Corchorus cunninghamii - Department of Environment and Climate ...

Draft NSW & National 

Recovery Plan 

Corchorus 

cunninghamii 

November 2004

© NSW Department of Environment and Conservation, 2004. 

This work is copyright. However, material presented in this plan may be copied for personal use or 

published for educational purposes, providing that any extracts are fully acknowledged. Apart from 

this and any other use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced 

without prior written permission from the DEC. 

NSW Department of Environment and Conservation 

43 Bridge Street 

(PO Box 1967) 

HURSTVILLE NSW 2220 

Tel: 02 9585 6444 

www.environment.nsw.gov.au 

Requests for information or comments regarding the recovery program for Corchorus cunninghamii 

are best directed to: 

The Corchorus cunninghamii Recovery Co-ordinator 

Threatened Species Unit, North East Branch 

NSW Department of Environment and Conservation 

Locked Bag 914 

COFFS HARBOUR NSW 2450 

Tel: 02 6651 5946 

Cover illustrator: Lesley Elkan 

This plan should be cited as follows: 

NSW Department of Environment and Conservation 2004, Draft Recovery Plan for Corchorus 

cunninghamii, NSW Department of Environment and Conservation, Hurstville. 

ISBN 0 7313 6522 4

Draft Recovery Plan Corchorus cunninghamii 

Draft Recovery Plan for 

Corchorus cunninghamii 

Foreword 

The New South Wales Government established a new environment agency on 24 September 2003, 

the Department of Environment and Conservation, which incorporates the New South Wales 

National Parks and Wildlife Service. Responsibility for the preparation of Recovery Plans now rests 

with this new department. 

This document, when finalised, will constitute the formal New South Wales State Recovery Plan for 

Corchorus cunninghamii. It will also constitute the formal New South Wales component of the 

National Recovery Plan for the species. As such, this plan considers the conservation requirements 

of the species across its known range within New South Wales. It identifies the actions to be taken to 

ensure the long-term viability of Corchorus cunninghamii in nature and the parties who will 

undertake these actions. 

Corchorus cunninghamii is listed as Endangered on the New South Wales Threatened Species 

Conservation Act 1995. It is also listed as Endangered on the Commonwealth Environment 

Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and the Queensland Nature Conservation 

(Wildlife) Regulation 1994. 

Actions outlined in this Recovery Plan will be directed towards implementation of management 

programs, field surveys of potential habitat, establishment of ex situ collections, research and 

community awareness. 

It is intended that this Recovery Plan will be implemented over a five year period. Actions will be 

undertaken by the Department of Environment and Conservation. 

LISA COBYN 

Director-General 

Department of Environment and Conservation Page i


Acknowledgments 

Sections of this Recovery Plan are based upon the information contained in a preliminary draft 

prepared by Andrew Benwell, consultant botanist. 

The following people provided information and support during preparation of this Recovery Plan: 

David Halford of the Queensland Herbarium; Maria Matthes, Katrina McKay, Stephen King and 

Damien Hofmeyer, all of the Department of Environment and Conservation; John Willoughby, Doug 

Binns, Ken McCray, Ken Fussell and Nick Westman, all of Forestry NSW; Shannon Parr of Brisbane 

Forest Park; and consultants Robert Kooyman, Barbara Stewart and Sue Bower. 

Department of Environment and Conservation Page ii


Table of Contents 

Foreword .....................................................................................................i 

Acknowledgments...................................................................................... ii 

Table of Contents ...................................................................................... iii 

1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 

2 Legislative Context ................................................................................ 1 

2.1 Legal status...........................................................................................................................1 

2.2 Responsibilities under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995............................1 

2.3 Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999....... 2 

2.4 Relationship to other NSW legislation ............................................................................... 3 

3 Species Information ..............................................................................4 

3.1 Description and taxonomy.................................................................................................. 4 

3.2 Distribution ......................................................................................................................... 4 

3.3 Habitat ................................................................................................................................. 4 

3.4 Life history and ecology ......................................................................................................8 

4 Threats ..................................................................................................9 

4.1 Habitat loss.......................................................................................................................... 9 

4.2 Inappropriate disturbance .................................................................................................. 9 

4.3 Weeds................................................................................................................................. 10 

4.4 Small population size ........................................................................................................10 

5 Species' Ability to Recover ....................................................................11 

6 Previous Recovery Actions....................................................................11 

6.1 Recovery planning..............................................................................................................11 

6.2 Population and habitat protection.....................................................................................11 

6.3 Threat abatement .............................................................................................................. 12 

6.4 Surveys............................................................................................................................... 12 

6.5 Research ............................................................................................................................ 12 

7 Proposed Recovery Objectives, Actions and Performance Criteria....... 12 

8 Social and Economic Consequences..................................................... 15 

9 Biodiversity Benefits ........................................................................... 15 

10 Preparation Details ............................................................................. 15 

11 Review Date......................................................................................... 15 

12 Implementation................................................................................... 15 

13 References........................................................................................... 16 

14 Acronyms Used in this Document ........................................................ 17 

Appendix 1 Submission ............................................................................ 19 

Appendix 2 Public Authority Responsibilities ........................................... 21 

Department of Environment and Conservation Page iii


Appendix 3 Specific Conditions for Plantation Operations at Toonumbar 

State Forest...............................................................................................23 

Appendix 4 Management Principles for Corchorus cunninghamii in NSW24 

Appendix 5 Research Considerations for Corchorus cunninghamii 

Conservation.............................................................................................26 

Figures 

Figure 1.Corchorus cunninghamii records in NSW 

6 

Tables 

Table 1. Vegetation characteristics at Corchorus cunninghamii locations in NSW and Queensland .. 7 

Table 2. Estimated costs of implementing the actions identified in the Corchorus cunninghamii 

Recovery Plan .......................................................................................................................................... 18 

Department of Environment and Conservation Page iv


1 Introduction 

Corchorus cunninghamii (F. Muell.) is a 

perennial, semi-herbaceous shrub to 1.5 metres 

high with a distribution restricted to north east 

New South Wales (NSW) and south east 

Queensland. Threatening processes include 

displacement by weeds, inappropriate 

disturbance regimes and small population 

effects. 

This document, when finalised, will constitute 

the formal NSW Recovery Plan for Corchorus 

cunninghamii. It will also constitute the formal 

NSW component of the National Recovery Plan 

for the species. As such, this plan considers the 

conservation requirements of the species across 

its known range within the State. It identifies 

the actions to be taken to ensure the long-term 

viability of C. cunninghamii in nature and the 

parties who will undertake these actions. The 

attainment of the objectives of this Recovery 

Plan are subject to budgetary and other 

constraints affecting the parties involved. 

This plan was prepared by the NSW 

Department of Environment and Conservation 

(DEC). 

2 Legislative Context 

2.1 Legal status 

Corchorus cunninghamii is listed as 

Endangered on the NSW Threatened Species 

Conservation Act 1995 (TSC Act). It is also 

listed as Endangered on the Commonwealth 

Environment Protection and Biodiversity 

Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and the 

Queensland Nature Conservation (Wildlife) 

Regulation 1994, which comes under the 

Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992 (NC 

Act). 

2.2 Responsibilities under the 

Threatened Species Conservation Act 

1995 

Recovery Plan preparation, exhibition 

and implementation 

The TSC Act and the NSW Threatened Species 

Conservation Amendment Act 2002 (hereafter 

referred to jointly as the TSC Act) provide a 

legislative framework to protect and encourage 

the recovery of Endangered and Vulnerable 

Species, Endangered Populations and 

Endangered Ecological Communities in NSW. 

Under this legislation the Director-General of 

the DEC has a responsibility to prepare 

Recovery Plans for all species, populations and 

ecological communities listed as Endangered or 

Vulnerable on the TSC Act schedules. The TSC 

Act includes specific requirements for both the 

matters to be addressed by Recovery Plans and 

the process for preparing Recovery Plans. This 

Recovery Plan satisfies these provisions. 

This draft Recovery Plan will be placed on 

public exhibition and submissions invited from 

the public. To make your submission as 

effective as possible, please: 

• refer to the section or action of the plan you 

wish to address; 

• briefly explain the reasons for your 

comments, providing source information or 

examples where possible; and 

• provide your name and address to enable 

receipt of your submission to be 

acknowledged. 

Submissions may be made as letters or other 

documents, or on the DEC form ‘Submission: 

Draft Recovery Plan’. This is available in 

Appendix 1 of the plan, at DEC offices, or on the 

website www.environment.nsw.gov.au. 

The DEC will consider all submissions to this 

Recovery Plan received during the exhibition 

period and must provide a summary of those 

submissions to the NSW Minister for the 

Environment prior to final approval of the plan. 

Submissions on this draft plan may contain 

information that is defined as ‘personal 

information’ under the NSW Privacy and 

Personal Information Act 1998, which 

identifies the person providing the submission. 

Following adoption of the Recovery Plan by the 

Minister copies of all submissions, including 

personal details, will be available for public 

inspection. If any person wishing to prepare a 

submission does not want their personal details 

to become public, the submission must be 

clearly marked that personal details are to 

remain confidential. All submissions are stored 

in the DEC records system. 

The TSC Act requires that a government agency 

must not undertake actions inconsistent with a 

Recovery Plan. The actions identified in this 

plan for the recovery of Corchorus 

cunninghamii in NSW are the responsibility of 

the DEC. Other public authorities may have 

statutory responsibilities relevant to the 

conservation and protection of C. 

cunninghamii. Public authorities with core 

legislative responsibilities relevant to the 

protection and management of C. cunninghamii 

and its habitat are listed in Appendix 2. 

Consultation with indigenous people 

Local Aboriginal Land Councils, Elders and 

other groups representing indigenous people in 

the areas where Corchorus cunninghamii 

occurs have been identified and a copy of the 

draft Recovery Plan will be sent to them. Their 

Department of Environment and Conservation Page 1


comments on this draft will be sought and will 

be considered in the preparation of the final 

Recovery Plan. It is also the intention of the 

DEC to consider the role and interests of these 

indigenous communities in the implementation 

of the actions identified in this plan. 

Critical Habitat 

The TSC Act makes provision for the 

identification and declaration of Critical Habitat 

for species, populations and ecological 

communities listed as Endangered. Once 

declared, it becomes an offence to damage 

Critical Habitat (unless the action is specifically 

exempted by the TSC Act) and a Species Impact 

Statement (SIS) is mandatory for all 

developments and activities proposed within 

Critical Habitat. 

To date, Critical Habitat has not been declared 

for Corchorus cunninghamii, although it is an 

option available to protect any new populations 

of the species (see Action 2.3). 

Key Threatening Processes 

As of October 2004 there are 23 Key 

Threatening Processes listed on the TSC Act. Of 

these, 'High frequency fire resulting in the 

disruption of life cycle processes in plants and 

animals and loss of vegetation structure and 

composition' is relevant to the conservation of 

Corchorus cunninghamii. In addition to this, a 

range of other processes are recognised as 

threatening the survival of the species in NSW. 

Licensing 

Any activity not requiring development consent 

under the NSW Environmental Planning and 

Assessment Act 1979 (EP&A Act) or the NSW 

Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 (NVC 

Act), which is likely to pick Corchorus 

cunninghamii, or damage its habitat, requires a 

licence from the DEC under the provisions of 

the TSC Act or NSW National Parks and 

Wildlife Act 1974 (NPW Act) as a defence 

against prosecution. If the impact is likely to be 

significant, a SIS is required. 

Other conservation measures 

The TSC Act includes provision for other 

measures that may be taken to conserve 

Corchorus cunninghamii or its habitat, 

including the making of a Stop Work Order or 

Joint Management Agreement. 

2.3 Commonwealth Environment 

Protection and Biodiversity 

Conservation Act 1999 

The EPBC Act provides a legislative framework 

for the protection of threatened species across 

Australia. An important role of the EPBC Act is 

to facilitate the preparation and 

implementation of Recovery Plans for species 

listed under the Act in co-operation with the 

States and Territories in which populations of 

listed species occur. In preparing a 

Commonwealth Recovery Plan, consideration 

must be given to the role and interests of 

indigenous people in the conservation of 

Australia's biodiversity. The Act also seeks to 

impose the obligation (arising from the listing) 

for responsible agencies (particularly 

Commonwealth) to adopt protective measures. 

This Recovery Plan will be submitted to the 

Commonwealth for approval as the NSW 

component of the National Recovery Plan for 

the species under the EPBC Act. 

Under the EPBC Act, Critical Habitat may be 

registered for any Nationally listed threatened 

species or ecological community. When 

adopting a Recovery Plan, the Commonwealth 

Minister for the Environment and Heritage 

must consider whether to list habitat identified 

in the Recovery Plan as being critical to the 

survival of the species or ecological community. 

It is an offence under the EPBC Act for a person 

to knowingly take an action that will 

significantly damage Critical Habitat (unless the 

EPBC Act specifically exempts the action). This 

offence only applies to Commonwealth areas. 

However, an action that is likely to have a 

significant impact on a listed species is still 

subject to referral and approval under the EPBC 

Act. Proposed actions within Critical Habitat on 

non-Commonwealth areas are likely to receive 

additional scrutiny by the Commonwealth 

Minister. 

This Recovery Plan does not specifically identify 

habitat that is critical to Corchorus 

cunninghamii. However, the distribution, 

habitat and ecological information included in 

this plan (Sections 3.2–3.4) would assist the 

Commonwealth Minister for the Environment 

and Heritage in identifying habitat that is 

critical to the survival of the species. The DEC 

does not consider it appropriate that this 

Recovery Plan identifies or maps the occurrence 

of the species in the detail that would be 

required to define Critical Habitat. 

As Corchorus cunninghamii is listed Nationally 

under the EPBC Act, any person proposing to 

undertake actions likely to have a significant 

impact on this species should refer the action to 

the Commonwealth Minister for the 

Environment and Heritage for consideration. 

The Minister will then decide whether the 

action requires EPBC Act approval. This is in 

addition to any State or Local Government 

approval required. 



Administrative guidelines are available from the 

Commonwealth Department of Environment 

and Heritage to assist proponents in 

determining whether their action is likely to 

have a significant impact. 

2.4 Relationship to other NSW 

legislation 

Additional legislation relevant to the 

conservation and recovery of Corchorus 

cunninghamii in NSW includes the following: 

• National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974; 

• Environmental Planning and Assessment 

Act 1979; 

• Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997; 

• Rural Fires Act 1997; 

• Forestry and National Park Estate Act 1998; 

• Plantations and Reafforestation Act 1999; 

and 

• Rural Fires and Environmental Assessment 

Legislation Amendment Act 2002. 

The interaction of the above legislation with the 

TSC Act with respect to Corchorus 

cunninghamii is varied. The most significant 

implications are described below. 

National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 

The NPW Act is administered by the DEC. 

Under this Act it is an offence to ‘pick’ or 

knowingly ‘damage the habitat of’ Corchorus 

cunninghamii. Certain circumstances may 

provide a defence from prosecution, including 

where actions are approved under the EP&A Act 

or NVC Act or licensed by the DEC under the 

NPW Act or TSC Act. 

The NPW Act allows for the reservation of areas 

as national parks, nature reserves and other 

categories of protected area under the 

management of the DEC. Toonumbar National 

Park and Bungabbee Nature Reserve provide 

important habitat for Corchorus cunninghamii 

in NSW. The NPW Act regulates activities 

within these conservation areas. 

Rural Fires Act 1997 

The NSW Rural Fires Act 1997 requires that all 

parties involved in fire suppression and 

prevention must have regard to the principles of 

ecologically sustainable development when 

exercising their functions and when preparing 

Plans of Operations and Bush Fire Risk 

Management Plans. Consideration of the 

principles of ecologically sustainable 

development must include the conservation of 

biological diversity and ecological integrity. 

Within this, consideration must be given to the 

impact on threatened species and their habitats, 

including Corchorus cunninghamii. 

Rural Fires and Environmental 

Assessment Legislation Amendment Act 

2002 

The NSW Rural Fires and Environmental 

Assessment Legislation Amendment Act 2002 

amends the Rural Fires Act 1997 and several 

environmental assessment-related Acts. This 

Act provides for mapping bush fire prone lands 

and the development of a Bush Fire 

Environmental Assessment Code. This code is 

aimed at streamlining the assessment process 

for hazard reduction works. To this end, the 

code includes general ameliorative 

prescriptions and, in some cases, species 

specific prescriptions. Threatened species and 

their habitats are one of the items considered in 

the code. 

Forestry and National Park Estate Act 

1998 

In NSW, an Integrated Forestry Operations 

Approval (IFOA) granted under part 4 of the 

NSW Forestry and National Park Estate Act 

1998 (FNPE Act) regulates the carrying out of 

certain forestry operations, including logging, in 

the public forests of a region. The terms of the 

Threatened Species Licence (TSL) of the IFOA 

outlines the minimum protection measures 

required to limit the impact of forestry activities 

on threatened species and their habitats, and 

forms the basis for the DEC regulation of those 

activities. The TSL for the Upper North East 

Region includes measures to limit the impact of 

forestry activities on Corchorus cunninghamii 

(see Section 5.2). 

Plantations and Reafforestation Act 

1999 

The NSW Plantations and Reafforestation Act 

1999 (P&R Act) supports plantation 

development and reforestation that provides for 

improved environmental, social and economic 

outcomes. Under this Act, the proponent of an 

authorised plantation must notify the Minister 

administering the Act if plantation operations 

are likely to have a significant impact on unique 

or special wildlife values, including threatened 

species. The Minister must notify the Minister 

administering the NPW Act that an evaluation 

of the impacts of plantation operations is to be 

carried out so as to minimise the adverse 

impacts on unique or special wildlife values. 



3 Species Information 

3.1 Description and taxonomy 

Corchorus cunninghamii is a perennial semiherbaceous 

shrub to 1.5 metres high. Leaves are 

smooth, 5–15 centimetres long and 1.5–5.0 

centimetres wide, with petioles (leaf stalks) 1–2 

centimetres long. Leaf shape ranges from 

lanceolate to ovate, with a rounded or cordate 

(heart-shaped) base, a serrated margin and a tip 

that tapers to an obvious point. Leaves are 

arranged in an alternate pattern around the 

stem, which is often (but not always) reddish in 

colour and either smooth or sparsely covered 

with minute hairs. Stipules (growths at the base 

of leaf stalks) are up to 1 millimetre in length, 

red and fleshy, and have a nectar secreting pore 

under their surface. 

Flowers consist of 4–5 yellow oval petals, 7–11 

millimetres long and 3–5 millimetres wide. 

Clusters of 2–7 flowers form a single-stalk 

inflorescence that arises from opposite a leafbase. 

Alternatively, single flowers arise at leaf 

or flower nodes. Fruit is a dark brown to black 

narrow, elongated capsule 1.5–3.5 centimetres 

long and 4–6 millimetres wide that splits along 

its full length. Seeds are 2–3 millimetres long 

and brown to black in colour. 

A full taxonomic description of Corchorus 

cunninghamii is provided in Halford (1995a) 

and Harden (2000). 

Halford (1993) noted morphological variations 

in individuals between populations. Simmonds 

(2000) found that certain morphological 

differences were not significant, and suggested 

that they might be due to variation in site 

conditions. 

Identification of Corchorus cunninghamii is 

straightforward when flowering, but when not 

in flower its leaves can be confused with more 

common associates such as Abutilon 

oxycarpum (Flannel Weed) or Trema aspera 

(Poison Peach). Distinguishing features include 

the smooth, thinnish leaves of C. cunninghamii, 

which are somewhat three-veined at the base. 

Corchorus is a genus in the family Tiliaceae. 

The genus contains about 100 species 

distributed worldwide, mainly through the 

tropics and subtropics. There are 26 species of 

Corchorus occurring in Australia, with all but 

five being endemic. C. cunninghamii is the only 

native species of the genus occurring in NSW. 

3.2 Distribution 

Corchorus cunninghamii occurs from the 

Richmond River in north east NSW to the 

Brisbane River in south east Queensland. 

In Queensland, the species is currently known 

from four disjunct populations between the 

Beenleigh district and the lower Brisbane River. 

The Queensland population is estimated to be 

approximately 6,000 individuals (Parr 2002). 

In NSW, Corchorus cunninghamii has been 

recorded from foothill and range country north 

of the Richmond River between Lismore, 

Toonumbar and Mt Lindesay near the 

Queensland border (Figure 1). There are no 

records outside the Richmond catchment in 

NSW. At the time of European settlement, C. 

cunninghamii may have been more common 

within its known distribution in the State 

between Lismore and the upper Richmond 

Valley. Suitable habitat for C. cunninghamii 

would have existed throughout much of this 

area. The present sparse distribution in NSW 

and the disjunction between NSW and 

Queensland populations may indicate declining 

abundance due to land clearing, weed invasion 

and habitat alteration. There are currently two 

distinct populations of Corchorus 

cunninghamii in NSW. 

The Toonumbar population is distributed 

within Toonumbar National Park and a Hoop 

Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) plantation in 

Toonumbar State Forest. The Bungabbee 

population is located within Bungabbee Nature 

Reserve and Bungabbee State Forest. 

The Toonumbar population is the larger of the 

two NSW populations of Corchorus 

cunninghamii, although this population 

appears to be subject to large fluctuations in 

numbers. Stewart (2001) reported between 

600 and 700 plants within the national park 

and the Hoop Pine plantation, whilst more 

recent surveys have estimated approximately 

2,000 individuals within the Hoop pine 

plantation alone (SFNSW 2003). This is 

possibly a reflection of the recent disturbance 

regimes associated with management of the 

plantation. 

The Bungabbee population is estimated at 

approximately 50 plants (Stewart 2000, 2001). 

3.3 Habitat 

The landscape in which Corchorus 

cunninghamii typically occurs is a mosaic of 

wet sclerophyll forest and dry to dry-subtropical 

rainforest on sheltered slopes and gullies, and 

grassy open forest on exposed slopes and 

ridges. The species itself occurs in the ecotone 



of these two vegetation communities, often on 

upper slopes of southerly aspect, but also in 

gullies and on lower slopes (e.g. Bungabbee), 

depending on the topographic position of the 

sclerophyll-rainforest margin. The understorey 

in these margins is wet sclerophyll in character, 

comprising a lower stratum of ferns, grasses, 

herbs and shrubs and a mid stratum of 

secondary rainforest and mesic sclerophyll 

shrubs and small trees. 



Y 

Mount 

Lindesay 

Toonumbar 

NP 

$T 

$T$T $T 

$T$T$T 

$T r 

$T$T 

$T$T 

$T $T 

Toonumbar 

SF 

Queensland 

NSW 

# Kyogle 

# Casino 

Figure 1. Corchorus cunninghamii records in NSW 

In NSW, Corchorus cunninghamii occurs north 

of the Richmond River on the dissected 

southern flanks of the Mt Warning and Focal 

Peak volcanic shields. It occurs at low to mid 

elevation (150–450 metres) and may have 

originally extended to footslopes near the 

Richmond floodplain, which are now largely 

Bungabbee 

NR 

# Lismore 

Department of Environment and Conservation Page 6 

$T 

$T$T$T$T 

Bungabbee 

SF 

r 

r 

rr 

r 

Corchorus cunninghamii record 

$T current 

r historical 

DEC Estate 

Forests NSW Estate 

N 

5 0 5 

Kilometres 

cleared. All extant sites are on moderate to 

steep slopes of south to south-east aspect. 

The Queensland sites have a similar topography 

to those in NSW, namely hilly to steep country, 

at altitudes of 140–350 metres and on east to 

south-east aspects.


Both NSW populations of Corchorus 

cunninghamii occur on basalt-derived soils. 

The Toonumbar population occurs on dark 

brown or chocolate soils characterised by a 

friable, porous surface horizon with scattered 

basalt stones, a clay subsoil and are slightly 

acidic. The population at Bungabbee is on a 

similar soil type formed from basaltic colluvium 

overlying sedimentary rocks. 

The Queensland populations occur on 

metasedimentary geology (Halford 1993). The 

red-yellow podzolic soils formed on 

metasediments differ significantly from the 

NSW basaltic soils, tending to be more acidic, 

shallower and stony. Metasediments are 

widespread in the Brunswick and Tweed Valleys 

on the eastern side of the Mt Warning shield in 

NSW, yet there are no records of Corchorus 

cunninghamii from this area. 

The general climatic regime of the Richmond 

Valley is humid and subtropical. Corchorus 

cunninghamii occurs in areas with an average 

annual rainfall of 1,200–1,400 millimetres, 

which is typical of much of the upper Richmond 

River Valley and significantly drier than areas 

near the coast (Bureau of Meteorology 1972). 

The relatively narrow, lower rainfall band 

preferred by C. cunninghamii may account for 

its absence from metasediments in the 

Brunswick and Tweed Valleys, where minimum 

average annual rainfall is about 1,700 

millimetres. 

Sites within the Toonumbar Hoop Pine 

plantation occur along old snig tracks and log 

dumps in the ecotone between the open forest 

and the planted Hoop Pine. The natural 

vegetation of this area appears to have been dry 

rainforest but was cleared for plantation in the 

1940s and Corchorus cunninghamii may have 

been present in the original vegetation or the 

soil seed bank. 

Species occurring with Corchorus 

cunninghamii at specific locations are listed in 

Table 1. Common canopy species occurring in 

the open forest side of the ecotone are Grey 

Gum (Eucalyptus propinqua), Grey ironbark 

(E. siderophloia), Tallowwood (E. microcorys) 

and Brush Box (Lophostemon confertus). 

Typical canopy species on the rainforest side of 

the ecotone include Hoop Pine, Australian Teak 

(Flindersia australis), Native Elm (Aphananthe 

philippinensis), Ribbonwood (Euroschinus 

falcata), Grey Ebony (Diospyros pentamera), 

Lacebark (Brachychiton discolor) and Morton 

Bay Fig (Ficus macrophylla). 

Table 1. Vegetation characteristics at Corchorus cunninghamii locations in NSW and 

Queensland 

Location General 

Description 

Toonumbar National 

Park, NSW 

Bungabbee Nature 

Reserve, NSW 

Toonumbar State Forest, 

NSW 

Wongawallen, south of 

Beenleigh, Queensland. 

Ormeau, south of 

Beenleigh, Queensland 

Note: 

* introduced species 

tall wet sclerophyll 

forest - dry 

rainforest ecotone 

tall wet sclerophyll 

forest - dry 

rainforest ecotone 

Hoop Pine 

plantation 

Common Species 

Lophostemon confertus, Eucalyptus siderophloia, 

Neolitsea australiensis, Alectryon subscinereus, 

Croton verrauxii, *Lantana camara, Cordyline 

petiolaris, Doodia aspera, Cyperus enervis, 

*Ageratina adenophorum, *A. riparia 

Lophostemon confertus, Araucaria cunninghamii, 

Endiandra pubens, Mallotus philippensis, 

Cryptocarya microneura, Croton verrauxii, 

Alpinia caerulea, *Lantana camara, Doodia 

aspera, Cyperus enervis, Adiantum formosum 

Araucaria cunninghamii, *Lantana camara, 

*Ageratina adenophora 

open forest Eucalyptus propinqua, E. microcorys, 

Lophostemon confertus, Rhodamnia rubescens, 

Omalanthus populifolius, Melia azedarach, 

Abutilon oxycarpum, Solanum stelligerum, 

*Lantana camara, Derris involuta, Smilax 

australis 

open forest Eucalyptus propinqua, E. siderophloia, E. 

intermedia, Lophostemon confertus, Polyscias 

elegans, Psychotria daphnoides, Alphitonia 

excelsa, *Lantana camara, Derris involuta 



3.4 Life history and ecology 

Life cycle 

Limited information exists on the breeding 

system of Corchorus cunninghamii. Flowers 

appear to be insect pollinated, with introduced 

Honey Bees (Apis mellifera), native bees 

(Trigona sp.) and sand wasps (Bembix sp.) 

having been recorded visiting flowers (Halford 

1993; Simmonds 2000; Stewart 2001; J. 

Willoughby pers. comm.). Plants investigated 

by Halford (1993) and Simmonds (2000) were 

found to require pollination between 

individuals to set viable seed and were, 

therefore, assumed to be self-incompatible. 

Halford (1993) also reported a flowering season 

lasting from October to May and possibly 

longer. 

Better data are needed on the life span of 

Corchorus cunninghamii individuals. At 

Ormeau in Queensland, life span was estimated 

to be 3–4 years (Halford 1993). At this site it 

was found that half of the plants recorded at the 

beginning of the year were dead by December, 

although their size was not given and starting 

age was unknown. 

Seed ecology 

Corchorus cunninghamii produces moderate 

quantities of seed with an associated high level 

of viability (Halford 1993). Seed is produced 

from December to May and, with no obvious 

dispersal mechanism, may be gravity dispersed. 

Some dispersal is also likely due to bulk soil 

movement or the transport of soil trapped in 

vehicle tyres and tracks (Stewart 2000). It is 

possible that seed may also be dispersed by 

harvester ants. 

General observation and preliminary research 

indicate that Corchorus cunninghamii is an 

obligate seed regenerator (regeneration from 

seed only) with a soil seed bank and firestimulated 

seedling recruitment behaviour. 

Halford (1993) found that nearly all seed of 

Corchorus cunninghamii was dormant when 

released from fruiting capsules. A proportion of 

seed appears to become buried in the soil seed 

bank where it remains until environmental 

conditions stimulate germination. Seed 

dormancy is broken by scarification or heat, 

suggesting that dormancy is due to seed coat 

impermeability. 

The germination response of Corchorus 

cunninghamii to heat has been investigated by 

Halford (1993), Simmonds (2000) and Stewart 

(2000). Both Halford (1993) and Simmonds 

(2000) found that the temperature required to 

break dormancy ranged between 80–100oC. Halford (1993) concluded from this that fires 

causing significant soil heating would be likely 

to promote seed germination. 

All soil seed banks undergo a gradual decline 

over time unless replenished. The rate of 

decline and replenishment of Corchorus 

cunninghamii seed banks is unknown. 

Anecdotal evidence suggests that seed remains 

viable for tens of years, although germination 

trials have so far not confirmed viability beyond 

three years (Simmonds 2000). 

Fire and disturbance 

Available information indicates that fire is 

probably the major form of natural disturbance 

affecting populations of Corchorus 

cunninghamii. Positive germination response 

to fire has been observed at a number of sites in 

Queensland (Saunders 2001) and NSW 

(Stewart 2001). 

The only large population of Corchorus 

cunninghamii known to exist in Queensland is 

at Wongawallan, where there were 

approximately 5,500 plants when counted in 

1992/1993. Significantly, the population was on 

a hillcrest that had been burnt by a high 

intensity fire three years previously. The evenaged 

structure of the stand and the obligate 

seeding fire response of C. cunninghamii 

indicate that the population resulted from firestimulated 

recruitment. By 2000, the number 

of individuals at this site was reduced to 

approximately 230. Since then another fire has 

burnt through the site, resulting in the number 

of individuals increasing to over 5,000 

(Saunders 2001). Following fires in potential 

habitat within Toonumbar National Park, 

Stewart (2001) was able to locate new areas of 

C. cunninghamii regeneration. 

There is also evidence that Corchorus 

cunninghamii can germinate in the absence of 

fire through a range of physical soil disturbance 

mechanisms. Demographic monitoring at 

Ormeau in Queensland found significant 

recruitment occurring within a population of 

less than 40 plants in habitat that had remained 

unburnt for a long time (Halford 1993). 

Monitoring of this population has demonstrated 

that: (i) seed germination was occurring 

between March and May without fire; (ii) 15% 

of seedlings matured and produced seed by the 

end of their first year; and (iii) 80% of plants 

were in areas where the ground had been 

disturbed by animal diggings or tracks. 

Physical soil disturbance associated with human 

activities such as timber harvesting, track 

maintenance and weeding operations may also 

stimulate germination. The greatest 



concentration of plants in NSW occur within the 

Toonumbar Hoop Pine plantation as small, 

dense stands associated with disturbed areas 

such as old snig tracks, log dumps and road 

verges (Stewart 2001; SFNSW 2003). Adjacent 

to the plantation, within recent additions to 

Toonumbar National Park, plants appear to 

have successfully regenerated on old snig 

tracks, yet they are virtually absent from the 

rest of the forest, possibly because of dense 

weed growth and lack of heavy soil disturbance. 

Soil disturbance could, therefore, provide a 

practical management alternative to fire in 

stimulating seed germination and recruitment. 

In comparison, however, disturbance by fire has 

other secondary benefits for Corchorus 

cunninghamii, such as preventing the 

encroachment of rainforest into the ecotone 

habitat. 

Low rates of germination have also been 

achieved in trials involving freshly collected 

untreated seed (A. Floyd pers. comm. in Stewart 

2000). Germination is also known to occur in 

long-unburnt populations without any apparent 

disturbance. 

In summary, it appears that seed germination 

in Corchorus cunninghamii is stimulated either 

by bushfire or by soil disturbance. Capacity for 

both fire-stimulated and fire-independent 

seedling recruitment is known in other plant 

species. Significant rates of seed germination 

have been recorded for a number of species 

between fires in fire-prone vegetation (Purdie 

1977). There is also an increase in fireindependent 

recruitment in long-unburnt fireprone 

vegetation (A. Benwell unpub. data). This 

may be due to differential rates of seed 

dormancy release within seed populations or 

changes in microhabitat. 

Genetic variability 

Studies to determine the level of genetic 

diversity within and between populations in 

Queensland and NSW found that genetic 

diversity in the species is low and that the mean 

number of migrants between populations was 

zero (Simmonds 2000). This indicates that 

maximisation of genetic diversity will require 

conservation of as many populations in NSW 

and Queensland as possible. Also, management 

should endeavour to encourage mixed age 

population structures over the landscape, which 

will tend to resist deleterious genetic processes. 

4 Threats 

4.1 Habitat loss 

Reasons for the current restricted distribution 

of Corchorus cunninghamii are unclear, 

although habitat loss is likely to have initially 

been a contributing cause. The disappearance 

of the species from around Lismore is most 

probably a result of settlement and land 

clearing. Extensive areas of open forest-dry 

rainforest ecotone once existed in the Lismore 

and Kyogle areas, although much of this habitat 

has either been cleared or degraded to the point 

where it is no longer suitable for the species. 

Nevertheless, extensive areas of potential 

habitat that have not been surveyed still exist in 

the Lismore and Kyogle areas. Surveys in 

potential habitat are urgently needed so any 

other populations can be appropriately 

managed to prevent decline. 

4.2 Inappropriate disturbance 

Many forms of disturbance are naturally 

occurring processes and are a requirement for 

the persistence of viable populations of 

Corchorus cunninghamii across the landscape. 

Therefore, a one-off disturbance or fire event 

will not necessarily present any particular 

threat to the species. However, it is the entire 

regime, rather than the one-off event that 

determines the long term persistence of the 

species. A regime must take into account the 

time interval between disturbances as well as 

the magnitude, scale (localised or landscapebased) 

and type (physical or chemical/fire 

related) of the disturbance. 

Disturbance regimes must take into account the 

lifecycle of Corchorus cunninghamii such that 

sites where the species occurs are allowed to 

germinate, flower, set seed and disperse seed 

prior to disturbance (and subsequent loss of the 

existing above ground plants). This should 

ensure that the seed bank of an area is not 

exhausted due to several mass germination 

events occurring close together in time. 

Regimes that do not account for the full lifecycle 

of C. cunninghamii can lead to the 

disappearance of the species at individual sites 

and, eventually, the extinction of populations at 

the landscape level. 

Any artificial or managed regime must also take 

into account the purpose of the disturbance, as 

there may be secondary effects from the 

disturbance. For example, weeding for 

environmental or commercial purposes may 

need to be undertaken to prevent weeds taking 

over a Corchorus cunninghamii site or an area 

of established plantation. However, the 



weeding itself may constitute a disturbance 

event and, in certain instances may be an 

inappropriate disruption to replenishment of C. 

cunninghamii seed banks. 

Disturbance associated with changes in fire 

regime, some logging activities and other 

management activities such as road 

maintenance, may result in the modification of 

the ecotonal habitat of Corchorus cunninghamii 

in NSW (Stewart 2000). This may lead to an 

area of habitat no longer being suitable for C. 

cunninghamii. 

Fire 

In areas of wet sclerophyll forest subject to 

hazard reduction burning and fire escapes, fire 

intervals are commonly in the order of 5–15 

years. Intensity of such fires will vary according 

to fuel levels and weather conditions. In more 

isolated areas where fires are started mainly by 

lightning, average fire frequency will probably 

be 30–100 years or more with variable fire 

intensity (Moore & Floyd 1994; SFNSW 1995). 

Therefore, fire regimes in areas of Corchorus 

cunninghamii habitat may vary greatly, which 

can have consequences for the long-term 

persistence of populations. 

Understorey fires of low intensity seldom 

produce temperatures above 60–70°C in the 

top one centimetre of soil (Auld & O’Connell 

1991). According to Halford’s data, such a low 

intensity fire would not be sufficient to 

stimulate seed germination of Corchorus 

cunninghamii, particularly if seed were buried 

deeper than one centimetre. In the case of 

moderate and high intensity fires, there is a 

much greater heat flux down the soil profile, 

which could be sufficient to stimulate 

germination. 

Obligate seed regenerators tend to be more 

vulnerable to changes in fire regime than 

resprouters (Gill 1993; Keith 1996). An increase 

in fire frequency or a decrease in fire intensity 

can cause major changes in the abundance of 

plant species in fire-prone vegetation 

(McMahon 1984; Keith 1996). High frequency 

burning can prevent the build up of seed banks 

needed for regeneration and low intensity fires 

can inhibit seedling recruitment by failing to 

stimulate seed germination, both leading to a 

gradual decline in seed bank and species 

abundance. 

Forestry related disturbance 

Disturbance-related forestry activities can have 

a range of effects on Corchorus cunninghamii. 

Thinning operations may be beneficial to C. 

cunninghamii, although the response of the 

species to other forestry-related activities such 

as harvesting and plantation re-establishment 

remains largely unknown. 

Regeneration gaps resulting from logging have 

similarities with gaps formed by natural 

disturbance, but also differ in many respects 

(Fenner 1985). Differences include litter and 

understorey removal without soil heating, 

churned and compacted soil, accumulations of 

organic matter from logging trash, habitat 

fragmentation by road networks, trails and snig 

tracks and potential for dispersal of exotic 

plants and pathogenic fungi via machinery. 

Stewart (2000) reported that seedlings will not 

emerge through logging trash such as Hoop 

Pine branchlets and leaf litter. 

4.3 Weeds 

The conditions for germination of Corchorus 

cunninghamii may be similar to the conditions 

required for germination of some weed species. 

Therefore, disturbance may be followed by 

invasion of introduced species. At certain sites, 

dense infestations of Lantana (Lantana 

camara), Crofton Weed (Ageratina 

adenophorum) and Mist Flower (A. riparia) 

threaten to displace populations of C. 

cunninghamii by competition, smothering and 

habitat alteration. Lantana is the main weed of 

concern, as it can smother large areas of C. 

cunninghamii habitat with tall, dense thickets. 

Lantana may also alter the fire regime 

associated with dry rainforest margins by 

reducing fire intensity and frequency. This 

may, in turn, alter the germination response of 

the seed bank. Crofton Weed and Mist Flower 

may also alter the flammability of vegetation 

and have adverse effects on C. cunninghamii. 

4.4 Small population size 

A reduction in the number and extent of 

populations of a species can pose a genetic risk 

to both the short term fitness of individuals and 

the long-term evolutionary potential of the 

species itself. This may be through genetic 

bottlenecking, genetic drift and inbreeding 

depression. The degree of threat proposed by 

each of these is dependent upon a species 

biology, evolutionary stage and historical 

decline. 

During any initial rapid reduction in a species’ 

habitat, the potential exists for the formation of 

genetic bottlenecks (Young et al. 1996). This is 

particularly the case where the reduction in 

habitat leads to all remaining individuals 

representing a genetic subset of the original 

gene pool. For species that display gravity 

dispersal of seed, the likelihood of gene flow 

between populations is reduced with the 



reduction and fragmentation of habitat (Young 

et al. 1996). 

Subsequent to any decline in population size 

and extent, those populations that remain small 

and isolated for several generations may 

continue to show loss of genetic variation as a 

result of random genetic drift. Species with 

short generation times tend to show greater loss 

in variation from genetic drift than those 

species with long generation times. Genetic drift 

can cause a decrease in a species’ ability to 

persist in a changing environment (Ellstrand & 

Elam 1993). 

Genetic variation can also be lost through 

inbreeding. Depending on the breeding system, 

this can happen through increased selfpollination 

or when remaining plants in a 

population are closely related through common 

recent ancestry (Young et al. 1996). Inbreeding 

depression can reduce fitness by decreasing the 

fecundity and seed viability of a population 

(Ellstrand & Elam 1993). 

Corchorus cunninghamii exists in NSW as 

small scattered stands within two distinct 

locations, has a relatively short generation time, 

is self-incompatible and has seed that appears 

to be predominantly dispersed by gravity. 

Therefore, the above genetic effects will require 

consideration in the management of the species. 

These considerations will be important in 

ensuring the short and long-term viability of the 

species, particularly in relation to seed 

collection for storage and in the prioritisation of 

sites for on-ground management work. 

In the event of translocation, reintroduction or 

ex situ propagation of Corchorus cunninghamii, 

another effect that may require consideration is 

the potential for outbreeding depression to 

occur. This is likely to occur if material is 

sourced too widely, resulting in the mixing of 

divergently adapted gene pools (Templeton 

1986 in Young & Murray 2000). An extreme 

effect of this is that the resulting offspring may 

display low relative fitness to their environment 

and, therefore, may not be capable of persisting 

at that site in the long term. 

5 Species' Ability to Recover 

Corchorus cunninghamii is subject to a number 

of direct threats, including inappropriate 

disturbance regimes, competition with weeds, 

forestry activities and small population effects. 

It exists patchily in the landscape in stands that 

range from single plants to hundreds of 

individuals. 

Central to the maintenance of the species is the 

effective management of population 

disturbance across the landscape so that a 

balance is maintained between germination, 

growth, seed set and seed dispersal, such that 

regeneration occurs and seed banks are 

maintained. 

This will require research to determine how the 

species responds to disturbance so that regimes 

can be established and managed. It also 

requires protection of sites to the extent that 

individuals are able to grow and set seed. In 

certain instances this may also require the 

destruction of above ground individuals at a site 

in order to maintain the seed bank and to 

provide for recruitment. Appropriate 

landscape-level management in association 

with monitoring of disturbance events will 

provide for the continuation of the existing 

populations in the form of above ground plants 

and below ground seed banks. 

Corchorus cunninghamii displays several 

germination and recruitment strategies. 

Establishment of an appropriate disturbance 

regime that accounts for these strategies and for 

the species' life cycle should ensure the 

maintenance of the species in the wild in NSW. 

In this regard, there are several key issues that 

need to be understood prior to formulating 

appropriate disturbance regimes. The two 

major issues are seed viability and longevity and 

the ideal mode of seed dispersal. 

The number and age classes of Corchorus 

cunninghamii populations will be subject to 

much variation through time. This variation 

will depend largely on disturbance history and 

could range from sites that are present solely as 

seed banks, to those that exist as dense stands 

of single age seedlings following disturbance, to 

sites that consist of one or two of mature 

individuals only. 

6 Previous Recovery Actions 

6.1 Recovery planning 

A conservation statement was prepared for 

Corchorus cunninghamii across its range in 

1993 (Halford 1993). This was later expanded to 

include a Recovery Plan (see Halford 1995b). In 

2001 a Recovery Plan was prepared for the 

species in Queensland on behalf of the 

Queensland Rainforest Ecotone Recovery Team 

(Saunders 2001). This plan has been adopted 

by the Commonwealth. 

6.2 Population and habitat protection 

Areas of important habitat for Corchorus 

cunninghamii are contained within the existing 

conservation reserve system in NSW. There are 



currently records for the species in one national 

park (Toonumbar National Park) and one 

nature reserve (Bungabbee Nature Reserve). 

Measures for the conservation of Corchorus 

cunninghamii in native forest within state 

forests of the Upper North East Region are 

detailed in the IFOA Threatened Species 

Licence for the region. Under this licence, 

Forests NSW (formerly State Forests of NSW 

(SFNSW)) is required to implement conditions 

set out in the IFOA, whilst the DEC is required 

to monitor and enforce compliance with 

conditions. Conditions relating to the 

protection of C. cunninghamii and its habitat 

include: 

• retention of ridge and headwater habitat; 

• the protection of rainforest; and 

• the provision of a 20 metre exclusion zone 

around all individuals or groups of C. 

cunninghamii within a compartment or 

within 20 metres of a compartment. 

In accordance with plantation approval under 

the P&R Act, Forests NSW plantation 

operations within the Hoop Pine plantation at 

Toonumbar are subject to a number of 

conditions prepared by DIPNR. These 

conditions are provided in Appendix 3. 

6.3 Threat abatement 

A habitat rehabilitation plan for Corchorus 

cunninghamii has been prepared for several 

locations in NSW in an attempt to reduce the 

competitive threats imposed by weeds (Bower 

2000). The plan includes rehabilitation 

strategies for sites within Toonumbar National 

Park, Bungabbee Nature Reserve and 

Toonumbar State Forest, and was developed 

with regard to the known regenerative traits of 

C. cunninghamii at the time. The rehabilitation 

plan will be used as a resource document and 

on-ground management tool for mitigating 

threats at known C. cunninghamii sites (see 

Action 2.2). 

6.4 Surveys 

Surveys for Corchorus cunninghamii were 

undertaken at a number of locations in 1993, 

but no new populations were located. Surveys 

for the North East NSW Comprehensive 

Regional Assessment in 1997 resulted in the 

discovery of the Bungabbee population. During 

these surveys the Toonumbar area was also resurveyed 

but no new populations were found. 

In 2002 a new site was discovered in 

Toonumbar National Park during a roadside 

rare plant survey. 

Surveys by SFNSW at Toonumbar State Forest 

in 2002 and 2003 substantially increased the 

known abundance and distribution of this 

population. These increases probably resulted 

from disturbance associated with thinning 

activities undertaken within the plantation. 

Large areas of potential habitat exist between 

Lismore and the upper Richmond Valley. These 

areas have yet to be surveyed for the species. 

6.5 Research 

Population dynamics and disturbance 

Research into the population dynamics and 

disturbance of Corchorus cunninghamii in 

NSW was initiated in 2000 and continued in 

2001 (see Stewart 2000, 2001). 

Recommendations resulting from this research 

include: 

• restoration of natural functioning of the 

rainforest/sclerophyll ecotone through 

natural disturbance regimes; 

• surveys of potential habitat following 

disturbance; 

• large scale disturbance trials involving weed 

removal and fire; 

• continued census of currently marked 

populations and marking and census of new 

populations; and 

• pollination, seed dispersal and seed 

predation trials. 

As part of the research into dynamics and 

disturbance, a seed burial trial was initiated by 

Stewart (2001). For this trial six groups of 100 

seeds were buried at a location in Toonumbar 

State Forest in February 2001. As yet, none of 

these seeds have been retrieved for viability 

analysis. 

Genetic studies 

Genetic (allozyme) comparisons of Corchorus 

cunninghamii have been undertaken on NSW 

and Queensland populations (Simmonds 

2000). It was found that within populations of 

C. cunninghamii there were low levels of 

genetic variation and between populations there 

was absence of gene flow. This suggests that 

each population should be conserved. 

7 Proposed Recovery Objectives, 

Actions and Performance Criteria 

The overall objective of this Recovery Plan is to 

protect all known NSW populations of 

Corchorus cunninghamii from decline and to 

ensure that populations of the species remain 

viable in the long-term. 



Specific objectives of the Recovery Plan for the 

species are listed below. For each of these 

objectives a number of recovery actions have 

been developed, each with a performance 

criterion. 

Objective 1: To co-ordinate the recovery 

of Corchorus cunninghamii in NSW 

Action 1.1 

The DEC will co-ordinate the implementation 

of the actions outlined in this Recovery Plan. 

Some of the tasks undertaken during the coordination 

of this plan (e.g. liaison with other 

public authorities) will overlap with other 

identified actions. Co-ordination of the NSW 

plan for Corchorus cunninghamii will also 

require liaison and information exchange with 

the Queensland recovery team. 

Performance Criterion: The DEC co-ordinates 

the recovery actions included in this Recovery 

Plan. 

Action 1.2 

The DEC will integrate recovery actions of the 

Corchorus cunninghamii Recovery Plan with 

those of other threatened species, populations 

and communities. 

A number of other threatened species are likely 

to occur with, or be subject to, the same threats 

as Corchorus cunninghamii. Also, species with 

similar management requirements may benefit 

from the C. cunninghamii recovery program. 

Such species will be subject to a Recovery Plan 

in the future and by integrating recovery 

actions, limited resources can provide better 

conservation benefits for a range of threatened 

species. 

Performance Criterion: Where practicable, 

recovery actions have been integrated with 

those of other threatened species, endangered 

populations or endangered ecological 

communities. 

Objective 2: To mitigate threats to 

Corchorus cunninghamii and improve 

the protection and management of its 

habitat 

Action 2.1 

The DEC will prepare and maintain a 

disturbance register for all Corchorus 

cunninghamii sites in NSW. 

Corchorus cunninghamii occurs in ecotonal 

areas and appears to favour regeneration by soil 

disturbance or fire. It is important to maintain 

a record of all disturbance-related events and 

the response of the species to them. This 

register will be consulted prior to works where 

populations are known to occur. The register 

will assist in maintaining a balance of sites at 

various life cycle stages to allow for an overall 

viable population at the landscape level. The 

register will also be used to determine when 

active disturbance management is required at a 

site to prevent loss of the seed bank population 

due to lack of viability. It will assist in obtaining 

a more complete picture on optimal disturbance 

regimes and will be used in combination with 

rehabilitation techniques and fire management 

(see Appendix 4). 

Performance Criterion: A disturbance register 

has been initiated within the first six months of 

this Recovery Plan and disturbance events have 

been entered into the database when identified. 

Action 2.2 

The DEC will implement management 

programs that mitigate threats to Corchorus 

cunninghamii and improve the protection and 

management of its habitat on DEC estate. 

The management of Corchorus cunninghamii 

should be incorporated into DEC Plans of 

Management to assist in disturbance and 

regeneration of populations as well as weed 

control. Plans should also ensure that general 

activities such as road maintenance, roadside 

weed control and fuel reduction burns do not 

conflict with the aims of this Recovery Plan. 

Management programs will be developed in 

accordance with the information contained in 

Bower (2000) and the principles contained in 

Appendix 4. 

Performance criteria: Recruitment of Corchorus 

cunninghamii occurs and populations occurring 

within the landscape of DEC estate are 

maintained; The threat of Lantana and other 

competitive weeds on DEC estate is reduced. 

Action 2.3 

The DEC will undertake a small-scale 

disturbance trial at one known Corchorus 

cunninghamii site within DEC estate. 

A disturbance trial should be carried out on at 

least one DEC site where Corchorus 

cunninghamii is known to be present as a seed 

bank only. A variety of small-scale disturbances 

will be trialed at this site, including mechanical 

soil disturbance, weed control treatments and 

fire. This will provide an indication of the 

response of the species to each disturbance type 

and options for future management of the 

species on DEC estate. Follow-up monitoring 

will occur, possibly as part of the demographic 

research proposed in Action 4.2. Follow-up 

weed control may also be required to ensure the 

persistence of C. cunninghamii at the site long 

enough to flower and set seed. 



Performance Criterion: An experimental design 

for a disturbance trial is prepared in year 1 of 

the Recovery Plan and a disturbance trial is 

commenced by the end of year 1. 

Objective 3: To determine if new 

populations exist and to protect their 

habitat 

Action 3.1 

The DEC will support field surveys of potential 

habitat to search for additional occurrences of 

the species in NSW. 

Field surveys are needed to locate new or 

overlooked populations. A large area of 

potential habitat exists north-west of Lismore to 

the upper Richmond Valley. Potential areas to 

search include Toonumbar National Park, 

Border Ranges National Park, McKellar Range 

and Richmond Range National Park and 

Richmond Range State Forest. Targeted 

surveys may increase the known number of 

populations of the species and may improve its 

conservation status. Such surveys may also be 

undertaken opportunistically to take advantage 

of possible regeneration events in potential or 

historical habitat following disturbance events. 

An assessment of the threats to any new 

population should be undertaken at the time of 

discovery to ensure that appropriate 

management actions can be undertaken as soon 

as possible. As a matter of course, specimens 

from all populations should be lodged with an 

appropriate herbarium to ensure that material 

is available at a future date for any research or 

verification needs. 

Performance Criterion: Targeted surveys for 

Corchorus cunninghamii are undertaken in 

areas of potential habitat by the end of year 4. 

Action 3.2 

The DEC will investigate conservation and 

management options for new populations 

located on private land. 

A range of options exist for the conservation of 

any new populations of Corchorus 

cunninghamii found on private land. The most 

appropriate management should be determined 

on an individual basis. It must be acceptable to 

the landowner/manager and be able to deliver 

the resources necessary to maintain the viability 

of the population and its habitat. 

Any on-ground management or rehabilitation of 

sites on private property should be subject to 

the same guidelines described in the actions of 

this Recovery Plan and should follow the 

principles and protocols set out in Bower 

(2000). 

Performance Criterion: In the event of new 

populations being recorded on private land, 

conservation and management options are 

discussed and negotiations for appropriate 

measures have commenced within one year of 

the population being recorded. 

Objective 4: To improve on the 

knowledge of Corchorus cunninghamii 

that is relevant to its conservation and 

management 

Action 4.1 

The DEC will facilitate research that is relevant 

to the conservation and management of 

Corchorus cunninghamii. 

A body of research on Corchorus cunninghamii 

already exists in NSW and Queensland. Future 

research should build on this established 

information base. Research should focus on 

biology, ecology and genetics, with priority 

given to seed longevity (Appendix 5). 

Performance Criteria: A timetable for a seed 

viability trial is prepared within six months of 

the commencement of this Recovery Plan and 

the resulting viability trial commenced within 

one year; targeted research into the biology, 

ecology and genetics of the species is supported 

by the DEC. 

Objective 5: To establish ex situ 

collections of Corchorus cunninghamii 

Action 5.1 

The DEC will support the establishment of ex 

situ collections of Corchorus cunninghamii. 

Establishment of ex situ plantings and seed 

storage will provide insurance against the risk 

of extinction of wild populations through 

continuing decline or catastrophic events. All 

NSW populations appear to be vulnerable to 

extinction and should be represented in ex situ 

collections either as living collections or stored 

seed. 

As part of this action, the DEC will prepare a 

seed collection and storage strategy for the 

species in NSW (see Appendix 4). 

Performance criteria: A seed collection and 

storage strategy is prepared within one year of 

the commencement of this Recovery Plan; ex 

situ plantings and/or seed storage of Corchorus 

cunninghamii from the NSW populations are 

established within 18 months of the 

commencement of this Recovery Plan. 

Objective 6: To increase public 

awareness of Corchorus cunninghamii 

Action 6.1 



The DEC will develop a community awareness 

strategy that will raise the profile of Corchorus 

cunninghamii and its ecotonal habitat. 

Information contained within a community 

awareness strategy should not concentrate 

solely on Corchorus cunninghamii but, rather, 

include information on the wider ecotonal 

habitat in which the species is found. This 

should include information on the dynamic 

nature of ecotones, the species found in them, 

and the role of disturbance in maintaining 

them. 

Performance Criterion: Community awareness 

of the importance of the ecotonal habitat of 

Corchorus cunninghamii and the recovery 

process is increased. 

8 Social and Economic 

Consequences 

Corchorus cunninghamii is a member of the 

same genus as the fibre plant Jute (C. olitorius). 

As such, it may have potential economic uses 

related to fibre production. 

The cost necessary to maintain Corchorus 

cunninghamii as part of the natural heritage of 

NSW is small compared to the benefits it can 

provide people who experience and learn about 

this species in the wild or in cultivation. 

Increased community awareness of C. 

cunninghamii will enhance the profile of 

threatened species in general. This in turn will 

stimulate greater opportunities for the 

conservation of threatened species generally 

and thus increased protection of biodiversity. 

The total cost of implementing the plan is 

estimated at $123,750 over five years. Of this, 

$43,750 are in-kind funds, representing the 

salary component of permanent staff and 

existing resources. 

The costings for implementation of the recovery 

actions are itemised in Table 2. 

9 Biodiversity Benefits 

Corchorus cunninghamii is taxonomically 

significant as the only species of Corchorus that 

is indigenous to NSW and one of only three 

species of the family Tiliaceae indigenous to 

NSW. The species is biogeographically 

significant as an endemic of the Mt Warning 

and Focal Peak shield region, which is a major 

refugium and centre of speciation for Australian 

plants and forms part of the Central-Eastern 

Rainforest Reserves World Heritage Area 

(DASET 1992). 

There are a number of plant species of 

conservation concern that co-occur with 

Corchorus cunninghamii in NSW, including 

Sophora fraseri (Vulnerable - TSC Act and 

EPBC Act) and Desmodium acanthocladum 

(Vulnerable - TSC Act and EPBC Act). Several 

other threatened plant species are associated 

with C. cunninghamii in Queensland and may 

occur with it in NSW, including Choricarpia 

subargentea (Endangered - TSC Act), Randia 

moorei (Endangered - TSC Act, EPBC Act and 

NC Act) and Endiandra floydii (Endangered - 

TSC Act, EPBC Act and NC Act) (Halford 1993). 

Rare plants with small populations such as 

Corchorus cunninghamii represent a 

component of biodiversity that is at high risk of 

extinction due to human-induced causes. 

Corchorus cunninghamii is, therefore, a 

priority species to consider in conservation 

efforts aimed at preventing further loss of 

biodiversity from our natural ecosystems. 

Protection of Corchorus cunninghamii and 

maintenance of its ecotonal habitat can have 

several other biodiversity benefits. Ecotones 

are transient and represent an important seed 

resource for pioneer species (Tang et al. 2003), 

as well as providing buffers between 

ecosystems. Therefore, conservation of C. 

cunninghamii and its habitat will assist in the 

maintenance of ecosystems in the Mt Warning- 

Focal Peak region. 

10 Preparation Details 

Sections of this draft Recovery Plan are based 

on a preliminary draft prepared by Andrew 

Benwell, consultant botanist. The plan was 

updated and finalised by Shane Ruming, 

Conservation Programs and Planning (North 

East Branch), DEC. Support was provided by 

Dianne Brown and Bill Faulkner, Conservation 

Programs and Planning (North East Branch), 

DEC. 

11 Review Date 

This Recovery Plan will be reviewed within five 

years of the date of its publication. 

12 Implementation 

Table 2 outlines the implementation of recovery 

actions specified in this Recovery Plan to 

relevant government agencies and/or parties 

for the period of five years from publication. 

The DEC is only responsible party for 

implementing the Recovery Plan. 



13 References 

Auld, T.D. & O’Connell, M.A. 1991, ‘Predicting 

patterns of post-fire germination in 35 eastern 

Australian Fabaceae’, Australian Journal of 

Ecology 16: 53–70. 

Bower, S. 2000, Habitat rehabilitation plan for 

the endangered plant Corchorus cunninghamii, 

Report prepared for NSW National Parks and 

Wildlife Service, Coffs Harbour. 

Bradstock, R.A., Keith, D.A. & Auld, T.D. 1995, 

‘Fire and conservation: imperatives and 

constraints on managing for diversity’ in 

Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and 

Solutions, eds R. A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. 

Keith, R.T. Kingsford, D. Lunney & D.P. 

Siversten, Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping 

Norton, pp. 323–33. 

Bureau of Meteorology 1972, Climatic Survey: 

Richmond-Tweed Region New South Wales, 

Australian Government Publishing Service, 

Canberra. 

DASET (Department of the Arts, Sport, 

Environment and Territories) 1992, 

Nomination of the Central Eastern Rainforests 

of Australia by the Government of Australia 

for inscription in the World Heritage List, 

Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. 

Ellstrand, N.C. & Elam, D.R. 1993, ‘Population 

genetic consequences of small population size: 

implications for plant conservation’, in Annual 

Review of Ecology and Systematics eds D.G. 

Fautin, D J. Futuyma & F.C. James, Annual 

Review Inc, California. 

Fenner, J. 1985, Seed Ecology, Chapman and 

Hall, New York. 

Fielder, P.L., Knapp, B.E. & Fredricks, N. 1997, 

‘Rare plant demography: lessons from the 

maripossa lilies (Calochortus: Liliaceae)’, in 

Conservation Biology for the Coming Decade, 

eds P.L. Fielder & P.M. Kareiva, Chapman and 

Hall, New York, pp. 28–48. 

Gill, A.M. 1993, ‘Interplay of Victoria’s flora 

with fire’ in Flora of Victoria Volume 1, eds D.B. 

Foreman & N.G. Walsh, Inkata Press: 

Melbourne, pp. 212–6. 

Halford, D. 1993, ‘Corchorus cunninghamii - A 

conservation assessment’, Report to the 

Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Project 

No. 317. 

Halford, D. 1995a, ‘Notes on Tiliaceae in 

Australia, 2, a revision of the simple-haired 

species of the genus Corchorus L’, 

Austrobaileya 4: 297–320. 

Halford, D. 1995b, ‘Conservation statement and 

draft Recovery Plan: Corchorus cunninghamii 

F. Muell Tiliaceae’, Australian Nature 

Conservation Agency Endangered Species 

Program, Project No. 515. 

Harden G. 2000, ‘Tiliaceae’, in Flora of New 

South Wales - Volume 1, ed. G. Harden, Revised 

edition, NSW Press, Sydney. 

Keith, D. 1996, ‘Fire driven extinction of plant 

populations: a synthesis of theory and review of 

evidence from Australian vegetation’, 

Proceedings of the Linnean Society of NSW 116: 

37–55. 

Keith, D., Williams, J. & Woinarski, J. 2002, 

‘Fire management and biodiversity 

conservation; key approaches and principles’, in 

Flammable Australia: The Fire Regimes and 

Biodiversity of a Continent, eds R.A. Bradstock, 

J.E. Williams & M.A. Gill Cambridge University 

Press, Cambridge, pp. 401–28. 

McMahon, A. 1984, ‘The effect of fire regime 

components on heathlands in the Little Desert, 

N. W. Victoria’, in ‘MEDECOS IV: Proceedings, 

4th International Conference on 

Mediterranean Ecosystems’, ed. D. Bell, 

University of Western Australia, Perth, pp. 101– 

2. 

Moore, D.H. & Floyd, A.G. 1994, A Description 

of the Flora and an Assessment of Impacts of 

the Proposed Forestry Operations in the 

Grafton Forest Management Area, EIS 

Supporting Document No.2, State Forests of 

NSW, Grafton. 

Parr, S. 2002, Recommended recovery actions 

for Corchorus cunninghamii and the rainforest 

ecotone in south-east Queensland Stage 2, 

Report prepared by the Rainforest Ecotone 

Recovery Team for the Natural Heritage Trust, 

unpub. 

Purdie, R.W. 1977, ‘Early stages of regeneration 

after burning in dry sclerophyll vegetation. I. 

Regeneration by seed germination’, Australian 

Journal of Botany 25: 35–46. 

Saunders, M. 2001, ‘Recovery Plan for the 

endangered native jute species, Corchorus 

cunninghamii F. Muell. in Queensland (2001- 

2006)’, Report prepared on behalf of the 

Rainforest Ecotone Recovery Team. 

Simmonds, M. 2000, The ecology and 

conservation of the endangered species 

Corchorus cunninghamii F. Muell, BSc (Hons) 

thesis, University of Queensland, Brisbane. 

State Forests of NSW 2003, Unique and Special 

Wildlife Values of the Toonumbar Hoop Pine 

Plantation State Forest of NSW, Report to the 



Department of Land and Water Conservation, 

unpub. 

Stewart, B. 2000, ‘Population dynamics and 

disturbance regime requirements of Corchorus 

cunninghamii, Stage 1 report’, Report prepared 

by Landmark Ecological Services Pty Ltd for 

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Coffs 

Harbour. 

Stewart, B. 2001, ‘Population dynamics and 

disturbance regime requirements of Corchorus 

cunninghamii, Stage 2 report, Report prepared 

by Landmark Ecological Services Pty Ltd for 

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Coffs 

Harbour. 

Tang, Y., Boulter, S.L. & Kitching, R.L. 2003, 

‘Heat and smoke effects on the germination of 

seeds from soil seed banks across forest edges 

between subtropical rainforest and eucalyptus 

forest at Lamington National Park, southeastern 

Queensland, Austral’, Aust. J. Botany 

51: 227–37. 

Templeton, A.R. 1986, ‘Coadaption and 

outbreeding depression’, in Conservation 

Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity, 

ed. M.E. Soule, Sinauer Associates, 

Massachusetts, pp. 105–16. 

Young, A., Boyle, T. & Brown, T. 1996, ‘The 

population genetic consequences of habitat 

fragmentation for plants’, Trends in Ecology 

and Evolution 11(10): 413–8. 

Young, A.G. & Murray, B.G. 2000, ‘Genetic 

bottlenecks and dysgenic gene flow into reestablished 

populations of the grassland daisy, 

Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides’, Australian 

Journal of Botany 48: 409–16. 

14 Acronyms Used in this 

Document 

DEC NSW Department of Environment 

and Conservation 

DIPNR NSW Department of Infrastructure, 

Planning and Natural Resources 

EP&A Act NSW Environmental Planning and 

Assessment Act 1979 

EPBC Act Commonwealth Environment 

Protection and Biodiversity 


FNPE Act NSW Forestry and National Park 

Estate Act 1998 

IFOA Interim 

Approval 

Forestry Operations 

NC Act Queensland Nature Conservation 

Act 1992 

NPW Act NSW National Parks and Wildlife 

Act 1974 

NSW New South Wales 

NVC Act NSW Native Vegetation 


P&R Act NSW Plantations and 

SFNSW 

Reafforestation Act 1999 

State Forests of NSW (now Forests 

NSW) 

TSC Act NSW Threatened Species 

TSL 


Threatened Species Licence 

VCA Voluntary Conservation Agreement 


Department of Environment and Conservation Page 17 

Table 2. Estimated costs of implementing the actions identified in the Corchorus cunninghamii Recovery Plan 

Action 

numb 

er 

Action Title Priori 

ty 

Estimated Cost/Year 

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 

Total cost 

($) 

Responsible 

Party/ Funding 

Sources 

1.1 Co-ordinate recovery program 1 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 10,500 DEC 10,500 

1.2 Integrate actions with other Recovery Plans 3 DEC 

2.1 Disturbance register 1 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 7,000 DEC 7,000 

2.2 Management programs on DEC estate 1 18,100 5,500 5,500 29,100 DEC 3,500 25,60 

0 

2.3 Small scale disturbance trial 1 7,650 2,750 2,750 2,750 15,900 DEC 3,500 12,40 

0 

3.1 Field surveys of potential habitat 2 7,600 7,600 DEC 2,100 5,500 

3.2 Conservation and management of new 

populations 

4.1 Research 

Inkind 

3 1,750 1,750 DEC 1,750 

a. Seed viability 1 4,400 4,050 8,450 DEC 2,450 6,000 

b. Life history research 3 8,100 5,050 13,150 DEC 3,150 10,00 

0 

c. Genetics research 3 17,450 17,450 DEC 2,450 15,00 

0 

5.1 Ex situ conservation 1 4,700 500 500 500 500 6,700 DEC 4,200 2,500 

6.1 Community awareness strategy 2 2,400 850 850 1,200 850 6,150 DEC 3,150 3,000 

Total 22,65 

0 

25,70 

0 

21,20 

0 

26,10 

0 

28,10 

0 

123,750 43,75 

0 

Priority ratings are: 1 - action critical to meeting plan objectives; 2 - action contributing to meeting plan objectives; 3 - desirable but not essential action 

‘In-Kind’ Funds represent salary component of permanent staff and current resources 

‘Cash’ Funds represent the salary component for temporary staff and other costs such as the purchasing of survey and laboratory equipment 

Cash 

80,0 

00 

Draft Recovery Plan Corchorus cunninghamii


Appendix 1 Submission 

Recovery Plan Submission 

Name Individual/ 

Organisation: 

Postal Address: 

Postcode: Contact Number(s): 

Date: 

Draft Recovery Plan: Corchorus cunninghamii 

The DEC will consider all written submissions received during the period of public exhibition and 

must provide a summary report of those submissions to the Minister for the Environment prior to 

final approval of this Recovery Plan. 

Please note, that for the purposes of the NSW Privacy and Personal Information Protection Act 

1998 any comments on this draft Recovery Plan, including your personal details, will be a matter of 

public record and will be stored in the DEC records system for a period of up to 2 years from the 

closing date. The submission of personal information is voluntary. Copies of submissions will be 

available on request at the DEC office responsible for the preparation of the Recovery Plan. 

Should you not wish to have your personal details disclosed to members of the public, please indicate 

below whether you wish your personal details to remain confidential to the DEC. Please note that 

access to the details may be requested under the NSW Freedom of Information Act 1989. You will 

be consulted if this happens. 

Further information on the Privacy and Personal Information Protection Act 1998 and the Freedom 

of Information Act 1989 may be obtained from the DEC or from the website: 

www.environment.nsw.gov.au 

! Yes, please keep my personal details confidential to DEC 

Submissions should be received no later than the advertised date. Submissions should be addressed 

to: 

The Director-General 

C/- Corchorus cunninghamii Recovery Plan Co-ordinator 

Conservation Programs and Planning, North East Branch 

Department of Environment and Conservation 

Locked Bag 914 

Coffs Harbour NSW 2450 



Submission: 



Appendix 2 Public Authority Responsibilities 

Public authority Relevant responsibilities 

Dpartment of Environment 

and Conservation 

• Assessment of Section 91 licence applications under the TSC Act. 

• Assessment of Section 120 licence applications under the NPW 

Act. 

• Assessment of Section 132C applications under the NPW Act. 

• Assessment of proposed developments on DEC estate. 

• Advice to determining and consent authorities, with a possible 

concurrence role under the EP&A Act or NVC Act. 

• Preparation of Recovery Plans and co-ordination of 

implementation. 

• Regulation of certain forestry operations under the Integrated 

Forestry Operations Approval. 

Relevant local governments • Preparation of Local Environmental Plans under Part 3 of EP&A 

Act. 

• Consent authorities for development proposals under Part 4 of 

EP&A Act. 

• Approval authorities for council works under Part 5 of EP&A 

Act. 

• Responsibilities under Rural Fires Act 1997. 

• Management of council reserves with potential habitat. 

• Consideration of the content of Recovery Plans when preparing 

plans of management for community land under Local 

Government Act 1993. 

Department of 

Infrastructure, Planning and 

Natural Resources 

• Approval authority for native vegetation clearance applications 

under the NVC Act. 

• Administration of property plans under the NVC Act. 

• Management of crown land with potential habitat. 

• Co-ordination of Regional Vegetation Committees, Catchment 

Management Boards and Landcare programs. 

• Development of policy and strategies, including SEPPs, for land 

use planning and environmental assessment. 

• Advice and assistance on environmental planning matters. 

• Assessment of major development applications. 

• Plantation approval under the P&R Act. 

• Administration of the general conditions of IFOA. 

• Concurrence role under the EP&A Act for certain developments 

and activities. 

• Making of SEPPs and Local Environmental Plans under Part 3 of 

EP&A Act. 

• Determining certain development proposals under Part 4 of the 

EP&A Act. 

• Approval of certain activities under Part 5 of EP&A Act. 

Forests NSW • Implementation of prescriptions detailed in IFOA terms of 

threatened species licence granted under Part 4 of the FNPE Act. 

Rural Fire Service • Preparation of Bush Fire Risk Management Plans and Plans of 

Operations. 

• Fire management. 

Other State government 

agencies 

• Management of public lands with potential habitat. 

• Approval authorities for activity proposals under Part 5 of EP&A 

Act. 





Appendix 3 Specific Conditions for Plantation Operations at Toonumbar 

State Forest 

The following conditions relate to the DIPNR approval of plantation operations by Forests NSW at 

Toonumbar State Forest in accordance with the P&R Act. 

1. Plantation operations may continue in the plantation area under normal operating prescriptions 

provided that the following special prescriptions are implemented for the protection of the 

Corchorus cunninghamii population. 

2. Clearfall of the current plantation area is to be scheduled over a period of at least 10 years 

commencing from 2003. Clearfall areas shall be managed such that not more than 10% of the 

plantation area may be clearfelled during year 1. Operations in subsequent years shall ensure that 

the total maximum area of the plantation that may be clearfelled shall not exceed 20% of the total 

plantation area during year 2 and 30% of the total plantation area during year 3 through to 100% at 

the end of year 10 in 2012. 

3. Pre and post clearfall surveys will be carried out for the presence of Corchorus cunninghamii 

within each compartment of the plantation. Pre disturbance surveys will aim to record the location of 

the species and their reproductive status. Post disturbance surveys will be conducted within six 

months of the completion of the disturbance event. 

4. Scheduling of all harvesting, establishment and management operations within the Toonumbar 

plantation shall account for the lifecycle of the Corchorus cunninghamii such that where plants are 

present they shall be allowed to set and disperse their seed prior any disturbance event. 

5. Surveys shall be conducted using the same methodology as that used by SFNSW (2003). The 

results of the surveys are to be advised to the Department of Sustainable Natural Resources (now 

DIPNR) in form of a report on the Corchorus cunninghamii population within the plantation area on 

an annual basis commencing in 2004. (Note: DIPNR will forward a copy of the report to the DEC). 

6. Forests NSW shall prepare a seed collection and storage strategy in consultation with DEC and 

obtain the appropriate licence to collect sufficient seed within the plantation to propagate 

approximately 2000 seedlings of Corchorus cunninghamii. The seeds are to be stored at a suitable 

agreed facility such as the Coffs Harbour Herbarium. 

7. These prescriptions may be modified as a result of information gained from the surveys and any 

other research information on the species that becomes available in future years so as to ensure the 

viability of the Corchorus cunninghamii population within the Toonumbar plantation area. 



Appendix 4 Management Principles for Corchorus cunninghamii in NSW 

Recording disturbance events 

The disturbance register provided for in Action 2.1 will contain a full disturbance history for all 

known sites (above ground plants and/or seed banks) of Corchorus cunninghamii in NSW. 

Information will be recorded on the location, timing, extent and type of disturbance (including 

weeding and rehabilitation). Information contained on this register should be consistent through 

time and staff turnover and also between populations and sites. Forests NSW will be encouraged to 

provide disturbance information associated with native forestry and plantation activities for sites on 

state forest estate. 

Management on DEC estate 

Disturbance and regeneration 

The disturbance register will be used to determine when and where disturbance management is 

required to maintain a population of Corchorus cunninghamii within the landscape. The type of 

disturbance also needs to be determined. Both fire disturbance and physical soil disturbance have 

their advantages. Fire offers a more ecologically-based disturbance at the landscape scale and may 

benefit entire vegetation communities. However, fire-based disturbance may not be compatible with 

management objectives of certain areas of wet sclerophyll forest or dry rainforest. In these instances, 

physical soil disturbance is a viable alternative to achieving regeneration. This type of disturbance is 

more suited to smaller, site-based patches. 

For example, mass germination events are not necessarily desirable in the landscape-scale 

management of the population, particularly when disturbance events occur close together in time. It 

is the entire regime, rather than the one-off disturbance event, which is important. A regime must 

take into account the time interval between disturbances as well as magnitude, scale (localised, 

compartment based or landscape based) and type (physical or chemical/fire related) of disturbance. 

Any artificial or managed regime must also take into account the purpose of the disturbance. For 

example, weeding for environmental or commercial purposes may constitute a disturbance event 

but, in certain instances, may be required close to another disturbance event to prevent weeds taking 

over a Corchorus cunninghamii site. Such disturbance events will also prevent further reductions in 

population numbers, which will assist with managing potential genetic threats such as drift and 

inbreeding. 

Disturbance management of Corchorus cunninghamii habitat should aim to maximise diversity as 

opposed to maximising density of C. cunninghamii within the landscape. In particular, fire-based 

management should not concentrate on the requirements of C. cunninghamii in isolation of other 

ecotonal species. Such an approach relies on the following principles (see Bradstock et al. 1995; 

Keith 1996; Keith et al. 2002): 

• Upper and lower thresholds should be developed for each component of a regime (frequency, 

intensity, season and spatial pattern within the landscape). Regimes beyond these thresholds 

should be avoided if possible. Development of such thresholds relies on information on life 

history factors of the species in question. These thresholds may be based upon functional 

groups, rather than individual species. In this case, thresholds should be based upon the most 

susceptible species of a group. 

• Mosaic burns should be used to provide spatial variability in age and structure of sites 

throughout the landscape. 

• Management should be adaptive to account for unplanned factors. For example, several 

unplanned fires following a planned disturbance have the potential to deplete seed banks, whilst 

drought following a planned disturbance could reduce seedling survivorship. 

• Management should be flexible enough to adapt to ongoing changes in knowledge and ecosystem 

response. 

• Disturbance management should be compatible with other management objectives. For 

example, protection of dry rainforest communities from wildfire. 

• Monitoring and experimentation should be used. 



These principles of fire-based disturbance regimes can be adapted for other forms of disturbance 

management. 

Habitat rehabilitation and weed control 

Bower (2000) has provided rehabilitation and weeding strategies for sites within Toonumbar 

National Park and Bungabbee Nature Reserve, which were developed with regard to the known 

regenerative traits of Corchorus cunninghamii at the time. The strategies contained within Bower 

(2000) will be used as a resource document and on-ground management tool for weeding and 

rehabilitation at C. cunninghamii sites. It may be necessary to amend these guidelines in the event 

of research providing new information on the species. 

The strategies of Bower (2000) must be used in combination with other information, such as up to 

date survey and disturbance data for each location, the distribution of weed species and weed control 

methods. The preparation of pest control plans will facilitate the regular review and reassessment of 

threats, thus allowing appropriate actions to be undertaken. It will also provide a measure upon 

which the success of weed control can be assessed. 

The threat from Lantana and other weeds at known sites is probably best controlled by manual bush 

regeneration techniques such as hand pulling and cut-and-paint, perhaps in combination with 

mechanical removal (e.g. slashing or backhoe) and spraying where infestations are dense. Provided 

that follow-up weeding is undertaken, this approach will help mitigate any increasing threat of 

displacement by weeds. Lantana should also be removed from as much of the surrounding forest as 

possible to maintain natural habitat conditions. Weed control methods likely to damage existing 

Corchorus cunninghamii plants should be avoided. 

Lantana control in Queensland has been shown to stimulate germination of Corchorus 

cunninghamii through soil disturbance (S. Parr pers. comm.). However, this type of disturbance can 

also cause germination of weed species such as Mist Flower and Crofton Weed. Therefore, initial 

weed removal, along with all other disturbance-type activities, may require follow-up weed control. 

Monitoring seedling recruitment of Corchorus cunninghamii in response to soil disturbance caused 

by weed control is desirable. Recruitment response trials could be carried out for different 

combinations of weed control treatments. Monitoring of these effects could be integrated with the 

demographic research proposed in Action 4.1. 

Seed collection 

As part of Action 5.1, the DEC will prepare a seed collection and storage strategy for Corchorus 

cunninghamii in NSW. This strategy will consider: 

• timing of seed collection and seasonal variation in seed production (see Stewart 2001); 

• up to date information available on Corchorus cunninghamii ecology, including seed germination 

and viability; 

• storage time and conditions to ensure a certain level of seed remains viable; 

• a precautionary approach to a decline in viability of stored seed; 

• possible outbreeding depression and loss of genetic compatibility between stored seed and in situ 

plants; and 

• surveys and monitoring in association with Action 2.1; in particular, consideration of a threshold 

level that will trigger consideration of seed reintroduction. 



Appendix 5 Research Considerations for Corchorus cunninghamii 

Conservation 

Biology and ecology 

Research undertaken in NSW and Queensland on fire response and regeneration behaviour provides 

some background for formulating an interim disturbance management strategy for Corchorus 

cunninghamii habitat. However, it would be desirable to duplicate and extend some of this research 

for NSW populations before defining and implementing appropriate disturbance management. 

Effective disturbance management of the ecotonal habitat of Corchorus cunninghamii requires 

knowledge of the ecology and life history of the species that occur within the habitat. An 

understanding of the population ecology of rare species and their general life history characteristics 

is essential for effective conservation management (Fielder et al. 1997). In the particular instance of 

C. cunninghamii, better information is needed on seed longevity and dispersal mechanisms to assist 

in developing management programs and maintaining suitable habitat conditions for the species. 

Priority should be given to seed longevity and viability. In this regard, it is desirable to extend the 

studies of seed dormancy undertaken by Halford (1993) and Simmonds (2000). Therefore, a 

timetable for a viability trial should be prepared and viability tests undertaken on the seed buried at 

Toonumbar State Forest in 2001 (see Stewart 2001). 

Demographic studies for Corchorus cunninghamii sites and populations should build on the work 

already conducted or in progress. Such studies should include interactions between weed species 

and C. cunninghamii to clarify the level of threat from weeds. Measures of weed abundance in and 

surrounding C. cunninghamii sites and monitoring of interactions between weed seedlings and C. 

cunninghamii seedlings would be useful in this regard. Further research and monitoring of 

populations is also required to determine: 

• rates of recruitment in burnt forest, unburnt forest and under different soil disturbance treatments; 

• age/size specific mortality rates within populations; 

• the range of fire frequency and fire intensity needed to promote sustainable populations of 

Corchorus cunninghamii; and 

• whether periodic burning is absolutely essential for population maintenance (either as seed bank or 

extant plants). 

It would be efficient to combine research with any monitoring undertaken as part of site 

management (see Action 2.2). If this is not possible because of timing considerations, methodologies 

used in projects should be compatible where possible to allow joint use of data. Research involving 

fire and weed trials under a variety of regimes is already underway in Queensland as part of the 

Recovery Plan for Corchorus cunninghamii in that State (see Saunders 2001). It is important that 

co-ordination of the recovery effort in NSW is undertaken in close consultation with the Queensland 

recovery team (see Action 1.1) so that such research is not duplicated unnecessarily. Bower (2000) 

has provided an outline for regeneration trials in NSW. 

Genetics 

Simmonds (2000) recommended that further genetic analysis be undertaken into the genetics of 

Corchorus cunninghamii using a more sensitive molecular (DNA) approach than was used in the 

isozyme analysis. At this stage, genetic research is not a priority in the management of C. 

cunninghamii in NSW. However, genetic research that produces practical outcomes to assist with 

the management priorities of the species should be considered toward the end of the life of this plan. 

Such research will provide a basis for more informed landscape-scale management when 

undertaking the five year review of this plan.

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