Folklore and Symbolism of Flowers, Plants and Trees

FOLKLORE and SYMBOLISM
of FLOWERS, PLANTS and TREE S

All Times and Countries Legendary Stories and Secret Meanings
Over 200 Rare and Unusual Floral Designs and Illustrations
yzattfSP*? n
CrTry' /4JJI
ifi' \\
I\
\\m\Pli
gffsiumifotsmi
$4.75
FOLKLORE
and SYMBOLISM of
FLOWERS, PLANTS
and TREES
By ERNST and JOHANNA LEHNER
Over 200 Rare and Unusual

Floral Designs and Illustrations
IN THIS UNIQUE and fascinating work,

two of the world’s foremost collectors of
pictorial symbols who also happen to be
devoted flower enthusiasts tell the whole
story of flower symbolism, explaining its
religious, magical, and legendary signifi¬
cance and revealing hundreds of curious
and little-known facts.
Here is an essential sourcebook for
folkloreists, for artists and designers in
all fields, for botanical and gardening
specialists, and for all those who would
be familiar with the hidden language of
flowers, plants and trees.
Beginning with the ancient Trees of
Life and Knowledge, the authors trace
the history of over 200 of these symbols
as they have developed into heraldic de¬
vices of rulers and states, badges for
heroes and saints, emblems of feasts and
events, decorations for religious and
worldly ceremonies, tokens of admiration
and reverence, and expressions of love
and desire. The lotus flower — revered
since the dawn of religious beliefs by
Egyptians and Persians, Buddhists and
Hindus, Lamas in Tibet and Mayas in
Central America; the foreboding and
mysterious Apple of Sodom; the man¬
drake, an integral part of every witch’s
cauldron, as an opiate and a love-potion—
these are but a few of the many sacred
and wondrous plants described in this
book.
(continued on back flap)
FOLKLORE and SYMBOLISM of
FLOWERS, PLANTS and TREES
Bouquet of Flowers, from an old American Engraving, 1884.
FOLKLORE and SYMBOLISM
OF
FLOWERS, PLANTS and TREES
By
ERNST and JOHANNA LEHNER
TUDOR PUBLISHING COMPANY

!Alew D'ork
COPYRIGHT 1960
TUDOR PUBLISHING COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG NUMBER: 60-15038

property of
TAKOMA PARK, MD. LIBRARY
tjZL' j L b>
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION H_12 FLOWER LORE AND LEGEND
The Acanthus 52
SACRED PLANTS
The Aconite • 53
The Trees of Life and Knowledge 13-19 The Adonis 53
The Tree of Life 15-17 The Anemone 54
The Tree of Knowledge 18-19 The Carnation 54
The Yggdrasill 20-21 The Clover 55
The Rod of Aaron 22 The Cornflower 55
The Aeaeia 23 The Crocus 56
The Acorns . 24 The Cypress 57
The Bo Tree. 24 The Daisy 58
The Cassia 25 The Edelweiss 58
The Cedar 25 The Forget-me-not 59
The Date Palm 26-28 The Hawthorn 59
The Fig Tree 29 The Hazelnut 60-62
The Three Blessed Fruits 30-31 The Heliotrope 63
The Lily. 32-33 The Hyacinth 63
The Lotus 34-40 The Iris (Fleur-de-lis) 64
The Mistletoe 41 The Ivy 65
The Myrtle 41 The Tears of Job 65
The Oak Tree 42 The Laurel 66-67
The Oxalis (Shamrock) 43 The Leek 68
The Passionflower 44 The Lily-of-the-Valley 68
The Persea 45 The Linden Tree 69

The Peruvian Mastic 46 The Mulberry Tree 70-71
The Resurrection Flower 47 The Mullein 63
The Sandalwood 47 The Myrrh 63
The Soma 48 The Narcissus 73
The Sunflower 48 The Olive Tree 74

The Sycamore 49 The Orange Tree 75
The Vervain 49 The Plane Tree 76
The Vine 50 The Black Poplar 76
5
The Rose 77-79 The Ice Plant 89
The Sylphium 80 The Maidenhair Fern 89
The Thistle 80 The Mandrake 90-91
The Tulip 81 The Tree of Sorrow 92
The Violet 82
THE FLOWER CALENDAR

STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS
The Seasons 94-98
The Apple of Sodom 84
The Flowers of the Months 99-101
The Amber Tree 85
The Chinese Flower Calendar 102-105
The Bausor Tree. 85
The Japanese Flower Calendar 106-108
The Barnacle Tree 86
The Carlina 87
The Dragon Tree 87
THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
The Honesty 88
The Houseleek 88 Sentiments and Symbolism 109-128
Floral Endpiece, by Jean Baptist Michel Papillon, Paris, 1755.
6
ILLUSTRATIONS
Bouquet of Flowers, from an old American engraving, 1884 .Frontispiece
Floral Endpiece, by Jean Michel Papillon, Paris, 1755 . 6
Initial I, from Baker’s Bible, London, 1611 11
The Creation of Plants, from Coverdale’s Biblia, Zurich, 1535. 12
Initial T, by Matheus de Codeca, Venice, 1495 . 13
The Trees of Life and Knowledge, from Leeu’s Leven ons Heeren, Antwerp, 1487. 14
The Tree of Life, from an Ancient Assyrian Wall Carving. 15
The Aztec Cosmic Trees, from the Codex Feyervary-Mayer, Liverpool 16
The Human Tree, from Geiler’s Sermones, Strassburg, 1515 17
The Fall of Man, from Hans Sebald Beham’s Der Siindenfall 18
The Tree of Knowledge, from Meydenbach’s Ortus Sanitatis, Mainz, 1491. 19
The Yggdrasill, from Magnusen’s Eddalaeren, Copenhagen, 1824 . 20
Ash Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 .. 21
The Rod of Aaron, from Arndes’ Lubecker Bibel, Lubeck, 1494. 22
Acacia, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 23
The Crown of Thorns, from an old English Engraving. 23
Acorus, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579. 24
Buddha under the Bo-tree, from an old Oriental Pen-drawing. 24
Cassia, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 25
Cedar, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 25
Date Palm and Pond, from an Ancient Egyptian Wall Painting. 26
Date Palm, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 26
Dates, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579. 27
Date Palm and Unicorn, from Bock’s Kreiiterbuch, Strassburg, 1595 . 28
Palm Leaves and Olive Wreath, from the Christian Catacombs. 28
Fig Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 29
Medicinal Values of the Fig, from Bock’s Kreiiterbuch, Strassburg, 1551. 29
The Three Blessed Fruits, from an old Chinese Lantern Silhouette. 30
Fo Shou — Buddha’s Hand, Chinese Symbol of Happiness.. 31
Tao — Peach, Chinese Symbol of Longevity. 31
Shi Liu — Pomegranate, Chinese Symbol of Fecundity. 31
Wild Lily, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 32
Lily, from an Italian Renaissance Painting, 14th century. 32
Madonna Lily, from Schoeffer’s Hortus Sanitatis, Mainz, 1485 33
Lily, from an English Manuscript, 15th century .. 33
Horus on the Lotus, from an Ancient Egyptian Wall Painting 34
The Anthemion, Symbolic Lotus Frieze of Ancient Greece. 34
Lotus Capital, from an Ancient Egyptian Column 35
Symbolic Lotus Frieze, from Allahabad, India, 250 B.C. 35
Water Lily, from Arnoldi de Nova Villa’s Tractatus, Venice, 1499 36
White Water Lily, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 36
Yellow Water Lily, from l’Obel’s Kruydtboeck, Antwerp, 1581 36
Lotus Bud, Blossoms and Seed-Pod, from an old Chinese Lantern Silhouette 37
The Sacred Lake of Lotuses, from an Antique Chinese Temple Painting 38
Lotus, from a Japanese Engraving. 39
The Birth of Brahma, from an old Hindu Painting 40
40
Water Lily, the Mayan Earth Symbol.
41
Mistletoe, from l’Obel’s Kruydtboeck., Antwerp, 1581
Myrtle, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 41
Oak Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 42
Oak Tree and Swineherd, from Bock’s Kreuterbuch, Strassburg, 1546 42
Oxalis (Shamrock), from Mattioli’s Commentarii, Venice, 1565 43
The Badge of thcMost Illustrious Order of St. Patrick 43
Passionflower, from an old English Engraving 44
Passionflower, from Parkinson’s Paraclisus, London, 1629 44
Persea Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 45
The Tree of Fame, from an Ancient Egyptian Wall Painting 45
Molle (Mastic), from l’Ecuse’s Simplicium Medicamentorum, Antwerp, 1579 46
Peruvian Mastic, from Durante’s Herbario Nuovo, Borne, 1585 46
Bose of Jericho, from Camerarius’ Hortus Medicus, Frankfort/M., 1588 47
Sandalwood, from Jacobus’ Neu Kreuterbuch, Frankfort/M., 1613 47
Soma Plant, from an old Oriental Engraving 48
Sunflower, from Gerard s Herball, London, 1633 48
Sycamore, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 49
Vervain, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 49
Vine, from a Byzantine Ceiling Ornament, 6th century 50
Initial L, by Guglielmo Fontana da Monferrato, Venice, 1519 51
Acanthus, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579. 52
Acanthus Motif on the Capital of a Corinthian Column 52
Aconite, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 53
Adonis, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 53
Anemone, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 54
Carnation, from Lyte’s Nievve Herball, London, 1578 . 54
Clover, from Mattioli’s Commentarii, Venice, 1565 . 55
Cornflower, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 55
Crocus, from De Passe’s Hortus Floridus, Arnheim, 1614. 56
Cypress, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579. 57
Daisy, from Dodoens’ Stirpium historiae Pemptades, Antwerp, 1583 . 58
Edelweiss, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 58
Forget-me-not, from an old American Engraving, 1880 . 59
Hawthorn, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 59
Apollo and Hermes, from Moretus’ Philomathi Musea Iuveniles, Antwerp, 1654 . 60
The Divining Rod, from Agricola’s De re Metallica, Basle, 1556. 61
Hazel, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 62
Heliotrope, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 63
Hyacinth, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 63
Iris, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 64
Fleur-de-Lis, from a 15th century Engraving.,. 64
Ivy, from Gerard’s Herball, London, 1633 . 65
Job’s tears, from Simler’s Vita Gesneri, Zurich, 1566. 65
Apollo and Daphne, by Jacobo Ripanda Bolognese, Rome, 1500 . 66
Laurel, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 67
Leek, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 68
Lily-of-the-Valley, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 68
Linden Tree, from Jacobus’ Neuw Kreuterbuch, Frankfort/M., 1613. 69
Dance under the Linden, from Bock’s Kreuterbuch, Strassburg, 1546 . 69
Pyramus and Thisbe, from Boccaccio’s Genealogie des Dieux, Paris, 1498 . 70
Mulberry Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 71
Mullein, from Gerard’s Herball, London, 1633 . 72
Myrrh, from Pomet’s History of Druggs, London, 1725 . 72
8
Narcissus, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 73
Narcissus, from Meydenbach’s Ortus Sanitatis, Mainz, 1491. 73
Olive Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 74
Orange Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 75
The Golden Apples of the Hesperides, from an Antique Greek Vase Painting. 75
Plane Tree, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 76
Black Poplar, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579. 76
Rose, from Macer’s De Viribus Herbarum, Naples, 1477. 77
Roses of Lancaster, York and Tudor, from Parker’s Annales of England, 1855 . 77
Rose, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 78
Rosaceum, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 79
Sylphium, from a Cyrenean Coin, 600 B.C. 80
White Cotton Thistle, from Gerard’s Herball, London, 1633 . 80
Constantinople Tulip, from Mattioli’s Commentaire’s, Lyons, 1579 . 81
Tulip, from Gessner’s De Mortis Germaniae, Zurich, 1561. 81
Violets, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons’ 1579 . 82
Picture Postcard of the Bonapartists, France, 1815. -82
Initial G, from Winterburg’s Graduate Pataviense, Vienna, 1511. 83
Dead Sea Apples, from Maundevile’s Voiage and Travaile, London, 1725 . 84
Amber Tree, from Meydenbach’s Ortus Sanitatis, Mainz, 1491. 85
Bausor Tree, from Meydenbach’s Ortus Sanitatis, Mainz, 1491. 85
The Breed of Barnakles, from Gerard’s Herball, London, 1597 . 86
Goose Barnacle, from an old German Engraving. 86
Carlina, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 87
Dragon Tree, from l’Ecluse’s Rariorum per Hispanias, Antwerp, 1576 . 87
Honesty, from Gessner’s De raris Herbis, Zurich, 1555 . 88
Houseleek, from l’Ecluse’s Rariorum per Hispanias, Antwerp, 1576 . 88
Ice Plant, from an old English Engraving. 89
Maidenhair Fern, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons 1579. 89
Mandrake, from the Codex Neapolitanus, 700 A.D., Vienna. 90
Masculine Mandrake, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579 . 90
Masculine Mandrake, from Cuba’s Horius Sanitatis, Paris, 1498 . 90
Feminine Mandrake, from Cuba’s Hortus Sanitatis, Paris, 1498 . 91
Feminine Mandrake, from Mattioli’s Commentaires, Lyons, 1579. 91
Arbor Tristis, from Jacobus’ Nemo Kreuterbuch, Frankfort/M., 1631. 92
Tree-of-Sorrow, from Durante’s Herbaria Nuovo, Rome, 1585 . 92
Initial E, by Johannes van Ghelen, Vienna, 1678 . 98
The Three Seasons of Ancient Egypt 93
Winter, from Le Rouge's Le Grant Kalendrier, Troyes, 1496 94
Spring, from Le Rouge’s Le Grant Kalendrier, Troyes, 1496 95
Summer, from Le Rouge’s Le Grant Kalendrier, Troyes, 1496 96
Autumn, from Le Rouge’s Le Grant Kalendrier, Troyes, 1496 97
The Four Seasons, from an English Broadside, 1682 . 98
Initial I, by Israhel van Meckenem, Bochold, 1483 99
The Twelve Months, from a German Farmer’s Calendar, 1493 99
Snowdrop, Flower of January 190
Primrose, Flower of February 190
Violet, Flower of March. 199
Daisy, Flower of April 199
Hawthorn, Flower of May. 199
Honeysuckle, Flower of June . 190
Water Lily, Flower of July 191
Poppy, Flower of August.... 191
Morning-glory, Flower of September . 191
' ^g
Hop, Flower of October. 101
Chrysanthemum, Flower of November 101
Holly, Flower of December. 101
Initial F, by Kent Crane, Shanghai, 1926 .... 102
Canopus, God of Longevity Issuing from a Peach, old Chinese Engraving 102
Ho Hsien-Ku, Taoist Genus of Flowers, old Chinese Engraving. 102
China the Flowery Land, old Chinese Engraving. 103
Plum Blossom, Chinese Flower of January and Winter 104
Peach Blossom, Chinese Flower of February 104
Tree Peony, Chinese Flower of March and Spring. 104
Cherry Blossom, Chinese Flower of April . 104
Magnolia, Chinese Flower of May . 104
Pomegranate Blossom, Chinese Flower of June 104
Lotus, Chinese Flower of July and Summer. 105
Pear Blossom, Chinese Flower of August 105
Mallow, Chinese Flower of September. 105
Chrysanthemum, Chinese Flower of October and Autumn. 105
Gardenia, Chinese Flower of November. 105
Poppy, Chinese Flower of December. 105
Pine, Japanese Flower of January. 106
Plum, Japanese Flower of February. 106
Cherry', Japanese Flower of March . 106
Wisteria, Japanese Flower of April . 106
Iris, Japanese Flower of May . 106
Peony, Japanese Flower of June. 106
Mountain Clover, Japanese Flower of July. 107
Hill Crest, Japanese Symbol of August. 107
Chrysanthemum, Japanese Flower of September. 107
Maple, Japanese Flower of October. 107
Willow, Japanese Flower of November. 107
Paulownia, Japanese Flower of December . 107
The Seven Japanese Flowers of Autumn . 108
Floriated Initial D, Germany, 16th century. 109
The Lovers, from Piccolomini’s Historia di Due Amanti, Milan, 1510. 110
Wreath of Laurel, from Mauritius’ Hypnerotomachia, Venice, 1499 . Ill
Crown of Roses, by William Copland, London, 1548 . 112
Wreath of Flowers, by Federix de Vinciolo, Paris, 1606. 113
Cornucopiae of Flowers, by Christoff el van Sichem II, Amsterdam, 1646 114
Basket of Vegetables, by Christoffel van Sichem II, Amsterdam, 1646. 115
Bouquet of Flowers, from Stalker’s Treatise of Japaning, Oxford, 1688 . 116
Basket of Flowers, from Stalker’s Treatise of Japaning, Oxford, 1688 . 117
Carnation, Valentine Silhouette, by P. O.. Runge, Germany, 1800 . 118
Rose, Valentine Silhouette, Austria, 1800 . 119
Bouquet of Flowers, Valentine Silhouette, Germany, 1800 . 120
Basket of Flowers, Valentine Silhouette, Germany, 1820 . 120
Heart of Branches, Valentine Silhouette, England, 1820. 121
Bouquet of Flowers, Valentine Silhouette, Austria, 1820 . 121
Wreath of Flowers, Flora’s Diadem, Germany, 1838 . 122
Wreath of Flowers, Valentine Silhouette, by Lotte Jager, Germany, 1835 . 123
Flowery Billet-doux, Chrysanthemum, U. S., Middle 19th century. 124
Flowery Billet-doux, Snow-drop, U. S., Middle 19th century. 125
Cornucopiae, by Frederic Singleton, U. S., 1900. 126
Basket of Fruit, by Frederic Singleton, U. S., 1900 . 127
Posy, from an old American Engraving, 1880 . 128
10 “8*®
INTRODUCTION
t took homo sapiens — the human being — aeons to learn to

walk on his two feet, and to turn his grunts into the rudiments of speech, so he could communi¬
cate sensibly with his fellow men. It took him thousands of years to discover the making of fire
which enabled him to roast and cook his food. It took many more thousands of years to invent
the club, the ax, the bow and the arrow, so he could hunt more easily for food animals; to learn
how to till the soil, plant and harvest crops; and finally foresake his cave for a dwelling he built
himself. And throughout all this time of evolution, where man lived out in the open, he was
surrounded by flowers, plants and trees appealing to all his five senses: to his sight, touch, taste,
smell, and even to his hearing, warning him by the rustling of leaves and grasses, the rasping of
branches, the snapping of breaking twigs, and the crackling of fallen leaves underfoot of any
approaching danger by man and beast alike. The behavior of the plants around man was always
peaceful and soothing, and man found that there is no such thing as an ugly flower, a menacing
plant or an angry tree. Man’s mind became attached to these friendly beings, willingly lending
themselves to his needs, giving him food and shelter and pleasing impressions for all his senses.
Flowers were the first decorative implement for the earliest attempts of man to adorn himself;
^ 11
12 ^ INTRODUCTION
they grew all around him and were his just for the taking. Throughout human history flowers,
plants and trees became so interwoven with man’s daily life that they developed into symbols
for his expressions and sentiments, his passions and affections, his beliefs and religions, his fears
and superstitions. In Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Nordic mythology, in the Scriptures and
Biblical legends, in Oriental beliefs and Occidental lore the fertile human mind assigned the
medicinal and nutritious properties of plants, the beauty and fragrance of their leaves, flowers
and blossoms as floral symbols to gods and deities, and representations for seasons and months
of the year. They became heraldic devices of rulers and states, and badges for heroes and
saints; floral emblems of feasts and events, and decorations for religious and worldly cere¬
monies; flowery expressions of love and desire, and tokens of admiration and reverence. The
religious, legendary and symbolic meaning attached to many a plant in bygone days was handed
down to us throughout the ages, and is still valid today. We still use many special plants,
flowers and trees in accordance with their age-old symbolism for Easter, Christmas, St. Patrick’s
and other holidays, for weddings and anniversaries, for funerals and memorials, in valentines
for mother and sweetheart, and for many other occasions.
©encfic.
)i tfjitbe vayto
2tnb (<T©t> fayOe: (ct y carcf I’ttnge pjtlj

{ytnc grnffcaitbfcrbc, tfyacbc.Hctfc>fibo)r
frutcfuU tree#, tfj.it may bcarc fiutc, entry
one after fiatynOc, ^nti'ya0etl>ctro«ncfe-
t>emtl;cm fdnes upontljccarttj.2lnbfoie
cametopafle.
The Creation of the Plants, from Coverdale’s biblia, Zurich, 1535.

SACRED PLANTS
he flowers, plants and trees surrounding man at the dawn of

history changed in a mystical cycle with the seasons. They moved from life to death, and to life
again, bearing succulent leaves, sweet-smelling blossoms, juicy fruit, nourishing nuts and life-
giving seeds. In the mind of these primitive creatures they became the exponents of some
unseen higher spirits who provided mankind with feast and famine. No wonder that man
endowed these plants with sacred properties and dedicated providential and supernatural
powers to them. The sacred meaning given to some plants in a remote era were handed down
from generation to generation, from belief to belief, and from religion to religion. With the
changing of time when old idols toppled, and new ones were erected in their place, the dedica¬
tion of many a revered plant was transferred to the new idol but the sacred character of the
plant remained unchanged. Even in our monotheistic Western World of today where the many
deities of the polytheistic beliefs have vanished from the minds of men, the sacred plants of
old are not regarded as mere objects of utility. They have become the sacred emblems of
prophets and saints, and the symbols of religious festivals and holidays.
14 "®« SACRED PLANTS
THE TREES OF LIFE AND KNOWLEDGE
The Trees of Life and Knowledge in the Garden of Eden, from Leeu’s boek van den leven ons
heeren, Antwerp, 1487.
SACRED PLANTS ^ 15
THE TREE OF LIFE
It is understandable why trees were the first plants to be worshipped by man. They were
not only the largest living and growing things around him, but they were also always there;
when he was a boy, a youth, a man, an elder. He learned that the trees were already standing
in the same groves when his father, and even his grandfather were boys themselves. He saw
the trees throughout his lifetime, evergreen or shedding their leaves in autumn, springing
to life again in spring, bearing blossoms and fruit season after season, and growing stronger,
wider and higher all the time. He grasped the idea that the same trees would still be standing,
long after he himself would be gone, when his children would be no more, and his grand¬
children would be growing old. No wonder that in man’s searching mind, the trees became the
very symbols of strength, fecundity and everlasting life. They are Nature’s perfect examples of
the miracle of reproduction and eternity. It is believed that the conception of the Tree of Life
(Arbor vitae) started in ancient Chaldea, a region in southwestern Asia1 along the Euphrates
and Tigris rivers. One of the oldest sacred tree symbols is the Assyrian Tree of Life, a stylized,
The Ornamental Tree of Life, from an Ancient

Assyrian Wall Carving.
16 ^ SACRED PLANTS
THE TREE OF LIFE
ornamental expression of a non-existing tree, sometimes combining the lotus and the pine, two
plants symbolizing immortality and fecundity. These symbols of the Tree of Life spread from
ancient Assyria and Babylonia into Arabia, Egypt and Asia Minor, and through Central Asia
into the Far East and Central America. Throughout the changing times the tree of life symbols
The Aztec Cosmic Trees Surrounding the Fire-God Xiuhtecutli, from the Old Mexican codex
fejervary — mayer, Liverpool.
SACRED PLANTS ^ 17
THE TREE OF LIFE
were taken up by all beliefs and religions in the western and eastern world. They range from
the oak and ash trees of the Teutons, Norsemen, Celts and Druids to the palm and cedars of the
Hebrews and Christians; from the sycamores of the Egyptians to the cassia and bo trees of the
Far East, including the cosmic, celestial and humanized trees of many lands.
The Human Tree, hy Hans Baldung Grien, from J. Geilers sermones prestantissimi de arbore
,
humana, Strassburg 1515.
SACRED PLANTS
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE
Qifcam two gua fm paratwg.
The Fall of Man, by Hans Sebald Beham

SACRED PLANTS 19
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE
In the Biblical Garden of Eden man had to choose between the Tree of Life (Arbor vitae),
which was the tree of the immortals, and the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (Arbor
vel lignum scientie), which was the tree of the mortals. The serpent, in leading Eve and Adam
astray, thus deprived man of the eternal life on earth, which was in reality meant for him by
the Creator. Despite popular conception, the Bible never mentioned that the Tree of Knowledge
was an apple tree. The forbidden fruit was identified only as “the fruit of the tree which is in
the midst of the garden ’ (The Bible, Old Testament, Genesis III/S). In the Biblical account of
the Temptation, the serpent in the Garden of Eden, or the Garden of the Soul, brought on the
fall of man. In the ancient religious beliefs, the serpent was always considered as a male reptile
with no higher aspirations than materialism and sensuality; a peculiarly appropriate symbolic
representation of Satan, the male personification of all evil. But as early as the 8th century A.D.
some artists started to picture in their painted boards, murals, and book illuminations, the ser¬
pent that beguiled Eve with the face and bust of a woman; and since that time the Tempter,
the satanic male serpent in the Garden is represented everywhere as a female Temptress.
The Biblical Tree of Knowledge, from MeydenbacKs

ortus sanitatis, Mainz, 1491
70^ SACRED PLANTS
THE YGGDRASILL
The Norse mythological world tree, Yggdrasill is an evergreen ash tree which overshadows
the whole universe. Its roots, trunk and branches bind together Heaven, Earth and the Nether¬
world. The trunk rooted in the primordial abyss of Hel, the subterranean source of matter, bears
three stems. The center stem runs up though Midgard, the earth, which it supports. It issues
out of the mountain Asgard where the gods assemble at the base of Valhalla. This heaven of the
Yggdrasil, from Finn Magnuseris eddalaeren, Copenhagen, 1824.

SACRED PLANTS ^ 21
THE YGGDRASILL
Norse heroes can only be reached by Bifrost, the bridge of the rainbow. The stem spreads its
branches over the entire sky; their leaves are the clouds, their fruits the stars. Four stags, Dain,
Dvalin, Duneyr, and Durathor, which symbolize the cardinal winds, live in these branches,
feeding on the flower-buds and dripping dew from their antlers to earth. Upon the top branch
perches the eagle, symbol of the air. On its head sits the falcon, Vedfolnir, the watchful look-out
for the gods. The squirrel, Batatosk, signifying rain, snow, hail and the evaporating water, runs
up and down the tree, trying to stir up strife between the eagle and the serpent-monster,
Nidhoggr. The monster, symbolizing the vulcanic powers, gnaws constantly on the roots of
the tree, attempting to destroy the earth’s foundation. The second stem of the Yggdrasill springs
up in Muspellsheim, the warm South where the three Norns: Urth, the Past, Verdandi, the
Present and Skuld, the Future dwell and the gods sit in judgment. The third stem rises in
Nifleheim, the cold North, where all the knowledge of mankind flows from the fountain of the
Frost-giant, Mirnir, the personification of Wisdom. The ash tree (Fraxinus) itself is the Nordic
Tree of Life, symbol of strength and vigor, because the first Norseman Ask, sprang from an
ash tree according to Norse mythology.
The Ash Tree, from Mattioli’s commentaires,

Lyons, 1579.
22 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE ROD OF AARON
When Aaron, the first high priest of the Israelites, and his younger brother Moses were
ealled before Pharaoh, the king demanded a sign of the power of their god. Aaron threw his rod
to earth and it became a serpent. Pharaoh’s high priest also threw his staff to the ground and it
changed into an asp. But Aaron’s serpent swallowed the Egyptian’s asp and turned back into a
rod. (The Bible, Old Testament, Exodus VII/9-15). When Aaron put pressure on the Egyptians
to release the Israelites from bondage, he used his rod to start the first three Plagues of Egypt:
the conversion of all water into blood, the deluge of frogs and the plague of lice. After the
Exodus the rods of the princes of Israel were placed on the Tabernacle to decide which tribe
should be the one to furnish the future high priests. It was the staff of Aaron, the Levite, which
budded and brought forth buds and blossomed and yielded almonds, in token of the valid
claim by the tribe of Levy to its exclusive right to the priesthood (The Bible, Old Testament,
Numb. XV1I/8). In the Dark and Middle Ages, when the professional sorcerers usurped every
bit of mythological belief and religious legend of miracles for their own use, they choose the rod
of Aaron as the symbol of the magicians’ efficacy. The rod became the magic wand for ma¬
gicians of all times and all peoples.
The Rod of Aaron Blossoming on the Tabernacle, from Arndes lubecker bibel, Lubeck, 1494.
SACRED PLANTS^ 23
THE ACACIA
The acacia tree (Acacia seyal) native to

Egypt, was called by the Israelites the
Shittah-tree. They carried the wood of this
tree in their exodus from Egypt through the
desert, and later built their Tabernacle and
the Arc of the Covenant from this wood to
atone for their crime committed at Shittin.
The wood of the acacia was considered sacred
by the Hebrews, and could not be used for
private dwellings, furniture, or any other
secular purposes. According to legends of the
Near East, when Christ was crowned with
thorns as JESUS NAZARENUS REX JU-
DAEORUM — Jesus of Nazareth, King of the
Jews, his Roman executioners used the thorny
twigs of the acacia, not only to mock its sa¬
credness, but also (which made mockery
more complete) because its leaves resembled
the ivy with which Kings were crowned. The
plant has the mournful distinction of supply¬ The Acacia, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,
ing the crown of thorns at Golgatha. Various 1579.
other plants have been named in different
countries as the source of the thorny crown:
in Germany, the Holly or Christdorn (Ilex
aquifolium); in France the Hawthorn or
Tepine noble (Crataegus oxyacantha); in
Italy the Barberry (Barberis vulgaris); in
England the Boxthorn (Lycium sponosum),
the Bramble (Rubus fruticosus), or the
Buckthorn (Rhamnus palinurus). In the Near
East where the legend came from, only the
acacia was considered to be the provider of
the spiny crown.
The Biblical Crown of Thorns, from an old English

Engraving.
24 ^ SACRED PLANTS
THE ACORUS
The acorns is a rush-like plant (Acorus

calamus), native to the eastern Mediterrane¬
an region. In antiquity it was not considered
a sacred plant in itself; but the sacred anoint¬
ment oil of the ancient Hebrews, used at the
Tabernacle in Jerusalem, had as its main in¬
gredient the oil of the acorus pressed from
the aromatic roots of the plant. The other
ingredients were oil of olives, oil of cinnamon
and myrrh. In bygone times, before the in¬
troduction of carpets, the leaves of the acorus
were strewn on the floors of all places of wor¬
ship. They are still scattered today in some
of the churches, temples and cathedrals on
festive days.
Acorus, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE BO TREE
The pipal or bo tree (Ficus religiosa), na¬

tive to Hindustan and Ceylon is sacred to
Buddha and worshipped by the Buddhists of
India. According to tradition it was under a
bo tree at Uruvela (today’s Bodh-Gaya),
Bengal that Buddha sat for seven weeks on
a couch of grass facing the East until he
obtained the perfect knowledge and enlight-
ment of Nirvana. Today a bo tree grows in
every Indian village near the Buddhist
temple, surrounded by a mud-platform, on
which the meetings and meditations of the
villagers are held. Bo trees are exceptionally
long lived. The oldest of these trees stands
at Amiradapura, Ceylon, and is believed to
have been planted in 288 B.C.
Buddha in Meditation under the Bo-tree.

SACRED PLANTS ^ 25
THE CASSIA
The cassia tree (Cassia cassia), native to

southern China is an evergreen tree with
long cylindrical pods and an aromatic bark
with a fragrant, cinnamon-like flavor called
Chinese cinnamon, and used as a condiment.
According to Chinese religious belief, the
cassia tree is considered the sacred Tree of
Life. A Chinese mythological legend tells
that the celestial World Tree, a cassia tree,
has been growing since time immemorial
to an incredible height in Paradise, a garden
located far up in the Tibetan Mountains at
the source of the Hwang-Ho, or Yellow River.
Whoever enters Paradise and eats of the fruit
of this tree will gain immortality and live
happily ever after.
Cassia, Mattioli's commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE CEDAR
The cedar (Cedrus libana) is an evergreen

tree, growing almost exclusively on the
Mountain of Lebanon. There are still many
hundreds of these trees growing in the cedar
groves of Lebanon, and the twelve oldest
and largest are revered by every monotheistic
religion; by the Israelites as the Twelve
Friends of Solomon, because the Temple of
Solomon in ancient Jerusalem was built from
cedar-wood; by the Christians as the 1 welve
Apostles; by the Mohammedans as Saints,
and it is believed that an evil fate will over¬
take anyone who injures one of these trees.
Every year at the Feast of the Transfigura¬
tion, the Armenians, Greeks and Mormons go
on a pilgrimage to the Cedars of Lebanon.
Cedar, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

26 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE DATE PALM
Date Palm and Pond, Symbols of Abundance and

Peace, from an Ancient Egyptian Mural.
The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) was one of the most ancient symbolic forms of the
Tree of Life in the Near East. Among the Egyptians it was the symbolic Tree of the Year, be¬
cause it produced a new branch every month. It was the sacred emblem of Judea after the
Exodus from Egypt. In the year 53 B.C. the Roman legions took the palm leaf over as the
Fruit-bearing Date Palm, from Mattioli’s commen-
taires, Lyons, 1579.

SACRED PLANTS ^ 27
THE DATE PALM
emblem of their triumph and victory over Judea, and as a symbol of their plunder and destruc¬
tion of Jerusalem. In 29 A.D. the Christians accepted the palm leaf as symbolic of the trium¬
phant entry of Christ into Jerusalem. His path was strewn with palm leaves in defiance of the
Roman Rulers and the Hebrew hierarchy. The leaves of the palm are still used today as religious
symbols by the Christians on Palm Sunday and by the Jews on Passover. In the time of the
Catacombs the palm leaf became the emblem of the martyrs, symbolizing the triumph of their
faith over their bodies. In the Middle Ages it was believed that the palm tree always grows erect,
no matter how it was bent or weighted down; a symbol of triumph over adversity. In the 16th
century, a unicorn’s horn was considered in Europe as an infallible specific for the cure of all
diseases. To drink date-palm wine from a unicorn’s horn was the best prophylactic against
getting sick; a potent healing agent for wounds and burns; and a remedy against poison. In
Persia, Arabia and North Africa, the date palm forms one of the principal sources of wealth. In
Unripe and Ripening Dates, from Mattiolis com¬
mentates, Lyons, 1579.

28 ^ SACRED PLANTS
THE DATE PALM
The Unicorn and the Date Palm, from Bock’s

kreuterbuch, Strassburg, 1595.
the Sahara Desert every oasis is a beautiful garden of date palms. Some Bedouin caravans, or
other wanderers of long ago, carelessly dropped the pits of the dried dates which they carried
as their only food at their resting place near a well, and in time the treeless oasis became an
orchard of life-sustaining date palms. For the nomadic Arabs of today the date palm is still the
true Tree of Life because its fruit, fresh or dried, is the main food supply for man and beast.
Palm Leaf and Olive Branch, Symbol of Triumph and Peace, from an Embossing in the early
Christian Catacombs.
SACRED PLANTS ^ 29
THE FIG TREE
The common fig tree (Ficus carica), native

to the Smyrna region in Asia Minor was one
of the most widely revered sacred trees of
antiquity. Among the ancient Hebrews the
fig tree was a symbol of peace and abun¬
dance. It was a sacred tree to the early Chris¬
tians because Jesus desired to eat figs on the
way to Bethany. The Moslems called the fig
the Tree of Heaven, and it was considered
to be the most intelligent tree, but one step
removed from the animal kingdom. It was
sacred to the believers of the prophet Mo¬
hammed, because according to the Koran,
he swore by it. There are several hundreds
of species of the fig tree, revered nearly every¬
where as the Tree of Life and Knowledge,
from Central Africa where the natives believe
that the spirits of their ancestors live in fig
trees, to the Far East where the Buddhist
revere the pipal, a fig tree, because Gautama Fig Tree, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,
found wisdom under it. In medieval time the 1579.
fig was a tree of diversified medical impor¬
tance. The sap of the tree was used as a pur¬
gative and vomative; figs cooked in milk
were a remedy for ulcerated gums; boiled in
barley water, a relief for pulmonary ailments;
and fig juice mixed with bacon drippings, a
cure against the bit of mad dogs.
Medicinal Values of the Fig Tree, by D. Kandel,

from Bock’s kreuterbuch, Strassburg, 1551.
property of
takoma park, md. lib
ciOj'lLb"
30 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE THREE BLESSED FRUITS
Fu-Shou-San-Tuo, the three blessed fruits, are to the Chinese the revered symbols of the
Three Greatest Blessings; the fragrant Hand of Buddha (Citrus medica) symbol of happiness;
the Peach (Amygdalus persica) symbol of longevity; the Pomegranate (Punica granatum) sym¬
bol of fecundity and a hopeful future.
The Three Blessed Fruits, from a Chinese Lantern Silhouette.

SACRED PLANTS ^ 31
THE THREE BLESSED FRUITS
FO SHOU - BUDDHAS HAND
Gautama Buddha, resting in the shade of

this citrus tree plucked one of its fruit, which
was at that time round and bitter tasting.
Displeased with its worthlessness, he
stretched his hand to make the tree disap¬
pear, but in the same instant he took compas¬
sion upon it and told the tree that it might
live if it would make its fruit pleasing to man.
The tree obeyed and changed its fruit to the
shape of Buddha’s outstretched hand.
TAO — PEACH
The peach tree, called the Tree of the Fairy

Fruit is presumed to have really originated in
China. It is the symbol of immortality be¬
cause the Peach Tree of the Gods, which
grew in the mythical gardens of Hsi Wang
Mu, the Royal Lady of the West, bloomed
only once in 3000 years, yielding 3000 years
later the ripened Fruits of Eternal Life. This
fruit was the sacred food of the Eight Taoist
Immortals.
SHI LIU — POMEGRANATE
The pomegranate is not native to China;

it was brought there from Kabul, Afghanis¬
tan under the Han dynasty in 126 B.C. The
ripe and half-open pomegranate, displaying
its many seeds, was the symbol of fecundity
and eternal life in Semitic antiquity. It also
became the Chinese symbol of numerous
male offspring rising to fame and glory, and
behaving in a virtuous and filial manner. The
Buddhists regard its influence as ever and
wholly good.
32 SACRED PLANTS
THE LILY
Since time immemorial the lily (Lilium)

native to the Near East, was the sacred flower
of motherhood. It was the symbol of fruit¬
fulness in Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian
and Egyptian mythology. It was the flower
emblem of many chief goddesses of ancient
religions. In the pre-historic Minoan period
of Crete (3000 B.C.), it was the sacred sym¬
bol of Britomartis, also called Dictynna, the
Great Mother and Patron of hunters, fisher¬
men, and sailors. In ancient Greece it was
the flower of Hera, the goddess of the moon,
earth, air, woman’s life, marriage and child¬
birth; and in ancient Rome it was the emblem
of Juno, the goddess of light, sky, marriage
and motherhood.
Wild Lily, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,

1579.
The Lily — Symbol of Purity, from an Italian Renais¬

sance Painting, 14th century.
SACRED PLANTS ^ 33
THE LILY
According to ancient Semitic legend, the

lily sprang from the tears of Eve, when ex¬
pelled from the Garden of Eden, she found
she was approaching motherhood. In later
Christian lore it was said that the lily had
been yellow until the day the Virgin Mary
stooped to pick it. In Christian symbolism
the lily represented purity, chastity and in¬
nocence, and is the symbol of resurrection
and Easter. The white Madonna lily (Lilium
candidum) was considered the special flower
of the Holy Virgin, and during the Middle
Ages it was almost invariably pictured in
the subject of the Annunciation placed in a
vase standing by the Queen of Heaven.
Madonna Lily, from Schoeffer’s hortus sanitatis,
Mainz, 1485.
The Lily - Symbol of the Virgin Mary, from an old

English Manuscript, 15th century.
34 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE LOTUS
Horns, the Rising Sun on the Lotus Flower, from

an Ancient Egyptian Wall Painting.
One of the most revered plants with a deep-rooted, religious significance is the lotus
flower, a member of the tropical water lily family (Nymphaeaceae). It is native to many parts
of the world; northeastern Africa, Persia, India, Asiatic Russia, China, Japan, southwestern
North and Central America. Held sacred by the ancients in the Near and Far East since the
beginning of religious beliefs, it has an uninterrupted symbolic history of over 5000 years. The
Anthemion, the Decorative Lotus Frieze of Ancient Greece.

SACRED PLANTS 35
THE LOTUS
Lotus Capital — Symbol of Life, from an Ancient

Egyptian Column.
Egyptian lotus, dedicated to Horus, the god of the sun, was the age-old solar symbol of repro¬
ductive power and fertility since it grew upon the life-giving Nile. Horus was represented in
Egyptian mythology issuing from the cup of the lotus blossom, thus signifying immortality and
eternal youth. It was also the symbol of resurrection, because the lotus flower closed its petals
at night, sinking to the bottom, only to rise above the surface of the water and to open again in
Decorative Lotus Frieze, from Allahabad, India, 250 B.C.

36 SACRED PLANTS
THE LOTUS
Water Lily, from Arnoldi de Nova Villa’s tractatus, Venice, 1499.
Water Lily, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, Water Lily, from I’Obel’s kruydtboeck, Antwerp,
1579 1581.
SACRED PLANTS 37
THE LOTUS
the morning, in antiquity the lotus motif was extensively used as a symbolic ornament in
architecture and sculpture along the Mediterranean region: in Assyria it was used as wall
decoration; in Egypt in the capitals of columns and wall paintings; and in Greece as anthemion,
a frieze ornament derived from the young lotus petals. In Persia the lotus was venerated as the
Lotus Bud, Blossom and Seed-Pod, from a Chinese Lantern Silhouette.

38 SACRED PLANTS
THE LOTUS
The Sacred Lake of Lotuses, from an old Chinese Painting.

SACRED PLANTS « 39
THE LOTUS
symbol of the sun and of light; in Hindustan, Nepal, Tatary and Tibet, it was the emblem of
mystery. The lotus is revered by all Hindus because Brahma was born in the sacred bosom of
the flower, and Hindu deities are pictured seated upon a lotus blossom. The Lama prayer in the
praying mills of Tibet and the Himalayas consists of the unceasing repetition of the words
Om-ma-ne pad-me Hum — “Oh the jewel on the lotus, Amen”. The Buddhists in India revered
the lotus as the symbol of Buddha, because it sprang up to announce his birth, and in China
because it is one of the symbols in Buddha’s foot print. The Chinese Buddhists also believe in
the so-called Western Heaven with its Sacred Lake of Lotuses, where the souls of the deceased
faithful sleep in lotus buds until the appointed time when they are admitted to Paradise. There
Buddha resides surrounded by his disciples, while beautiful pavilions float on clouds, precious
vases smoke with fragrant incense, music clouds play heavenly melodies, and jewel flowers
rain down through the air. The eight-petaled lotus, Lien in China, and Hasu in Japan, is also
the emblem of the Past, the Present and the Future, since buds, blossoms and seed-pods can be
HASU or hachiyo, the Lotus Flower, Symbol of

Paradise, from a Japanese Engraving.
40 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE LOTUS
seen simultaneously on the same plant. The lotus is furthermore considered the symbol of
beauty, perfection and purity, because the beautiful blossom grows clean and untouched by
the sullied water of the muddy pools from which it rises. Across the Pacific Ocean the water lily,
growing in the southwestern part of the North-American continent, and in Central America,
was revered by the Mayas as the sacred symbol of the Earth.
Water Lily, Earth Symbol of the Mayans

SACRED PLANTS ^ 41
THE MISTLETOE
It was common belief in the Dark Ages

that mistletoe (Viscum album) did not grow
from seeds, but from bird droppings, because
they grew only high up in trees and never
on the ground. Mistletoe was sacred and re¬
ceived the greatest veneration by the ancient
Teutonic and Celtic tribes. The Druid priests,
after the ceremony of sacrificing a white bull
to the good spirits, distributed mistletoe
branches among the worshippers. These
branches were taken by the people to their
dwellings and suspended from the ceiling
to ward off all evil spirits. Mistletoe is still
used today in many homes at Christmas time,
but is banned in churches as a symbol of
paganism.
Mistletoe, VObeVs kruydtboeck, Antwerp, 1581.
THE MYRTLE
The evergreen myrtle tree (Myvtus com¬

munis) was in antiquity one of the plants
sacred to all peoples around the eastern Med¬
iterranean. It was revered by the ancient
Hebrews who covered the tent of their Tab¬
ernacle with myrtle boughs in bloom. The
Egyptians consecrated it to Hathor, goddess
of love, mirth and joy. In Greece and Rome
it was sacred to Aphrodite and Venus, the
goddesses of love, because when they sprang
from the foam of the sea-waves they were
preceded by the nereids, carrying garlands
of myrtle. The myrtle was considered the
symbol of love and marriage, and ever since
Roman times brides often wear wreaths of
myrtle-blossoms and bridegrooms sprigs of
myrtle on the wedding day.
Myrtle, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

42 SACRED PLANTS
THE OAK TREE
Of all the trees in pre-historic times the

oak (Quercus) was the most widely vener¬
ated of all sacred plants because in the
mythological belief of many ancient tribes it
was the first tree created and man sprang
from it. The oak tree was in antiquity sacred
to the Hebrews, because Abraham received
the angel of Jehovah under its branches; the
Greeks dedicated it to Zeus because his
oracle in Dodona, an ancient town in Epirus
was located in a grove of oaks. To the Romans
the oak was the tree of Jupiter; and to the
Teutonic tribes, the Tree of Life, sacred to
Thor. It was the celestial tree of the Celtic
Druids, and no druidic ceremony or rite took
place without the aid of the oak tree and its
satellite, the mistletoe. The oak tree was also
the sacred tree of the pagan Dagda, the Good
God and Creator of the ancient Irish Gaels.
The fruit of the oak, the lifegiving acorn,
Oak Tree, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,
1579. main food of the Nordic tribes, became the
symbol of fecundity and immortality. With
the propagation of agriculture and the rising
abundance of cereal grains, the acorn lost
its importance as a staple food for humans in
northern Europe, and the fruit of the oak
tree was relegated to the role of fodder for
the pigs.
Swineherd under the Oak Tree, from Bock’s

SACRED PLANTS ^ 43
THE OXALIS (SHAMROCK)
The shamrock (Oxalis acetosella) was an

old druidic mystic emblem in Ireland asso¬
ciated as a lucky symbol with the ancient
Celtic sun wheel, long before 432 A.D. when
St. Patrick arrived to teach Christianity. Its
name is derived from the Old Irish seamair
— clover, and its diminutive seamrog — little
clover. The Irish legend tells that when St.
Patrick, on his missionary journey, preached
the doctrine of Trinity for the first time be¬
fore a powerful chief and his people, the
heathen leader asked, “How can one be
three?”; St. Patrick searching for a simple
answer to this question, looked down to the
ground and his eye fell on a shamrock plant,
the very symbol of the doctrine he was
preaching. Stooping down he gathered and
upheld before the chief one of the shamrock
leaves. “Here, in this leaf”, he said, “three in
one, canst thou behold the symbol of my Oxalis, from Mattioli’s commentarii, Venice, 1565
faith, three Gods in One”. Gazing at the leaf,
the old, lucky symbol of the sacred sun wheel,
three parts in one, divisible yet indivisible,
the chief was impressed. He embraced the
new doctrine in his simple heart, and confess¬
ing his faith, he was at once baptized by St.
Patrick. His people then followed his ex¬
ample. Since then St. Patrick has been the
patron saint and the shamrock the national
flower of Ireland.
Badge of the Most Illustrious Order of St. Patrick,

Instituted in 1783.
44 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE PASSIONFLOWER
In the 16th century, when the Jesuits

arrived with the conquistadores in South-
America they found, to their astonishment, a
blooming vine which they believed to be the
same flower which according to Christian
legend was seen growing upon the cross in
one of the many visions of St. Francis of
Assissi (1182-1226). The flower was named
by the Jesuit Fathers Flos Passionis — Pas¬
sionflower, or Flor de las cinco llagas—Flower
of the Five Wounds. The floral organs of the
passionflower (Passiflora coerulea), are sup¬
posed to represent the symbols and instru¬
ments of the Passion. In their symbolic mean¬
ing the ten petals represent the ten faithful
apostles; two are absent because Peter de¬
ceived and denied his Lord and Judas be¬
trayed Him. The corona symbolizes the
crown of thorns, and the five stamens the
five wounds. The ovary signifies the hammer,
The Passionflower, from an old English Engraving.
and the three styles, with their rounded
heads, the three nails. The natives who had
been cultivating these vines since time im¬
memorial were feasting upon its yellow, egg-
like fruits, and the Jesuit Fathers interpreted
this as a heavenly sign; that the Indians were
hungering for Christianity. They threw
themselves with great religious zeal into con¬
verting these yearning heathens to Christian¬
ity and succeeded in an amazingly short
time.
Fanciful Picture of the Passionflower, from Parkin¬

son’s paradisus, London, 1629.
SACRED PLANTS ^ 45
THE PERSEA
The persea tree (Balanites aegyptica) also

called the bito tree, native to the Near East
and Africa is a wild laurel tree growing in
the dry regions of Persia and Egypt. It was
sacred to the ancient Egyptians, and revered
as a symbol of everlasting fame. Thoth, the
scribe of the Egyptian gods, deity of science,
arts and numbers, recorder of deeds and
measurer of time, and Safekh, the goddess of
writing, learning and knowledge, inscribed
the names and deeds of kings, heroes and
high-priests on its leaves, thus securing to
them and their names eternal life; a striking
equivalent to our Father Time, writing on
the symbolic pages of the Book of Histoiy.
Persea, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
The Gods Writing on the Leaves of the Persia Tree, from an Ancient Egyptian Wall Painting
46 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE PERUVIAN MASTIC
The Peruvian pepper or mastic tree (Schinus

molle) is a graceful South American shrub,
with greenish flowers, succeeded by red,
berry-like drupes. The Spanish conquista-
dores called it Lentisco del Peru. This tree,
growing in abundance on the plains and hill¬
sides of ancient Peru was sacred to the Incas
and their predecessors since antiquity and
revered as their most important medicinal
tree. The native Indians used every part of
it in one form or another as potent medicines.
A decoction of its bark was used as a remedy
for flatulence, stomach ache, and pain in the
groin. An alcoholic, sweet-acid tasting bever¬
age was made from its berries, mixed with
honey and vinegar, as a nerve-soothing tonic;
an infusion of its crushed leaves, which
smelled like fennel, was used as a medicinal
tea for relieving pain of any kind. Its manna¬
like, white resin was of special importance
Peruvian Mastic or Molle, from I’Ecluse’s simpli-
cium medicamentorum, Antwerp, 1579. because it was not only used externally in a
poultice against inflamed swelling and ab¬
scesses, but also cooked in fruit juice and
taken internally as a favorite preventive
against mistiness of the eyes. It was further¬
more believed that the fumes of mastic resin,
arising as an incense from hot coals, could
drive away torpid tumors.
Peruvian Mastic Tree or Molle, from Durante’s

herbario ttuovo, Rome, 1585.
SACRED PLANTS ^ 47
THE RESURRECTION FLOWER
The Resurrection plant (Anastatica hiero-

chuntica) native to Syria, Arabia and Egypt,
was revered by the ancient Hebrews, Chris¬
tians and Moslems alike. The Jews called it
the Rose of Jericho; the Christians, the Rosa-
Mariae, the Rose of the Virgin, or the Resur¬
rection Plant; and the Moslems, Kaf Marjam.
According to Christian legend, it sprung up
wherever the Holy Family rested in their
Flight into Egypt. It is fabled to have blos¬
somed at the Saviour’s birth, closed at the
Crucifixion and opened again at Easter;
whence its name Resurrection Flower. The
plant when withered, rolls up into an oval
ball, but resumes its original shape whenever
it is placed in water or exposed to dampness.
Rose-of-Jericho, Camerarius’ hortus medicus, 1588.
THE SANDALWOOD
The sandalwood (Santalum album) native

to southern India and the Malay Archipelago,
is a parasite tree sending out suckers which
attach themselves to the roots of other trees.
When the sandalwood dies, its dead log is
attacked by termites which destroy all its
wood but leave the oily, highly aromatic
heart of the trunk intact. This sacred wood,
venerated since antiquity by Hindus, Bud¬
dhists and and Musselmans, played an im¬
portant part in religious rituals. It. was used
for embalming, funeral pyres, and in the
construction of temples in India, Burma
and China. Sandalwood was introduced to
Europe in the 11th century as one of the most
precious aromatics of the Far East.
Sandalwood, Jacobus’ neuw kreuterbuch, 1613.

48 ^ SACRED PLANTS
THE SOMA
The leafless soma plant (Sarcostemma

acidum), native to East India yields a milky,
acidulous, narcotic juice. In ancient India an
intoxicating concoction was prepared from
its juice by mixing it with buffalo milk, but¬
ter, barley and water. This drink was used in
Vedic sacrificial rites, in honor of Indra and
other Hindu gods. The plant and its juice
were considered to have divine power, and
were worshiped as the incarnation of Soma,
the revered Vedic god of the soma juice,
diety of the moon, and lord of the stars and
vegetation. Soma, according to ancient Vedic
mythology, was born by the churning of the
ocean, and occupied the third place among
the Vedic gods.
Soma Plant, from an old Oriental Engraving.
THE SUNFLOWER
When Francisco Pizarro in 1532 fought

his way into Peru, he found there the giant
sunflower (Helianthus annuus), venerated by
the Indians of the Inca empire as the sacred
image of their sun-god. Incan priestesses, the
Maidens of the Sun, wore on their breasts
large sunflower disks made of virgin gold.
These disks became the most highly treas¬
ured spoils of the Spanish conquistadores.
Sunflower seeds were also sacred food to the
Plains Indians of the prairie regions of North
America. They placed ceremonial bowls
filled with sunflower seeds on the graves of
their dead for food to sustain them on their
long and dangerous journey to their Happy
Hunting Grounds.
Sunflower, Gerard’s herball, London, 1633.

SACRED PLANTS 49
THE SYCAMORE
The wild fig tree of the Scriptures, the

sycamore (Ficus sycamorus) native to Asia
Minor and Egypt resembles the mulberry
tree in its leaf and the fig tree in its fruit.
Hence: its name was derived from the Greek
sycos — fig tree, and moros — mulberry tree.
It was revered in ancient Egypt as the Tree
of Life, dedicated to Hathor, the goddess of
fertility, love, mirth and joy, and to Nut, the
goddess of the underworld, who provided
the souls of the dead with drink and nourish¬
ment. Every sycamore was an altar to Hathor
and Nut; offerings of fruit, grain, vegetables,
flowers and water jars were placed at their
roots to secure fertility and abundance.
Sycamore, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE VERVAIN
The verbena or vervain (Verbena offici¬

nalis) was sacred to Mars, the Roman god of
war, and its was believed in ancient Rome
that the plant had the properties of repelling
the enemy. When Roman heralds-in-arms
were dispatched to other nations with mes¬
sages of peace, or to give defiance and chal¬
lenge to an enemy, they bore crowns of
verbena. In ancient Gaul and Britain the
plant was held in great veneration, and the
Druids who regarded the vervain as a plant
of spells and enchantment used it as a sacred
food in their rituals. In medieval time the
verbena was used for divination, because it
possessed the power of warding off witches
and enchanters.
Vervain, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

50 ^SACRED PLANTS
THE VINE
The vine plant (Vitis vinifera) native to Asia Minor, was one of the Biblical symbols of
peace and plenty. The vines in ancient Syria and Judea were trained particularly upon the fig
tree, another symbol of peace and abundance. Hence the Biblical proverb: They shall sit every
man under his vine and his fig tree, and none shall make them afraid (The Bible, Old Testament,
Micah IV/4). It was laid down in the ancient Mosaic law, that in every seventh, or sabbatical
year, the vine should not be pruned and the grapes should not be gathered in the vinevards (The
Bible, Old Testament, Leviticus). A magnificent reproduction of the vine, its branches sculp¬
tured in gold, and its fruit made of precious stones, adorned the eastern wall of the Temple of
Jerusalem. After the war against Judea and the capture of Jerusalem in the year 70 A.D., the
Roman general and later emperor Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus (40-81 A.D.) carried this
unique sculpture to Rome and exhibited it among the spoils of his triumph. The vine was one
of the earliest symbols of the Redeemer, according to His own words, spoken by him to the
Apostles: 1 am the vine; ye are the branches (The Bible, St. John XV/5). The vine was used as
sacred symbol in the Catacombs, and under Constantine the Great (280-337 A.D.) the first
Christian emperor of Rome, it became the sole symbol of the Christian Faith.
Vine, from an antique Byzantine Ceiling Ornament, 6th century.

FLOWER LORE and LEGEND
ong before the human specie roamed the continents of our

earth, flowers, plants and trees covered it in luscious abundance. The history of these plants
became an inseparable part of the history of mankind. They were around man wherever he
ventured: from the door of his dwelling down through the hillsides and valleys to the banks of
rivers and the shores of lakes; up through the jungles and forests to the summits of hills and the
peaks of mountains. They fed him with their nutritive qualities, healed his wounds and cured
his ills with their medical properties, enchanted him with their visual beauty and their fragrant
perfumes, and frightened him with their seasonal rising, unfolding and fading away. Man
tried with his scientifically untrained power of observation to fathom the why and wherefore
behind all these peculiarities. He pondered the occurrences around these plants, and invented
scores of tales to explain the inexplainable, so that his searching mind could rest at ease. Many
of these legendary tales, sprung from the fertile fantasy of our remote ancestors were handed
down in bygone times and believed throughout the centuries. Some are still with us in our own
scientific era of research and knowledge.
^ 51
52 ^ FLOWER LORE AND LEGEND
THE ACANTHUS
The most beautiful design for the capital

of a column that the world has ever seen is
the capital of the Corinthian column, pat¬
terned after the prickly leaves of the acan¬
thus plant (Acanthus mollis) native to the
Mediterranean region. Its name is derived
from the Greek akantha — thorny leaves. The
Greek legend tells a story that a young, beau¬
tiful girl of Corinth, fell ill and died. After
her interment her nurse collected all her
trinkets and ornaments, putting them into a
basket, which she took to the burial ground.
She placed the basket on the tomb, over the
roots of an acanthus plant; and lest these
trinkets be injured by the weather, she cov¬
ered the basket with a tile. In spring the
acanthus burst forth its stalks and leaves,
spreading themselves over the outside of the
basket. When they reached the top of the
Acanthus, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, basket they were bent back again by the
1579. corners of the tile. The Athenian sculptor
and archite'ct Callimachus (5th century
B.C.) who happened to pass by the ceme¬
tery, was so delighted with the beauty and
novelty of this appearance, that he took from
it the idea for the capital of the Corinthian
column, which he designed. This design then
became an architectural monument to an un¬
known little girl who died 2500 years ago.
Acanthus Motif on the Capital of an Antique Corin¬

thian Column, Greece.
FLOWER LORE AND LEGEND ^ 53
THE ACONITE
The aconite (Aconitum napellus) is also

called “monkshood” from the shape of its
flowers. When the Greek hero Hercules in
his 12th labor left tire Nether Regions in his
ascent to the Upper World he was carrying
Cerberus, the watch-dog of Hades. The
furious animal was spitting venomous froth
and wherever a drop of this spittle fell to
earth a poisonous plant, the aconite, sprung
up. Its juice was used in ancient times as a
poison in hunt and war all over Europe and
Asia; in antiquity, for poisoning wells and
springs to stop advancing armies; in ancient
India, to poison arrow-heads for hunting
tigers; in France, Germany and Russia to
poison bait for wolves.
Monkshood, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE ADONIS
The Greek shepherd Adonis was so beauti¬

ful that even Aphrodite, the goddess of love
and beauty was enamoured by him. Ares, the
god of war, became jealous and had Adonis
killed at a hunt by a wild boar. Aphrodite’s
grief was so great that she would not allow
the lifeless body to be taken from her arms,
until the gods consoled her by decreeing that
Adonis might continue half the year on earth,
while Aphrodite spent the other half with
him in the Nether World. And from the
blood-drops of Adonis, mingled with the
tears of Aphrodite, sprang the beautiful red
adonis-flower (Flos adonis), which reappears
on earth every spring and summer.
Adonis, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

54 FLOWER LORE AND LEGEND
THE ANEMONE
The beautiful Greek nymph, Anemone,

was an attendant at the court of Chloris, the
deity of flowers. Chloris’ husband, Zephyr,
the west-wind, fell in love with the nymph
and the jealous Chloris exiled her from her
court; where she pined away and died of a
broken heart. Zephyr urged Venus, the god¬
dess of love, to change her body into a flower
(Anemone coronaria), which always comes to
life again at the return of spring. But Zephyr
quickly lost interest in this unfortunate
beauty and abandoned her to the rude ca¬
resses of Boreas, the north-wind, who was
unable to gain her love. Annoyed he pulled
her blossoms clumsily open and caused her
immediately to fade.
Anemone, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE CARNATION
The carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus)

native to the Near East, has been cultivated
for the last 2000 years. Its name is derived
from the Latin carnis — flesh, because the
flower is commonly thought of as being pale
pink, or flesh-colored. According to Christian
legend the carnation appeared on earth the
first time when it sprang from the tears shed
by Mary on her way to Calvary. The pink
carnation became the symbol of mother-love.
It was chosen for that reason in 1907 by Ann
Jarvis of Philadelphia as the emblem of
Mother’s Day, observed in the United States
as an official holiday on the second Sunday
in May to honor motherhood.
Carnation, Lyte's nievve herball, London, 1578.

THE CLOVER
The red clover (Trifolium pratense) is one

of the earliest economic plants cultivated
in agricultural countries since antiquity.
Highly esteemed not only by the Greeks and
Romans, but also by the Celts and Druids,
it was always a symbol of good and evil. A
five-leaf clover was considered as unlucky;
a four-leaf was a good luck charm, which it
is still in our time, according to the old folk-
rhyme:
One leaf for fame,
And one for wealth,
One for a faithful lover,
And one to bring you glorious health
Are in a four-leaf clover.
Clover, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE CORNFLOWER
The Greek youth, Cyanus, worshipped

Chloris, the deity of flowers. He spent his
time gathering cornflowers (Centaurea
cyanus) for her altars, because he admired
this blue flower as the most beautiful of all
her gifts. One day Cyanus was found dead in
a cornfield, in the midst of a quantity of corn¬
flowers he had gathered. Chloris in token of
his veneration for her, transformed his body
into the flower he so loved and gave it his
name Cyanus. When the Centaur Chiron
was one day wounded by an arrow, poisoned
with the blood of the Hydra, he covered his
wound with cornflowers. This gave it its heal¬
ing properties and its first name, Centaurea.
Cornflower, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE CROCUS
The crocuses are a large group of bulbous plants of the iris family, including the saffron
(Crocus sativus) native to Egypt and the Mediterranean region. According to Greek legend
the crocus flower was named after a beautiful youth of the plains, who was called Crocus. He
was consumed by the ardor of his unfulfilled love for Smilax, a shepherdess of the hills. Sub¬
sequently when Crocus pined away and died, the gods changed him into a flower which bears
his name. The ancients often used this flower to adorn their marriage beds because according
to the Greek poet Homer, the crocus plant was one of the flowers of which the couch of Zeus and
Hera was composed. In ancient Rome at the time of Nero, the crocus was considered to be a
great cordial, a tonic for the heart, and a potent love potion. The luxury loving Romans of that
time became so fond of the crocus plant that they used to strew the blossoms throughout their
banquet halls, fountains and small streams which flowed through their gardens and court
yards, filling the air with a beautiful fragrance. Returning Crusaders introduced the saffron-
crocus to the table of King Henry I of England (1068-1135), who became very fond of it. When
the court ladies started to use up the entire saffron supply to dye their hair, King Henry forbade
this use of his favorite spice by severe punishment.
2^
L . Crocus Syzantinuj L. Crocus Z^ontanus hijjtan .

Ge. Hcrch. Sajffraen. -van. ConJlananojilen. Ge. 'Purjrer Sjfens Her eh Sajfracn
Crocus, from De Passes hortus floridus, Arnheim, 1614.

FLOWER LORE AND LEGEND 57
THE CYPRESS
The evergreen cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens), native to the Himalaya Mountains
was introduced into the Mediterranean region by the Phoenicians who in 1,100 B.C. colonized
the isle of Cyprus which derived its name from that tree. The Greek poet Ovid (34 B.C.-17 A.D.)
tells a mythological legend about the youth Cyparissus, son of Thelephus of Cea, a special friend
of Apollo; one day Cyparissus killed by accident a mighty stag, a favorite of Apollo, held sacred
by the Dictean nymphs. The youth suffered such agony of remorse for what he had done, that he
begged the gods to let his grief endure forever. In answer to his prayers the gods turned him
into the cypress tree. The tree became the symbol of the immortal soul and eternal death. In
Greek and Roman mythology the cypress was the emblem of the gods of the netherworld, the
Fates and the Furies. Its wood was used for Egyptian mummy cases and coffins for Greek
heroes because of its proverbial durability, and also because it is not liable to the attacks of
insects. Cypresses were planted around cemeteries and at the head of graves. Its branches were
carried by mourners at funerals as a symbol of irrevocable death, because the cypress tree, once
cut, will never flourish and grow again. To the Western mind, it is a peculiar thought that the
cypress tree is a symbol of grace and joy in its native Far East.
Cypress, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE DAISY
Roman mythological legend informs us

that the daisy (Beilis perennis) owes its origin
to the nymph, Belides, who was one of the
Dryads presiding over the forest, meadows
and pastures. While dancing one day with
other nymphs on the turf on the edge of the
forest, she attracted the admiration of Ver-
tumnus, the deity who presided over the
orchards. To escape his pursuit she trans¬
formed herself into the flower Beilis, which
is its botanical name. The English name
daisy for the bellis-flower is derived from the
Anglo-Saxon daeges eage — day’s eye, from
the habit of this flower to close its petals at
night and on dark rainy days.
Daisy, Dodoens’ pemptades, Antwerp, 1583.
THE EDELWEISS
The edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) is

a little, star-shaped flower with white, vel¬
vety leaves native to the Alps, growing high
up on the line of perpetual snow, in nearly
inaccessible rock crevices. Its German name
Edelweiss means white jewel. In Alpine
countries the gathering of edelweiss is con¬
sidered an act of daring and a bunch of these
flowers brought back from the mountains to
a lovely maiden is highly valued by her as
proof of the true devotion of her lover. Edel¬
weiss is worn on their hats by mountain
climbers, Alpine guides and chamois hunters
as a symbol of Alpine achievement. The
Edelweiss is the national flower emblem of
Switzerland.
Edelweiss, Mattiolis commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE FORGET-ME-NOT
After the Lord had created the Garden of

Eden a Christian legend tells that He walked
through it and gave every plant a name. He
cautioned each plant to be careful not to
forget its name, then turned to leave. At this
moment He heard the small voice of a dimin¬
utive flower at His feet, asking: “By what
name am I called, O Lord?” And the Lord,
struck by His own forgetfulness, smiled down
at the frightened little blossom, and said:
“Since I forgot you before, and to remind me
never to forget you again, your name shall be
Forget-me-not”. And so the forget-me-not
(Myosotis palustris) became the symbol of
remembrance.
Forget-me-not, from an old Engraving, U.S., 1880.
THE HAWTHORN
The hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha)

native to southern Europe, is a small tree of
the rose family. Since antiquity it has been
considered the emblem of hope, because the
Athenian brides used its blossoms to decorate
their companions on their nuptial day, while
they themselves carried larger boughs of it
to the altar. The altar of Hymen, the ancient
Greek god of marriage, was lighted by
torches made from the wood of this tree; and
it also formed the flambeaux which illumi¬
nated the nuptial chamber. In ancient Rome
the hawthorn was used as a charm against
witchcraft and sorcery, and its leaves were
put into the cradle of newborn babies.
Hawthorn, Mattolis commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE HAZELNUT
ANTVERPI^, EX OFFICINA PLANTINIANA

BALTHASARIS MORETI. M.DC. LIV.
Apollo, God of Poetry and Music, and Hermes, God of Eloquence, from Moretus" PHILOMATHI
musea iuveniles, Antwerp, 1654.
THE HAZELNUT
The nut-bearing hazel (Corylus avellana), a shrub of Eurasian origin, is a member of the
birch family. In Greek mythology the two sons of Jupiter, Apollo, the god of harmony, and
Mercury, the god of eloquence exchanged gifts with which they would be impowered to pro¬
vide a better life for humanity. Apollo received a lyre made of tortoise-shell, whose tone would
free the artistic spirit of mankind. Mercury got a winged wand made of hazel; its touch would
The Divining Rod, bn Manuel Deutsch, from Agricola's de re metallica, Basle, 1556.
THE HAZELNUT
enable men to express their thoughts by words. The winged hazel rod, entwined with two
serpents, became and is still today the symbol of communication, reconciliation and commerce.
Among the ancient Romans the hazel was intimately connected with marriage, and it was their
custom to burn hazel torches during the wedding night to insure a peaceful and happy union
of the newly-wed couple. A rod made from a Y-shaped branch of the hazel was regarded in
remote times as having supernatural powers of divination to discover treasures hidden in the
bowels of the earth. The supposed art of divining underground riches with a forked branch of
hazel, executed since antiquity, was called rhabdomancy. This term is derived from the Greek
rhabdos — rod, and manteia — divination. References to such a rod appear in the Bible. The
search for water, minerals and ores with a divining rod, dowsing, was practised extensively
throughout the Dark and Middle Ages and is still used by some prospectors today. In Nordic
and Teutonic mythology the hazel was dedicated to Thor, or Donar, the god of thunder, war
and strength. In Celtic and Old Irish legend it was the Tree of Wisdom; it represented all
human knowledge of the arts and sciences, and was carried by heralds-in-arms on their missions
as their official badge of honor.
Hazel, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE HELIOTROPE
According to Greek mythological legend

Phoebus Apollo, the god of the sun, was the
lover of the water-nymph, Clytie. When
Apollo abandoned her she suffered such grief
that she sat on the bank of a river for nine
days and nine nights, without food, water or
sleep, watching Apollo’s chariot from dawn
to dusk, waiting at night for the sun to rise
again. The gods finally took pity on her and
changed her into a flower. They named the
flower heliotrope — the flower which fol¬
lowed the sun, from the Greek helios — sun,
and tropos — turn. And since that time the
heliotrope is considered a symbol of eternal
love and admiration.
Heliotrope, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579
THE HYACINTH
In Greek mythological legend, Hyacin-

thus, a beautiful Laconian youth was beloved
by Apollo, the sun-god, and by Zephyrus, the
west-wind. One day Hyacinthus matched
Apollo in a game of quoits, a sport akin to
horseshoe pitching, where flat metal rings
were thrown over a peg. The jealous
Zephyrus blew a quoit thrown by Apollo
from its course, and the heavy ring smote
Hyacinthus on the head and killed him. The
grieved Apollo changed the blooddrops of
his dead friend into the beautiful flower Hya¬
cinth (Hyacinthus). Symbolizing the vegeta¬
tion scorched by the hot disc of the summer
sun and its resurrection in spring, this legend
was commemorated in ancient Greece in the
yearly Hyacinthia festival.
Hyacinth, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE IRIS
The iris (Iris florentina), native to the

Mediterranean region and southern Europe,
was considered by the ancient Egyptians as
a symbol of power and placed on the brow
of the Sphinx. It was placed throughout the
centuries on the sceptors of kings and rulers,
because the three large petals of the iris sym¬
bolized faith, wisdom and valor. This multi¬
colored flower was named after Iris, the
Greek goddess of the multicolored rainbow,
the swift-footed messenger of Zeus and Hera.
The Greeks planted irises on the graves of
women, because one of the duties of Iris was
that of leading the souls of dead women to
the Elysian Fields. According to French his¬
torical lore, the iris was the flower symbol of
Gaul as far back as the 1st century A.D.
When Clovis I, King of the Franks, and
founder of the Merovingian dynasty, de¬
feated the Alemanni in the Battle of Tolbiac
Florentine Iris, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,
1579. (496 A.D.) his victorious soldiers crowned
themselves with irises blooming near the
battle-field. But not before the time of
Charles IV (1294-1328) did the iris adorn
the banner of France. The name fleur-de-lis
was derived from Loys, in which manner
the first twelve Louis, kings of France, up to
Louis the XII (1462-1515) signed their name.
Fleur-de-Lis, Emblem of France, from a 15th cen¬

tury Engraving.
THE IVY
The ivy plant (Hedera helix) is an ever¬

green, clinging vine native to Europe and
Asia. In ancient Greece it was called cissos
because, according to a mythological legend
it was named after the nymph, Cissos, who at
a feast of the gods, danced with such joy and
abandon before Dionysus that she fell dead
from exhaustion at his feet. Dionysus was so
moved by her performance and untimely
death, that he turned her body into the ivy,
a plant which graciously and joyfully en¬
twines and embraces everything near it. The
ivy, dedicated to the wine-god Dionysus, is
hung even today in wreathes over the doors
of taverns and wine-shops.
Ivy, Gerard’s herball, London, 1633.
THE TEARS OF JOB
Job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), native to

India, is a relative of the maize plant. Its
name is derived from the fanciful resem¬
blance between its gleaming pearl-white
seeds and the appearance of tear-drops as
they fall sparkling from the eye. According
to Christian legend it was imagined that the
plant grew from the tears of Job, whose pro¬
verbial sufferings and troubles did not make
him lose his faith in God (The Bible, Old Tes¬
tament, Book of Job). These beadlike seeds,
staple food to the hill tribes of India, medi¬
cine to the Chinese, were used for rosaries in
the Near East and for magic necklaces in
ancient Persia.
Jobs tears, Simler’s vita gesneri, Zurich, 1566

THE LAUREL
Apollo and Daphne, by Jacobo Ripanda Bolognese, Rome, 1500

THE LAUREL
The Greek nymph Daphne, daughter of the river-god Peneus, was one of the attendants
of Athene, goddess of wisdom, skill and war. One day she was pursued by Apollo and in her
flight she prayed to the gods that the earth would yawn and swallow her or else change her
form which caused her to be the prey of her pursuer. Her prayers were answered, and at the
point of being overtaken by Apollo, Athene transformed her into the laurel tree (Daphne
laureola). Apollo chose the laurel tree as his favorite personal tree, and as an evergreen with
intoxicating properties it symbolized poetic inspiration and immortal fame. It was believed in
antiquity that the laurel endowed prophets with vision, and the Pythian priestess at Delphi, the
oracle dedicated to Apollo, chewed laurel leaves to induce oracular powers. The victors in the
Pythian Games held at Delphi at the end of every fourth year since the 7th century B.C. in
honor of Apollo, the slayer of the serpent Python, were crowned with laurel for their achieve¬
ments in music, poetry, painting, sculpture, athletic sports, chariot and horse racing. And a
crown of leaves from the laurel tree signifying a special distinction for outstanding performance
and victory, became the ambition and reward of every poet, painter, sculptor, musician, orator,
philosopher, soldier, ruler and athlete from the time of ancient Greece and Rome to its sym¬
bolic presentation in our time.
Laurel, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE LEEK
The leek (Allium porrum) was revered in

antiquity, because a man with leek on him
was sure to be victorious in every fight and
suffer no wounds. It was the custom in
ancient Wales, for every farmer to contribute
his leek to the common repast when they met
at the cymmortha or association formed for
reciprocal assistance in ploughing their land.
The legend tells that when the Saxons in¬
vaded Wales in the 6th century A.D. St.
David, patron saint of Wales, directed the
Britons to wear leek on their caps, to distin¬
guish them from the enemy. In memory of
the heroic resistance by the Britons, the leek
became the national emblem of Wales.
Leek, Mattiolis commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY
According to a French legend, there lived

in 559 A.D. in the forest of the Vienne Valley,
near Limoges, a holy man known as St.
Leonard. Having renounced all wordly
things, he lived the life of a hermit in the
depths of the woods. The dragon Temptation
also dwelled there and terrible combats took
place between them. The dragon was driven
further and further back toward the edge of
the forest, until it finally disappeared alto¬
gether, leaving the hermit the conquerer.
The places of their battles were marked by
beds of lilies-of-the-valley (Convallaria
majalis) which sprang up wherever the
ground was sprinkled with the blood of St.
Leonard.
Lily-of-the-Valley, commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE LINDEN TREE
In the Greek legend of Philemon and

Baucis, the classical Phrygian couple of
wedded love were allowed by Zeus to die at
the same moment and their bodies were
metamorphosed into trees: Philemon into an
oak, the symbol of hospitality, and Baucis
into a linden, ever since the emblem of con¬
jugal love. Beauty, grace and simplicity, an
extreme softness of manners, and an innocent
gaiety are the properties and accomplish¬
ments of a tender wife. All these qualities
can be found united in the linden, which in
the spring is covered with a soft delicate
verdure. It exhales a delightful fragrance,
while it lavishes the honey of its blossoms
upon the busy bees. The linden or lime tree
(Tilia) was the ancient emblem tree of Ger¬
manic countries eulogized by the Bards and
Meistdrsinger in their ballads and rhymes.
Linden or Lime Tree, from Jacobus’ neuw kreuter-
Every hamlet in Germany has its official
buch, Frankfort, M., 1613.
town-linden on the main square, some
planted 1,000 years ago. Since uncounted
time the village people , old and young,
gather on warm summer evenings under the
linden, to gossip, to dance or to romance.
Its name is derived from the Latin lentus —
flexible, lithe, because the smooth, pliable
bast of its bark was used in antiquity, and is
still used today for binding creeper plants,
as hop or vines to posts and poles without
bruising them.
Villagers Dancing under the Linden, from Bock’s

THE MULBERRY TREE
Pyramus and Thisbe, from Boccaccio’s gen£alogie des dieux, Paris, 149$.
THE MULBERRY TREE
An ancient Babylonian legend tells of Pyramus and Thisbe, a handsome youth and a lovely
maiden who had lived in adjoining houses from early childhood. The two always played to¬
gether and after they grew up they fell in love. Their parents in the meantime had quarreled
bitterly over some trifles and forbade their union. But the two lovers found a chink in the wall
dividing the two houses, and every night when everybody else was asleep, they whispered
sweet words to each other through the crack in the wall until dawn. One night they agreed to
meet on the coming night of the full moon outside the city under a white mulberry tree which
stood near a bubbling spring close to the tomb of Ninus, the founder of Nineveh and husband
of Semiramis. Thisbe, who arrived first, encountered a lion who had just killed an ox. She fled in
terror dropping her veil, which the lion bloodied up while tearing it to pieces. When Pyramus
arrived later he found the torn, bloody garment, and believing Thisbe dead, killed himself with
his own dagger.The returning Thisbe found her dying lover under the mulberry tree, and in her
grief plunged his dagger in her own heart. The mingling blood of the two unhappy lovers
spurted over the mulberry tree, coloring its fruit, and the mulberry tree (Morus rubra) has
ever since born blood-red fruit.
Red Mulberry or Silkworm Tree, from Mattioli’s

commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE MULLEIN
The mullein (Verbascum thapsus), native

to Europe, was also called the torch flower
because the soldiers of the Roman legions
who remained in conquered Central Europe
used to dip this plant in tallow to make torch¬
es for their billets. The thick down of the
mullein is still used to make candle wicks
in some parts of Europe. In medieval times
the plant was also known as the flannel
flower because of the fact that its stems and
leaves were covered with this downy wool.
It was considered a potent charm against
demons and also regarded as a love herb, be¬
cause it was used by witches and warlocks
as an integral part of their brews and love
potions.
Mullein, Gerard’s herball, London, 1633.
THE MYRRH
According to an ancient Oriental legend,

Myrrha or Smyrna, the daughter of Theias,
king of Assyria, was caused by Aphrodite,
the Oriental goddess of vegetation and repro¬
duction to commit an incestuous love act with
her father because she refused to worship
Aphrodite. Myrrha fled from her father’s
drunken advances and to protect her, the
gods turned her into the myrrh shrub (Com¬
miphora myrrha). The true myrrh, native to
Arabia, Abyssinia and Somaliland exudes a
clear, fragrant, bitter-tasting gum resin, sup¬
posed to be the tears of Myrrha. Since an¬
tiquity it has been used as an aromatic and
a stimulating tonic. The name is derived
from the Arabic Mur — bitter.
Myrrh, Pomet’s history of druggs, London, 1725.

THE NARCISSUS
Narcissus, a beautiful, young Greek semi¬

deity, the son of the river-god, Cephissus and
the nymph Liriope, was pampered so much
in his early youth by all the nymphs, that
he became the personification of egotism and
self-conceit. The beautiful mountain nymph
Echo, one of the servants of Hera, fell in love
with Narcissus but her affection was not re¬
turned by him. He idled all his waking hours
on the brink of fountains and springs, gazing
enchanted at the reflection of his own face
in the crystal-clear waters, because it so close¬
ly resembled the sister he had lost. He fell
deeper and deeper in love with himself. The
unfortunate, grieving Echo wasted away un¬
til only her voice remained. The voice ran
off into the mountains to mock every other
voice it heard. Hera became so enraged by
the conceited behavior of Narcissus that she
ordered Nemesis, the deity of vengeance, to
punish him for his egotism. Nemesis changed Narcissus, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,
1579.
the youth into the narcissus flower (Narcis¬
sus poeticus) so he could stand along the
waters nodding at his own image for time
eternal. The Fates wore wreaths of narcissus
flowers, the scent of which was so painfully
sweet as to cause madness, a reminder that
narcissism, the symbol of egotism and con¬
ceit, will be punished in the end.
Fanciful Picture of the Narcissus, from Meyden-

bach’s ortus sanitatis, Mainz, 1491.
THE OLIVE TREE
Asia Minor is credited with being the original home of one of the oldest fruit trees known
to man, the olive tree (Olea europaea). This evergreen tree was cultivated in the Near East and
the Eastern Mediterranan since the Neolithic Age. Olives remained one of the chief staples of
husbandry and trade since the early days of Minoan Crete (3,000 B.C.). The olive was carried
from there to Greece, Rome, Gaul and Spain, and the Spanish brought it to the Americas. In
Greek legend, Poseidon and Athene disputed after whom the nameless, newly founded city of
Athens should be named. The gods decided that the one who gave the best gift to mankind
should have this honor. Poseidon struck the seashore with his trident and there sprang forth
the horse; Athene smote the ground with her spear and the olive tree arose. The gods decreed
that Athene’s gift, the olive as a symbol of peace, was infinitely better for humanity than
Poseidon’s horse, an emblem of war; and the new city was named Athens. The olive is the
symbol of peace, because barbaric tribes conceding defeat and asking for peace, sent an olive
branch to the victors. It is a token of safe travel because Noah’s dove brought back an olive
branch from the Ararat Mountain; it is an-emblem of achievement because the victors in the
Olympian Games were crowned with an olive wreath.
Olive Tree, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,

1579.
THE ORANGE TREE
The orange is not a fruit, but a berry of

the orange tree (Citrus sinensis) native to the
Far East. Its English name is derived from
the Sanscrit narange — orange. According to
Greek mythological belief, the golden apple
presented by Gaea, the ancient goddess of
the earth and fertility as a wedding-gift to
Hera on the day she married Zeus, was an
orange. The Golden Apples of the Hesperi-
des, grown from the seeds of that fruit, were
the orange trees. In the 11th century the
Moors introduced the bitter orange tree of
the East into Spain. Under their regime, up
to the 15th century, no giaour, or unbeliever
in the Iberian Peninsula was allowed under
pain of death, to eat an orange or to drink
its juice, before embracing the Mussulmanic
faith. The custom of using orange blossoms
for bridal fashions dates back to the Cru¬
saders, who saw the Saracen brides wear
Orange Tree, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,
orange blossoms on their wedding day as a 1579.
symbol of fecundity, because the orange was
a prolific fruit-bearing plant. The blossoms
represented an appeal to the orange tree
spirit that the bride should not be barren.
Throughout the centuries the use of orange
blossoms as bridal flowers was adopted in rpa ®e
all of southern and western Europe, England
and on the continent of North America.
The Golden Apples of the Hesperides, from an

Antique Greek Vase Painting.
THE PLANE TREE
The plane tree (Plantanus occidentalis)

was the symbol of genius in ancient Athens
because the Greek philosophers held their
studies and discourses under its wide-spread¬
ing shade. When Xerxes, King of Persia,
crossed the Hellespont in 480 B.C., he saw
his first plane tree. So attracted by its charm
was he that he caused his army of 1,000,000
men to halt. He adorned the tree with all his
jewels, with those of all his concubines and
of the lords of his court, until the branches
were loaded with ornaments of eveiy kind.
He declared the tree his goddess and mis¬
tress, and was persuaded only with great
difficulty to leave the tree of which he had
become so enamoured.
Plane Tree, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE BLACK POPLAR
The black poplar tree (Populas nigra) was

consecrated in Greek antiquity to Hercules,
who according to mythological legend, wore
a crown of its foliage when he descended to
the Gates of Hades to bring Cerberus up to
earth in his 12th labor. The fable has it that
the black poplar leaf is a different shade on
each side for this reason: when Hercules
donned his crown of poplar leaves the sweat
of his brow moistened one side of the leaves
and they retained their natural color. But the
other side, exposed to the smoke and vapor
of the infernal regions he visited were tinged
by the dark shade which they still retain
today.
Black Poplar, Mattiolis commentaires, 1579.

THE ROSE
The most beautiful member of the Rosaceae family; the rose (Rosa) originated in Asia
Minor and is one of the oldest flowers in cultivation. It was grown 5,000 years ago in the ancient
gardens of western Asia and north-eastern Africa. Roses have been mentioned in every poetical
work since the dawn of civilization, from the Biblical Rose of Sharon in the Songs of Solomon,
to the Garden of Roses, Gulistan, in the work of the Persian 13th century poet Muslih-ud-Din
Sadi. Roses grew in the mythical gardens of Semiramis, queen of Assyria, and Midas, King of
The Red Rose of Lancaster, the White Rose of York, and the Red and White United Rose of Tudor,
from Parker’s Annales of England, Oxford, 1855-57.
THE ROSE
Phrygia. Every mythological belief assigned the rose as the symbolic emblem of beauty, youth
and love. According to Greek mythological legend, Chloris, the deity of flowers, one cloudy
morning walked through the woods and found the body of a beautiful nymph. Saddened to see
such a lovely creature dead she decided to give her new life by transforming her into a beautiful
flower surpassing all others in charm and beauty. She called on the other deities to help her
with her task: Aphrodite, to give beauty; the three Graces, to bestow brilliance, joy and charm;
her husband,Zephyrus^ the West-wind, to blow away the clouds so that Apollo, the Sun, could
send his blessing through his rays: and Dionysius, the deity of wine, to give nectar and fra¬
grance. When the new flower was finished, the gods rejoiced over its charming beauty and
delicate scent. Chloris collected a diadem of dewdrops and crowned the new flower, the rose,
as the queen of all flowers. Aphrodite presented the rose to her son, Eros, the deity of love. The
white rose became the symbol of charm and innocence, and the red rose of love and desire.
When Eros in turn gave the rose to Harpocrates, the deity of silence, to induce him to conceal
the weaknesses of the gods, the rose became the emblem of silence and secrecy. In ancient
times a rose was attached to the ceiling of council chambers as an indication that everybody
Damask Rose, from Mattioli’s COMMENTAIRES,

Lyons, 1579.
THE ROSE
present was sworn to secrecy, sub rosa — under the rose. The rosette sometimes decorating the
center of the ceiling of our rooms-today is an unconscious use of this ancient symbol of secrecy.
Attar, the oil of the damask rose, Rosaceum, an ointment of rose oil and honey, and rose water
were the most lavishly used perfumes and cosmetics in ancient Persia, Egypt, Greece and Rome.
According to an old Persian legend, the caliph Jehangir, while walking with his beautiful bride
in his palace gardens along the canals and fountains, decked with rose petals in celebration of
their wedding, noticed an oily film on the surface of the waters, produced by the action of the
sun on the roses. Fascinated by the heavy scent of this oil he ordered it bottled for later use.
And this attar of roses — from the Persian atar — fragrance was considered henceforth the most
precious of all Persian perfumes. The rose became one of the most prominent heraldic flowers
in history since the so-called War of Roses (1455-1485), fought between the House of York,
whose emblem was the white rose, and the House of Lancaster, with the red rose as its badge.
The war ended with the establishment of the House of Tudor on the English throne. The Rose
of Tudor, a white rose charged upon a red one is today the flower emblem of England.
Rosaceum or Unguent of Rose-oil, from Mattioli’s

commentaibes, Lyons, 1579.
THE SYLPHIUM
The sylphium was a North-African plant

discovered in the mountains of Cyrene in
the 6th century B.C. during the reign of King
Arcesilas. The plant became one of the main
sources of Frankincense, a fragrant gum resin
used extensively in ancient Egypt and Asia
Minor as a medical cure-all, and for embalm¬
ing and fumigation. The kingdom of Cyrene
became the prosperous Greek colony Cyren-
aica (Lybia) with frankincense its main ex¬
port article. Over-exploited as a source of
wealth for the colony, the sylphium plant
became extinct about the time of Christ. Only
stylized pictures of the vanished plant could
be found on old Cyrenean coins (500 B.C.).
Sylphium, from a Cyrenean coin, 600 B.C.
THE THISTLE
The common white cotton thistle or Scotch

thistle (Onopordon acanthium) is a plant of
Eurasian origin. According to Scotch legend,
the Norsemen invaded Scotland during the
reign of Malcolm I (938-958 A.D.) and be¬
leaguered Staines Castle. One night the
Norsemen took off their footgear to wade
the moat, only to find it dry and filled with
cotton thistles. Their painful yells and curses
roused the garrison and the Norsemen were
soundly defeated. In memory of this victory
the thistle became the flower emblem of Scot¬
land. In 1687 James VII founded the Most
Noble and Most Ancient Order of the Thistle
of Scotland, also called the Order of St.
Anthony.
Cotton Thistle, Gerard’s herball, London, 1633.

THE TULIP
The tulip (Tulipa) is a wild-flower of Per¬

sian origin. An Oriental legend tells that a
Persian youth, Ferhad, became enamoured
of the maiden Shirin who rejected his love.
Ferhad went out into the desert to die of a
broken heart. As he wept there for his lost
love and pined away, every tear falling into
the barren sand turned into a beautiful blos¬
som. These flowers, called lale in Persian be¬
came the symbol of the Perfect Lover. In
1500 tulips were extensively cultivated in
Turkey, and because of their resemblance
to the Turkish tulbend — turban, were called
tulipam, and became the emblem of the rul¬
ing House of Osman. In 1554 Ogier Ghiselin
de Busbecq, ambassador of Emperor Ferdi¬
nand I to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent,
brought the first tulips to Vienna. In 1561 the
herbalist, Konrad Gessner, was commissioned
by the merchant-princes of the House of lale or Constantinople Tulipam, from Mattioli’s
Fugger to bring tulip-bulbs from the Levante commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
to Augsburg. He published the first printed

picture of a tulip in his herbal. In 1562 the
first bulbs from Constantinople reached Ant¬
werp by ship and the ensuing craze for grow¬
ing tulips in Holland (the Tulipomania),
ended in financial disaster for that country.
After the Dutch government enforced strict
laws for the cultivation and sale of tulip-
bulbs, the flower became the national em¬
blem of Holland.
The First Printed Picture of a Tulip, from Gesners

DE HORTIS GERMANIAE, Basle, 1561.
THE VIOLET
A Greek mythological legend relates that

the nymph Io, daughter of the river-god
Inachus was beloved by Zeus. To hide her
from the suspicious eyes of Hera, he changed
her into a white heifer. When Io shed tears
over the coarseness of the common grass she
was forced to feed on, Zeus decide to create
a new and more suitable plant for the deli¬
cate creature. He changed her tears into a
sweet-smelling, dainty flower, the violet
(Viola odorata) as a special feed for Io. The
violet is one of the few flowers which entered
the historical arena as a political symbol. In
the year 1814 during the exile of Napoleon
I at Elba, the French Bonapartists chose the
violet, the flower of March, as their emblem
because the Capitulation of Paris, preceding
Napoleon’s abdication, occurred on March
30. Napoleon was nicknamed Caporal Violet,
the little flower that returns with Spring.
Violets, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,
1579. France was soon flooded with postcards pic¬
turing a bunch of innocent looking violets.
But a little scrutiny revealed in the bouquet
of violets, the outlines of portraits of Napo¬
leon, Maria Louise and of their three year
old son Charles, King of Rome. On and off
until the year 1874, the French governments
fought by decree any reproduction showing
a violet, the symbol of the Bonapartists.
Bunch of Violets Containing the Silhouettes of Na¬

poleon I, Empress Louise and the King of Rome.
Picture Card Circulated in France, 1815.
STRANGE and WONDROUS
PLANTS
reek and roman mythology, coupled with the beliefs and reli¬
gions of Occidental and Oriental antiquity have bequeathed to us many a poetic and charming
legend of flowers, plants and trees. It took the gloomy ignorance of the Dark and Middle Ages,
when the people of the Western World believed in dragons and demons, satanic and magic
powers, witches’ brews and sorcerers’ potions, to provide us with wild and weird stories of
strange and wondrous plants. In these days when distances were far and voyages slow, adven¬
turers and traders, mariners and travellers, returning from far away places brought back tales
about real and imaginary plants of fantastic shapes and strange behavior, and of mystic virtues
and magic powers. Scientists and herbalists pondered over the truth of these stories and
reported on some of these wondrous plants and their peculiarities in their herbals and natural
histories. Sometimes the reports were illustrated according to a description and explanation by
untrained observers who had seen the plants or merely heard about them. After many centuries
of painstaking research and broadened knowledge, some of these tales were found to be
reality, but many were discarded as fantastic exaggeration or plain fabrication, and were
quickly forgotten in the following centuries.
83
84 ^ STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS
THE APPLE OF SODOM
Ancient travellers and writers returning from Asia Minor to Europe told that they saw a
peculiar and mysterious fruit, called the Apple of Sodom, growing at the site of the Biblical
twin-cities Sodom and Gomorrah, which were destroyed by the Lord through fire from heaven
because of the sinful wickedness, vice and corruption of their inhabitants: “The Lord rained
upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out of heaven” (The Bible,
Old Testament, Genesis XIX/24). They say in these bygone times that the plant was reputed
to lure weary, thirsty and hungry travellers with the luscious appearance of its fruit which
resembled edible apples in form and color. However at the very moment the fruit was touched
by human hands it immediately turned into smoke and ashes, as a warning and symbolic
reminder of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. In reality the fruit may have been subject
to the attack of an insect which left the rind untouched while the interior became mere rot and
dust. Today the name of Apple of Sodom or Dead Sea Fruit, is given to a shrub of the night¬
shade family (Solarium sodomeum) growing on the arid shores of the Dead Sea, an inland body
of salt water between Palestine and Trans-Jordan. The fruit of this plant, related to the egg¬
plant, and resembling a small, yellow tomato is poisonous and is considered the symbol of sin
in the Near East.
Dead Sea Apples, from Maundevile’s voiage and thavaile, London, 1725.
STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS 85
THE AMBER TREE
Amber is a yellow or brownish, translucent,

fossilized resin from prehistoric evergreen
trees. It has been used since antiquity for
magic purposes and talismanic jewelry. Be¬
cause it was found on the shores of the sea,
on the banks of great streams, and in dried
up river-beds, the naturalists of bygone times
could not make up their minds if amber were
mineral, animal, or vegetable. The herbalists
in the 15th century could still not decide
whether amber was crystalized sea-foam, the
product of the amber-fish, or the fruit of the
amber-tree. But they leaned more and more
to the belief that it was the petrified gum of
a tree, which it really is.
Amber Tree, MeydenbacKs ortus sanitatis, 1491.
THE BAUSOR TREE
Medieval travellers returning from the Far

East told tales about a fabulous Malayan tree
growing on the isles around Cathay (China),
called Bohun Upas — Tree of Poison. It was
considered a symbol of death because it was
believed that it exhaled narcotic fumes,
which not only destroyed all vegetation with¬
in a radius of many yards, but also killed any
animal or person that rested and fell asleep
under it. Prisoners were executed by tying
them to these trees. Today there are still upas-
trees (Antiaris toxicaris) found in Java, Ma¬
laya and the Philippines. They are supposed
to be the descendants of the legendary
bausor-tree whose milky juice the natives
used as arrow-poison.
Bausor Tree, MeydenbacKs ortus sanitatis, 1491.

86 STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS
THE BARNACLE TREE
The origin of the migrating wild geese

coming from the North was for a long time
a deep mystery. It was a common belief in
15th century Europe, that the barnacle goose
(Branta bernicla), breeding in the Far North,
grew on trees. These goose-trees, or barnacle-
trees, according to old mariner’s yarns, were
growing somewhere north of Scotland on the
shores of the Orcades (Orkney Islands). As
fruit they bore barnacles. When these barna¬
cles were ripe they fell into the sea and de¬
veloped into barnacle-geese. This belief was
based on the appearance of the goose barna¬
cles, which attached themselves to rocks,
submerged logs, or the bottoms of ships.
They looked astoundingly like embryonic
geese. Renowned botanists and zoologists
in the 16th century reported and discussed
earnestly the stories about the goose trees and
the barnacle geese. Some of the scientists
THE BREEDE OF BARNAKLES,from Gerard’s HERB ALL,
London, 1597. took the existence of these trees for granted
and included these specimens in their herb-
als. John Gerard in his Herball or Generali
Historie of Plants (1597) published a fanci¬
ful picture of the Breede of Barnackle-geese.
Today, centuries after the belief in these
fantastic sailor yarns of tree-grown geese has
been shattered and forgotten, the official
scientific terms barnacle goose and goose
barnacle are still used in zoology.
Goose Barnacle (lepas fascicularis), from an old

German engraving, 1888.
STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS 87
THE CARLINA
The carlina thistle (Carlina vulgaris) native

to the Mediterranean region was an impor¬
tant magic love plant in medieval Europe.
It was believed that its root gave a man the
strength and sexual potency of a stallion. To
get an effective carlina, you took topsoil from
a rose garden in bloom, mixed it with sperma
from a black stallion, planted a carlina in it
at the stroke of midnight under a new moon,
watered it with urine from a white mare and
let it grow. It was then uprooted under the
following new moon, cooked and eaten. To¬
day the dried, highly hygroscopic carlina is
used in rural parts of Europe as a weather¬
glass.
Carlina, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE DRAGON TREE
According to an ancient legend on the Sol¬

omon Islands, the first dragon tree (Dracaena
draco) grew from the grave of the sea-mon¬
ster Pau Tangalu. The tree itself, its leaves
and its scale-covered cherry-sized fruits ex¬
uded a dark red resin called dragon’s blood.
In the South Sea Isles it was considered the
most potent magic plant for all occasions.
Dragon’s blood, brought by Venetian mer¬
chants to Europe, was used in medieval times
by deserted wives and maidens as an excel¬
lent love incense. If burned near an open
window in their lonely bed-chambers fox-
seven midnights in a row the escaping fxxmes
would bring back the straying husband or
lover sooner or later.
Dragon Tree, VEcluse’s rariorum, Antwerp, 1576.

THE HONESTY
The honesty (Lunaria annua) native to

Central Europe, was also called Moonwort,
Silver-bloom or Satinpod. Its botanical name
is derived from the Latin luna — moon, in
reference to the shape and semi-transparency
of its large, oval seed pods, which glow with
a moon-silvery satin sheen. In the Dark and
Middle Ages sorcerers and witches used
moonwort as a highly important magic plant
in their brews and concoctions because it was
believed that the plant had the power to
ward off evil spirits, and put monsters and
demons to flight. Furthermore moonwort
could open door locks, break chains, and un¬
shoe horses that trod on it.
Honesty, Gesner’s raris herbis, Zurich, 1555.
THE HOUSELEEK
The Old Dutch name of the houseleek

(Sempervivwn tectorum) a rock plant, native
to Europe, was Donderbloem — thunder
flower. In the Dark Ages it was common be¬
lief that the plant gave the best protection
against lightning, fire, witches and evil
spirits. Charlemagne, King of the Franks,
first Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
(768-814 A.D.) issued a law which made it
mandatory for every landlord to plant one
houseleek on the roof of his dwelling to pro¬
tect it against fire, and to ward off war,
hunger and pestilence from the whole coun¬
try. The houseleek became the symbol of
vivacity, because it retains its vivacious na¬
ture, even on the hot roof-tops.
Houseleek, YEcluse’s rariorum, Antwerp, 1576.

STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS ^ 89
THE ICE PLANT
The ice plant (Mesembryanthemum crys-

tallinum) native to South Africa and the Med¬
iterranean region is a member of the fig-
marigold family. Its name is derived from its
peculiar fleshy leaves which are covered with
innumerable little, bladder-shaped, trans¬
lucent vesicles filled with a limpid liquid.
When the plant stands in the shade, it seems
to be gemmed with dew drops; but when the
ice plant is exposed to the burning sun, it
appears to be scattered with tiny, frozen
crystals which reflect with great brilliance
the rays of the sun. The plant, which feels
flaccid and cold to the touch, is considered to
be the symbol of frigidity.
Ice Plant, from an old English Engraving.
THE MAIDENHAIR FERN
The maidenhair (Adiantum capillus-ven-

eris), a fern with delicate fronds and slender
stalks, was one of the magic plants of Roman
mythology. It was believed to be the hair of
Venus, goddess of love and beauty, who had
risen from the foam of the sea. It is still called
in French cheveux de Venus — hair of Venus.
This belief was based on the wondrous qual¬
ity of the maidenhair, which, when placed
under water takes on a silvery magic sheen,
and when removed is found to be perfectly
dry, because water will not cling to it. In
Roman symbolic magic, a potion made from
powdered maidenhair fern was considered
conducive in producing grace, beauty and
love.
Maidenhair Fern, Mattioli s commentaires, 1579.

90 STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS
THE MANDRAKE
mandrake, from the codex neapolitanus, 700 A.D. Vienna.
Masculine Mandragora (Mandrake), from Mattioli’s species masculi hujus herbae, from Cuba’s hortes
commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
sanitatis, Paris, 1498.
STRANGE AND WONDROUS PLANTS ^ 91
THE MANDRAKE
The mandrake (Mandragora officinamm), a narcotic plant whose roots often grow in the
shape of human limbs, is the oldest magic plant in botanical history. Already mentioned in the
Bible as an ingredient for love-philtres (Old Testament, Genesis XXX/14-15), it was called in
Greek legend Plant of Circe. It was believed that Circe’s magic brews, which turned men into
swine, were infusions of the mandragora. In the Dark Ages its roots were an integral part of every
witch’s cauldron; and in the Middle Ages, a concoction of mandragora berries was used as an
opiate and love-potion. It was common knowledge in medieval time that the mandrake grew
under the gallows from the dripping semen of hanged men. Pulled from the ground the root
emitted wild shrieks and those who heard them were driven mad. The safest way to secure a
mandrake was to tie a dog to the plant on a moonless night. Plugging one’s ears with beeswax
and blowing a loud horn to drown out the shrieks, the dog was whipped at the stroke of mid¬
night and the jumping animal pulled the screeching root from the ground and died. The English
name of the plant, mandrake, means the dragon resembling man.
SPECIES FEMINAE HUJUS HERBAE, from Cuba S HORTUS Feminine Mandragora (Mandrake), from Mattioli’s
sanitatis, Paris, 1498. commentaires, Lyons, 1579.
THE TREE OF SORROW
The night-blooming tree of sorrow (Arbor

tristis) was believed to be a native South
American tree, whose trunk grew in the shape
of a female body. An ancient Amerindian
fable tells that the young and beautiful
daughter of the mighty chief and warrior,
Parizataco, fell in love with the sun. But when
the sun rejected her love and scorned her she
withdrew from all human companionship
into the wilderness. In her grief she slew her¬
self. When her body was found by her people,
it was brought back to her native village and
put on a funeral pyre according to the custom
of her tribe and cremated. From the ashes of
her body sprang the Tree of Sorrow whose
beautiful blossoms never opened in daytime
in the presence of the sun. Its flowers un¬
folded their petals only at night under the
cool light of the moon and the stars, filling
The Arbor Tristis, from Jacobus, neuw kreuter-
the night air with a fragrant, sweet-heavy
buch, Frankfort, 1613. perfume. And when the sun rose in the morn¬
ing the blossoms of this tree closed, its leaves
withered and the tree looked dead and bar¬
ren, only to rejuvenate and unfold again
under the rays of the moon. Whenever a
human hand touched the blooming tree the
blossoms of this sensitive plant closed up and
their sweet scent vanished.
Fanciful Picture of the Tree of Sorrow, from Dur¬

ante’s herbario nuovo, Rome, 1585.
THE FLOWER CALENDAR
ver since man realized the eternal re-occurrence of Nature’s

cyclic behavior throughout the year, he tried to coordinate his sowing and gathering of food
plants in accordance with this seasonal cycle. Seasons are man’s arbitrary divisions of the year,
characterized by the weather and the growth of vegetation. The term is derived from the Latin
serese — to sow. The calendar of ancient Egypt had only three seasons: Akhet — the four months
of sowing, Pert — the four months of growing, and Shernu — the four months of inundation.
In the temperate zone of our lands we have four seasons in the calendar: winter, spring, summer
and autumn. But in the semi-tropical regions of the globe there are still only three seasons: the
dry, the rainy and the cold. In the equatorial tropics there are only two: the seasons of the
torrid heat and of torrential rain. And along the Arctic circles there are also only two seasons:
the long Arctic winter and the short Arctic summer.
The Three Seasons of Ancient Egypt (Hieroglyphs), akhet - Winter, pert - Spring,
and shemu — Summer.
^; 93
94 ^ THE FLOWER CALENDAR
THE SEASONS
Winter — the Season of Woodburning, from Le Rouge’s grant kalendrier, Troyes, 1496.
THE FLOWER CALENDAR 95
THE SEASONS
Spring — the Season of Flowers, from Le Rouge’s grant kalendrier,Troyes, 1496.

^ THE FLOWER CALENDAR
THE SEASONS
Summer — the Season of Harvest, from Le Rouge’s grant kalendrier, Troyes, 1496.
THE FLOWER CALENDAR ^ 97
THE SEASONS
Autumn — the Season of Vintage, from Le Rouge’s grant kalendrier, Troyes, 1496.
property of
TAKOMA PARK, md. LIBRARY
42jlLt>
98 ^ THE FLOWER CALENDAR
THE SEASONS
Personification of Winter Personification of Spring
Personification of Autumn
Personifications of the Four Seasons, from an English Broadside, 1682.

THE FLOWERS OF THE MONTHS
n the calendars of the Middle Ages the twelve divisional

months of the year were always symbolized by the agricultural activities of the farmer, the
chores of the farmer’s wife, and by their few personal pleasures and relaxations. The calendar
with its astronomical, meteorological and agronomical information was of the utmost impor¬
tance to the farmer; more so than to persons of any other occupations. In the more easygoing and
flirtatious 18th century and the literary and poetically inclined 19th century, the calendars of
the Western World adopted the age-old Oriental custom of symbolizing the months through
flowers and plants, according to their seasonal appearance.
The Twelve Months, from a Farmer's Calendar, Germany, 1493.

100^* THE FLOWER CALENDAR
SNOWDROP — Flower of January Flower of February — PRIMROSE
VIOLET — Flower of March Flower of April — DAISY
HAWTHORN - Flower of May Flower of June - HONEYSUCKLE

The Flowers of the Months, from an old English Calendar, 1866.
WATER LILY — Flower of July Flower of August — POPPY
MORNING-GLORY — Flower of September Flower of October — HOP
CHRYSANTHEMUM — Flower of November Flower of December — HOLLY

The Flowers of the Months, from an old English Calendar, 1866.
102THE FLOWER CALENDAR
THE CHINESE FLOWER CALENDAR
lowery land — hua kuoh, as China is called is a land of beautiful

gardens, designed to reproduce natural scenes as closely as possible, with grotesque rock
formations, hills, streams, bamboo thickets, lotus and goldfish ponds, ornamental bridges,
pavilions and wall openings, all so dear to the heart of the Chinese. Chinese gardens occupy
only a small space in comparison with western gardens, with their extensive lawns and terraces,
patterned parterres, and their geometrical flower beds and borders. It is considered vulgar to
utilize for personal pleasure too much ground which should be used for raising crops, the most
important business of life and survival. The extraordinary devotion to flowers has prevailed
from early ages among the Chinese and symbolic meaning was assigned to every flower since
antiquity. The Chinese even have a special deity of flowers. According to legend, Ho Hsien-ku,
daughter of a humble shopkeeper in Lingling, Hunan, who lived in the 7th century, A.D. ate
canopus, God of Longevity Issuing from a Peach. ho-hsien-ku, Taoist Genius of Flowers. Old Chinese
Old Chinese Engraving. Engraving.
THE FLOWER CALENDAR '*** 103
fiom a peach of immortality given to her by Canopus, god of longevity. She became the genius
of floweis, one of the eight Taoist immortals. She decreed that reverence should be paid to a
special flower for each month of the calendar year; this Chinese Flower Calendar, the oldest of
its kind, was copied throughout the centuries in the Orient and Occident.
China the Flowery Land, from an old Chinese Engraving.

104^ THE FLOWER CALENDAR
PLUM BLOSSOM - MEI HUA TAO HUA-PEACH BLOSSOM

Flower of January and Winter Flower of February
Symbol of Beauty and Longevity Symbol of Longevity and Marriage
TREE PEONY-MU TAN YING HUA - CHERRY BLOSSOM

Flower of March and Spring Flower of April
Symbol of Love and Affection Emblem of the Feminine Principle
MAGNOLIA-MU LAN TAN TSAO - POMEGRANATE

Flower of May Flower of June
Symbol of Feminine Sweetness Symbol of Progeny and Posterity
LOTUS FLOWER-LIEN HUA LI HUA-PEAR BLOSSOM

Flower of July and Summer Flower of August
Symbol of Perfection and Purity Symbol of Purity and Longevity
MALLOW BLOSSOM - KUAI HUA CHU HUA - CHRYSANTHEMUM

Flower of September Flower of October and Autumn
Magic Charm against Evil Spirits Symbol of Harvest, Rest and Ease
GARDENIA - PAI CH’AN A FU JUNG-POPPY

Flower of November Flower of December
Emblem of Evil and Dissipation
106^ THE FLOWER CALENDAR
THE JAPANESE FLOWER CALENDAR
The Japanese, like the Chinese, are one of the most flower conscious people of the world.
Not only is their culture and literature rich in flower lore and legend, but they also developed
the more than 1,000 year old symbolic flower art of Hana-ike (flower arrangement), or Ikebana
(arranged flowers). So deep is the attachment to flowers in the Japanese that even the oldest
Pine — Matsu Plum — Ume Cherry — Sakura

Flower of January Flower of February Flower of March
Wisteria — Fuji Iris — Ayame Peony — Botan

Flower of April Flower of May Flower of June
Flowers of the Months, from hana-awase, the Flower Matching Game.

and most populai card game in Japan, Hana-garuta, a sort of bridge-poker, played with 48
cards, has twelve suits representing the symbolic Japanese Flowers of the Months. Only the
month of August has no flower emblem: its symbol is the Hill Crest over which the August
Moon, emblem of good fortune, rises.
Mountain Clover — Hagi Hill Crest — Oka Chrysanthemum — Kiku

Flower of July Symbol of August Flower of September
Maple — Momiji Willow — Yanagi Paulownia — Kiri

Flower of October Flower of November Flower of December
Flowers of the Months, from hana-awase, the Flower Matching Game.

108^® THE FLOWER CALENDAR
aki-no-nana-kusa, the Seven Flowers of Autumn.
The Seven Herbs of Autumn, already mentioned in Manyoshu, the 8th century Collection
of a Myriad Leaves, are an important part of the Japanese Flower Calendar. These seven herbs
are: Bellflower, Bush Clover, Eulalia, Kuzu Vine, Pink, Patrinia, and Thoroughwort.
THE LANGUAGE of FLOWERS
SENTIMENTS AND SYMBOLISM
uring the easygoing time of bygone days when chivalry was

still alive, flirtation and courtesy a part of daily living, flowers and poems were the only gifts
exchanged by lovers. Since antiquity, mythology and religion, folklore and legend, magic and
superstitious belief assigned to flowers certain emblematic symbolism. Every bouquet and
garland, nosegay and posy, corsage and boutonniere, festoon and wreath was carefully com¬
posed according to its legendary meaning. Joy and grief, triumph and woe, admiration and
gratitude, love and desire, every human sentiment had its floral emblem. Selam, the Oriental
Language of Flowers was an old Persian poetical art introduced into Europe by Charles II,
king of Sweden, who, after his defeat at Poltava in 1709 by Peter the Great, czar of Russia, fled
into exile to Turkey. He lived for 5 years at the Ottomanian court, and returned in 1714 to
Sweden, from where his courtiers started the mode of the Flower Language throughout the
Western World. There was no more important language for the 18th and 19th century beaux
and belles than the Language of Flowers. Dutch die Blume sprechen — Speaking through
Flowers became a Western proverb, meaning any flowery or poetic expression with a hidden
significance or a message of love.
109
10 THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
ROEMIODISER ALEXANDRO
BR ACCIO al prcftantiflimo 6C cxcellcn
tiTfimo gi'oucnc Lorenzo Pierfrancefco de
media fopra ia tradudlione duna hiftoria di due ama
tj compofta dalla feli'ce memoria di papa pio feeodo.
The Lovers, from Piccolomini’s (Pope Pius II) historia di due amati, Milan, 1510.
THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS ^111
SENTIMENTS AND SYMBOLISM
Absinth, or Wormwood Apple

Separation and Torment of Love Symbol of Perpetual Concord
Bitterness and Heartache Dedicated to Aphrodite and Venus
Herb of Mars (Astrological). “Peace be with you!” (Chinese)
Acacia Blossom Good Luck Gift
Beauty in Retirement and Platonic Love Apricot Blossom
Bad Luck Gift to a Woman Timid Love
Acanthus Leaves Emblem of the Fair Sex (Chinese)
Admiration of the Arts Arbor Infelix
Aconite, or Monkshood Tree of Crucifixion
Misanthropy and Poisonous Words Arbor Vitae, or Thuya Tree
Symbol of Crime Tree of Life
Herb of Saturn (Astrological) Unchanging Friendship
Acorn Artemisia Leaf
Symbol of Life and Immortality (Nordic) Symbol of Dignity (Chinese)
Adam’s Needle Ash Tree
A Friend in Need Tree of Life (Nordic)
Adonis Genesis Tree of Ask, the Man (Nordic)
Recollection of Life’s Pleasure Aspen, or Trembling Poplar
Flower of New Year’s Eve (Japanese) Lamentation and Fear
Symbol of Gold and Wealth (Japanese) Asphodel
Fortune-Longevity Plant (Japanese) Languor and Regret
Agave Symbol of Death (Greek)
Tree of Life and Abundance (Mexican) Aster
Alder Tree, or Elm Tree Elegance and Daintiness
Genesis Tree of Embla, the Woman (Nordic) Talisman of Love
Tree of the Fairies (Celtic) Herb of Venus (Astrological)
Tree of Divination (Old Irish) Autumn Bell, or Fringed Gentian
Almond Flower emblem of Autumn (Occidental)
Virginity and Fruitfulness
Symbol of Happy Marriage (French)
Almond Blossom
Hope and Watchfulness
Flower of the Annunciation
Almond Tree
Tree of Heaven (Persian)
Tree of January (Semitic)
Almond Twins
Lover’s Charm and Symbol of Good Luck
Aloe
Wisdom and Integrity
Dedicated to Zeus and Jupiter
Amaranth
Constancy and Fidelity
Faith and Immortality
“My love will never fade or die!”
Amaryllis
Pastoral Poetry
Anemone
Refusal and Abandonment
Wreath of Laurel, Victory Symbol, by Aldus Manu-
“Go away!”
Dedicated to Aphrodite and Venus tius, Venice, 1499.
\n^THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
Azalea Bindweed
Fragile and Ephemeral Passion Coquette and Busybody
Emblem of Womanhood (Chinese) Passing Attachment without Consequence
Balm, or Melissa Birch Tree
Sympathy and Love Light and Fertility
Symbol of Rejuvenation (Arabic) Dedicated to Thor and Donar
Bamboo Flower Emblem of Estonia
Friend of China Blackthorn, or Sloe
Symbol of Graceful Strength (Chinese) Difficulty and Austerity
Durability and Longevity (Chinese) “There are many obstacles to our love!”
Candidness and Devotion (Japanese) Bad Luck Gift to a Woman
Bamboo Staff Bluebell, or Harebell
Mourning for a Father (Chinese) Delicacy and Humility
Banana Tree Emblem of St. George
Birth and Life Tree of the Tropics Bo Tree,.or Pipal Tree
Barrel of Fruit, or Vegetables Meditation and Perfection
Symbol of Abundance Tree of Nirvana (Buddhist)
Bay Tree Dedicated to Gautama Buddha
Glory and Resurrection (Roman) Borage
Bean Symbol of Courage (Medieval)
Immortality and Transmigration Bouquet of Full-blown Roses
Magic and Mysticism Token of Gratitude
Beech Tree Bouquet of Withered Flowers
Oracle and Divination (Greek) Token of Rejected Love
Dedicated to Zeus and Jupiter
Box Tree
Prosperity and Pleasant Memory
Firmness and Stoicism in Adversity
Flower Emblem of Denmark
“I never change!”
Begonia
Box Holly, or Butcher’s Broom
“Beware! I am fanciful!”
Activity and Cleanliness
Belladonna
Brake, or Eagle Fern
“I bring you bad luck!”
Confidence and Shelter
Fatal Gift to a Man
Bramble
Envy and Jealousy
Bad Luck Gift to a Woman
Brier
Solitude and Thoughtfulness
Courage and Strength
Herb of Mars (Astrological)
Broom Plant, or Planta Genista
Ardor and Humility
Badge of the Plantagenet Kings of England
Flower Emblem of Brittany
Buckeye, or Horse Chestnut
Luxury and Health
Good Luck Charm for a Man
Buddha’s Hand, or Citrus Medica
Blessings of Buddha (Chinese)
Bundle of Birch Rods, or Fasces
Union and Strength
Symbol of Lictorian Authority (Roman)
Burdock
Importunity and Boredom
Crown of Roses, Superior Merit, by William Cop¬
“Do not touch me!”
land, London, 1548.
THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS^ 113
Buttercup “I shall fight against fate!” (Selarh)

Mockery and Sarcasm Chrysanthemum
Ingratitude and Spite Cheerfulness and Optimism
Dedicated to Mars and Ares Flower of November (Occidental)
Cactus Rest and Ease (Chinese)
Bravery and Endurance (Amerindian) Flower of October (Chinese)
Fairy’s Hand (Chinese) Badge of the Old Chinese Army
Bad Luck to a Pregnant Woman (Chinese) Long Life and Happiness (Japanese)
Camellia Flower of September (Japanese)
Excellence and Steadfastness Kikumon — Imperial Crest of Japan
“I shall love you always!” Cinnamon
Good Luck Gift to a Man Love and Beauty
Symbol of Sudden Death (Japanese) “My fortune is yours!” (Selam)
Camomile Dedicated to Aphrodite and Venus
Initiative and Ingenuity Clematis
Energy in Adversity Artifice and Ingenuity
Herb of Mercury (Astrological) Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Canterbury Bell Clove
Constancy and Warning Dignity and Restraint
Emblem of St. Thomas “I love you secretly!” (Selam)
Cardinal Flower Clover
Distinction and Splendor Fertility and Domestic Virtue
Carnation, Pink Symbol of Trinity
Flower Emblem of Mother’s Day Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Carnation, Purple Clover, Five-leaved
Antipathy and Capriciousness Symbol of Bad Luck
Carnation, Red Clover, Four-leaved
Admiration and Worldly Sentiments Symbol of Good Luck
Carnation, White Cockscomb, or Celosia
Pure and Ardent Love Silliness and Foppery
Good Luck Gift to a Woman Coconut Palm
Carnation, Yellow Tropical Tree of Life and Abundance
Distain and Rejection
Cassia Tree
World Tree and Tree of Life (Chinese)
Cattail
Peace and Prosperity (Amerindian)
Cedar Tree
Nobility and Incorruptibility
Flower Emblem of Lebanon
Cherry Blossom
Symbol of Good Education (Chinese)
Flower of April (Chinese)
Wealth and Prosperity (Japanese)
Flower of March (Japanese)
National Flower of Japan
Cherry Twins
Good Luck Symbol and Lover’s Charm
Cherry-apple Blossom
Emblem of Feminine Beauty (Chinese)
Symbol of Peace and Concord (Chinese)
Chestnut
Independence and Injustice
Wreath of Flowers, Floras Diadem, by Federix de
China Aster
Vinciolo, Paris, 1606.
Jealousy and After-thought
114 ^ THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
Coltsfoot Crown of Roses

Maternal Love and Care Symbol of Superior Merit
Columbine Crown of Thorns
Cuckoldry and Deserted Lover Symbol of Martyrdom (Biblical)
Fool’s Staff Flower Crown of Wild Olives
Bad Luck Gift to a Man Symbol of Victory at the Olympian Games
Convolvulus Dedicated to Zeus (Greek)
Humble Perseverance Currant
Good Luck Gift to a Woman “I am worthy of you!” (Selam)
Love and Marriage (Chinese) Cyclamen
Coriander Resignation and Good-bye
“You have hidden merits!” (Selam) Bad Luck Gift to a Woman
Corn Cockle Cypress Tree
Inocent Charm and Daintiness Mourning and Lament (Occidental)
Good Luck Gift to a Woman Symbol of Death (Greek)
Cornucopia, or Horn of Plenty Emblem of Grace and Joy (Oriental)
Horn of the Goat Althea (Greek) Daffodil
Symbol of Abundance Emblem of the Annunciation
Crane’s-bill, or Wild Geranium Flower of Easter
Constancy and Availability Dahlia
“I desire to please!” Treachery and Instability
Crocus Sterility and Misrepresentation
Youthful Gladness and Attachment “Many words but no soul!”
Crown Imperial Daisy
Majesty and Power Gentleness and Innocence
Crown of Laurel Purity in Thought and Loyal Love
Symbol of Victory at the Pythian Games Flower of April (Occidental)
Dedicated to Apollo (Greek) Dedicated to Aphrodite and Venus
Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Crown of Parsley
Symbol of Victory at the Nemean Games Damask Rose
Dedicated to Zeus (Greek) Ambassador of Love (Persian)
Crown of Pine Dandelion
Symbol of Victory at the Isthmian Games Oracle of Time and Love
Dedicated to Poseidon (Greek) “Faithful to you!”
Cornucopia of Flowers, by Christoffel van Sichem II, Amsterdam, 1646.

Date Palm Emblem of Alpine Achievement

Tree of the Calendar Year (Egyptian) National Flower of Switzerland
Sacred Emblem of Judea Eglantine
Tree of Life and Abundance (Arabic) Spring and Poetry
Symbol of Fecundity (Chinese)
Elderberry Blossom
Datura, or Thorn Apple Humility and Kindness
Deceitful Charm Compassion and Zeal
“You are poison!”
Elecampane, or Helenium
Devil’s Herb (Gypsy Lore)
Woe and Tears
Day Lily, or Hemerocallis “You are.hurting me!” (Selam)
Emblem of the Mother (Chinese) Flower of Helen of Troy (Greek)
Dead Leaves Everlasting Flower
Sadness and Melancholy Attachment and Constancy
Symbol of Autumn (Occidental) “Always yours!”
Digitalis, or Foxglove Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Treacherous Magnificence Everlasting Pea
“You are beautiful but careless!” Sweet and Constant Memory
Dipsacus, or Teasel Evening Primula
Flower which keeps the Dew Inconstancy and Fickleness
“I thirst after you!”
Festoon of Laurel
Dog Grass Emblem of Victory
War and Death
Fig Tree
Dedicated to Mars (Roman)
Peace and Abundance (Hebrew)
Dog Rose Tree of Heaven (Arabic)
Love and Poetry Wisdom and Integrity
Hope and Fear Tree of Jupiter (Astrological)
“You have enchanted me!”
Filix-mas, or Male Fern
Dogwood Confidence and Fascination
Love in Adversity Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Dried Figs, or Dried Prunes The Lucky Hands (Mongolian)
Emaciation and Sterility Occultism and Power (Mongolian)
Bad Luck Gift to a Woman Talisman of Genghis Khan
Edelweiss Fir Tree
Daring and Noble Courage Boldness and Fidelity
Purity and Immortality Dedicated to Pan (Greek)
Basket of Vegetables, by Christoff el van Sichem II, Amsterdam, 1646.

Basket of Flowers, from Stalker’s treatise of japaning, Oxford, 1688.

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS^® 117
Integrity and Ingenuity Garland of Flowers

Tree of Mercury (Astrological) Love’s Bondage
Lasting Affection and Eternity (Chinese) Garlic
Good Luck Gift to Departing Friends (Chinese) Courage and Strength
Fleur-de-lis Herb of Mars (Astrological)
Flame of Light, Life and Power Geranium
National Emblem of France Folly and Stupidity
Forget-me-not, or Myosotis “You are childish!”
Faithful Love and Undying Memory Bad Luck Gift to a Man
Good Luck Gift to a Woman Ginseng
Fuchsia Strength and Longevity (Chinese)
Amiability, Anxiety and Confiding Love Clear Judgment and Vigor (Chinese)
Fungus, or Ling Chih Gladiolus, or Sword Lily
Divine Plant of China Flower of the Gladiators (Roman)
Symbol of Everlasting Life (Taoist) “You pierce my heart!”
Furze, or Gorse Globe Flower, or Luckan Gowan
Cheerfulness in Adversity Witches’ Gold (Scottish)
“My thoughts for you are like golden Goldenrod, or Solidago
butterflies!” Treasure and Good Fortune
Good Luck Gift to a Woman Grapes
Garden Balsam, or Impatiens Token of Canaan, the Promised Land
Refusal and Severed Ties Peace and Abundance (Biblical)
“Touch me not, you have offended me!” Symbol of the Wine of the Eucharist
Gardenia Good Luck Gift
“I love you m secret!” Grass
Good Luck Gift to a Man Utility and Submission
Flower of November (Chinese) Bad Luck Gift to a Woman
Bouquet of Flowers, from Stalkers treatise of japaning, Oxford, 1688.

Green Leaves Heliotrope

Revived Hope Eternal Love and Devoted Attachment
Guelder Rose Dedicated to Apollo (Greek)
Whitsuntide Flower (English) Herb of the Sun (Astrological)
Hawthorn Hellebore
Madness and Delirium (Medieval)
Sweet Hope and Marriage
“You are my only queen!” Hemlock
Dedicated to Hymen (Greek) Perfidy and Death
Flower of May (Occidental) Poison-cup of Socrates (Greek)
Good Luck Gift to a Woman “We who must die!”
Hazelnut Tree Bad Luck Gift
Communication, Reconciliation and Peace Hepatica, or Liverwort
Dedicated to Mercury (Greek) Confidence and Cure
Tree of Wisdom (Celtic) Hibiscus
Tree of Thor and Donar (Nordic) Delicate Beauty
Emblem of St. Philibert Honesty, or Satinflower
Heartsease Money in all Pockets
Happiness in Recollection Holly
Heather, Purple Foresight and Defence
Beauty in Solitude and Admiration “I dare not approach!”
Heather, White Flower of December (Occidental)
Protection from Danger (Scottish) Hollyhock
“Your wish will come true!” Ambition and Liberality
Symbol of Nature and Fecundity (Chinese)
Honeysuckle
Devotion and Affection
Generosity and Gaiety
Bond of Love
“We belong to each other!” (Selam)
Flower of June (Occidental)
Hop Plant
Injustice and Destruction
“I overcome all difficulties!” (Selam)
Flower of October (Occidental)
Horse-radish
Bitter Herb of Bondage (Jewish Passover)
Houseleek
Symbol of Vivacity
“My friendship for fife!”
Hyacinth
Games and Sport
Rashness and Woe (Greek)
Dedicated to Apollo (Greek)
Hydrangea
Boastfulness and Frigidity
“Beautiful without scent and fruit!”
Ice Plant
Frigidity and Heartlessness
“Your looks freeze me!”
Iris
Faith, Wisdom and Valor
Hope, Light and Power
Eloquence, Message and Promise
The Carnation, Symbol of Mother-Love, Silhouette Flower Emblem of France (Fleur-de-lis)
by P. O. Runge, Germany, 1800. Dedicated to the Virgin Mary
Herb of the Moon (Astrological) Lemon Tree

Good Luck Gift to a Man Passion and Discretion
Emblem of the Warrior (Japanese) Luck and Pride
Flower of May (Japanese) Tree of the Sun (Astrological)
Ivy Lilac, Mauve
Attachment and Eternal Friendship “Do you still love me?” (Selam)
Fidelity and Wedded Love Lilac, Pink
“I die where I cling!” Youth and Acceptance (Occidental)
Dedicated to Dionysus and Bacchus Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Jack - in-the - Pulpit Friction and Strife (Chinese)
Ardor and Zeal Lilac, White
Jasmine, Red “My first dream of love!” (Selam)
Folly and Glee Lily, Orange
“Our love will be intoxicating!” (Selam) Hatred and Disdain
Jasmine, White Lily, White
Amiability and Cheerfulness Sincerity and Majesty
“Our love will be sweet!” (Selam) Purity and Virginity
Symbol of Womanly Sweetness (Chinese) Symbol of Motherhood (Semitic)
Jasmine, Yellow Dedicated to Hera and Juno
Timidity and Modesty Easter Flower
“Our love will be passionate!” (Selam) Emblem of the Virgin Mary
Flower of Epiphany Rod of St. Joseph
Job’s Tears Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Repentance and Faith
Jonquil
Violent Sympathy and Desire
“Have pity on my passion!” (Selam)
Juniper
Confidence and Protection
Initiative and Ingenuity
Herb of Mercury (Astrological)
Laburnum
Refusal and Loneliness
“You have broken my heart!”
Lady’s Slipper
Capricious Beauty
Larkspur
Open Heart and Ardent Attachment
Laurel
Success and Renown
Glory and Victory
“I shall conquer you!”
Dedicated to Apollo (Greek)
Luck and Pride
Plant of the Sun (Astrological)
Lavender
Constancy and Loyalty
Sweetness and Undying Love
“Fervent but silent love!”
Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Herb of Mercury (Astrological)
Leek
Flower Emblem of Wales
Dedicated to St. David
Lemon
Symbol of Harvest (Jewish Succoth) The Rose, Symbol of Love, Silhouette, Austria, 1800.
Lily-of-the-Valley
Purity and Humility
Tears of the Virgin Mary
Sweetness and Renewed Happiness
“Let us make up!”
Flower of Spring
Whitsuntide Flower (English)
Linden Tree
Conjugal Love and Marital Virtues
Tree of Baucis (Greek)
Locust Tree, or Robinia
Affection beyond the Grave
Lotus
Mystery and Truth
Symbol of the Sun (Persian)
Creation and Resurrection (Egyptian)
Flower Emblem of Egypt
Golden Throne of Brahma (Hindu)
National Flower of India Basket of Flowers, Valentine, Silhouette, Germany,
Symbol of Heaven (Buddhist) 1820.
Eruitfulness and Offspring (Chinese)
Perfection and Purity (Chinese)
Flower of July (Chinese) Madonna Lily
Emblem of Summer (Chinese) Resurrection and Annunciation
Past, Present and Future (Japanese) Flower of Easter
Flower of Midsummer (Japanese) Dedicated to the Virgin Mary
Love-in-a-Mist, or Nigella Magnolia
Delicacy and Perplexity Splendid Beauty and Sweetness
“Butterfly wings of our love!” Flower of May (Chinese)
Dedicated to St. Catherine
Maidenhair Fern
Love-lies-Bleeding
Secret Bond of Love
“Hopeless not heartless!” Dedicated to Aphrodite and Venus
Mallow
Delicate Beauty and Gentle Affection
Maternal Tenderness and Beneficence
Flower of September (Chinese)
Mandrake, or Mandragora
Conception and Fruitfulness (Biblical)
Plant of Circe (Greek)
Devil’s Candle (Arabic)
Root of Black Magic (Medieval)
Maple Leaves
Symbol of Autumn (Occidental)
Flower Emblem of Canada
Lover’s Valentine (Japanese)
Flower of October (Japanese)
Maple Tree
Reserve and Retirement
Marigold
Disquietude and Jealousy
Grief and Sorrow
“What is the matter with you?”
Marjoram
Comfort and Consolation
Bouquet of Flowers, Valentine, Silhouette, Germany, Kindness and Courtesy
1800. Mascot Flower for Lovers (Gypsy Lore)
THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS 121
Sacred Plant of India

Molucca Bean, or Virgin Mary’s Nut
Good Luck Charm (English)
Morning Glory
Farewell and Departure
Flower of September (Occidental)
Symbol of Mortality (Japanese)
Moss
“Charity, nothing more!”
Moss Rose
Superiority and Pleasure
Mountain Ash, or Rowan Tree
Antidote and Mercy
Tree against Magic and Sorcery (Nordic)
Dedicated to Thor and Donar (Nordic)
Mountain Clover
Fecundity, Conquest and Victory (Japanese)
Heart of Branches, Valentine, Silhouette, England,
Flower of July (Japanese)
1820.
Mulberry Staff
Mourning for a Mother (Chinese)
Marsh Marigold Mulberry Tree, Red

Symbol of Unhappy Love
Pensiveness and Winning Grace
“I shall not survive you!” (Selam)
“You are my divinity!”
Tree of Pyramus and Thisbe (Babylonian)
Marvel-of-Peru
Tree of Sorrow (Chinese)
Flame of Love
Mulberry Tree, White
Meadow Saffron
Wisdom and Immortality
“Our pleasant days are over!”
Industry and Comfort of Home (Chinese)
“Let us separate!”
Mullein
Flower of Autumn (Occidental)
Herb of Love (Medieval)
Mecca Balsam
Balm of Gilead (Biblical)
Improvement and Cure (Turkish)
Medlar
Timidity and Peevishness
Bad Luck Gift to a Man
Mignonette
Modesty and Hidden Beauty
“Your qualities surpass your charm!”
Milfoil, or Yarrow
Disputes and Quarrels
Emblem of War (Greek)
Herb of Achilles (Greek)
Mimosa
Daintiness and sensibility
“Be careful, do not hurt me!”
Mint
Violent Love and Consolation
Plant of Jupiter (Astrological)
Mistletoe
Affection and Love
“I shall surmount all difficulties.”
Good Luck Gift to a Woman Bouquet of Flowers, Valentine, Silhouette, Vienna,
Magic Plant of the Druids (Celtic) 1820.
THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
Mushroom Oak Tree

Wisdom and Integrity Stability and Hospitality
Plant of Jupiter (Astrological) Tree of Philemon (Greek)
Musk Rose Dedicated to Zeus and Jupiter
Capricious Beauty Tree of Life (Nordic)
Myrtle Dedicated to Thor and Donar
Love, Mirth and Joy (Egyptian) Celestial Tree of the Druids (Celtic)
Flower of Hathor (Egyptian) Symbol of Masculine Strength (Chinese)
Emblem of Marriage (Hebrew) Oleander
Flower of the Tabernacle (Hebrew) Beauty and Grace (Chinese)
Dedicated to Aphrodite and Venus Olive Branch
Nandina Safe Travel (Biblical)
Sacred and Heavenly Bamboo (Japanese) Peace and Reconciliation
Symbol of Clear Air (Japanese) Emblem of the Archangel Gabriel
Gift of Purification (Japanese) Olive Tree
Narcissus Fidelity and Fruitfulness
Egotism and Conceit Dedicated to Athene and Minerva
Plant of Nemesis (Greek) Emblem of Studious Pursuit (Chinese)
Symbol of Good Fortune (Chinese) Orange
Emblem of Winter (Chinese) Happiness and Prosperity (Chinese)
Mirth and Joyousness (Japanese) New Year’s Goodwill Gift (Chinese)
Emblem of Formality (Japanese) Orange Blossom
Nasturtium, or Tropaeolum Virginity and Innocence
Conquest and Victory in Battle “I shall not sin!” (Selam)
Nettle Marriage and Fruitfulness (Saracen)
Cruelty and Slander Chastity and Eternal Love (Japanese)
“You break my heart!” Orange Tree
Bad Luck Gift to a Woman Generosity and Fecundity
Nuts Orchid
“You are cracked!” Flower of Magnificence
Bad Luck Gift to a Man “I await your favors!” (Selam)
Oak Leaf Cluster Symbol of Love and Beauty (Chinese)
Token of Heroism and Victory (Teutonic) Refinement and Fragrance (Chinese)
Symbol of Numerous Progeny (Confucian)
Our Lady’s Bedstraw
Symbol of the Nativity
Ox-Eye Daisy
Flower of Midsummer Day
Dedicated to St. John the Baptist
Palm Leaves
Victory and Conquest
Success and Peace
Symbol of Harvest (Hebrew Succoth)
Symbol of Martyrdom (Catacombs)
Emblem of Palm Sunday
Dignity and Felicity (Chinese)
Emblem of Retirement (Chinese)
Palm Tree
Creative Power and Peace (Semitic)
Flower Emblem of Judea
Pansy
Thoughtful Recollection
Flower Emblem of Trinity Sunday
Good Luck Gift to a Man
Wreath of Flowers, Floras Diadem, by Gustav Parma Violet
Bethge, Berlin, 1838.
“Let me love you!”
THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS^® 123
Pasqueflower Pine Tree

Flower Emblem of Easter Boldness and Fidelity
Passionflower Dedicated to Poseidon and Neptune
Faith and Piety Symbol of Friendship (Chinese)
Symbol of the Passion (Spanish) Stability and Strong Old Age (Japanese)
Paulownia Flower of January (Japanese)
Justice and Benevolence (Japanese) Pink, Red
Flower of December (Japanese) Ardent Love and Pure Affection
Kirimon — Crest of the Empress of Japan Pink, White
Pea Refusal and Departure
Happy Marriage and Fertility Pink, Yellow
Peach Disdain and Rejection
Fruit of Eternal Life (Chinese) Plane Tree
Good Luck Gift to a Man Genius and Magnificence (Persian)
Peach Blossom Plantain
Bridal Hope and Generosity (Chinese) Symbol of Self Education (Chinese)
Flower of February (Chinese) Plum Blossom
Feminine Softness and Matrimony (Japanese) “Keep your promises!” (Selam)
Emblem of Springtime (Japanese) Beauty and Longevity (Chinese)
Peach Stones Flower of January (Chinese)
Good Luck Charm for Children (Chinese) Emblem of Winter (Chinese)
Peach Tree Happiness and Marriage (Japanese)
Tree of the Fairy Fruit (Chinese) Flower of February (Japanese)
Emblem of Immortality (Japanese) Emblem of Spring (Japanese)
Pear Plum Tree
Badge of Actors and Musicians (Chinese) Taoist Tree of Longevity (Chinese)
Patience and Perseverance (Japanese)
Pear Blossom
Emblem of the Samurai (Japanese)
Health and Hope
Purity and Longevity (Chinese) Poinsettia
Flower of August (Chinese) Christmas Flower (North American)
Pear Tree Pomegranate

Wise Justice and Good Government (Chinese) Life and Fecundity (Semitic)
Dedicated to Hera and Juno
Peony
Plant of Healing (Greek)
Gay Life and Prosperity (Japanese)
Happy Marriage and Virility (Japanese)
Flower of June (Japanese)
Periwinkle
Sweet Memories and Unerring Devotion
Persea Tree
Symbol of Fame (Egyptian)
Persimmon
Symbol of Joy (Chinese)
Emblem of Victory (Japanese)
Petunia
Anger and Resentment
“I am furious!”
Philodendron
The Loving Tree
Phlox
Sweet Dreams and Proposal of Love
Pine Cone
Life and Fecundity (Semitic)
Pine Needle Twins Wreath of Flowers, Flora’s Diadem, by Lotte Jager,
Faithfulness and Conjugal Love (Japanese) Tuebingen, 1853.
124^® THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
Symbol of a Hopeful Future (Oriental) Symbol of Happy Retirement (Japanese)

Good Luck Gift to a Woman Rose, Full-blown
Flower Emblem of Granada — Spain “I love you” (Selam)
Badge of Catherine of Aragon Rose, Pink
Pomegranate Blossom “Our love is perfect happiness!” (Selam;
Symbol of Posterity (Chinese) 1 Rose, Red
Flower of June (Chinese) Love and Desire
Poppy “May you be pleased and your sorrows mine!”
Eternal Sleep and Oblivion (Greek) (Selam)
Dedicated to all Nocturnal Deities Dedicated to Aphrodite and Venus
Flower of August (Occidental) Flower of Eros and Cupid
Emblem of Memorial Day Emblem of the Martyrs
Flower of December (Chinese) Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Imagination and Dreaminess Badge of the House of Lancaster
Herb of the Moon (Astrological) Rose, White
Primrose Charm and Innocence
Early Youth and Young Love “You are so pure and lovely!” (Selam)
Flower of February (Occidental) Emblem of Harpocrates (Greek)
Pussy Willow Symbol of Secrecy and Silence
Flower Symbol of Easter Flower of the Virgin Mary
Ragged Robin Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Curiosity and Dandyism Badge of the House of York
Ragwort Rose, White on Red

“I am humble but proud!” Badge of the House of Tudor
Flower Emblem of England
Reed
Rose, Withered
Symbol of Music
Reproach and Fleeting Beauty
Plant of Pan (Greek)
Rose, Yellow
Rocket Infidelity and Jealousy
Lust and Vanity Bad Luck Gift to a Woman
Dedicated to Priapus (Greek)
Rosebud
Rohdea Beauty and Youth
Green for Ten Thousand Years (Japanese) “Your ignorance of love is sweet!” (Selam)
Flowery Billet-doux, U. S., middle 19th century.

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS ^ 125
Rose-on-Soleil “I laugh at you!” (Sardinian)

White Rose within a Sunburst Sedum, or Stonecrop
Badge of the House of York Lover’s Wreath
Rose of Jericho Selam
Symbol of Resurrection Persian Language of Flowers
Rosemary Shamrock
Constancy, Fidelity and Loyalty Flower Emblem of Ireland
Enduring Love, Devotion and Memory Dedicated to St. Patrick
“Your presence revives me!”
Sheaf of Wheat
Herb of Aries (Astrological)
Symbol of Abundance
Rue
Shooting Star
Morals and Mercy (Medieval)
“You are my divinity!”
Magic and Witchcraft (Shakespearian)
Snail Plant
Flower Emblem of Saxony
Sluggishness and Stupidity
Saffron
Snapdragon
“Beware of excess!” (Selam)
Presumption and Desperation
Luck and Pride
Herb of the Sun (Astrological) Snowdrop
Sage Hope and Consolation
Esteem and Domestic Virtues “Let us wait for better days!”
“I respect you deeply!” (Selam) Flower of January (Occidental)
Health and Longevity Emblem of Early Spring
Herb of Zeus and Jupiter Dedicated to the Virgin Mary
Symbol of Candlemas
St. John’s-wort
Suspicion and Superstition Solomon’s Seal
Devil’s Flight (Medieval) Concealment and Discretion
Charm against Evil Spirits “Our secret will be duly kept!”
Sakaki, or Shinto Tree Soma
Sacred Tree of Shintoism (Japanese) Vedic Plant God of Vegetation
Sakaki Branches Southernwood
Farewell Gift to the Dead (Japanese) Constancy and Perseverance
Sardane, or Herba Sardonica Lover’s Plant
Irony, Scorn and Mockery Herb of Mercury (Astrological)
******** the snow-drop. ********
Flowery Billet-doux, U. S., middle 19th century

126^ THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
Speedwell, or Veronica Tree of Life (Egyptian)

Fidelity and Sanctity Syringa
Emblem of St. Veronica Love and Beauty
Spindle Tree Plant of Venus (Astrological)
Ineffaceable Memory Tansy
“Your charm is engraved in my heart!” Easter Flower
Star of Bethlehem Emblem of St. Athanasius
Purity and Reconciliation Tea Rose
Straw, Broken “Our love will be fruitful!” (Selam)
“Rupture of our union!” Thistle
Strawberry Defiance and Surliness
Intoxication and Delight Flower Emblem of Scotland
“You are delicious!” Dedicated to St. Anthony
Good Luck Gift to a Woman Thyme
Strawberry Leaves Courage and Activity
Completeness and Perfection Spontaneous Emotion
Sunflower Thyrsus
Homage and Devotion A staff entwined with Vine and Ivy topped
“My eyes see only you!” by a Pine Cone
Symbol of the Sun (Incan) Symbol of Life and Fecundity (Semitic)
Flower Emblem of Peru Emblem of Dionysus and Bacchus
Sweet Basil Tiger Lily
Poverty and Hate Wealth and Pride
Sweet Pea Toadstool
Departure and Adieu Symbol of Good Luck
Traveler’s Joy
Sweet William
Gallantry, Finesse and Perfection Rest, Safety and Playful Gaiety
Tree Peony
Sycamore Love and Affection (Chinese)
Love and Fertility Flower of March (Chinese)
Mirth and Joy Emblem of Spring (Chinese)
Cornucopiae, by Frederic Singleton, U. S., 1900.

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS 127
Tuberose Vine Leaves

Dangerous Pleasures Mirth and Intoxication
Mistress of the Night (Malayan) Dedicated to Racchus and Dionysus
Flower Emblem of Persia Violet
Tulip Modesty and Simplicity
Symbol of the Perfect Lover (Persian) “I return your love!”
“A declaration of love!” (Selam) Flower of March (Occidental)
Flower of Spring (Occidental) Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Flower Emblem of Holland Herb of Jupiter (Astrological)
Imagination and Dreaminess Flower of Io (Greek)
Herb of the Moon (Astrological) Emblem of the French Bonapartists
Tulip Tree Wallflower
Retirement and Rural Happiness Friendship in Adversity
Valerian, or Vandal Root Fidelity in Misfortune
Dissimulation and Rupture Good Luck Gift to a Woman
Herb of Mercury (Astrological) Walnut
Fatal Gift Hard Fate and Trickery
Venus’ Looking Glass Bad Luck Gift to a Man
Flattery and Pride Walnut Twins
“You are charming but somewhat haughty!” Symbol of Good Luck (Mediterranean)
Verbena, or Vervain Water Lily
Wish-granting Herb (Persian) Eloquence and Persuasion
Herb of Mars (Roman) Flower of July (Occidental)
Enchantment and Affection Wild Rose
Herb of Venus (Astrological) Simplicity and Modesty
Vine “I shall follow you everywhere!”
Peace and Plenty (Semitic) Wild Rue
Emblem of the Chosen People (Hebrew) “I like my independence!”
Symbol of the Redeemer (Biblical) Wild Thyme
Emblem of the Christian Faith (Byzantine) “You are careless and thoughtless!”
Luck and Strength Wild Vine
Plant of the Sun (Astrological) Poetry and Imagination
Fruit Basket, by Frederic Singleton, U. S., 1900.

Willow Wreath of Orange Blossoms

Forsaken and Slighted Love Symbol of Marriage and Fecundity (Saracen)
Grief and Mourning (Occidental) Wreath of Verbena
Powers of Resurgent Spring (Chinese) Symbol of Marriage (Roman)
Patience and Perseverance (Japanese) Wreath of Wheat
Flower of November (Japanese) Flower Emblem of the Ukraine (Russian)
Emblem of Meekness (Buddhist)
Wood Anemone
Wisteria Maternal Love
Youth and Poetry (Japanese)
Xeranthemum, or Eternal Flower
Flower of April (Japanese)
Emblem of Summer (Japanese) Eternity and Immortality
Wreath of Flowers Yew Tree

Flora’s Diadem Death, Grief and Sorrow
Faith and Resurrection (Celtic)
Wreath of Fragrant Olives
Witches Tree (Old English)
Reward for Literary Merit (Chinese)
Yggdrasill
Wreath of Hawthorn
Nordic World Tree
Symbol of Marriage (Greek)
Wreath of Myrtle Yucca
Symbol of Marriage (Hebrew) “Yours until death!”
Wreath of Oak Leaves, or Civic Crown Zinnia

Award for Saving a Life in Battle (Roman) Thoughts about Absent Friends
Posy, from an old American Engraving, 1800.

*a r*^
39
L 923 Folklore and
flowers, plants and trees
Takoma Park Maryland Library

101 Philadelphia Ave.
ocmco
(continued from front flap)
A chapter devoted to flower lore and

legend illustrates man’s use of poetic im¬
agination to endow flowers with the
characteristics of Gods and Goddesses,
unrequited lovers and heroic warriors,
while a chapter on the flower calendar
shows how he has used flower symboliza¬
tion to coordinate his activities with the
coming and going of the seasons.
The illustrations, carefully chosen from

special sources, cover the globe and span
the centuries. Of unique value is a final
table which summarizes the symbolic
meanings of every known species from
Absinth to Zinnia.
398 L523 Lehner, Ernst,
Folklore and symbolism of flow
3 9803 6008 0887 4

Takoma Park MD. Library

Folklore and Symbolism of Flowers, Plants and Trees

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Folklore and Symbolism of Flowers, Plants and Trees

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FOLKLORE and SYMBOLISM

of FLOWERS, PLANTS and TREE S

Over 200 Rare and Unusual

IN THIS UNIQUE and fascinating work,

FLOWERS, PLANTS and TREES

ERNST and JOHANNA LEHNER

TUDOR PUBLISHING COMPANY

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG NUMBER: 60-15038

The Persea 45 The Linden Tree 69

The Soma 48 The Narcissus 73

The Sunflower 48 The Olive Tree 74

The Vervain 49 The Plane Tree 76

The Vine 50 The Black Poplar 76

THE FLOWER CALENDAR

Floral Endpiece, by Jean Baptist Michel Papillon, Paris, 1755.

t took homo sapiens — the human being — aeons to learn to

2tnb (<T©t> fayOe: (ct y carcf I’ttnge pjtlj

The Creation of the Plants, from Coverdale’s biblia, Zurich, 1535.

he flowers, plants and trees surrounding man at the dawn of

THE TREES OF LIFE AND KNOWLEDGE

THE TREE OF LIFE

The Ornamental Tree of Life, from an Ancient

THE TREE OF LIFE

THE TREE OF LIFE

THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE

Qifcam two gua fm paratwg.

The Fall of Man, by Hans Sebald Beham

THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE

The Biblical Tree of Knowledge, from MeydenbacKs

Yggdrasil, from Finn Magnuseris eddalaeren, Copenhagen, 1824.

The Ash Tree, from Mattioli’s commentaires,

THE ROD OF AARON

The acacia tree (Acacia seyal) native to

The Biblical Crown of Thorns, from an old English

The acorns is a rush-like plant (Acorus

Acorus, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

The pipal or bo tree (Ficus religiosa), na¬

Buddha in Meditation under the Bo-tree.

The cassia tree (Cassia cassia), native to

Cassia, Mattioli's commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

The cedar (Cedrus libana) is an evergreen

Cedar, Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons, 1579.

THE DATE PALM

Date Palm and Pond, Symbols of Abundance and

Fruit-bearing Date Palm, from Mattioli’s commen-

taires, Lyons, 1579.

THE DATE PALM

Unripe and Ripening Dates, from Mattiolis com¬

mentates, Lyons, 1579.

THE DATE PALM

The Unicorn and the Date Palm, from Bock’s

THE FIG TREE

The common fig tree (Ficus carica), native

Medicinal Values of the Fig Tree, by D. Kandel,

THE THREE BLESSED FRUITS

The Three Blessed Fruits, from a Chinese Lantern Silhouette.

THE THREE BLESSED FRUITS

FO SHOU - BUDDHAS HAND

Gautama Buddha, resting in the shade of

The peach tree, called the Tree of the Fairy

SHI LIU — POMEGRANATE

The pomegranate is not native to China;

Since time immemorial the lily (Lilium)

Wild Lily, from Mattioli’s commentaires, Lyons,