rest of six villages were 

from M.P. All these village have been rehabilitated after proper compensation.

Prior to the construction of Totladoh dam (Pench Hydro Electric Project), Totladoh 

was a dense forest area. This area was clear felled along with the other areas 

required for dam, and the Temporary colony was constructed. The officers of 

Irrigation Department of Maharashtra and M.P. Electricity Board were posted here to 

look after the construction work. Labourers and skilled workers and other related 

experts came here from outside to work in the construction of dam and power house. 

Like in other project work, here also facilities like school, hospital, bank, market yard, 

police station etc. were created. All the matters related to dam are looked after by 

the Inter State Control Board. 

With the enactment of Forest Conservation Act in 1980, no forest area can be 

diverted for non-forest purposes without the prior approval of the Govt. of India. 

Therefore, the project authorities were asked to submit the proposals for this project 

as per the provision of Forest Conservation Act, 1980. The proposal submitted by 

them was not correct, hence it has been returned to them. 

As far as the portion of Totladoh dam falling in M.P. is concerned, as per the 

available information, this area is a reserved forest and is also a part of intended 

National Park. This is also known as Pench National Park. Govt. of India has already 

declared this area of National Park as a Project Tiger. 

Since the area of Totladoh dam, including the colony is a reserved forest and it is a 

part of Pench National Park. and is also declared as Project Tiger area (1999), the 

provisions of Indian Forest Act 1927, apply to this area. As per section 2 (2) of 

wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, the definition of National Park includes intended 

National Park also. Therefore, the provisions of this Act also apply to this area. 

The Pench Hydro Electric Project was physically completed in 1992. The power 

generated from this project, with 160 MW installed capacity, is fed into Vidarbha - 

Marathwada - Khandwa grid. The first of the two units of 80 MW each was 

commissioned in 1986 and the second unit was commissioned in 1987. 

7.5 CONTROL OVER FISHING: 

When the water storage started in reservoir, the fishing activity was also started in 

the reservoir first by Fisheries Department of M.P. and then from 1986-87, by the 

Fisheries Development Corporation of M.P. The head - quarter of the Manager of 

M.P. Fisheries Development Corporation for this reservoir was at Totladoh. The 

149

fishing activity was started without due knowledge or permission from the Forest 

Departments of both the states. This fishing activity was constantly being objected by 

the Forest Department of M.P. The management of Pench National Park of 

Maharshtra was under the Nagpur Forest Division. It was transferred to the Deputy 

Conservator of Forest, Wildlife, Nagpur, with effect from 1/10/1989. When the fishing 

activity in Totladoh came to the knowledge of Deputy Conservator of Forests, 

Wildlife, Nagpur, he also asked the Fisheries Corporation to stop the fishing in 

Totladoh reservoir. But instead of stopping the fishing activity the M.P. Fisheries 

Development Corporation increased the production of fish by putting fish seed, 

artificially, in the reservoir. They were allowing fishermen from adjoining areas to 

catch fish and were charging royalty from them. This encouraged the fishermen to 

come to Totladoh for fishing and some of them started encroaching in the forest area 

at Totladoh. Similarly, some of the labourers, who had come to Totladoh for the 

construction of dam also started doing fishing. Not only this, the people living at 

Totladoh formed a co-operative society for fishing in Nov. 1994. The forest 

department was not informed about this. Neither any permission was sought for this 

purpose. Therefore, the record of fishermen is not available with the forest 

department. But this fishing activity was strongly opposed by the staff of the forest 

department. The reasons for opposing fishing activity are (I) it is illegal as per the 

various provisions of the Indian Forest Act 1927 and Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 

and (ii) it is a major water-hole of the National Parks of both the states. So, any biotic 

interference in this area is harmful for the conservation of Wildlife. Fishing activity is 

also a potential source of illicit cutting, poaching and fire. By constant persuasion the 

fishing activity in Totladoh reservoir, through M.P. Fisheries Development 

Corporation came to be stopped from 20/05/1995. 

After the ban on fishing with effect from 20/05/1995 many of the fishermen have 

removed their boats from Totladoh reservoir. But still about 152 to 160 boats were 

lying there. After the Hon'ble Court admitted the petition on 26/09/1995 and did not 

grant any interim relief the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Wildlife, Nagpur, had 

issued notice to the Petitioners that they should remove their boats from Totladoh 

reservoir upto 15/10/1995, failing which, they would be seized. Many of the 

fishermen removed their boats from the Totladoh reservoir, but some of the 

fishermen mostly residing at Totladoh on "encroached land' did not take any 

150

cognisance of this notice. On the contrary, they continued their illegal activity and 

whenever staff of Pench National Park tried to stop their activity, they threatened the 

staff. Due to this a joint campaign with the help of Police and Revenue Departments 

was launched during the period from 10 th Feb/1995 to 11 th Feb/1995. In this 

campaign, 62 boats, 35 fishing net and 48 oars were seized. During the above 

campaign, some of the fishermen had sunk their boats in the reservoir which could 

not be located. Later on these fishermen took out their boats and started illegal 

fishing. 

The field staff of Pench National Park is trying their best to stop this illegal fishing. So 

far, 100 boats, 4 jeeps, 3 scooters and 108 cycles have been seized. In addition to 

this, 8.3 tonnes of fish was also seized and destroyed. 

It is felt that some vested interests are working in continuing the illegal fishing at 

Totladoh. Otherwise, there are alternatives for the fishermen to do fishing elsewhere. 

The Divisional manager, Maharashtra Fisheries Development Corporation, Nagpur, 

has already reported to his Managing Director, Bombay, that all the fishermen at 

Totladoh can be accommodated at Navegaon Khairy tank which is just below and 

outside the National Park. Some of them have already been permitted by them to do 

fishing in that tank. During the winter session of the Legislative Assembly in 

December, 1995, the representative of the fishermen of Totladoh met the Hon'ble 

Minister of Forests at Nagpur. During the discussion the Hon'ble Minister also told 

the representatives of the fishermen that alternative arrangement for the fishermen 

of Totladoh can be made elsewhere. But the representatives of the fishermen were 

adamant to continue the fishing in Totladoh reservoir only. The intention of the 

fishermen at Totladoh not to carry out fishing activity, to earn their livelihood, any 

where else except at Totladoh indicated that some vested interested are misguiding 

the fishermen to continue illegal fishing at Totladoh. 

About 50 to 70 women are engaged to carry fish from reservoir to the places, like 

Gupta Ganga / Bandra / Karwahi etc. located on Nagpur - Jabalpur Highway. Then 

onward they board the truck / jeeps etc. for further transportation of the fish to some 

place on highway to hand over the same to those vested interests involved in this 

trade. These traders load the fish in Matadors and transport it to Seoni / Nagpur. 40 - 

50 persons are also busy in carrying the fish from reservoir to Highway through 

Jungle on bicycles. 

151

These people frequently change their routes, place of collection of fish etc. 

To curb this activity necessary infrastructure along with staff needs to be provided 

immediately. However, some measures like processing for identification of legal 

occupants, patrolling on routes are being taken up with the help of existing staff and 

available infrastructure to curb this activity. So also active co-operation from the 

Madhya Pradesh Forest department is most essential. Co-operation from Police 

department and Revenue department will be required to maintain the law and order 

situation in the National Park area. 

7.6 FULZARI VILLAGE AND ITS DEPENDENCE ON FISHING : 

Fulzari village is situated in the heart of PNP. It is also going to be shifted to Salma, 

which is near to the boundary of Madhya Pradesh. 

About forty-two families are living in the village from 1970. The census of the village 

brings out that they came to PNP as workers for the work related to the protected 

area. The place has been allotted to them inside the PA. Gradually they started 

farming as well as fishing activity as an important source of their livelihood. 

Most of the families are earning more from fishing. After agriculture, fishing is the 

next important activity. The details of dependence on fishing is analysed on the 

following paragraphs. 

As this village is situated in the heart of PNP i.e., in between the upper and lower 

Pench Area of the National Park, the Fulzarians avouched that they are availing the 

facilities of fishing from both sides, i.e., upper and lower Pench river specially from 

Khairi dam. However, the fishing is not allowed at upper Pench. But some licenses 

have been issued at Khairi dam and lower Pench. Due to limited licensing the illicit 

fishing is going on from upper Pench area. 

7.6.1 INCOME FROM FISHING: 

About 20% of village people catch fish for self consumption. On an average a family 

needs 2 Kg. fish for self consumption purpose. It is their day to day activity. They 

spread net at night and in the morning they catch hold of fishes to cover their basic 

need of food. 

Out of 42 families, 18 families are earning by way of fishing on an average Rs. 1800 

to Rs. 5400 per month. The young members of these 18 families are having regular 

152

license for fishing at Khairi dam. The income depends upon the fish catch in various 

seasons. Rest of the 20 families carry out agricultural activities. 

The young generation is having traditional knowledge of fishing, which is percolated/ 

inherited from their fathers and grandfathers. They are totally unaware of the 

scientific techniques of management. There is a lack of necessary means of fish 

farming. Hence, they have to share the net as well as fish catch and variety of the 

fish. Normally three families are found sharing a net daily. It can be said as a 

cooperative type of fishing at Fulzari. 

Fulzarians are earning Rs. 1800 to Rs. 5400 from 7-8 quintal to 20-25 quintal fish 

catch. The highest fish catch is possible in the rainy season. From July to Sept, 

they can earn about Rs. 5400/- because of the best availability of the fishes in the 

season. One more reason is – the water becomes heavily polluted in rainy season. 

Hence, the fish cannot save itself from entering into the net. Hence in this situation 

the big fishes can also be easily caught and Fulzarians are getting advantage of it. 

Three to four months are good for gaining income through fishing because after rainy 

season they cannot earn. The reason is that at winter the fish catch becomes lowest. 

They have to migrate temporarily to a short distance in search of whatever the work 

available at near by places. 

They spread net in winter season, but throw back pregnant fishes in water. Hence, 

in this season they cannot depend more upon fishes. The indigenous knowledge of 

the villagers about fishing appears rich in terms of conserving environment and the 

people living in the Fulzari village automatically help in regenerating this way the 

common property resource. 

They can catch and sell about 2-5 quintal fishes in winter. Hence, from fishing they 

earn about Rs. 1000- 1500 per month in the winter season. In summer 7-10 quintal 

per net is the average fish catch, which provides about Rs 1500 to Rs. 2500 per 

month. Due to highest mercury rise in this area this period cannot be said very 

fruitful for fisherman of Fulzari in terms of fish catch. In this season they migrate 

less for want of work. Hence, this time span is the lowest earning period of the 

people. 

The fishermen can catch variety of fishes from khairi dam. They are Padan, Katla, 

Rohu, Mirgal, etc. The highest rated fish is Padan which is in high demand because 

153

of its rich quality. They can earn Rs. 20 -25/- per Kilo from Padan fish while Rohu 

and Katla can fetch Rs. 15-20 /- per Kilo. The lower rate is given to Mirgal fish, 

because of its low quality. There are other variety of fishes available in the dam like 

Calbasu, Murrel, Tor Tor, Pawin etc. The weight of grown up fish varies from 5 Kg to 

25 Kg. Such fish gives a lot of satisfaction to the fisherman in terms of earning the 

fishes having long horns in front of their mouth which cannot become a food for man, 

say local people. Due to this natural protection facility, such fishes can guess the 

danger from long distance and always stay away from the net. Clever fisherman are 

using Bhala (big sharp knife) to kill and catch such fishes. 

After catching fishes in the morning the fisherman rushes to the local collection 

centre at Kolitmara. The rate is fixed per kg and on the quality of fish. The 

fishermen reported that whatever they catch is sold immediately and they never have 

to wait for a long time for selling it. Even they have not gone to any other market or 

long distance market to sell it. They do not have to bother about the market ups and 

downs. The demand and supply is almost fixed in their business context. If they 

wish, they can keep a part of harvested fish for their self consumption, otherwise that 

‘part will have demand at Kolitmara’. There is no need for preservation of fishes. 

Thus, the cost of preservation facilities is almost nil. 

7.6.2 COST OF FISHING: 

A cost of net (from purchase to use) is about Rs. 1000/- as stated earlier, about 3 

families use a net daily. Naturally this cost is shared by these families. Four nets 

are needed for one year. Very less damage occurs in it. Hence one time investment 

of about Rs. 1400/- for four nets per year per family is not a costly affairs. Their 

livelihood is more or less dependent upon this small investment. They don’t have to 

pay other charges like transportation, carrying, etc. At Fulzari the fishermen are very 

comfortable and happy due to less cost and more benefit from fishing. The family 

size is very large in Fulzari. The fishing business is as good source of income. At 

the present situation they cannot think of any other profession than fishing. Most of 

the Fulzarians are dropouts after 8 th standard. They are not having idea of any other 

training or skill to start new profession. The low education level and traditional 

knowledge about fishing prevents them to start any other work except traditional 

agricultural work or unskilled labour available to them at nearby places. 

154

The real question will arise when Fulzari village will be resettled at Savara (much 

away from National park and Khairi dam) there they will not have the same facilities. 

In that eventuality the resettlement will be a hard blow to the Fulzarians. Their future 

seems to be bleak in terms of their source of livelihood. 

7.6.3 FISHING AT LOWER PENCH: 

Lower Pench Area is a zone of fishing. Near the boundary of National park, the 

Maharashtra Fisheries Development Corporation (MFDC) allows fishing through 

licensing. The MFDC is playing an important role by allowing fisherman by providing 

375 licences for a particular time period. Fishermen have to renew their licenses 

weekly. This restriction over fishing is creating a revenue base to MFDC from Lower 

Pench area. 

The authorities of the Corporation explain that about 8 lakh of fingerlings are stocked 

by the department. About 30% of this stock is converted into big fishes of about 2 

Kg each. Rest of the fingerlings may migrate or die. 

About 480 tons of fishing is done on this sight and about Rs. 7.20 lakh can be 

earned when the rate of per Kg fish is about Rs. 12 -15/-. This is the case of limited 

licenses issued zone for fishing, Kolitmara, Ghoti, Sarakho borda, Navegaon bandh, 

Parsheoni come under this zone. 

The harvesting, stocking of fishes and fingerlings have been done on regular basis 

(please see Annexure 1, 2 and 3). According to the authorities it is not the case of 

over-fishing. Only 3% restricted fishing is done here. Hence it is not a threat to 

environment. 

7.7 EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS: 

This is substantiated by the empirical analysis based on the data given in Encl. No. 

1. The data was provided by MFDC and relates to the period 1983-84 to 2000-01. In 

order to estimate the growth rate, we consider, 

Log S = a + bt; 

where, 

S = stock 

b = growth rate 

155

a = constant 

t = time. 

The estimated equation is 

Log S = 0.7979132 + 0.0593961 

(1.4728652) (1.0577667) 

R 2 = 0.073229 

The estimated growth rate is 5.9 per cent and is statistically insignificant. 

Another equation used to estimate the growth rate of harvesting of fishes and is 

Log H = a + bt 

Where, 

H = Harvesting 

b = growth rate 

t = time 

a = constant. 

The estimated equation is follows: 

Log h = 3.9942454 + 0.00483907 

(21.937937) (0.2657615) 

R 2 = 0.004395. 

The estimated growth rate indicates that inspite of sufficient stocking of fishes and 

fingerlings the harvesting is very low. This further implies that it is not at all a threat 

to the water bodies or environment. 

There were various ups and downs during 1983 to 2001 in terms of stocking and 

harvesting of fishes. There is slight improvement from 1995-96 in stocking of fishes 

though the position of harvesting of fishes was almost stable from 1998-2001. 

There are various types of fishes available in the reservoir. Some of these are 

having fine demand due to its good quality. The year-wise production is increasing 

for major crop and local major types of fishes (Annexure No. 2 and figure No. 2). 

156

The primary survey and secondary sources clearly indicate that about 450 

(Annexure 3 and fig. No 3) fisherman are engaged in the fishing. Still they are not 

over extracting the fishes. Thus this is not an anti-environmental activity. The 

authorities are also taking due care of this precious specie. This kind of 

conservation of nature is an important activity in Lower Pench. The livelihood of 

local poor is also intact. The interdependence of fisherman on nature and source of 

income through nature to fisherman is balanced. 

7.8 VALUATION OF FISHERIES AT PNP- 

In valuing fishery ground the main problem is lack of data on stocks in the seas/lakes 

etc. the fishery catch also depends on the stock of fish and fingerlings in the fishry 

grounds as well as on inputs in terms of fishing efforts (number of hours) and the 

quality of fish gear used. 

Lt C gt and C gt be catch of fish per unit gear and catch for the total stock of gear type g 

in period t respectively. G g′t is stock of gear type g in period so that – 

C gt = C gt G g′t 

Quantifying them 

C gt = 20 quintel per net (rainy seasons, the best catch season) 

C gt = 23560 quintal per stock of all types of fishes 

G g′t = 1178 quintal of all types of fishes in rainy season. 

Therefore, 23560 = 20* 1178 

This estimate is calculated with the help of information given by the local people of 

PNP. It shows that sufficient number of verities of fishes (mentioned above) is 

available in the reservoir. As the local people are using traditional methods for 

fishing they are not over extracting the fishes. 

Recently the Totladoh village which was situated in PNP was totally shifted. The 

question of livelihood of fisherman is one of the part of this action. The fishermen of 

Totladoh have to search some other source of living at their new settlement area. 

The other part this action is in favour of norms of PA where the various species of 

fishes as well as plants will have its natural growth without human disturbances. 

157

However, the government is successful in achieving the goals of PNP by this action, 

which is in the favour of protection of the national park. This work will be useful for 

wild animals safety purpose in near future. Because the authorities are preparing 

various plans for this place which unable them to manage this park well and make it 

environmental friendly. 

ANNEXURE- 1 

MAHARASHTRA FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION LTD. 

RESERVOIR PENCH 

150 

100 

50 

0 

Year S H 

1983-84 4.10 48.00 

1984-85 0.47 82.88 

1985-86 4.25 45.88 

1986-87 9.00 66.85 

1987-88 6.00 73.51 

1988-89 8.00 65.31 

1989-90 5.00 88.98 

1990-91 0.50 42.80 

1991-92 -- 40.49 

1992-93 0.34 39.10 

1993-94 4.50 35.05 

1994-95 2.00 23.51 

1995-96 7.67 90.16 

1996-97 10.00 52.49 

1997-98 2.72 44.14 

1998-99 16.49 82.265 

1999-00 - 81.779 

2000-01 8.156 86.171 

Figure- I 

Maharashtra Fisheries Developmetn 

Corporation Ltd. Resevior Pench 

h 

1983-84 

1985-86 

1987-88 

1989-90 

1991-92 

1993-94 

1995-96 

1997-98 

1999-00 

S= Stock of Fish / Fingerlings no. in lakhs 

H = Harvesting of fish in metric tones. 

10Rs. / Kg. - For a fisherman. 

12 Rs. / Kg. - Maharashtra Govt. 

log y = A+BT 

158 

s

ANNEXURE- 2 

MAHARASHTRA FISHERS DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION LIMITED 

NAGPUR DIVISION NAGPUR 

YEAR WISE PRODUCTION OF FISH 

CROPS 1995-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 99-2000 

Major Crop 36.521 21.181 23.604 42.020 55.429 

Local Major 5.600 2.000 4.507 0.758 1.496 

Local Minor 55.193 29.225 19.027 36.651 20.243 

Others 1.842 0.076 - 3.836 4.609 

TOTAL 99.156 52.482 44.138 82.265 81.777 

Major Crop - Catla, Rohu, Mrigal 

Local Major - Calbasu, Murrel, Tor Tor, Pawin, Singta (Cot fisher mostly) 

Local Minor - Persi, Katwe, Pabda, Balm. 

Others - Rotten Major Carps 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Major 

Crop 

159 

Figure- II 

Year Wise Production of Fish 

Local 

Minor 

TOTAL 

1995-96 

96-97 

97-98 

98-99 

99-2000

Nagpur 

Region 

ANNEXURE- 3 

MAHARASHTRA FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION LIMITED 

NAGPUR DIVISION NAGPUR 

Reserivor W.S.A. in 

Hectares 

Nagpur Pech 1600 450 

160 

Approx. number 

Fishermen 

engaged as on 

today99-2000 

The Statement of Production Level In Kg. Per hectare per Year in Totladoh 

Reservoir 

Figure- III 

Year Pench 1600 

Ha 

1995-96 62.00 

1996-97 32.800 

1997-98 27.580 

1998-99 51.410 

1999- 

2000 

51.110 

Production Level KG/HA/YR 

1995-96 

1996-97 

1997-98 

1998-99 

1999-2000

CHAPTER- VII:COST - BENEFIT ANALYSIS 

7.1 An attempt has been made to identify, quantify or measure the various 

benefits and cost of PNP for which information could be obtained It is often difficult to 

place values on many a benefits of PA. and the future demand for these benefits due 

to incomplete and inadequate information .In most cases, there is incomplete 

knowledge of what resources the area contains. Uncertainty exists on both the 

supply and demand side with respect to biological and genetic recourses (Jacobson 

and Dragon 1989,Bishop 1978). Market failure adds to the information problems. 

Their presence makes it hard to assign accurate values to many of uncertainty 

problems. Moreover, PAs are complex systems whose natural resources have 

adapted to their individual environment and the overall system over long period of 

time. If the area is disrupted by harvesting some of these resources or is converted 

to another use, it may take centuries, if ever, to return to its normal state. So a more 

cautious approach needs to be taken when results of a decision may be irreversible 

(Krutilla and Fisher 1985). In a sense, any decision once implemented, is 

irreversible. 

7.2 Biological changes resulting from many uses may also be irreversible. For 

example the generated forest may superficially resemble the original forest; but the 

changes in species composition and other factors may be so great that the replaced 

forest cannot be considered to be the same as original forest (Jordan 1986). 

7.3 Destruction of habitat may also have resulted in local or even global 

extinction of animal species. In the former case, restocking from other areas may be 

possible; but if global extinction has occurred, the changes are surely irreversible. 

Irreversible changes may also result in a loss of existence and optional value. 

Many people derive a sense of wellbeing simply from knowing that these areas 

(PAs) exist (So called existence value); others hope that they may some day have 

the opportunity to visit a certain area (PAs) or observe a certain species in wild. 

(Option value). If these opportunities are no longer available due to development and 

the consequent irreversible loss of the resource, there will be a loss in term of social 

welfare. Such losses, though difficult to quantify may be significant. Most of the 

benefits of PAs are considered intangible

Since most PAs are social or public investment made by governments on behalf of 

society, undervaluing or failing to estimate monetary benefits result in insufficient 

government funds being provided for the management. There seems to be lack of 

appreciation and recognition on the part of the community to give correct 

assessment of PNP. Rather than regarding PAs as valuable resources with 

measurable economic and ecological benefits, they are commonly considered 

‘welfare cases’ and a drain on the public treasury. Yet monetory estimates of many 

of these benefits can be made in order to indicate their true value to the society. 

7.4 VALUATION OF COST OF PNP: 

Two types of costs are associated with establishment of PNP. (1) Direct cost (2) 

Indirect costs. 

(1) Direct Cost- They can be classified into i) Capital cost ii) Establishment cost iii) 

Maintenance costs. Table: VII.1 presents in a synoptic view the direct costs 

mentioned above, and their details and limitations 

Direct cost of PA includes cost of establishment and maintenance. Sometimes, the 

government acquires land to establish P.A. This cost may be treated as cost of 

acquisitions of land for P.A. For creating permanent infrastructure in PA some 

expenditure is to be incurred. Cost of Nalla building, water holes etc. may come 

under this. Expenditure on salaries of forest department working for the Tiger 

Project may come under establishment and maintenance cost. 

The non-plan budgetary expenditure of the forest department as given in various 

budgets of the forest department can give us idea about the establishment cost, 

maintenance cost and other type of cost. The estimates of non-plan expenditure on 

Pench Tiger Project by the forest department are given at Rs. 207.83 lacks in 2001. 

This can be taken as direct cost of PNP for maintenance. The cost of salary, T.A., 

D.A., has been given in Table: VII.2. The Table: VII.2 gives the cost of maintaining 

PNP for the year 2002-03 it is estimated at Rs. 2crores10 lacks (including salary, 

allowances etc.). From Rs. 1 crorers 35 lacks in 1998-99 it showed rise to Rs. 2 

crorers 10 lacks in 2002-03 . 

162

Table: VII.1:VALUATION OF DIRECT COST OF PNP 

Cost Details Remarks/ Limitations/ 

Assumption 

Direct Cost 

The cost of developing the The budgetary allocation under 

i) Capital cost 

infrastructure/ permanent assets in PAs central assistance may be 

may be taken in this category 

taken under this cost of 

construction of roads and other 

infrastructure mainly in tourism 

zone may be taken into 

consideration. However, the 

capital cost of PA may be 

taken as zero as it is given by 

nature and no cost of acquiring 

land is incurred in PNP. 

ii) Establishment cost This includes establishment The pay and salaries of the 

expenditure for the PA 

permanent and temporary 

staffs, office expenses, 

travelling allowances and 

medical-reimbursement of staff 

etc. 

iii) Maintenance costs This cost generally includes the Non-plan expenditure 

expenditure incurred in the 

Indirect Cost or 

maintenance of Roads, buildings, water 

resources, etc. in the PA. It also 

includes 10% interests on the capital 

costs. 

If compensation NOT paid for the Since no compensation is paid 

Externality 

damage by wild life to crop, injury and by the forest department 

details of human / cattles etc., it is estimates of crop damage on 

indirect cost or externality. 

the basis market value can be 

used as a proxy for indirect 

cost 

Table: VII.2 

Maintenance cost of PNP 

Sr.no. Year Amount (in 

Lacks Rs) 

1. 1998-99 1,33,00,000 

2. 1999-2000 1,50,00,000 

3. 2000-01 1,68,00,000 

4. 2001-02 1,90,00,000 

5. 2002-03 2,10,00,000 

7.5 COST OF RESETTLEMENT OF VILLAGE FULZARI: As per the norms of 

P.A, no human settlement is allowed in P.A. Village Fulzari located within the 

geographic limits of PNP, will be resettled in village Sawara outside PNP. The cost of 

resettlement of village Fulzari has been estimated at Rs. 1,79,47,500. or 1.79 

Crorers. As has already been mentioned earlier, village Fulzari located within the 

geographical limits of the protected area of National Park will be rehabilitated at 

village Sawara. The total land of 85 Hectares is to be acquired from the 

(compartment no. 495) Reserve Forest would be as follows: 

163

Table: VII.3 

H E A D Area Total 

Area 

a. Land for house construction 2.16 Ha. 

b. Land for Agricultural Purpose 

i) Land for holder families 

ii) Land for landless 

families 

Total 

c. Land for other civic amenities 

Total 

164 

30.53 Ha. 

46.20 Ha. 

76.73Ha. 

6.11Ha. 

85.00Ha. 

ii) FACILITIES PROPOSED TO BE PROVIDED AT REHABILITATION SITE AND 

THEIR ESTIMATED COST: The following set of works will be initiated for the 

resettlement of the village: 

Land Development: Since at present a varying density of bushes, shrubs and trees 

are standing at relocation site, for making the area fit for raising agricultural crops 

and housing, clearance of vegetational growth, uprooting of stumps and levelling is 

proposed to be done in areas demarcated for crop land formation, habitation 

purposes and civic amenities. 

Break up of the total expenditure on various items of work involved for land 

development 

Table: VII.4 

Item Expenditure 

(Rs.) 

i. Clearing includes marking of 16,60,000 

trees, extractions of forest 

produce 

ii. Uprooting of stumps 

including remaining of stumps 

from the site of levelling 4,80,000 

wherever necessary 

Total 21,40,000 

7.6 INDIRECT COST OF PNP: Indirect costs involve damages caused by the 

existence of a forest and are usually born by the local communities in the form of 

conflict between predators and domestic livestock, loss of crop fields to the larger

grazing mammals and other perceived threats to human welfare. The interviews with 

the forest department showed the costs of compensation at minimum due to skilful 

management of Pench National Park. Maintaining balance between the population 

of carnivores and herbivores has ensured sufficient supply of food to both type of 

population. Maintaining meadows near village boundaries have also restricted the 

encroachment of wild life in the villages and helped them to minimize the damage of 

crops and incidence on life. So far no compensation is paid by the Forest 

Department for crop damages. 

However, household surveys in Fulzari have reported crop damage ranging from 

25% to 50% of the crop yield. In village Fulzari it was stated to be almost 50 percent 

by the wild bore. About 50% crop damage by deers and wild boars in the boundary 

villages. The total annual value of the crop in village Fulzari is estimated at Rs. 

1,74,337.00. The value of the crop damage may be estimates at Rs. 87,168.50 (50 

percent of the crop yield). 

Inspite of denial by the forest department about crop damage by the wild animals in 

PNP discussions with the NGOs have also indicated the phenomenon of crop 

damage by the wild animals in PNP. There by substantiating the estimate of loss of 

crop (in valus terms) made by us on the basis if household surveys. 

For the sample villages, the estimates of crop damage are given in table no: VII.5 

Name of 

Village 

Table: VII.5 : Estimates of Crop Damage 

Loss due to 

encroachment of 

Wild Life (Rs.) 

Name of Village Loss due to 

encroachment of 

Wild Life (Rs.) 

1 to 5 KM 5 to 7 KM 

Ghatpendhari 60,250 Tuyapar 40,134.37 

Kolitmara 03,800 Ghoti (Dahoda) 56,925 

Narhar 23,200 7 to 10 KM 

Kirangisarra 41,775 Ambazari 04,500 

Khapa 38,775 Kadbikheda 21,145 

Wagholi 1,03,475 Chargaon 36,850 

Total 4,30,829.37 

A cursory glance at table shows that for the villages in close proximity of PNP, the 

crop damage is very high. It is reported to be almost 50 percent. For six villages in 

vicinity of PNP the value of crop yield is estimated at Rs. 5,42,550 and the estimated 

crop damage is at Rs. 2,71,275 annually. 

For two villages within 5 to 7 Km from the boundary, the estimated crop damage is 

35 percent of the crop value, which is Rs. 9,7059.37 annually. 

165

For Ambazari, Kadbikheda and Chargaon it is estimated at 25% of the crop yield 

which comes to Rs. 62,495 annually. 

Thus the total cost of the crop damage is estimated at Rs. 4,30,829.37 or 4 lakh 30 

thousand for the sample villages within 0 to 10 Kms of PNP. 

7.7 OPPORTUNITY COST OF INCOME EARNED THROUGH NTFP 

COLLECTION: 

The opportunity cost of income through collection of NTFPs can be estimated for the 

sample villages under investigation. Opportunity cost is defined as the income 

foregone in the next best alternative use. In the present context it is a loss of income 

from alternate sources when village communities spend their labour time for 

collection of NTFPs in the forest of PNP The labour time spent in collecting NTFPs 

for the 365 days in the year can be estimated for these sample villages. Seasonal 

nature of agriculture, lack of adequate irrigation facilities, and small and uneconomic 

size of operational landholdings, coupled with lack of other opportunities of selfemployment 

have compelled the village communities to depend on forest of PNP for 

livelihood purpose. 

In the absence of income augmented through NTFPs from the forest of PNP, the 

local communities would have resorted to short distance migration for unskilled 

labour work either in mining, construction or other non-forest based work, which 

would have offered them an alternate source of income. A study of educational 

status of local population in proximity of PNP (Chapter-IV Table No.IV.5) has shown 

lack of adequate educational attainment on the part of the native communities, which 

has restricted their employment opportunities outside the villages. The only 

opportunity for them is to work on daily wages. 

Methodology: It is presumed that minimum one member from each household is 

engaged in the collection of NTFP. The member is assumed to spend minimum one 

to two hours in the forest for collecting fuel wood, Tendu (two months), Moha (two 

months), honey from the forest of PNP. The time required to reach the forest would 

vary depending upon the distance of the village from PNP boundary. It is assumed 

that working population within three kilometres would spend daily 1 hour in travelling 

(walking) to reach PNP, within 3 to 5 KMs two hours daily in travelling to reach PNP 

and 5 to 10 KMs three hours daily. 

166

The above table gives details of labour time spent and the daily wages earned by 

village community in the absence of PNP. Working for eight hours a day would have 

earned for them a wage income of Rs. 40/- Two hour’s labour time spent (One hour 

in NTFP collection and 1 hour in travelling) would give them 1/4 th of the minimum 

wage for unskilled work. 

Table: VII.6: THE OPPORTUNITY COST OF LABOUR SPENT IN NTFP 

COLLECTION 

Sr 

no 


village 

Distance 

from 

PNP 

boundary 

Surveyed 

HH 

Hrs 

spent 

in 

forest 

(Per 

HH) 

Total 

hrs 

(per 

day) 

7.8 ENVIRONEMTAL LOSS DUE TO DEFORESTRATION: Entire protected area 

of the Park shows that, around 622.94 hector forest area is cleared for construction 

of approach roads, saddle dam, colonies, stores, powerhouse and quarries. Around 

1993.78 hector area is under submergence. 

The environmental loss for forest with one density is considered as Rs. 126.74 lacks 

per hector. Hence, for the forest land of 622.94 hectors of area deforested; the 

environmental loss for fifty year period is estimated at Rs. 78,951.415 lacks (This 

loss is for construction of approach roads, saddle dam, colonies, stores, power 

house, and quarries). The estimated loss of area for submergence is 1993.78 

hectors (area under submergence comes to Rs. 2,52,691.677 lacks) (1993.78 * 

126.74 lacks). 

167 

Total 

Days 

(Hrs /8) 

Total 

Days *Rs 

40 

Opportunity 

cost per 

HH 

Total/No of 

HH 

(surveyed) 

1 Fulzari 0 42 1 42 275*42=11550/8 

=1443.75 

57750 Rs 1375 

2 Ghatpendhari 1to 3 10 1 10 275*10=2750/8 

=343 

13750 Rs 1375 

3 Kolitmara 1to 3 3 1 3 275*3/8=103.125 4125 1375 

4 Narhar 1to 3 5 1 5 275*5/8=171.875 6875 1375 

5 Kirangisarra 1 to 3 3 1 3 275*3/8=103.125 4125 1375 

6 Khapa 1 to 3 10 1 10 275*10/8=2750 13750 1375 

7 Tuyapar 3 to 5 8 2 16 275*16/8=550 22000 2750 

8 Ghoti 3 to 5 14 2 28 275*28/8=962. 5 38500 2750 

9 Ambazari 5 to 10 7 3 21 275*21/8=721.87 28875 4125 

10 Kadbikheda 5 to 10 9 3 27 275*27/8=928.125 37125 4125 

11 Chargaon 5 to 10 6 3 18 275*18/8=618.75 24750 4125 

Total (excluding Fulzari) 10,22,125

Table: VII.7: Total Environmental Loss 

P A R T I C U L A R S Rs. (Lacks) 

Construction Purpose 78,951.415 

Submergence 2,52,691.677 

Total 3,31,643.092 

Thus, the total loss of area, (622.94 hectors +1993.78 hectors) is estimated at 

2616.72 hectors. The estimated total environmental loss comes to Rs. 331643.092. 

7.9 BENEFIT ANALYSIS: 

The benefits associated with Protected Areas i : 

Diverse benefits are associated with PAs which flows from various conservation 

objectives, (Dixon & Sherman 1991) viz. 

1. Maintenance and conservation of environmental resources, 

2. services and ecological processes; 

3. Production of natural resources such as timber and NTFP; 

4. Provision of recreation and tourism services; 

5. Protection of cultural and historical sites and objects; 

6. Provision of educational and research opportunities. 

Some of these benefits are the result of direct resource use and can be valued 

according to the market prices, fishing, timber fuel, NTFP, etc. The other benefits, 

viz.; recreational uses, which depends on direct human use of the PAs can also be 

valued in various ways. Most of the benefits from the PAs, however, are hard to 

measure in monetory terms. These benefits to individual or society at large are 

frequently referred to as social benefits and a primary justification for PAs as shown 

below: 

BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH PROTECTED AREAS 

These benefits to individuals or society at large are frequently referred to as social 

benefits and are said to be a primary justification for PAs. 

1. Recreation/Tourism: These are services not only yield direct financial benefits 

from PAs but stimulate employment and rural development in surrounding 

areas, as well. 

168

2. Watershed Protection: Maintaining the natural vegetative cover helps control 

erosion, reduces sedimentation and flooding down stream and regulates 

stream flows. The extent of the benefit depends on the type of the soils, 

topography, and natural cover in PA, the alternative usage available and the 

type of investment and land-use down stream. These benefits include erosion 

control, local flood reduction, and regulation of stream flows. 

3. Ecological Processes: In their natural state, PAs provides a number of 

environmental services, viz., fixing and cycling of nutrients, soil formation, 

circulation and clearing of air and water, and global life support. 

4. Biodiversity: By protecting habitats, one protects the variety of species they 

contain and these biological resources form the basis of numerous industries 

and are major sources of food, medicines, chemicals and other products used 

in both traditional and industrial societies. A lot of benefits are related to 

biodiversity conservation, viz., gene resources, species protection, ecosystem 

diversity, and evolutionary processes. 

5. Education and Research: PAs instill people with an understanding and 

6. appreciation of the environment, making them more aware of the harmful 

consequences. Certain types of behaviour research is often integrated with 

education, the PAs provide fertile ground for field study by students at all 

level. 

7. Consumption Benefits: PAs can lead to various (timber and NTFP) products 

including timber, forage, food, wildlife, fish, herbs and medicines that may only 

be harvested on sustainable basis. 

8. Non-consumption Benefits: These benefits include the values people derives 

from PAs that are not related use, viz., aesthetic, spiritual, cultural/historical 

existence value. 

9. Future Values: The protection of certain areas ensures a variety of benefits 

from their potential use in future, viz., optional value, quasi-optional value. 

7.9.A.1 OBSTACLES TO VALUING BENEFITS OF PAs 

Many of the benefits of protected areas, such as their ecological, biological, or 

aesthetic value, etc. are subject to the “market imperfections”. Biological diversity, 

169

for example, is recognized as one of the most important benefits from PAs but 

exceptionally difficult to value in monetary terms. Other benefits are much more 

concrete but, owing to their location or other factors, do not have easily determined 

monetory values- forest products that are collected and used by local inhabitants but 

not sold commercially, or the down-stream impact on water regulation and water 

quality created by maintaining forest cover in a watershed (Dixon & Sherman, 1991). 

For non-rival goods, one person’s consumption does not affect the amount available 

to anyone else and the total amount of the goods available can be enjoyed by 

anyone without diminishing the supply, e.g., a beautiful view or clean mountain air. 

Some goods, for example recreation, are non-rival upto certain point and beyond 

that point there is indeed rivalry and congestion sets in. The problem with non-rival 

good is that the market cannot set an efficient price for them. As Box VII.1 indicates 

almost all the benefits of the PAs are non-rival. When an area is designated as 

protected, many of the benefits provided are then available to all, and one person’s 

use does not detract use by other person ( with the exception of overcrowding and 

congestion). 

Sometimes it is not feasible to exclude anyone from consuming the good because 

the cost of excluding them would be greater than the benefits received. Consider the 

example of clean air or a view of a distance mountain to exclude people would be 

impossible or very expensive at the least. These are known as non-excludable 

goods. Once these are provided, everyone received the same level of benefits. But 

these often involve external effects or externalises (Samuelson 1954, 1955) that is, 

the production or consumption of a good of service by one person affects another 

person involuntarily or consumption of a good or service by one person affects 

another person involuntarily without benefit of consumption. Consider the case of 

biodiversity, a country is asked to preserve natural areas in order to maintain genetic 

stocks for future use. Given incomplete knowledge and weak patent regulations, it 

may be very difficult for the country to reap the benefits (by excluding others) from 

the development of a new medicine or plant cultivator derived from the PA. 

Consequently, the incentives to preserve natural areas are reduced because of nonexcludable 

and external effects. Box- VIII. Shows that almost all the benefits 

associated with PAs are non-excludable to some degree. The one exception is the 

benefits that require on-site use of PA-eg., tourism, recreation, and research. Normal 

170

market mechanisms, therefore, will not supply the desired amount of PAs even if 

they promise net social benefits. 

Sr. 

No. 

Box- VII.1:Characteristics of benefits from the PAs 

Benefits Nonrival 

Nonexcludable 

171 

Of-site 

Effects 

Prevention 

of 

irreversible 

loss 

Estimation 

of value 

1. Receration/Tourism XC P - P S 

2. Watershed values 

* Erosion control 

* Locl flood reduction 

* Regulation of 

stream flows 

3. Ecological processes 

* Fixing and cycling 

nutrients 

* Soil formation 

* Cleansing air and 

water 

4. Biodiversity 

* Gene resources 

* Species protection 

* Evolutionary 

processes 

X 

X 

X 

- 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

5. Education X P X X E 

6. Research X P X X E 

7. Aesthetic X X X P S 

8. Spiritual X X X X E 

9. Cultural/ historical X X X X E 

10. Optional values X X X X E 

11. Quasi-optional value X X X X E 

12. Existence value X X X X E 

13. Global life support X X X P E 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

X 

P 

X 

X 

C= Congestible, P= possibly, S= somewhat difficult, E= extremely difficult, X= attribute is 

present 

(Source: Dixon & Sherman, 1991) 

Although many important benefits remain within the PA itself, other benefits extent 

beyond the boundaries are known ads the off-site benefits. There may be benefits to 

nearby farmers. For example, from protecting important watershed land and 

regulating water supply. Although many off-site benefits are also non-excludable, 

not all non-excludable benefits occur off-site. These two properties often overlap, 

but they are separate issues. Nevertheless, the same valuation problem arises with 

both-since individuals do not request these services and do not control their 

provision, they are not required to pay for them. 

Following benefits of PNP have been discussed. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

P 

P 

X 

S 

E 

E 

S 

S 

S 

E 

E 

E

1. Consumptive Benefits of PNP: Benefits to local communities in the form of income 

and employment have been discussed in chapter III and IV. Income earned 

(expenditure saved) from NTFP collection is a major benefit from PNP. Village 

Fulzari as well as eleven villages (Sample villages) surrounding PNP have benefited 

immensely from collection of Tendu leaves, Moha, firewood/ fuel from the forest of 

Pench. Their dependence on PNP for grazing purpose also indicates benefits 

appropriated by them for maintenance of livestock. 

The estimates of their income from NTFP, fodder, and fuel wood are given in the 

following table: 

Table: VII.8: Income from Forest 

Income from (in Rs.) Fulzari 11 Villages 

NTFP Collection 2,31,441 7,08,086.75 

Hunting 25,750 1,500 

Fishing 1,10,296 31,650 

Forest Labour 26,135 5,13,995.05 

2. Recreation Benefit: The expenditure made by tourist on PNP may be taken as a 

proxy for benefits from recreation. 

3. Biodiversity Benefits: An attempt has been made to quantify the benefits from 

various tree species in PNP. A sample of biodiversity plot adopted by Forest 

Department has been taken for valuation of benefits by taking their market price 

(Quotation received) Table IV.1 in Chapter IV gives a glimpse of benefits from 

biodiversity. They are estimated at Rs. 4,84,684.59 

4. Environmental Benefits: The environmental benefits of sample plots are given in 

the table VII.9. 

Fishing- Fishing within the national park and on the border of national park is 

restricted by the government offices as well as the local are also cooperating on this 

issue. Thus the regenerative capacity of fishing is not disturbed. Rather the efforts 

are made to maintain the regenerative order of fishing in all seasons specially in 

winter season. 

Earlier this park was famous for game fish for entertainment of local people and 

tourists. But the species like Mirgal, Katla, Minar and major corps has been inserted 

in the floating water. Hence except that game fish other species are showing well 

maintained growth. 

172

Table: VII.9 :Environmental Benefits 

Valuation of ENVIRONMETL SERVICES Over a period of 50 years 

31 TREES- girth size 90-120 cm. 

Preservation plot = 250 m * 400 m 

Benefits Value in 

Rupees 

Value in 

Rupees 

Production of Oxygen 2,50,000 77,50,000 

Conservation to animal protein 20,000 6,20,000 

Soil conservation and 

maintenance of soil fertility 

2,50,000 77,50,000 

Recycling of water and control 

of humidity 

3,00,000 93,00,000 

Sheltering of bids, squirrels, 

insects and plants 

2,50,000 77,50,000 

Control of air pollution 5,00,000 1,55,00,000 

Total 15,70,000 48,67,00,000 

Source: Lal J. B.- Economic Value of India’s Forest stock p. 46. The Price of 

forest- Edited by Anil Agrawal 

In the context of fishing at local as well as global level, no environmental damage 

has been done. Hence this area is one of the best locally and globally managed 

park. 

Tourism- In and around PNP the tourism is developing at a faster rate. Good road 

and staying facilities are available. In the national ark tourism is kept strictly 

restricted from over crowding. The carrying capacity with the help of no. of tourists, 

ehicles, wild life watching has been identified of the area and developments done 

accordingly. Like only few parts of the PNP are opened for tourists for wild life 

watching. Some wonderful exhibitions have been performed to get the knowledge of 

various species of the park as well as entertainment facilities like games, boating etc. 

Very less disturbance has been seen from tourism for biodiversity, infrastructure 

development, hydropower generation etc. Thus we can say that this activity is not at 

all disturbing the environmental norms, rather it is a revenue generation activity and 

amicable approach towards local people provided various employment potentials to 

them like, forest guards, guides, stall keepers etc. 

Due to non-availability of time-series data the benefits as well as costs have been 

quantified by taking cross-section data. 

7.9.A.2 INCIDENTAL BENEFITS: They are those benefits which arises not by 

the virtue of the status of P.A. for a particular area but are appropriated by the local 

173

communities even otherwise i.e., in the absence of PNP. PNP contributes in 

maintaining or raising the water level of the reservoir and water tables of the 

surrounding area. The reservoir at Totladoh Dam in PNP confirms following benefits 

to the communities in and around PNP: 

1. Water supply to Nagpur city 

2. Irrigation benefits to Nagpur district 

3. Power supply to Nagpur district 

Water Supply from Pench : 

Pench is a lifeline for Nagpur city. Water supply from PNP for domestic, commercial 

and industrial use has vital importance for the economy of Nagpur Region. 

The total supply of water to Nagpur city (Raw water + Pure water) is 493.15 million 

litters per day. Almost 70 per cent of this total supply of water is obtained through 

Pench (342.46 million liters is supplied (69.44%)from Totladoh irrigation dam). The 

per capita availability of water in Nagpur city is estimated at 2401 ltrs. 

The benefits of water supply to Nagpur may be estimated either on the basis of 

number of beneficiaries of water supply for various purposes or total revenue 

collected from supplying water as user charges. No doubt, water rates may not fully 

reflect the use value of this valuable source, it may help in quantifying partial benefits 

to the water users of Pench. 

Irrigation Facilities : 

Benefits of water supply for irrigation purpose can be estimated on the basis of total 

beneficiaries of irrigated water from Pench, the total area under Pench irrigation as 

well as growth in irrigated area and resulting growth in production and productivity of 

major crops in Nagpur and changing cropping pattern in the region from double 

cropping due to extension of irrigation facilities. 

The benefits of Pench irrigation have been appropriated by Nagpur district from 

1987-88, which get reflected in impressive growth in area irrigated from the waters of 

Totladoh irrigation dam. 

Estimation of benefits from irrigation is based on secondary source. 

174

In 1987-88, total area under irrigation in the district was 25,733 hectors. In 1996-97, 

it registered a growth of 55.19 percent in irrigated area reporting irrigated area under 

Pench to 39,005 hectors. 

Growth in yield per hector: For estimating net benefits of irrigated water from 

Pench the difference in productivity of major crops in Nagpur district for irrigated as 

well as unirrigated area—have been estimated. In 1988-89, the composite yield of 

paddy and wheat was 24.78 quintal per hector (QPH) for the area irrigated by canal 

irrigation, whereas for unirrigated area, the composite yield has been estimated at 

17.25 Q.P.H., which is 42.64 percent lower, compared to yield from irrigated area. 

The difference in productivity (yield per hector) for irrigated and unirrigated land has 

shown a remarkable growth in 1992-93 reporting productivity differential of 65.02 per 

cent. (The composite yield of paddy and wheat for 1992-93 was estimated at 19.295 

Q.P.H. whereas for unirrigated land it was estimated at 6.75 Q.P.H.) If productivity 

differential is taken as an indicator of net benefits it shows a rising trend over a 

period of 1988-89 to 1992-93. 

However, a disquieting trend in yield per hector is observed for the principal crops in 

Nagpur district for the area under Pench irrigation. From 24.78 Q.P.H., it showed a 

fall to 19.29 Q.P.H. in 1992-93, registering a fall of 23.2% for the irrigated area. For 

the unirrigated area, the fall in yield per hector is estimated from 17.25 Q.P.H. to 

6.75 Q.P.H. over a period of 1988-89 to 1992-93, a fall of the order of 60.67%. An 

inference may be drawn from the above analysis that fall in productivity of major 

crops (paddy and wheat) has been smaller due to benefits of irrigation from Pench. 

No major change in cropping pattern for the irrigated area is observed in Nagpur 

district, cultivation of wheat has been made possible by irrigation in the region. 

Benefits from Pench irrigation on the basis of revenue collected by irrigation 

department as user charges (water rates) have been estimated at 5.25 crores. 

Water rates are taken as a proxy for benefits from irrigated water. However, water 

rates are highly subsidized and benefits are disproportionate to the revenue 

generated from the use of irrigated water. 

A representative sample of beneficiaries (cultivators) from Nagpur district is drawn to 

estimate growth in income resulting from double cropping of area due to availability 

of irrigated waters from Pench. Most of the beneficiaries showed no significant 

175

growth in income either from extension of area under irrigation or from change in 

cropping pattern. 

The benefits of irrigation are mainly appropriated by other than Nagpur District 

(Bhandara) and some regions in M.P. due to topography of PNP. Hence the 

agricultural activities have developed at limited level in Nagpur District. 

PENCH HYDRO ELECTRICITY PROJECT 

The Pench Hydro Electric Project is a joint venture of Maharashtra and Madhya 

Pradesh, which is located at Totladoh. Initial investigations were taken up in 1955 

when the entire area was in C.P. and Berar province. But later, after the 

reorganization of the states in November 1956, an Interstate Agreement was drawn 

in 1968. Accordingly, the benefits are shared. Thus, MS gets full irrigation benefits 

of 1,04,476 a area, power generation is shared 1/3 rd by Maharashtra state and 2/3 rd 

by M.P. In Maharashtra, water supply to Khaperkheda and Koradi Thermal Power 

stations and drinking water supply to Nagpur Metropolis is assured from Pench. 

The first full storage of reservoir was achieved in monsoon of 1989. 

The reservoir named as “Meghdoot Jalashaya” submerged an area of 6790.08 hq. 

Out of which MH part is 1993.78 ha. And MP part is 4796.30 ha (Chhindwara 

3072.30 and Seoni 1724.00 hga). 

In MS total 16 compartments of reserved forest have gone under submergence 

either fully or partly. In MS, only one village called, as ‘Bodalzira’ located in 

compartment no 521, came under submergence, which had a population of 52 and 

revenue land area of 49 ha. They are resettled in forest village Fulzari by paying 

compensation. 

The irrigation department has constructed various buildings like offices, residential 

colonies etc. at Totladoh. Similarly, various other constructions were done which 

were needed for the viability of the hydro project such as dam seat, quarries, borrow 

areas, roads etc. The forest department cleared the reserved forests, which existed 

over these lands. 

BENEFITS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM PNP 

The information regarding power generation (hydro) from PNP has been obtained 

from M.S.E.B. for last 15 years to focus the benefits of PNP in this respect. The data 

176

pertaining to the use of power for domestic, commercial, industrial and other 

purposes has been collected to identify the beneficiaries of the power generation 

from PNP. The indirect benefits of power generation have been worked out by 

obtaining the information of power consumption by industrial undertakings in Nagpur 

city and their average production. The revenue from power generation at Pench 

may be a taken as a proxy for benefits flowing from PNP. 

There are two sets of 80 M.W. capacities each in Pench. From 1986-87 to 

December 2001, total power (Hydro) generated from Pench is estimated at 

5265.7990 million units (MP + Maharashtra). The share of State in this is estimated 

at 1755.2665 million units (1/3 rd share in power generation). The cost of power 

generation is estimated at Rs. 4.5 lacks per million unit (Rs.0.45 per unit). The cost 

of power generation per unit (1 unit = Rs. 0.45) or Rs. 4.5 lac per million unit is based 

on the average of 1997-98 – (50.50 paise per unit), 1998-99 – (41.70 paise per unit), 

and in 1999-2000 – (42.89 paise per unit) (Average of three years). Thus the total 

cost of power generation comes to Rs. 78.98 crores 

The total peak load demand for power in Nagpur district is estimated at 540 m. watts. 

The share of Pench in the total peak load demand is estimated at 53 m. watts 

(9.8%). 

The total beneficiaries of power generation and their distribution for different uses 

are given in Table No.-VII.4. 

The total number of the beneficiaries from Pench is estimated at 7,49,390. The share 

of Pench in peak load demand is only 9.8 per cent. Thus the benefits of power 

generation from Pench may be estimated in the same proportion. If the approximate 

share is assumed at 10%, in each category, the total beneficiaries from Pench 

Power generation can be estimated at 74,939. 

The Table –VII.5 explains use wise distribution of Power from Pench: 

177

Table 4: Distribution of Beneficiaries of Power 

Generation in Nagpur District 

(Use wise distribution) (2001) 

No. of Beneficiaries 

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 

Domestic Street Agricultural Use Industries Others Total 

lighting& 

Commercial 

use 

6,55,916 2340 72635 15338 LT 2382 7,49,390 

779 HT 

178 

16,117 

Table – 5 

Beneficiaries of Hydro Power Generation from Pench (December 2001) 

Domestic Street Agricultural Industry Other Total 

& lighting consumer 

Commercial use 

65591.6 234.0 7263.5 1533.8 LT 238.2 74939 

77.9 HT 

1611.7 

NOTES & REFERENCES 

i 

Adopted from Economics of Protected areas and its effects 

on biodiversity Pp. 104 - 107

CHAPTER-VIII : GREEN SHOOT 

The present chapter is divided into two sections namely Section-I it discusses the 

present management plans of PNP while Section-II discusses the summary and 

conclusion as well as policy recommendations. 

Section-I 

MANAGEMENT/ ECO-AGRO-TOURISM /ECO- DEVELOPMENT PLAN OF PNP 

Management of living resources in protected areas involves steering the ecosystem. 

This requires an understanding of ecological principles, an appreciation of ecological 

process operating in the protected area, and acceptance of the concept that that 

P.A. management is a specialized form of land use. Conservation of gene pools of 

species of value or potential value is a primary objective of management of P.A. To 

ensure the survival of rare and endangered species of flora and fauna is a major 

worldwide preoccupation of nature conservation. In case of PNP, which is 

considered as custodian of PNP, this objective of management assumes over riding 

importance. 

The management plan of P.A. also needs to take into consideration the role of 

vegetation cover in maintaining hydrological regimes. Water is vital to human 

survival, human agriculture and human industry. In many cases the protection of 

water sources is the most valuable use that can be made of upland catchments. 

Good management of PAs help in protecting water generating capacity of a 

catchment by controlling soil erosion and preventing siltation of waterways, dams, 

canals and irrigation channels. They also function to reduce the incidence and scale 

of flooding and provide water flow during dry periods. In case of PNP, the water 

reservoir at Totladoh prolonging its life expectancy and catchment area of water 

reservoir needs a good management plan. Totladoh water pool constitutes a major 

source of supply of water for drinking purpose to Nagpur city. It is also a source of 

power generation and good management of PNP can help in generation of 

electricity. 

1. Protected area management as a science has emerged only recently with the 

development of various methodologies and techniques to enhance the natural 

environment. The primary objective of protected area management is to provide

protection for a sufficient proportion of the flora and fauna that represent the biogeographic 

sense in which the P.A. is located. P.A. management also tries to create 

conditions favourable for these populations to reach a natural optimal density. 

Further, inventorying and monitoring of the species needs to be undertaken as it 

provides the base line data on the status of bio diversity existing within the P.A. This 

also helps in planning strategies for effective P.A. management as well as aids in 

assessing the influence of changes in the environment on flora and fauna. Preparing 

management or eco-development plan also provides base line information and 

contributes to the national and international monitoring and inventorying 

programmes. 

2. Management Functions : 

The administration and management of a National Park involve two important 

aspects. One is related to the protection of the natural flora and fauna and the entire 

physical habitat which forms the base for determining the degree of diversity, the 

health and the robustness of the ecosystem. This aspect is related to the Wildlife ( 

Protection ) Act-1942, and the other relevant regulations and conventions which 

restrict human presence and activities to a level which is in consonance with the 

objectives of nature conservation that are explicit in law. This can be termed as 

"Policing" aspect. 

3. The second and the more important part of the task is related to the positive 

conservation and enhancement of the quality of habitat, the study and analysis of 

important plants and animals, the appreciation of the behavioural relationships, the 

documentation of the scientific and aesthetic values, training nature 'interpreters’ and 

guides who can not only understand and explain the forest to visitors, but who are 

passionately committed to its conservation and who respect the fundamental right of 

these species to exist. 

While the protective function mostly deals with stopping man from indulging in 

undesirable activities, the conservation and enhancement aspect delves deeper into 

the forest and other ecological variables. It looks at the floral and faunal responses 

to changing senses each year, the migration of species from secondary areas, the 

adjustments to man-made lakes, the radar stations and even the ancient rock cut 

caves. 

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4. Protection, conservation and Eco-development: Although for the sake of practical 

convenience one may separate and understand these two functions (protection and 

conservation) as mutually exclusive, in fact they have considerable interdependence, 

which makes it conceptually difficult to distinguish one from another. 

Discussions with the Forest Department and a study of management and 

administrative practices at the Pench National Park show that lots of efforts are 

being made by the forest department to conserve the natural resources and to 

maintain the biodiversity of Pench. 

Only recently, Forest Department has completely evacuated Totladoh human 

settlement- an encroachment within PNP, which bears a testimony to the protective 

functions of the Department. The interpretation centre at Sillari is also a good 

attempt on the part of forest dept to educate people - loads as well as tourists the 

valuable contribution of PNP as a ‘treasure house’ of biodiversity. 

Development of meadows in Totladoh after evacuation of encroachment for 

promoting wildlife conservation is a right step in maintaining eco-system - a balance 

between the population of herbivores and carnivorous. 

THE SALIENT FEATURES OF EXISTING MANAGEMENT PLAN OF FOREST 

DEPT: Existing management plan of PNP takes into account both the protective as 

well as conservation objectives of natural resource. They are given below: 

Zonation: Within P.N.P. the designation of various zones has helped to segregate 

management objectives and uses that may be incompatible and identify 

management activities by area. 

The area of P.N.P. is divided into (a) Core Zone (b) Tourism Zone. (c) Buffer Zone. 

The forest area surrounding the P.A. will act as a Buffer Zone. This zonal 

classification is not permanent. It is subject to re-organization depending upon the 

management needs, which may necessitate change in the management, prescription 

due to change in situation. The surrounding area of the National Park is proposed to 

be a sanctuary. This proposal is being processed by the Forest Dept., Govt. of 

Maharashtra. 

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PROTECTON MEASURES 

Eco - development /management plan of PNP has to frame protective measures by 

way of demarcation of boundaries and entry points. A Plan has been prepared for 

the first hand survey of the boundary with respect to top sheet. All the external 

boundaries would be repaired in phased manner extending over a period of five 

years. 

Internal Boundaries: - The round and beat boundaries fall along the compartment 

boundaries, which would be maintained as fire lines. 

Check Naka / Barrier: 

In East Pench Range, small structures would be constructed at (1) Salama (2) 

Bakhari (3) Starting Point of old Bodalzira level near Sadal dam (4) Point near Sadal 

dam. 

Communications and Buildings: 

The road network existing in the P.A. needs to be strengthen mostly by making it all 

weather. 

Timely maintenance of roads is a must as this prevents any further deterioration and 

also ensures smooth crossing. The roads of hilly and undulating areas are swept 

away in monsoon. Therefore, a closure of Park for certain period is proposed which 

would start from July and end in September. Existing roads from Narhar to 

Kolitmara and Narhar to Ghatpendhari should be suitably upgraded to facilitate 

communication round the year. This will help in effective patrolling of the area. 

Proper mapping of all the roads, showing their classification should be done. 

Culverts / Bridges: 

Any amount of road repairs would make an area inaccessible if the cross drainage 

work under the road is not taken care of. 

The remoteness of West Pench and considerable portions of East Pench Range, 

especially in monsoon season is attributed to the lack of proper cross drainage 

works. 

The following measures on priority basis are recommended to ensure accessibility 

of the P.A. 

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1. In East Pench Range, cross drainage works should be constructed on 

Kirangisarra road, Bakhari - Sadal dam road, Fefdikund road. 

2. In West Pench range, CD works would be taken up on priority basis on 

Ghatpendhari, Narhar road, Ghatendhari - Dongardes road near Chichban 

bore-well, Dadhyoyen Satladeo road, Ghatpendhari to Kolitmara via Zlmili 

watch tower. 

3. Low cost and durable CD works viz, pipe culverts, Irish bridges should be 

constructed in order to make accessible a larger area in the limited financial 

outlay. 

4. Construction of a bridge on Pench river to facilitate crossing over from East 

Pench to West Pench range is strongly recommended. 

Waterways: The reservoir at Totladoh and backwater of the Navegaon - Khairy 

reservoir which stretches up to Gavalighat are the major water bodies in the Park. 

These are very strategic from protection point of view. 

In order to add a different dimension to the effective management of the Park, two 

motor launches should be acquired. These should be big enough to carry at least 8 

persons. These would be effectively used for patrolling in order to: 

I. Put a curb on illegal fishing activity 

II. Achieve greater accessibility to the interior of Park area, which would 

otherwise have been un-approachable for want of roads. 

III. Keep a watch on other illegal activities, as mobility would increase. 

IV. Carry out research activities on aquatic life, birds, wetland vegetation etc. 

It is recommended to make available funds for the purchase of sufficient number of 

life saving Jackets. 

Two skilled persons should be engaged for operating these boats who would also 

take care of maintenance aspect one boat would be anchored at Totladoh whereas 

the other at Kolitmara. 

Horses: Looking at the difficulty in approaching many parts of the P.A., such as 

forests along the M.P. border on western side, portions where roads are absent, two 

horses of good breed should be acquired. Both these animals would be stationed 

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at Ghatpendhari. Health monitoring, feeding schedule would be routinely looked 

after. 

Wireless System and Telephone: 

There is a need to strengthen up the wireless system network in PNP. This would 

be done by implementation of the lines as given below: 

I. At least one handheld unit would be supplied at each fire station or protection 

hut. 

II. Low frequency fixed station should be established at Kolitmara. 

III. "Handheld" units should be made available to Asstt. Conservatior of forests, 

Round officer so that all the Round officers should have a handheld unit. 

Telephone: - Though wireless system network in the Pench National Park takes 

care of communication links, provision of low cost telephones which work on solar 

power are recommended to facilitate two way communication. 

Illicit Felling / Poaching / Fishing: 

In order to achieve a well-controlled Protection Status of the P.A. 'Protection Squads' 

have been created by the forest dept. However the number of squads appears to be 

insufficient. 

Additional squads should be created at the following compartment: 

Sr. No. East Pench Compt. 

No. 

In-charge 

01. Sadal Dam 517 1 Forester 

02. Bakhari 574 1 Forest 

Guard 

03. Ramdoh 546 1 Forest 

Guard 

04. Bhivsen Zopdi 

West Pench 

515 1 Forest 

Guard 

05. Bod Kimetta 675 1 Forest 

Guard 

06. Khekdinalla 688 1 Forest 

Guard 

07. Jamunmod Nalla 687 1 Forest 

Guard 

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In the fire season, when the fire stations become operational, these protection 

squads are shifted to round headquarters. 

These squads are under the overall control of Range Forest Officer. (Anti Poaching 

Unit - Pench National Park) who would control the overall protection works. 

Protection for Plantations: 

No new plantations except for those under village eco-development and habitat 

improvement are allowed. The Plantations under village eco-development works 

should be protected for the plan period i.e. 3 years by engaging a watchman and 

thereafter it would be handed over to the village executive committee constituted 

under the eco-development scheme. 

Grazing Control: 

In the PNP, a major portion of the forest is under core zone wherein grazing is strictly 

prohibited. The following steps should be taken to stop the encroachment of animals 

from buffer zone to core zone. 

1. The areas, which are more prone to grazing, would be identified. E.g. forest 

area close to villages situated on the Park boundary. 

2. Provision of the law against grazing would be imposed after serving the 

concern villages with the notices to stop grazing in the P.A. 

3. Cattle Pounds should be prepared at Pipariya and Ghatpendhari. 

4. Resettlement of Fulzari outside P.A should be materialized. 

5. Strict Prohibition over the grazing of migratory cattle like goats, sheep, and 

camels would be imposed. 

Encroachment: 

Determination of P.A. boundary would be taken up on priority basis at following 

places: 

1. Village area of Fulzari 

2. Village area of Kirangisarra 

3. Village area of Ghatpendhari 

4. Village area of Kolitmara and Narhar 

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Fire Stations and Fire Protection 

Scheme - A detailed fire protection scheme has been prepared by the forest dept: 

fire stations have also been established keeping following points in mind. 

a) It is accessible by a four wheeler 

b) Adequate drinking water supply for the crew is available 

c) The site of the fire station would be on plain land or on the foot of hill 

d) A watchman would be built near it on the highest peak with the help of 

local 

Man - Animal Conflict 

Damage to crops from in and around the P.A. is the main area of man-animal 

conflict. Stray cases of cattle lifting from inside the P.A have been noticed. As per 

reporting of the forest department, damage to human and cattle in the villages in not 

so far been reported. Steps on the following lines should be taken to keep this 

confrontation under control. 

i) Strict prohibition of grazing in the P.A. area should be imposed. 

ii) The villagers would be persuaded to graze their cattle in the allotted 

grazing unit area or stall feed the cattle. 

iii) The matter of shifting of village Fulzari to outside the P.A. would be 

perused. 

iv) Compensation or medical help for any damage done would be 

immediately paid as per the guideline of Government of India. 

v) In order to capture wild animals straying outside the P.A. and causing 

problem squeeze cages (for large and small carnivore) small mammal 

traps, tranquillising equipment's etc. should be purchased on priority 

basis. 

vi) Adequate, perennial water and food sources would be developed 

inside the P.A. through strict protection and adequate habitat 

improvement measures in order to limit the management of wild 

animals to outside the park. A large-scale meadow development 

would ensure adequate forage to herbivores. The food availability 

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inside the park will prevent incidences of wild herbivores straying 

outside the park. 

Booking of offences equipping and necessary protection would be done carefully 

within appropriate legal assistance. 

Habitat Improvement Measures 

A separate habitat improvement plan is under implementation by the Forest Dept. 

However, some modifications in the plans are suggested. 

Water Management: 

i) Make water available to the wild animals within a reasonable distance. 

ii) Limit the movement of animals outside the P.A. for water by providing 

water inside the P.A. , thus avoiding coughed with human and cattle. 

iii) Create a good distribution of perennials water sources to tide over the 

pinch period. 

There is good distribution of waterholes in the P.A. But the availability of water in the 

nulls and waterholes steadily decreases after December. This results into very small 

percentage of perennials waterholes. More over, there are certain water gaps in the 

P.A., which needs to be augmented 

In the East Pench range, distribution of perennial sources of water is very less. 

Water gap exists in the Southern West portion of the P.A. above Kirangisarra village. 

Similarly, another water gap is there in the area, which falls between Sadal dam rood 

and Bakhari ring road. This results into heavy dependence of wild animals on the 

Totladoh reservoir. 

Creation of New Waterholes: 

1. Sunken ponds would be dug up in the beds of various nallas in plain 

topography by removal of sand from the nalla bed in a certain gradient to 

avoid disliking. 

2. Creation of new waterholes by construction of cement structures is not 

recommended because of the in accessibility of area for the transportation of 

construction material etc; Instead, creation of dugout ponds on a plain 

topography and having a good catchment area would be done. 

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3. Inverted puddle dams should also be constructed in the stream beds of nallas 

flowing through the compartments i.e. Bivsen nalla (515) Chikalkhari nalla 

(517), Kutuniba nalla (514), Golaikhari nalla (549), Mungazodi nalla (534), 

Ghogra nalla (569), Fefdikund nalla (572/574). 

Till reliable status of water availability is immaterial if permanent watchtower is not 

available. 

The existing set of fire stations is satisfactory and is in accordance to the 

vulnerability of that area, at present. However, these sites are subject to change 

depending on the management strategy. For example, there is a need to establish a 

fire station near Kirangisarra on Mama-Bhacha Pahadi (Compt. No.681) need to be 

shifted amidst forest. 

It is desirabe to construct new fire stations in compt. no.517, 529, 540, 574, 570, 

546, 542, 552, 544, 511 and 514 in East Pench and 676, 690, 685, 671 662, 683, 

694,in West Pench. (for details refer appendix) 

In addition to these new fire stations protection squads stationed at Totladoh, 

Salama and Sillari rounds would also be mobilized. 

ECO-DEVELOPMENT WORKS: 

The people from in and around the P.A. are dependent upon the forests of the 

Pench National Park for fuel, fodder and MFP. For ecologically sustainable 

economic development of this population, measures under eco-development 

programme as guided by the Central and State Government would be taken. 

Before giving prescriptions, careful survey of the target villages would be done in 

order to quantify extent of their dependence on the P.A. forests. Participation of the 

people including women folks is a must at every step whereas participation of Non 

Government Organization would also be welcomed. 

Deliberations with other Government agencies viz. Soil and Moisture conservation 

Department, irrigation Department, Tribal Department, Revenue Department, etc. 

should be done in order to achieve comprehensive inter-agency co-operation. Thus, 

benefits of schemes through other agencies would be brought to the target village. 

E.g. various schemes could be implemented through the Block Development Officer 

for the villages falling under MADA pockets. 

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TOURSIM SUB - PLAN 

The Pench National Park has assumed a place of prime importance in the tourist's 

agenda. These tourists prefer to pay a visit to the P.A. while visiting other nearby 

places, too. Thus, "Tourist Golden Garland" in the shape of Pench National Park - 

Ramtek - Khindsi - Navegaon Khairy - Khekra Nalla Project is in store in future. 

Even though, the number of visitors pouring in the park speak volumes of the 

popularity of the Pench National Park, visitors preference indicate that wildlife related 

activities takes a backseat. 

Nevertheless, attention should be given to education and interpretation of park 

resources to the visitors and also to the local community with objectives of putting an 

emphasis on increasing public support for wildlife conservation by creating 

understanding and fostering awareness and concern with respect of conservation 

needs. 

The thresholds for physical carrying capacity needs to be worked out either by 

research or by observation of indicators of habitat and wildlife in order to know the 

tolerable limits of tourist visitation to the park. The present inflow of visitors, which 

are mostly day visitors, seems to be adequate and needs a modification in is nature 

by putting in controls, over their movements, activities etc. 

TOURISM ZONE: 

For the purpose of giving a wilderness experience, recreation accompanied with 

education through interpretation, a separate zone is proposed to be carved out of the 

existing forest area and it is named as "Tourism Zone " In its composition a 

constitution, it is proposed to be of the following description. 

The tourism is allowed on following routes and in water body near Kolitmara. The 

tourism envisaged is low impact eco tourism with emphasis on nature education. 

i) Sillari - Totladoh Tar road 13 Km. 

ii) Totladoh - Ambakhori Tar road 2.5 Km. 

iii) Salama - Sadaldam No. 7 Murrum road 12 Km. 

iv) Salama - Old Bodalzira road Murum road 3 Km. 

v) Salam - Fefdikund - Totladoh road 12 Km. 

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vi) Navegaonkhairy water body near Kilitmara ------- 

vii) Nature trail - West Pench National Park 

Dhobigota nalla. 4 Km. 

viii) Salam - Bakhari - Khapa - Sillari 12 Km. 

ix) Sillari - Kirangisarra 13 Km. 

DEMARCATION 

Proper warning that "Tourism zone ends here" would be affixed at the ends where 

tourism zone ends and core zone starts eg. Sadal dam no. Seven. 

In the Tourism Zone, the compartment numbers on both sides of the roads would be 

shown as written on a tin plate in bold white colour with olive green background fixed 

a little higher on the tree trunk. 

MAINTENANCE 

The maintenance of Pauni - Totladoh Tarred Route, Salama -Sadal dam No.7 metal 

road and Totladoh - Ambakhori Tourism route lies with the Irrigation Department a 

Totladoh. They would be pressured to expeditiously undertake periodic 

maintenance of these important routes along with the repairs of cross drainage etc. 

by the wildlife authorities. Presently, the Salama to Sadal Dam no. 7 tourism route 

needs immediate attention for its repairs. Similarly, the Totladoh - Ambakhori road 

though tarred in the year 1995, dearly needs repairs of its cross drainage's. There is 

a need to construct number of speed breakers on Pauni - Totladoh road in order to 

restrict speeding vehicles. 

The remaining Tourism routes as murum roads would be maintained by the park 

authorities, periodically as per the scheduled rates. 

REGULATION: 

In order to control the tourist movement and activity, management will formulate 

rules & impose regulation. However, to illustrate, following regulations are listed as 

guidelines to be imposed over the tourism zone. 

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i) All tourists would be bound by the rules and regulations as framed by 

the park. 

ii) The present regulation regarding prohibition of entry in the National 

Park and also to the tourism zone during 7.30 p.m. to 4.30 a.m. 

iii) (1930 Hrs to 0430 Hrs) would continue further. 

iv) All the tourists should pay the entry permit/s fees before entering the 

National Park. They would be given permits, which should be kept 

carefully for further checking. The rates for entry fees would be as 

given below or as may be fixed by the Government from time to time. 

v) Entry to tourists in the open period would be given only after payment 

of entry fees. 

vi) The management shall impose restricted entry to visitors’ vehicles. The 

Total number of visitors vehicle would be limited to: 

1) Four wheelers - 50 

2) Tourist bus / minibus - 05 

i) On interior Tourism Routes no heavy vehicles as tractor, truck, and big buses 

would be allowed. Two wheeler, bicycle and also tourists on foot would not 

be allowed on these routes. Because, all these routes pass through the 

interior of forests and are mainly for wildlife viewing. 

ii) Routes for movement at a given time would be allotted by issuing a Token by 

the Park Management from the reception to avoid crowding. 

iii) No vehicle would be allowed to move over any tourism route which do not 

have such token issued from the reception. 

iv) The tourist activity would remain confined to the road only and moving into the 

forest would not be allowed. 

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NATURE TRAIL: 

Imparting a sense of awareness and concern towards the interdependence and 

relationship between plants, animals and biotic ecosystem components in the 

visitors' minds would be aimed at through nature trail. 

The nature trails previously created at Ambakhori and Fefdikund are presently 

almost do not exist. So there is a need to develop nature trails on following routes: 

i) Ambakhori - Lamandoh - Ambakhori 

ii) Salama to Sadai Dam No. 7 

iii) Salama - Sadai Dam Road T Junction (old Bodalzira road) 

iv) Dhobnala - Dudhakhori - Usmal 

TREKKING ROUTES: 

Though the Park is located in the Satpuda hill ranges having a hilly and undulating 

area, which could always be trekker's paradise, this tourist activity is proposed to be 

limited in order to provide an undisturbed habitat to the wildlife. 

A strictly regulated trekking route of about 5 km. Length would be operated which 

would start from Totladoh and go through the forests in compartment no. 530. It 

would touch the Old Bodalzira Road at times going alongside the Totladoh reservoir 

and come back to Totladoh. Preferably, small groups would be allowed 

accompanied by a trekker of the Park. Similarly, a trekking route would be 

developed near Narhar - Kolitmara and also near Ghatpendhari of West Pench 

range. 

LODGING / BOARDING ARRANGEMENT PROPOSED: 

The Park in itself is low on facility carrying capacity having only tour widely scattered 

rest houses with limited accommodation. Barring the rest houses at Totladoh and 

Kolitmara, rest are situated deep inside the core area and hence not proposed to be 

made available to the visitors. The rest house at Kolitmara is situated in West Pench 

National Park range; near Kolitmara tourist facility is developed. In all 10 tents 

platforms are constructed. Toilet and drinking water facility with chainlike fencing is 

required to be done. 

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Shortage of accommodation for visitors is being compensated by rest houses of 

Irrigation department, MPEB at Totladoh and also at rest houses of Forest 

Department. But these facilities are almost in the heart of the National Park. The 

noise, litter and traffic created by tourist inflow has conflicted with the Parks 

conservation objectives. Relocation of the accommodation to the periphery of the 

Park is the only solution. 

TOURIST COMPLEX 

A tourist complex is proposed to be created on the periphery and outside the P.A. 

near village Sillari. This location would be suitable because tourist activities would 

be confined to outside the Park area. More so, they would not be under the pressure 

of strict regulations and therefore can have enjoyable time. 

FACILITIES: 

The following lodging and boarding facilities are proposed to be constructed at a 

suitable site near village Sillari outside the boundaries of Pench National Park. 

i) Six cottages each with two beds and attached bathroom and toilets. 

ii) A dormitory 

iii) A canteen which serves snacks as well as meals on order 

iv) A Toilet Block 

v) A well and a borewell for adequate water supply to visitors as well as the 

garden. 

vi) Adequate parking place should be provided away from the accommodation 

area. 

TRANSPORT FACILITIES: 

Minibus - use intensity of the places of interest by the visitors would be identified and 

more emphasis would be laid on permitting lesser number of use unit or vehicles in 

tourism zone. Viz. Mini buses, Jeeps, Vans etc. that are capable of carrying more 

number of visitors. This would ensure lesser disturbance to the affected area and 

helps en-masse interpretation, too. 

Hence, a minibus of about 20 seat capacity is proposed to be purchased it would 

pick up tourist from the tourist complex after payment of a suitable charge for having 

193

a round of the tourism routes, both in the morning and evening . This would be fitted 

with public address system to facilitate easy communication between the guide and 

the visitors. 

Local four wheeler (Jeep, Vans) operators would be authorized to make their 

vehicles available to the visitors on hire. Private vehicles would also be permitted. 

Tourist Guide - It is proposed to impart training to local unemployed youths who 

would work as authorized "Tourist Guides" after successful completion of the 

training. These guides would accompany the tourist vehicles for fees as fixed by 

Park Manager on per hour basis. No vehicle would ply on the tourism route without 

a guide. One tourist guide may accompany more than one vehicles if the situation 

demands so. Conductor of the Park minibus would also act as Guide. The tourist 

influx would be regulated form the tourist complex. 

One day in a week would be fixed for the maintenance of park minibus, the day on 

which it would not ply. 

No boating, water sports, white water surfing etc. is proposed to be developed in 

Totladoh Reservoir as well as in the Pench Reservoir. 

INTERPRETATION CENTRE / MUSEUM: 

In 1999-2000 under Maharashtra Forestry Project an interpretation centre has 

been developed near Sillari. This centre has facilities for displaying exhibits 

showing audio-visuals accommodations, tent camping etc. 

Hide and machans have also been created for wild life watching. There is a need to 

identify suitable spots on tourism routes for establishment of collapsible machans. 

The need for generating employment opportunities has been indicated in tourism 

plan. 

Thus the existing management plan of the Forest Department though ensures 

sustainable economic development of PNP with emphasis on Eco-tourism and Ecodevelopment 

it needs to be modified in light of changing circumstances. Globally, 

the trend towards participation of local communities in management of forest has 

shown a better conservation of natural resources. The management plan of PNP 

needs to take cognisance of the above global trend and accordingly necessitates 

194

estricting the management plan to fulfil the goal of conservation with survival 

strategy of local communities. 

Section- II 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

The entire exercise in ‘Economics of Protected Area – A case study of Pench 

National Park’ has been undertaken to focus issues associated with PNP like the 

dependence on PNP, biodiversity of PNP, tourism, fishing and cost-benefits to the 

local as well as global community at large. Rising importance of PA as means of 

biodiversity conservation has led to a policy of announcing higher proportion of forest 

being reserved with representative flora and fauna as National Park or Tiger 

Reserves. Pench National Park (PNP) has been declared as 25 th Tiger Reserve. The 

study mainly aims at the following objectives. 

• Identification of the stake holders of PNP 

• To estimate the dependence of local population in and around the 

• National Park for biomass consumption and examine the impact of human 

intervention on biodiversity status of P.A. 

• To identify the benefits and costs of PNP 

• To suggest short terms as well as long term policy measures for 

• management of PAs and conservation of natural resources sustainable 

economic development. 

Philosophy of Conservation and World Conservation Strategy 

1) This study focuses the importance of Protected Area and justification for 

conservation of natural resources and wild life through Tiger Projects or 

National Parks. The diversion of private cost from social cost and failure of 

market mechanism to reflect true economic value of biodiversity initiated this 

type of environmental movement. The argument based on Philosophical view 

behind creation of National Park as a transition from Anthropocentric (human 

centered) to bio-centric (human as only one element in the ecosystem) 

philosophy. Emerging from this view is that intervention in nature should be 

guided primarily by the need to biotic integrity than the need of human beings 

195

has been discussed briefly. The arguments against wholesale transfer of this 

conservation crusade from West to East or from Developed to 

Underdeveloped countries and its social impact have also been the main 

issues for discussion in poverty ridden counties. 

2) The main feature of World Conservation strategy and genesis of Protected 

Areas. The categorization of Protected Areas with revised IUCN classification 

has been discussed in chapter II. The major benefits falling under ecological 

process, biodiversity, education and research, consumptive, nonconsumptive, 

future values have been described along with identification of 

various direct and indirect costs. 

3) The main findings- the study spells out dependence of Fulzari village lying 

within the geographical limits of PA and eleven (11) villages (sample) in 

proximity of PA. The main goals of this entire exercise is to investigate the 

economic dependence of local / tribal communities for biomass consumption 

as reflected in their resource use pattern. The following hypotheses have 

been tested. 

a. There is a heavy dependence of local communities on PA 

b. Dependence of local communities for biomass extraction has 

c. inverse relationship with the distance from PA boundary. 

d. The dependence of the local communities is determined by their 

economic status or their ability to purchase alternate fuel resources. 

To test the above hypotheses, following criteria have been used to show their 

dependence 

I) Income Criteria 

a. Income from forest or forest related activities 

b. Income from agriculture or agriculture related activities 

c. Income from subsidiary sources 

II) Asset ownership Criteria 

a. Ownership of land as reflected in proportion of small and marginal 

farmers. 

196

. Ownership of livestock population by small and marginal farmers 

c. Proportion of landless population with livestock 

III) Accessibility Criteria 

a. Other forests outside PA are easily accessible and are used frequently. 

b. Forest outside PA are nearer and accessible but rarely used 

c. No other forest except the forest of PNP is available 

IV) Fuel use Criteria 

a. Availability of alternate source of fuel eg. Gobar gas, LPG 

b. Accessability of alternate sources 

c. Capacity to purchase alternate sources of fuel. 

On the basis of above criteria, the dependence of local communities on PNP has 

been estimated. The dependence of Fulzari Village on the basis of income criteria 

i.e. income from forest or their dependence on forest of PNP for biomass 

consumption was found to be very high. The reported consumption of biomass 

however, appears to be a gross underestimation, as in the absence of accessibility 

to non PA forest and non availability of alternate sources of fuel, their dependence 

on PNP for firewood is bound to be very high. The livestock population owned by the 

village community is self evident to explain their dependence on forest of PNP for 

grazing purpose. The per capita income variations within the households of Fulzari 

do not explain in a major way variation in per capita consumption of fuel wood or 

fodder. Almost entire village is found to be dependent on forest for meeting its 

biomass requirements. 

The surrounding villages within the distance of 10 km. of PNP boundary were 

surveyed to examine the relationship between dependence of the village and its 

distance from PNP. Almost all villages exhibited a negative relationship between 

dependence and distance from Pench National Park (Table III.III.1, 2) 

The dependence was also assessed by taking income and asset ownership criteria, 

accessibility to PNP and availability of alternate sources of fuel. To test the first and 

second hypotheses, multiple regression analysis has been used. This analysis is 

carried out at three levels- 

197

a. For the households of Fulzari village 

b. For the sample households of the sample villages 

c. For all the households of the Fulzari and the sample villages. 

The regression model employed for investigating the dependence of the households 

in and around the PNP - 

P1 = f (NTFP, hunting, forest labour, fishing, livestock, P2, qtynumbers, firewood-1, 

firewood-2) 

The estimates of correlation co-efficient indicate interlinkages between variables. 

The NTFPs, hunting and forest labour are direct contributors to the dependence as 

correlation of these variables with the dependence is positive. For households of 

other villages and the combined sample they are also statistically significant. 

The regression results show that all the variables have significant impact on the 

dependence. Though P2 and fishing have negative impact whereas firewood-2 

(firewood collection from core forest) has positive impact. The three variables 

fishing, income from agriculture plus agricultural labour (P2) and collection of 

firewood together explain more than 87 percent of the dependence of Fulzari 

households on the PNP. 

The regression results in the case of other villages (within the distance range of 0 to 

10 K.m.) shows that the exogenous variable NTFP, seems to be playing a very 

important role in determining the dependence on PNP. But the impact of other 

variables is statistically insignificant. 

The regression results for combined sample shows that all the exogenous variables 

together explain about 27 percent variation in the dependence of the households of 

villages in and around PNP. 

The estimates of multiple regression also explain that longer the distance of villages 

from PNP lesser is the dependence on PNP and vice-versa. 

The criterion of accessibility to non-PNP forest and dependence showed that, 

villages having reserve forest in the proximity have shown lesser degree of 

dependence on forest of PNP. However, in most of the villages inability of the 

respondents to report correct information regarding their sources of biomass 

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extraction either from PNP or from non-PNP forest has restricted to some extent the 

scope of the analysis. 

The criterion regarding availability and accessibility to alternate sources of fuel 

showed uniform degree of dependence for all the sample villages as no other 

sources of fuel were observed to be available and accessible to the local 

communities nearby PNP (with exception of one household). Thus three main 

criteria i.e. income and asset ownership criteria, accessibility to non-PNP forest and 

availability of alternate sources of fuel have been mainly used to examine 

dependence of villages on the PNP. 

Third hypothesis that dependence of local community is determined by their 

economic status or their ability to purchase alternate fuel resources is also tested. In 

the present analysis it is assumed that economic status of the village community is 

reflected in occupational status. Almost all households revealed same economic 

status as majority of them were cultivators. Next to cultivation, their subsidiary 

source of income was labour. Their ability to purchase alternate source of fuel, 

fodder or other natural resources was determined by their income from the above 

occupations. Almost all the communities showed a high degree of dependence on 

forest irrespective of their economic status. 

However, dependence, in case of Fulzari was observed to be related to sociocultural 

factors. Influence of traditions and customs on these communities even now 

propels them to collect fuelwood and fodder from forest (Caste distribution of 

population Table III.II.4) 

The intensive study of the resource utilization pattern of the sample villages revealed 

that the amount of biomass extracted by the people is not necessarily a function of 

purchasing power or physical access to resources only. These merely determined 

the level of dependency. The pressure on biomass resources of a forest were also a 

function of ease with which these are available, the socio cultural milieu, the human 

and livestock population and the proximity to market. 

The findings based on observations also showed that the degree of dependence of 

some of the households in the sample villages on the forest for their biomass 

requirements was greater owing to their low purchasing power and lack of access to 

the alternatives, however, in many cases the amount of biomass extraction from the 

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forest for fuel wood and fodder was less than the less dependent, economically 

better off villages. An important cause for this is the socio-cultural and caste 

background of people. From this study, it can be concluded that, dependence is not 

only a function of economic status or accessibility alone. 

The socio cultural factors may explain the dependence of long distance villages on 

PNP. 

4. The study describes, the biodiversity status of PNP by giving a check list of fauna 

and flora in PNP. To test the fourth hypothesis internationally accepted IFRI method 

has been employed to examine the impact of human intervention on the vegetational 

structure and status of PNP. A sample of plots from core zone, tourism zone and 

other zones with high probability of intervention has been drawn to test the above 

hypothesis. The study shows that Pench biodiversity is negatively affected by 

tourism, but not necessarily due to grazing and construction and other extraction by 

the people living close to the Park boundary. Because of the proximity of revenue 

forest, the locals fulfil their basic needs from there. They are utilizing natural 

resources only for small timber fuel and for other non timber forest products like 

fruits, leaves, gum, medicinal plants, grass for thatches etc. 

The study also attempts quantification of some major tree species for the sample plot 

of 250 m*400 m hectors by taking market value of these tree species and separate 

quantification of timber and fire wood value is attempted for Tendu, Dhawada, Salai, 

Moie, bija, Haldu, Kalam, Shiwan and Saja .The estimated timber value comes to 

Rs.4.52 lack and fire wood value of Rs.32 thousand giving total timber and fire wood 

value at Rs. 4.84 lack for the plot. The inventory of medicinal plants in PNP and their 

medicinal use have also been attempted to show their use in curing various diseases 

and its valuable potential contribution in the preperation of life saving drugs. 

5. The tourism aspect of the study focuses on the role of protected area as a source 

of recreational benefits. Both negative as well as positive aspects of eco tourism 

have been discussed at length. The Travel Cost Method has been used to estimate 

demand for tourism. The visitors to Pench have been divided into three tourism 

zones. Various functional forms like linear, log linear etc. were estimated to find out 

the best fit. The endogenous variables used in the model i.e., total number of visits 

from zone I to site m, exogenous variables are population of zones, mean income of 

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zones, entrance fee, characteristics of zones, travel cost from zones (TC) to 

substitute site, entry fee in substitute site, quality characteristics of wild life viewing 

available at substitute site. The following functional form is used to estimate the total 

cost of visiting site 

Ζjm /nj = F (Yi, TCjm + Pm, Xj, TCjk + Pk, Qm, Qk, NL, TS). 

The constant term that captures the joint effect of the factors exogenous to tourism in 

the PNP has a statistically significant positive effect. This implies that the general 

environment in the PNP has not been able to develop the tourism. However, the 

positive signs of the constant terms for the entire three samples indicate the 

conducive situation for tourism development. The conducive atmosphere along with 

weak effects bring out that serious efforts on the parts of the authorities are needed 

to exploit the general environment. This also shows that tourism, so far, has not 

posed threat to the environmental aspects of the PNP. 

6. The role of fishing in PNP and dependence of local communities on fishing for 

their livelihood is also an important issue of the study. The following model was used 

to estimate the growth rate. 

Log s= a + bt ; Where 

S= stock, b = growth rate, a= constant, t= time 

The estimated growth rate of fishing comes to 5.9 per cent. The value of R 2 = 0.07. 

Another equation used to estimate the growth rate of harvesting of fishes is log H = a 

+ b t 

The estimated growth rate indicates that inspite of sufficient stocking of fishes and 

fingerlings the harvesting is very low. This further implies that it is not at all a threat 

to the water bodies or environment. 

7. Quantification of the various benefits and costs of PNP at cross section data set 

has been attempted. The benefits from forests in the form of income from NTFP, 

grazing of livestock, environmental benefits- oxygen, soil conservation etc. Income 

from tourism or benefits from recreation in PNP, biodiversity benefits, etc. have been 

quantified as far as possible. The incidental benefits from water supply; irrigation and 

power supply have been estimated. 

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Direct a well as indirect cost of PNP have been estimated. The cost of maintaining 

PNP, establishment cost, opportunity cost of PNP, cost of resettlement, crops 

damage by wild animals have been measured to focus the cost of PNP. 

8. Summary and Policy conclusions: Policy of conservation of natural resources by 

exclusive management of PNP is not considered desirable. Involvement of people in 

management of P.A. would help not only in conserving biodiversity but will minimise 

the social cost of PNP. The long term goal of conservation and maximizing the 

benefits of tourism need to be balanced in the interest of sustainable economic 

development. The potential benefits flowing from medicinal plants need to be 

properly focused to promote their conservation as a ‘treasure house’. Last, any 

attempt at conservation devoid of livelihood considerations will be a futile exercise in 

the interest of sustainable economic development. 

Policy Recommendations 

1. Dependence of local communities on PNP has roots in low agricultural income 

and lack of alternate sources of livelihood as reflected in occupational structure of 

the population in and around PNP (Tale III.I.8, 10). In Fulzari village almost 74 per 

cent of the population is engaged in agriculture (Cultivator + Agri. Labour). However, 

agriculture contributes less than 25 per cent income (Table III.I.10). The proportion 

of landless pollution is also equally high (47.6 per cent, Table III.I.9). Lack of 

lucrative self employment opportunities or other developmental works (due to 

suspension of working plan in Fulzari) has compelled them to depend heavily on 

PNP as a major source of livelihood. Sample villages around PNP also shows 

almost same scenario where employment opportunities arising from other 

developmental works supplement their slender income from land. Landless 

population (47 percent in Fulzari and 19.1 per cent in other villages) as well as small 

and marginal farmers constitute the target group for policy recommendations. A 

meaningful programme for their economic upliftment through eco-development or 

eco-tourism plans should be devised so as to reduce their dependence on PNP. 

These target groups may be provided technical, financial, logistic support to improve 

the yield from land or some agro-based industry training programmes may be 

conducted to equip them with skill and expertise to undertake non-agricultural 

activity. 

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The demographic profile of village Fulzari shows low literacy status of the local 

population with high proportion of population in younger age group (Table III.I.5) as 

well as in working age group. This is indicative of the high social cost of their 

resettlement and providing them with meaningful income/employment opportunities. 

Development of Agro-Eco-Tourism activities in a major way may help to solve this 

problem. However, improving their literacy status and introduction of vocational 

training cum education programme in and around PNP based on local skills and 

local resources need to be designed and implemented on priority basis. Special 

training programmes in Agro-eco-tourism are strongly recommended to exploit the 

potential of local communities as guides with socio-cultural heritage of the Region. 

Fulzari Village: 

Villages around PNP, and Fulzari village specially is an example of poverty in the 

midst of plenty. Since it will be shifted to Sawara village, no plans of economic 

development, even on ad hoc basis, are designed or implemented to improve their 

economic status. Since last 25 years, their status has been reduced to a suffocating 

village with almost all development activities paralysed. It is strongly recommended 

either to shift the village Fulzari immediately to Sawara (new location of resettlement) 

where various eco-development eco-agro tourism plans to involve local participation 

may be implemented through the financial support of State/Central Govt. or to 

prepare some ad hoc plans for their economic upliftment till their final settlement at 

Fulzari gets materialized. 

Ownership of livestock by locals is a major threat on PNP. The socio-cultural ethics 

of tribal communities do not permit use of milch animals for the development of dairy 

industry. However, use of animal residue for organic fertilizers/ manures can be 

made scientifically for which local communities may be given special training. It is 

difficult to change the socio-cultural traits of the tribal communities. However, 

gradually; they may be educated about the role of dairy industry in income and 

employment generation, which may be instrumental in making them self-sufficient. 

The long term impact of this important source of livelihood may be visible in reducing 

their dependence on PNP. 

The major threat to conservation of natural resources in PNP arising from the local 

communities is from local communities demand for fuelwood like LPG, gobar gas or 

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solar cooker. If they are made available to them, their dependence on forest will be 

significantly reduced. Creating sufficient purchasing power to enable them to 

purchase these alternate sources through the schemes of income and employment 

generation and training in the use of solar cooker or gobar gas seems to be a 

sensible solution. 

Rehabilitation of villages: Rehabilitation of village Fulzari should be done within a 

specific time limit. The case of Fulzari village is a case in point. Since last 25 years 

the entire development of the village in paralysed, suffocated due to its status as 

being ‘shifted’ to village Sawara. This has lead to suspension of working plans for 

the village and deprived the village communities of all benefits of development 

schemes or activity. 

Employment in Forest Department: From all the villages under study, only one 

member has been found employed in government service. Forest department 

should employ at least one member of every tribal family. Watchmen, guards, peons 

should be appointed from the villages in proximity of protected areas only, as they 

have complete knowledge of that area and their appointed should be made 

mandatory. 

Eco-development programmes implemented by the forest dept, are no doubt very 

helpful in generating income/employment opportunities around PNP. However, it 

seems to have created only marginal impact in their economic upliftment. Other 

rural development programme by multiple govt. and non-govt. agencies have also 

benefited the local communities. But have failed to generate perennial source of 

income. The lack of funds, which suspended Village Eco Development Programme 

is indicative of need for mobilization of local resources, may be through local 

participation or through implementation of time-bond programmes through the 

financial support of Govt, non-govt. agencies. 

2. The regression results paint a clear picture for policy- makers. In order to reduce 

the dependence of households on the PNP, the government should give high priority 

to increasing income from agriculture and agriculture related activities, selfemployment, 

fishing etc. 

The total income of a family in and around PNP is the sum total of income from 

agriculture, wages of agricultural labourers, income from self-employment and 

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income from fishing (non-forest income) on one hand and income from NTFP, 

income from hunting, wages of the forest labourers (forest income) on other hand. 

Hence, it is obvious that the dependence on the PNP, defined as the percentage 

share (p1) of forest income in the total income, will decline if the percentage share of 

non-forest income increases sufficiently. The negative sign of the regression 

coefficients of p2 in all the equations is a pointer towards this. Therefore, the efforts 

will have to be made to increase non-forest income of the households in the PNP. 

Among the non-forest income sources, high priority should be given to development 

of agriculture. Agriculture, if properly developed, is the one sector that can generate 

employment and income. Of late, when industries are in recession, the soil of the 

region is suitable for raising different crops. This potential has to be fully exploited. 

In addition to agricultural development there is an urgent need to develop rural 

infrastructure like rural roads, marketing facilities for agricultural produce. The 

farmers in the region may be trained in commercial floriculture and horticulture. 

Commercial floriculture has vast marketing potential not only in the domestic market 

but also in the foreign markets. There is a strong likelihood that enhancement of 

agricultural and agriculture related activities would generate additional employment. 

Commercial floriculture and horticulture also have the potential to generate selfemployment. 

Another sector that has immense potential to create self-employment 

is tourism (the details are given in Agro-Eco-Tourism plan). 

3. Cultivation of medicinal plants in the agricultural fields of local population may be 

popularised by emphasising their value in life saving diseases. Establishment of 

Herbal Research Institute may help them to transmit their traditional knowledge of 

medicinal plants. The knowledge of these traditional plants is on the verge of 

extinction in the absence of intergenerational transmission. Special Institutions may 

be created to preserve this knowledge as a custodian if family institutions no longer 

serve this purpose. 

The biodiversity status has shown no adverse impact on regenerative potential of 

vegetation in the sample plots due to human intervention. In-spite of noninvolvement 

of local communities around PA in management of PA (exclusive 

management of P.A. by Forest Department), they are seen using the natural 

resources rationally avoiding its excessive use. Involvement of local communities in 

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the management of PAs may further improve the situation by ensuring optimal, 

sustainable use of forest resources. 

Involvement of local communities in the management of PAs needs to be adopted as 

a major policy tool of conservation. The model of ‘exclusive’ management by state 

preventing intervention by human beings needs to be modified to promote 

participation of local communities. 

No conservation strategy will succeed in India unless the biomass requirements of 

local communities are harmoniously integrated into the strategy. The present 

conservation strategy emphasizing exclusive management of PA has an inbuilt 

dimension that alienates the local communities. Any sustainable conservation 

strategy must aim at an integrated and interdependent natural system of which flora, 

fauna and human beings are integral constituents. 

4. The tourism in the PNP is much below the optimum level. This has been 

demonstrated with the help o the Travel Cost Method (TCM). Expansion and 

development of tourism in collaboration with the private entrepreneurs, will go a long 

way in opening new vistas for the local populance for self-employment. The 

government of Madhya Pradesh (M. P.) has recently introduced new water games to 

attract the tourists to the MP side of the PNP. The region has predominantly tribal 

population. With proper orientation and training, the youth belonging to the 

community can serve as the tourist guides. Their familiarity with the history and 

geography of the tourists places in the region will be a boon for their being the 

tourists guides. Tourism can boost the Adivasi Arts, culture and traditional medicine. 

These in turn may boost up the tourism. 

Like tourism, the fishing activity in the PNP has not attained the optimum level. This 

has been demonstrated in the VI th chapter. There is ample scope for expansion 

and development of fishing activity in the PNP. The negative sign of the regression 

coefficients of fishing in all the equations is indicative of the fact that increase in 

income from fishing will reduce the dependence of the households in the PNP on the 

forest. 

ECO-TOURISM PLAN 

The information regarding the various places of tourists’ interest has already been 

provided in the Chapter V. The primary purpose of giving the status of P.A. to the 

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park is to conserve the flora and fauna of the region. However, the development of 

the sites of tourists’ interest is under consideration for tourism without disturbing the 

core area. 

Wildlife tourism is one of the most preferred activities of the tourists. The basic 

purpose of the tourists – tiger watching – is not fulfilled because of the under 

development of the activities related to tourism. The Forest Department is planning 

to develop some meadows for attracting tourists and spotting tigers near meadows. 

Limitations in Developing Meadows 

The park is located in the southern lower reaches of the Satpura Hill ranges which 

forms the catchment area for the river Pench. The Pench river flows almost through 

the center of the park in North South direction. The folding and upheavals in the past 

have resulted in formation of a series of hills and villages. The hilly and undulating 

terrain of the park poses various problems in its managements. Even the various 

species belonging to wildlife prefer different kind of terrain. The Sambar prefers hilly 

terrain, Chital and Gauss have a liking for moderate undulating terrain with gentle 

slopes and Chital, Nilgai favour flatter areas. The meadows can be developed on 

flatter areas for tourists' attraction and for spotting tigers and the compartments 

where the meadows can be developed are 525, 685 and 565. These areas can be 

opened to the tourists but they will be limited in number because of more hilly 

topography. 

Visitors’ Preferences 

It is essential to identify the tourists’ preferences to develop package programmes. 

The identification of tourists’ preference should relate to: 

• Picnic and merry-making 

• Education and Research 

• Religious Tourism 

Plan for Providing Package 

Plan for attracting the tourists should include 

• Audio-visual publicity through media for three types described above. 

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• Conservation of flora and fauna by allowing limited number of visitors and 

vehicles at a time. 

• Availability of separate information, prepared by the experts, for different 

types of tourists 

• Educating the tourists according to their category. 

• The visitors to be divided into subgroups on the basis of the demand for 

various activities like trekking, desire to see historic places, rafting, various 

water games etc. 

• Organisation of Nature camps, especially for school children, supplemented 

by the education of eco-tourism. 

• Imparting training to local people, particularly youth, to work as guides. 

• Educating the tourists for not harming the natural resources. 

• Providing information about Gavlighat where swirling water gushes out to 

meet the main flow of Pench (Compartment No. 546). This will avoid 

disturbance to the core area and provide more enjoyment to the tourists. 

• Identifying the religious sentiments of the tourists and the local populace to 

work out specific arrangements like separate spaces for offerings to the God, 

seating arrangements and special zones for hawkers. 

• Southwest side of the Park may be utilized for developing ideal facilities for 

tourists, as the region is less hilly than the North side of the park. 

Facilities for tourists 

The number of tourists to a site depends on the kind and quality of facilities 

available. This is a major determinant for attracting the tourists. The facilities 

required for attracting the tourists to the PNP can be developed on BOT (Built, 

Operate and Transfer) basis. This will result in attracting the tourists and creating 

employment for the local people. The facilities to be made available to the tourists 

should include 

• Camping facilities about 30 kms. Away from the PNP: Cottages, 

• Dormitories, Tentage, Camping grounds, Rest Houses, Canteens 

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• Machan and Hides 

• Transport facilities 

• Development of scenic spots, Parks, Botanical Garden 

• Museum for Forest Products, Tribal Art and Craft Centres 

• Children Park/ Amusement Park 

• Nursery: Ornamental/Medicinal plants for sale to visitors 

• Water Sports ∗ 

• Facilities for adventure tourism: Trekking, climbing. Hang Gliding 

• Nature cure and Yoga Camps 

• Animal rides: Elephants, Horse, Camel etc. 

• Information Centre: Audio-visual shows, Library, Printed matter, Maps, 

Guides, Laminated photos showing forestry activities. 

• Provision of package according to the liking of tourists. 

Employment to Locals; 

The tourism activities are likely to create demands of different nature. The local 

people can be trained to meet the demands. This will provide self-employment to the 

locals and will help reduce unemployment. Some of the avenues are: 

• Repairs of various vehicles 

• Driving and hiring of vehicles 

• Package provision and guides for tourists 

• Boating and fishing 

Plan for Eco-tourism at PNP: 

The plan for Eco-tourism at PNP is detailed in the following paragraphs. This 

consists of the objectives, zones to be developed and other details. 

∗ No boating, water sports, white water surfing etc. is proposed to be 

developed in Totladoh Reservoir as well as in the Pench Reservoir 

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Objectives: 

The objectives of the plan for Eco-tourism at PNP are: 

• A basic understanding of ecological issues. 

• Conscience and limited tourism. 

• Employment .to the Locals. 

Zones to be developed: 

Some zones near to Nagpur (Maharashtra) and Seoni (M.P.) can be selected and 

developed for eco-tourism as these areas are less hilly terrain than the northern part 

of the park. The basis for selection should be: 

• Demand from tourists. 

• Season wise arrangements. 

• Eco-tourists’ capacity to pay more than general tourists. 

• Involvement of locals in manufacturing and marketing of Handicrafts, 

traditional items, natural activities, guides etc. 

Two Types of Visits Plan for tourists: 

Two types of visit plan for tourists can be arranged in a year. The details are as 

follows: 

1. The first type of visit plan can be arranged from February to July. This is the 

“leaves shading (fall)” period. Since the PNP is deciduous type of forest, this 

season is most suitable for observing the wildlife. Those tourists interested in 

watching wildlife can be attracted in this season by providing a package to the 

effect. 

2. The second type of visit plan can be arranged from August to January “the 

lush green (Spring)” period when the tourists would desire to stay near nature, 

i.e., flora protected area. The nature liking and studying purpose for flora can 

be developed for tourists according to their demand. This may be: 

• Two or three compartments from North side of the Semi and Totaladoh 

(M.P.) may be selected for establishment of the spring visit plan. 

210

• Five or six compartments on the Nagpur (Maharashtra) may be 

selected for the purpose. 

Proposed Framework for involvement of Local populace: 

While the PNP’s primary focus on bio-diversity is most welcome and desirable, it 

must be balanced by emphasis by involvement of local people at various levels. For 

example, the local people have knowledge of rare species of the medicinal and other 

plants. This should be utilised by getting the photographs with the local names 

otherwise it may not be possible to identify such species and also to record their 

utility. Otherwise such species may get extinct. Such importance given to the local 

population at various levels will be more useful to change their attitudes towards 

preservation and conservation of flora and fauna. This will also help them to 

understand the importance of it to a greater extent. This will certainly go a long way 

in improving the standard of living of the local people. 

AGRO-ECO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT PLAN 

The development of pleasure activities in and around PA with agro based 

surrounding in developing countries that involves traveling to relatively undisturbed 

or uncontaminated nature areas with specific objective of studying, admiring and 

enjoying the scenery, plants and wildlife as well as involvement of farmers as one of 

the important players for generating employment from existing agro-materials. The 

agro-eco development plan for the PNP should have the following elements: 

• The local people particularly the tribal (deeply embedded in agriculture) 

should be motivated for agro-eco tourism activities. 

• The plan should aim at improving the material life of the local populace. 

• Residue of jawar, bajra, wheat etc. can be utilized for fertilizer purpose, 

building huts and manufacturing decorative items and utilizing them. The 

displays of such items in different seasons will be useful for tourism activities. 

Basis for Designing Agro-Eco Tourism Plan: 

The basis (principles) for designising an agro-eco tourism plan be as follows: 

1. It should provide long-term benefits to the farmer community and cottage/agro 

industries. 

211

2. It should not degrade the resources and should be developed in environment 

friendly social manner. 

3. It should provide first-hand, participatory and enlightening experiences 

especially to farmers and fishermen. 

4. The plan should aim at making the tourism enjoyable for the visitors and 

should also aim at motivating the tourists to purchase the locally produce 

articles from the local people. This will benefit both the tourist as well as the 

local people as the middlemen are eliminated. 

5. Camping facilities can be developed with help of private investors on BOT 

basis. For these investors, it should be made compulsory to purchase food 

grains, vegetables etc. from the local population. In this connection suitable 

mechanism may be developed to benefit both the local people and the 

investors. 

6. It should involve educating all the players; farmers, local communities, 

government officials, NGOs, industry, tourists etc. 

7. It should encourage all-party recognition of the intrinsic values of the 

resources. 

8. It should be pro farmers and related local people. 

9. It should aim to promote social, moral and ethical responsibilities and 

behaviours towards the natural and cultural environment by all the players. 

10. Eco-agro tourism development is the process to change to reach symposia 

between nature conversation tourism and sustainable socio-economic 

development with the main focus on agro-based activities. 

Management Plan of PNP: 

There is a need to execute Management Plan (2000-01 to 2009-10) of the Forest 

Department on priority basis. This plan prepared by the Forest Department is 

exhaustive with a vision to conserve the natural resources of PNP. It covers almost 

all aspects of sustainable development of PNP with Eco-tourism and Ecodevelopment 

as its thrust area. AS study of this plan shows following policy matters 

to be incorporated in the management plan of PNP: 

212

a. Clear demarcation of PNP as core, buffer and tourism zones and their 

development as per the management objectives. 

b. Strengthening of interpretation center at Sillari which would aim at increasing 

people’s interest in conservation issues by making them understand Park’s 

value by providing information about its history, ecology, habitat, wildlife, 

management problems, etc. 

c. Funds collected through the entry fee should be exclusively used for the 

maintenance and development of Park and its infrastructure. 

d. Construction of auditorium with audio-visual interpretative media. 

e. Development of library adjoining the interpretation center well equipped with 

periodicals, journals, magazines related to nature conservation. 

f. Creating audio-visual aids a regular library of audio and videocassettes, films, 

slides, photographs carefully classified into different topics should be 

established. Video camera with remote microphone and CD compatibles 

audio systems should be purchased to ensure bringing on records various 

seasonal observations- bird and animal calls. 

g. Interpretative aids should be used not only for tourists but also for extension 

work, education and interpretation of subjects to the local populace in nearby 

villages and students in schools. 

h. Publicity material to be updated- pamphlets, handouts, brochures etc. need to 

incorporate all details regarding tourists spots, composition of flora fauna, 

various forest type, habitat should be published . Checklist of birds should be 

made up to date. Park emblem should be designed and letter heads 

envelops should be printed. 

i. Beautification of Ambakhori should be done on priority basis. Ambakhori is 

proposed to developed as an area of nature interpretation of drinking water 

supply to visitors, erection of shades, raised platforms at the base of trees 

with shades, benches, retaining walls to arrest future collapse of soil debris, 

and construction of approach steps. 

j. Habitat improvement and manipulation should be expedited. 

213

k. Training should be imparted to the staff engaged in various activities related 

to the management of PNP. 

l. Research and monitoring is the key stone to scientific management of PNP 

upon which management and administrative prescriptions should be based. 

Research and monitoring activities on various aspects of wild life 

management and health should be taken up: 

o Research on floristic and faunistic forest wealth 

o Regeneration survey of PNPO with special emphasis on endangered plants 

o Field survey to assess the status of flora and fauna as per IUCN Red data 

listing. 

Creation of proper infrastructure for research 

a. Establishing linkages with Institutes/ Universities for taking up research 

activities, which would help management of, PNP. 

b. Conservation of Ranidoh Forest Rest House as Ranidoh Research 

Center 

c. Creation of Research cell in the forest department with collaborative 

efforts of different agencies and Govt. Depts. 

d. University- Forest interaction and nomination of university 

representatives on the research cell. 

e. Existing administrative set up of the Forest Dept. to be modified to 

accommodate inclusive management of PNP. 

The above policy recommendations if translated into policy decisions, Pench 

National Park will be a “paradise” of flora and fauna and model “Tiger Project” for the 

region. 

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