Red List 2012

The National Red List 2012
of Sri Lanka
Conservation Status of the Fauna and

Flora
This publication has been prepared by the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of
Environment in collaboration with the National Herbarium, Department of National Botanic
Gardens.
Published by: Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and National Herbarium,
Department of National Botanic Gardens
Amended Version
Copyright : Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment
Citation:
1. For citing the threatened list
MOE 2012. The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna
and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. viii + 476pp
2. For citing an article
Author name 2012. Title of the paper. In: The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka;
Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Weerakoon, D.K. & S. Wijesundara Eds.,
Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. x-y pp
ISBN Number : : 978-955-0033-55-3
Printed by : Karunarathne and Sons Pvt (Ltd)

67, UDA Industrial Estate
Katuwana Road,
Homagama.
Available from : Biodiversity Secretariat,

Ministry of Environment.
National Herbarium,
Department of National Botanic Gardens.
Cover page photos: George Van der Poorten

Samantha Suranjan Fernando
Ranil Nanayakkara
Manoj Prasanna
Samantha Gunasekera
Mendis Wickremasinghe
Thilanka Perera
Table of Contents
List of Abbreviations v
Red Listing Team vi
Participants of Expert Panel viii
Acknowledgements xiv
Message of the Minister of Environment xv
Message of the Secretary, Ministry of Environment xvi
A Brief Overview of the Biodiversity of Sri Lanka xvii
Preparation of the 2012 Red List xx
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Dragonfly Fauna of Sri Lanka 1
List of Dragonflies in Sri Lanka 5
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Ants in Sri Lanka 11
List of Ants in Sri Lanka 15
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Bees in Sri Lanka 20
List of Bees in Sri Lanka 23
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Butterflies of Sri Lanka 26
List of Butterflies in Sri Lanka 32
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Spiders in Sri Lanka 42
List of Spiders in Sri Lanka 45
Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka 58
List of Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka 63
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Land Snails in Sri Lanka 65
List of Land Snails in Sri Lanka 69
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Fishes in Sri Lanka 77
List of Freshwater Fish in Sri Lanka 82
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Amphibians in Sri Lanka 88
List of Amphibians in Sri Lanka 92
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Reptile Fauna in Sri Lanka 99
List of Reptiles in Sri Lanka 104
iii
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Birds in Sri Lanka 114
List of Birds in Sri Lanka 118
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Mammals in Sri Lanka 134
List of Mammals in Sri Lanka 138
Analysis of Faunal Groups 145
Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Pteridophyte Flora of Sri Lanka 148
Summary of the Status of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka 154
List of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka 155
Present Status of Dry-zone Flora in Sri Lanka 165
Present Status of Lowland Wet Zone Flora of Sri Lanka 175
Present Status of Montane Forests in Sri Lanka 181
Present Status of Fresh Water Aquatic Flora of Sri Lanka 186
Present Status of Mangroves in Sri Lanka 197
Present Status of Family Orchidaceae in Sri Lanka 200
Summary of the Status of Angiosperms of Sri Lanka 205
List of Gymnosperms in Sri Lanka 210
List of Angiosperms in Sri Lanka 210
Analysis of Seed Plants of Sri Lanka 340
Potential Applications of the National Red List and the Way Forward 346
References 353
Provisional Checklist of Sea Urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri Lanka 370
Provisional Checklist of Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea & Holothuroidea 373
Provisional Checklist of Soft Corals Recorded in Sri Lanka 375
Provisional Checklist of Corals in Sri Lanka 376
Provisional Checklist of Marine Aquatic Shelled Molluscs of Sri Lanka 384
Provisional Check List of the Marine Crustaceans in Sri Lanka 396
Provisional Checklist of Marine Fish of Sri Lanka 411
Provisional Checklist of the Leafhoppers in Sri Lanka 431
Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles in Sri Lanka 438
Provisional Checklist of Centipede Fauna in Sri Lanka 445
The IUCN Red List Categories 450
Criteria 452
iv
List of Abbreviations
ARROS Amphibian & Reptile Research Organization of Sri Lanka

BDS Biodiversity Secretariat
BEAR Biodiversity Education & Research Organization
CABRE Center for Applied Biodiversity Research and Education
CEA Central Environmental Authority
CR Critically Endangered
CR(PE) Critically Endangered Possibly Extinct
DD Data Deficient
E English name
EN Endangered
EW Extinct in Wild
EX Extinct
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of UN
FNCP Foundation for Nature Conservation & Preservation
GCS Global Conservation Status
IFS Institute of Fundamental Studies
IUCN World Conservation Union
LC Least Concerned
LORRIS Land Owners Restore Rainforests in Sri Lanka
MOE Ministry of Environment
NARA National Aquatic Resources & Research Development Agency
NCS National Conservation Status
NE Not Evaluated
NSCAC National Species Conservation Advisory Committee
NT Near Threatened
ORCA Ocean Resources Conservation Association
PGIS Post Graduate Institute of Science
RFLP Regional Fisheries Livelihood Programme for South and Southeast Asia
S Sinhala name
SEALS Spirit & Eco Adventure Living Squad
SNR Strict Nature Reserve
T Tamil name
VU Vulnerable
v
Red listing Team
Supervision and Guidance
Prof. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo)

Dr. Siril Wijesundara (Director General, Department of National Botanic Gardens)
Mr. Gamini Gamage (Former Director, Biodiversity Secretariat)
Mr. Ajith Silva (Former Director, Biodiversity Secretariat)
Ms. Padma Abeykoon ( Director, Biodiversity Secretariat)
Coordination
Ms. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat)

Ms. Hasula Wickramasinghe (Biodiversity Secretariat)
Ms. Subhani Ranasinghe (National Herbarium)
Dr. Achala Attanayake (Department of Botanic Gardens)
Mapping
Ms. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat)

Ms. Saranga Jayasundara (Biodiversity Secretariat)
Editors
Prof. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo)

Dr. Siril Wijesundara (Director General, Department of National Botanic Gardens)
Editorial Assistance
Mr. Pradeep Arjuna Jayatunga
Cover page design & page setting
Mr Sanjeewa Lelwala
Data Compiling and Mapping Assistance
Ms. Nadeeka Gunawardana (National Herbarium)

Ms. Gayani Fonseka (National Herbarium)
Ms Hasula Wickremasinghe (Biodiversity Secretariat)
Ms. Himali de Costa (Biodiversity Secretariat)
Mr Amila Sumanapala
Mr Chaminda Ratnayake
Mr. Gayan Kariyawasam
Mr. Gihan Kanchana Vandergert
Mr. H.L.Imeda Lahiru
Mr. Kasun R.Dalpathadu
Mr. Lasantha Jayaruwan
vi
Mr. M.P.Tharanga Wijewickrama
Mr. M.T.R.Fernando
Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda
Mr. Sanjeewa Mahaarachchikumbura
Mr. Tharaka Muthunayake
Ms T.S. Herath
Ms. A.M.S.K.Abeysekara
Ms. A.M.Wathsala Abesinghe
Ms. B.A.K.Wickramathilake
Ms. K.A.Samanthi Kumarasinghe
Ms. Kasundika Bandara
Ms. L.W.L.H.Thejanikala
Ms. N.G.K.D.D. Senevirathne
Ms. S.A.Dilani Kaushalya
Ms. S.M. Wijesuriya
Ms. Sathiska Cathurani Epa
Ms. Thilini Muthukudarachchi
Ms. W. A. Sathya Surakshi
Ms. W.G.Kanchana Kumuduni
Ms. W.M.N.P.Wijayakoon
Ms. T.A.Dilhani Jayawardana
Ms. Gayani Hapuarachchi
Ms. Himali Gamage
vii
Participants of Expert Panel
Flora
Higher Plants
Prof. Deepthi Yakandawala University of Peradeniya

Prof. Nimal Gunathilake University of Peradeniya
Prof. Savithri Gunathilake University of Peradeniya
Dr. Achala Attanayake Department of National Botanic Gardens
Dr. Anoma Perera University of Peradeniya
Dr. Hashendra Kaththiarachchi University of Colombo
Dr. Magdon Jayasuriya Environmental Management Limited
Dr. Samantha Suranjan Fernando PGIS & CABRE
Dr. Siril Wijesundara Department of National Botanic Gardens
Mr. Dilup Chandranimal Flora Consultant
Mr. Nalinda Peris Flora Consultant
Mr. Sarath Ekanayake Flora Consultant
Ms. Subhani Ranasinghe National Herbarium
Orchids
Dr. Siril Wijesundara Department of National Botanic Gardens

Dr. Samantha Suranjan Fernando PGIS & CABRE
Mr. Ajantha Palihawadana Sewalanka Foundation
Mr. Samantha Gunasekara Department of Customs
Ferns
Dr. D.N.K.G.Pushpakumara University of Peradeniya

Dr. R.H.G.Ranil University of Peradeniya
Ms. Nadeeka Gunawardana National Herbarium
Mr. D.M.U.B.Dhanasekara
Mangroves
Prof. L.P. Jayatissa University of Ruhuna

Prof. K.B.Ranawana University of Peradeniya
Prof. Mala Amarasinghe University of Kelaniya
Dr. Abyerami Sivasubramanium University of Jaffna
Dr. T. Jayasingam Eastern University of Sri Lanka
Mr. Duglus Thisera Small Fisheries Federation
Mr. Hasantha Amarasekara RFLP & FAO
Mr. M.Gammanpila NARA
Mr. Manoj Prasannna Biodiversity Secretariat
Mr. W.A.Sumanadasa NARA
viii
Fauna
Freshwater Fishes
Prof. Ruchira Cumaranatunga University of Ruhuna
Prof. Upali Amarasinghe University of Kelaniya
Dr. Terney Pradeep Kumara University of Ruhuna
Mr. Dinesh Gabadage Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society
Mr. Jagath Gunawardana
Mr. Kelum Manamendra Arachchi Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology
Mr. M.M. Bahir Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society
Mr. Madura De Silva Wildlife Conservation Society Galle
Mr. Nadika Hapuarachchi Wildlife Conservation Society Galle
Mr. Sajeewa Chamikara Sri Lanka Nature Group
Mr. Samantha Gunasekara Sri Lanka Customs
Mr. Sameera Akmeemana Wildlife Conservation Society Galle
Mr. Sampath Goonatilake IUCN
Mr. Shantha Jayaweera Young Zoologists’ Association
Mr. Tharaka Muthunayake University of Colombo
Mr. Vimukthi Weeratunga Environmental Foundation Limited
Ms. Hasula Wickremasinghe Ministry of Environment
Ms. Ramani Shirantha NARA
Amphibians
Mr. Anslem de Silva ARROS
Mr. Dinal Samarasinghe Young Zoologists’ Association
Mr. Dushantha Kandambi
Mr. Imesh Nuwan Bandara University of Peradeniya
Mr. Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology
Mr. M.M. Bahir Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society
Mr. Madura De Silva Wildlife Conservation Society
Mr. Mendis Wickramasinghe Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka
Mr. Sameera Karunarathna Young Zoologists’ Association
Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake IUCN
Mr. Thasun Amarasinghe Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society
Mr. V.A.M.P.K.Samarawickrama
Mr. Vimukthi Weerathunga Environmental Foundation Limited
Reptiles
Mr. Ajantha Palihawadana Sewalanka Foundation
Mr. Anslem de Silva ARROS
Mr. Dinal Samarasinghe Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka
Mr. Dulan Ranga Vidanapathirana Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka
Mr. Duminda Nilakshana
Mr. Dushantha Kandambi
ix
Mr. Gayan Chathuranga
Mr. Imesh Nuwan Bandara University of Peradeniya
Mr. M.M.Bahir Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society
Mr. Malaka Bopage
Mr. Mendis Wickramasinghe Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka
Mr. Ruchira Somaweera
Mr. Sameera Karunarathna Young Zoologists’ Association
Mr. Saminda Prasad Fernando The Open University of Sri Lanka
Mr. Thasun Amarasinghe Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society
Mr. V.A.P.M.P. Samarawickrama
Birds
Prof. Devaka Weerakoon University of Colombo
Dr. B.Z. Nizam The Open University of Sri Lanka
Dr. Darshani Mahaulpatha University of Sri Jayawardanapura
Dr. Nanda Senanayake Ceylon Bird Club
Dr. Nilmini Jayasena University of Peradeniya
Dr. Sudheera Bandara Young Zoologists’ Association
Mr. Amila Prasanna Sumanapala University of Kelaniya
Mr. Chaminda Pradeep Rathnayake Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka
Mr. Chinthaka Kalutota Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka
Mr. Deepal Warakagoda Ceylon Bird Club
Mr. Dhammithra Samarasinghe
Mr. Indika Peabotuwage Young Zoologists’ Association
Mr. Jagath Gunawardena Ceylon Bird Club
Mr. Kithsiri Gunawardana Ceylon Bird Club
Mr. Lester Perera Ceylon Bird Club
Mr. Pathmanath Samaraweera Ceylon Bird Club
Mr. Rohan Peiris
Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka/ FNCP
Mr. Sandun Jayawardana Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka
Dr. Sriyani Wickremasinghe Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
Mr. Tharanga Herath Young Zoologists’ Association
Mr. Thushara Senevirathna
Mr. Udaya Siriwardana Ceylon Bird Club
Mr. Uditha Hettige Ceylon Bird Club
Mr. Uditha Wijesena Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka
Mr. Upul Wickremasinghe Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka
Mr. V.A.M.P Samarawickrama
x
Mammals
Dr. Charmalie Nahallage University of Sri Jayawardanapura
Dr. G.A.T. Prasad Department of Wildlife Conservation
Dr. Jinie Dela
Dr. Mayuri Wijesinghe University of Colombo
Dr. Sriyani Miththapala
Dr. Sriyani Wickramasingha Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
Dr. Wipula Yapa University of Colombo
Dr. Wolfgang Dittus IFS
Mr. Channa Rajapakse Commercial Bank
Mr. M. Rohan Peiris Open University of Sri Lanka
Mr. Madura De Silva Wildlife Conservation Society- Galle
Mr. Nadika Hapuarachchi Wildlife Conservation Society- Galle
Mr. Ranil Nanayakkara BEAR
Mr. S.R.B.Dissanayake Department of Wildlife Conservation
Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda FNCP
Mr. Saman Gamage LORRIS
Ms. Anouk Ilangakoon
Ms. Manori Goonatilake Department of National Museums
Butterflies
Dr. George Van der Poorten
Dr. Nirmalie Pallewatte University of Colombo
Mr. Chamitha De Alwis University of Sabaragamuwa
Mr. Himesh Jayasingha Irrigation Department- Wellawaya
Mr. Rajika Gamage Tea Research Institute
Mr. Sajeewa Chamikara Sri Lanka Nature Group
Mr. Sandun J. Perera University of Sabaragamuwa
Mr. Sarath Sanjeewa University of Sabaragamuwa
Mr. V.A.M.P.K. Samarawickrama
Ms. Chanuka Maheshani The Open University of Sri Lanka
Ms. Manori Goonatilake Department of National Museums
Ms. Nancy Van der Poorten
Odonates
Dr. George Van der Poorten
Dr. Karen Conniff
Mr. Sampath Gunasinghe Wildlife Conservation Society Galle
Ms. Nancy Van der Poorten
xi
Ants
Prof. Sriyani Dias University of Kelaniya
Ms. Anuradha Kosgamage University of Kelaniya
Ms. Wajira Swarnamali Peiris University of Kelaniya
Spiders
Dr. Suresh Benjamin IFS
Mr. Bhathiya Kekulandala Practical Action
Mr. Menan Jayarathna Young Biologists’Association
Mr. Mendis Wickremasinghe Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka
Mr. Ranil Nanayakkara BEAR
Mr. Rohan Peiris The Open University of Sri Lanka
Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda FNCP
Bees
Prof. Jayanthi Edirisinghe University of Peradeniya
Dr. Inoka Karunaratne University of Peradeniya
Freshwater Crabs
Mr. M.M.Bahir Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society
Land Snails
Prof. Kithsiri Ranawana University of Peradeniya
Dr. S. Krishnaraja The Open University of Sri Lanka
Mr. T.G. Mahesh Priyadarshana SEALS
Mr. V.A.M.P.K. Samarawickrama
Mr. Rohana Jayasekara
Corals
Dr. S. Krishnaraja The Open University of Sri Lanka
Mr.Arjan Rajasuriya NARA
Marine Fish
Dr. Terney Pradeep University of Ruhuna
Mr. Kasun R. Dalpathadu University of Ruhuna
Mr. Prasanna Weerakkody ORCA
Mr. Rex de Silva
Marine Crustaceans
Prof. S. Kuganathan University of Jaffna
Mr. Prasanna Weerakkody ORCA
xii
Bivalves & Gastropods
Dr. Malik Fernando Sri Lanka Natural History Society
Echinoderms
Dr. Malik Fernando Sri Lanka Natural History Society
Dr. Sevvandi Jayakody University of Wayamba
Leafhoppers
Dr. Raji. Gnaneswaran University of Jaffna
Dung Beetles
Dr. Enoka Kudavidanage University of Sabaragamuwa
Ms. Deepchandi Lekamge University of Sabaragamuwa
Centipedes
Mr. Duminda Dissanayake Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
Dr. Sriyani Wickramasingha Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

xiii
Acknowledgements
The National Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora 2012, is compiled and presented as a
result of great teamwork.
We wish to thank Mr. B.M.U.D. Basnayaka, Secretary of the Ministry of Environment and
Mr. N.K.G.K.Nammewatta, Additional Secretary of Ministry of Environment, for the
encouragement and support provided.
Former Director of Biodiversity Secretariat, Mr. Gamini Gamage, played a key role in initiating
the 2012 National Red List. His successors, Mr. Ajith Silva and Mrs. Padma Abeykoon too
provided all the support required to carry the project forward.
The contributors and experts, who provided the key information necessary for the compilation
of 2012 National Red List, are acknowledged with highest gratitude.
We would also like to acknowledge the Global Red Listing Team for the training and logistical
support they have provided throughout the red listing process.
We wish to thank Dr. Suranjan Fernando for providing the initial training on Red Listing
criteria and for volunteering as one of the editors for the flora section, Dr. R.H.G. Ranil and
Mr. Pradeep Jayatunga for the editorial assistance provided for the pteridophyte and fauna
section respectively and Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake for all the support provided.
We wish to thank Mr. Sanjeewa Lelwala for voluntarily helping us with the cover design and
page layout.
All the Staff of Biodiversity Secretariat and National Herbarium are acknowledged for various
support provided without reservation, in order to make this project a success.
In addition, we like to acknowledge the management and staff of Karunarathne and Sons
Printers, for going beyond their call of duty to print this book on time.
Finally, we wish to thank, all the contributors and their respective organizations for making the
National Red List of 2012, a reality.
Red Listing Team
xiv
Message of the Minister of Environment
According to the 1978 Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, it is
the duty of the state and every person in Sri Lanka to protect, preserve and improve the
environment for the benefit of the community. The Ministry of Environment has taken the
responsibility of implementing the constitution in sustainable management of the environment.
Sri Lanka is considered as a biodiversity hotspot due to its richness in Flora and Fauna and
threats to their survival. As the policy makers of the country it is very important to identify
and prioritize the species for conservation activities. I believe the National Red List 2012 has
provided a solid base in this aspect by evaluating all flowering plants, ferns, all terrestrial
vertebrates and major groups of invertebrates of the country.
Together with the National Herbarium of the Department of Botanic Gardens, the Biodiversity
Secretariat of the Ministry has taken the leading role in preparation of National Red List 2012.
I wish to thank the Fauna and Flora coordinators, the staff of National Herbarium and the
members of the expert committees for their voluntary collaboration in successfully achieving
this nationally important activity. I also congratulate the Director and the staff of the Biodiversity
Secretariat of my Ministry for their effort in completing this event.
I hope this document will be taken as an important tool in future development activities in
becoming the immerging Wonder of Asia in a sustainable manner while conserving the
biodiversity of the country for the generations to come.
Anura Priyadharshana Yapa,

Minister of Environment.
xv
Message of the Secretary, Ministry of Environment
After completion of the National Red List 2007, the Species Conservation Unit was established
under the Biodiversity Secretariat and all the literature and the Red List database was handed
over to this unit by IUCN for updating the Red List. Preparation of 2012 Red List is one of the
major activities of BDS for year 2012
With the contribution of the members of the expert groups established by the National Species
Conservation Advisory Committee, the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry has completed
the evaluation of flora and fauna of the country. The National Herbarium of the Department of
Botanic Gardens collaborated in evaluation of Flora.
Significance of the National Red List 2012 is the evaluation of all species by collaboration of
two government institutions using government funds by building capacity of the government
officers. The database established by this activity will facilitate future research and provide
guidance to the policy and legislations related to biodiversity.
I wish to thank all the taxonomists, naturalist, researchers and other resource persons who
contributed in providing data and comments in preparation of this publication. I also thank the
Red Listing team for completing this publication successfully.
I believe we as the Ministry of Environment has the responsibility in implementing the targets
of the way forward for conservation of the priority species and area selected.
B.M.U.D.Basnayake,
Secretary,
Ministry of Environment.
xvi
A Brief Overview of the Biodiversity of Sri Lanka
Devaka Weerakoon
University of Colombo
Sri Lanka, with a total land area of 65,610 km2 is a tropical island situated in the Indian Ocean.
The southwestern region of Sri Lanka, encompassing approximately 20,000 km2, is the only
aseasonal ever wet region in the whole of South Asia (Ashton & Gunatilleke, 1987; Gunatilleke
et al., 2005). This region is referred to as the wet zone of Sri Lanka and receives up to 3000 mm
of rainfall annually. Wet-zone of Sri Lanka along with the Western Ghats of India is designated
as one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, in demand of extensive conservation investment
(Myers et al., 2000; Brookes et al., 2002). This high biodiversity seen in Sri Lanka can be
attributed to a wide variety of climatic, topographic and soil conditions that exist in the island
that has resulted in a diverse array of aquatic and terrestrial habitats (detailed descriptions of
the natural terrestrial and aquatic natural habitats are given in the flora section).
Sri Lanka was part of the ancient Gondwanaland and was located adjacent to the African
continent. Around 160 million years ago, the Deccan plate which comprised of India and Sri
Lanka, broke away from the Gondwanaland, drifted northwards and collided with the Asian plate
around 55 million years ago. Thereafter, Sri Lanka separated from India due to submersion of
the land bridge between the two countries about 20 million years ago. These zoogeographic,
climatic, topographic and edaphic factors have shaped the faunal and floral assemblage seen
in Sri Lanka. During the last 2 to 3 thousand years land-use changes brought about by humans
have been instrumental in large scale habitat changes that have had both positive and negative
influences on Sri Lanka’s flora and fauna.
Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is significantly important both in a regional and global scale. Sri Lanka
has the highest species density (number of species present per 10,000 sq. km) for flowering
plants, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals in the Asian region (NARESA, 1991). The currently
recognized statistics of the major plant and animal taxa treated in this book are given in Table
1. However, it should be noted that there are many other taxonomic groups in Sri Lanka that
are excluded from this table due to lack of clear data on their current status.
Table 1. Species richness of selected faunal and floral groups of Sri Lanka
Taxonomic Group Number of Species Number of Endemic Species
Angiosperms 3,154 894
Gymnosperms 2 0
Pteridophytes 336 49
Soft corals 35
Hard corals 208
Spiders 501 256
Centipedes 19
Marine crustaceans 742
Fresh water crabs 51 50
Dragonflies 118 47
Ants 194 33
Bees 130
Butterflies 245 26
Leafhoppers 257
xvii
Dung beetles 103 21
Bivalves 287
Gastropods (marine) 469
Land snails 253 205
Echinoderms 190
Marine fish 1377
Fresh water fish 91 50
Amphibians 111 95
Reptiles 211 125
Resident birds 240 27 + 6 Proposed
Mammals 125 21
Even though the above table indicates that Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich biodiversity, at
present only a small fraction of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is known to science. For instance,
higher plants and vertebrates are the only taxa that have been studied in sufficient detail to
date. Lower plants and invertebrates are largely neglected except for few selected groups
such as butterflies, dragonflies, land snails, pteridophytes and algae. Even the vertebrates
and, for that matter, higher plants are not completely listed, as during the last two decade alone
large number of new species have been discovered (Table 2). Even among the birds, which
have been studied quite exhaustively, a new species of owl has been discovered recently
(Warakagoda & Rasmussen, 2004).
Table 2. How the number of species have changed over the last decade.
Taxonomic group 1993 2012
Fresh water shrimps 21 23
Freshwater crabs 7 51
Freshwater fish 51 91
Amphibians 39 111
Reptiles 155 211
Mammals 90 125
The statistics shown in Tables 1 & 2 clearly indicate that most of the information available for
flora and fauna of Sri Lanka is on higher plants or vertebrates. However, one must keep in
mind that higher plants and vertebrates make up only about 3% of all the species described
to date while Order Insecta alone make up about 54%. There is no doubt that large number of
insect species are awaiting to be discovered in Sri Lanka. It will be rather unfortunate if some
of these organisms would perish even before we discover them. Furthermore, so far very little
attention has been given to species that inhabit the forest canopy. Studies in Australia and
South America have shown that the forest canopy is home to large number of living organisms
that will not be detected by the traditional sampling techniques used (Russell-Smith & Stork,
1995; Stork et al., 1997a; Stork et al., 1997b).
Therefore, it is safe to say that one of the biggest drawbacks in conserving the biodiversity of
Sri Lanka is the lack of knowledge about what we actually have. This state of affairs has arisen
mainly due to lack of trained taxonomists as well as lack of initiative to explore the biodiversity
of the country. The state agencies that are responsible for carrying out these activities have
failed to address this issue appreciably due to funding constraints as well as lack of a clear
xviii
leadership to achieve this daunting task. On the contrary, few local and foreign academics and
Non Governmental Organizations have been in the forefront of such exploration in the recent
times. Their work led to the discovery of number of new species of plants and animals over the
past decade as indicated in Table 2.
Even if we mange to fully inventorize the biodiversity of Sri Lanka, it will be impossible to
conserve all of them. Therefore, we will have to choose those species that require our immediate
attention. Thus the conservation status of each species has to be determined. Based on such
an evaluation a list of species is compiled with their present conservation status. Such lists are
referred to as Red Lists or Threatened Lists and can be done at national, regional or global
scale. These lists will help us to prioritize conservation action as well as to plan national and
international legislature. However, listing the conservation status is only the first step towards
conserving threatened species. This should be followed with three other important steps which
are planning, implementation, and monitoring. It appears that we have failed to address these
issues appreciably. This clearly indicates that even though the need to conserve threatened
species has been recognized, the necessary steps to conserve them have not been taken.
Sri Lanka has a rich history of conserving biodiversity, which dates back to the ancient kings.
Furthermore, Sri Lanka has a biodiversity that is worthy of conservation. There is also a great
deal of enthusiasm among our people to conserve the biodiversity of this country. Now is the
time to harness this enthusiasm and provide the right kind of leadership to the conservation
movement of this country as there is still time to save the biodiversity of Sri Lanka. However,
one must bear in mind that this is a race against time and time lost will also result in loss of
species.
References
Ashton, P. M. S. & Gunatilleke, C. V. S., (1987). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I. Historical plant
geography. Journal of Biogeography, 14, pp. 249-285.
Brookes, T. M., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Fonseca, G. A. B. Da., Rylands, A. B., Konstant, W. R., Flick,
P., Pilgrim, J., Oldfield, S., Magin, G. & Hilton-Taylor, C., (2002). Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots of
biodiversity. Conservation Biology, 16, pp.909-923.
Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., Gunatilleke, C. V. S. & Dilhan, M. A. A. B., (2005). Plant biogeography and conservation of
the southwestern hill forests of Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12, pp.9-22
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Fonseca, G. A. B. Da & Kent, J., (2000). Biodiversity hot spots for
Conservation Priorities. Nature, 403, pp.853-858.
NARESA., (1991). Natural resources of Sri Lanka: conditions and trends. Colombo: Natural Resources, Energy and
Science Authority.
Russell-Smith, A. & Stork, N. E., (1995). Composition of Spider communities in the canopies of rain forest trees in
Borneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11, pp. 223-235.
Stork, N. E., Adis, J., & Didham, R.K. eds., (1997a). Canopy Arthropods. London: Chapman & Hall.
Stork, N. E., Adis, J., & Didham, R.K., (1997b). Canopy Arthropod studies for the future. In: N.E. Stork, J. Adis, &
R.K. Didham, eds. 1997. Canopy Arthropods. London: Chapman & Hall.
pp.551-561.
Warakagoda, D. H. & Rasmussen, P. C., (2004). A new species of scops-owl from Sri Lanka. Bull. B.O.C., 124 (2),
pp. 85-105.
xix
Preparation of the 2012 Red List
Dakshini Perera, Hasula Wickramasinghe and Saranga Jayasundara
Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment, Battaramulla
The first list of threatened flora of Sri Lanka was prepared by Prof. B.A. Abeywickrama in 1987.
This list was reproduced by Wijesinghe et al., in 1987 which also included a list of nationally
threatened fauna. This list was updated by Wijesinghe et al., in 1993, using the data gathered
from National Conservation Review of the natural forests of Sri Lanka. Although these lists
were used widely by the scientific community as well as policy makers, they were not accepted
at a global scale as all these lists were prepared in a subjective manner by a few experts using
their personal experience.
In 1996 IUCN International introduced a new set of criteria for assessing the conservation
status of a species based on an objective methodology as compared to the subjective
process that was followed before that. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
has formulated a group of scientists to carry out a fresh assessment of Sri Lankan species
based on the new criteria that has been introduced by IUCN International. This group, having
analyzed the available information, has come to the conclusion that the information available
in Sri Lanka is inadequate to assess the conservation status of Sri Lankan species based
on the new criteria. Therefore, they have proposed a scientifically accepted set of National
Criteria developed along the same conceptual framework used by IUCN International, but
applicable to the type of data available for Sri Lankan species. These criteria were used in
the preparation of the 1999 threatened list of Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Altogether, 807
species of flowering plants and 1,243 species of fauna represented by dragonflies, butterflies,
land snails, freshwater shrimps, freshwater crabs, freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds
and mammals were evaluated. The main drawback faced in this list was that it was prepared
using national criteria and therefore, could not be compared with the global list.
In 2004, the National Species Conservation Advisory Committee of the Ministry of Environment,
requested that IUCN Sri Lanka, in collaboration with the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry
of Environment, to establish a digital database containing information on all the Sri Lankan
species as well as to update the conservation status of Sri Lankan species. This led to
the publication of 2007 list of threatened fauna and flora of Sri Lanka, where species were
evaluated using Global Redlist Categories and Criteria (version 3.1) and categories adapted at
the regional level. In this list, altogether 1,099 flowering plants and 1,064 animals represented
by freshwater fish, reptiles, birds, mammals, butterflies, land snails and Mygalomorph spiders
were evaluated. Further, the conservation status of amphibians, dragonflies and freshwater
crabs that has already been evaluated at a global scale has been included in this list making
the total number of faunal species listed to 1,341.
During this exercise GIS technology was used for the first time in order to prepare distribution
maps for each evaluated species and calculate their Extent of Occurrence and Area of
Occupancy. Following the preparation of this Red List, a Species Conservation Unit was
established under the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment in order to
institutionalize the Red Listing Process in Sri Lanka. The Species Conservation Unit has been
given the responsibility of updating the literature collection on Sri Lankan biodiversity, the
xx
National Species Database and coordinating all matters pertaining to species conservation
including periodic updating of the National Red List.
In 2009, the Biodiversity Secretariat started updating the National Red List. The updating
of flora has been done in collaboration with the National Herbarium of the Department of
National Botanical Gardens to evaluate the flora of the country. For this purpose an expert
group was established for higher plants and pteridophytes. The task of data compiling for
the evaluation of plants was handed over to the National Herbarium, which gathered data
from all published literature and herbarium sheets. As only 1,099 species had been evaluated
during the preparation of 2007 Red List, a decision was taken to enter all relevant information
available for flowering plants and pteridophytes in to the National Species Database. Preparing
the distribution maps of each of the species and draft evaluations were done by the Species
Conservation Unit of the Biodiversity Secretariat and presented to the expert committee for
the final evaluation. All the native higher plants and pteridophytes were evaluated under this
project. When one species has more than one sub species or varieties species assessment
was done first and the sub species/variety assessment was done subsequently if data were
available and/or subspecies/variety is more threatened than the species. When both cultivated
and wild varieties are present assessment was done based on the wild variety. Nomenclature of
the flora was done following the most recent published literature. In the preparation of species
list the most updated nomenclatura available was used unless otherwise stated.
For the fauna, expert committees were established for freshwater crabs, spiders, dragonflies,
butterflies, ants, bees, land snails, freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. In
addition, an expert group was formed for marine organisms. The data compilation, preparation
of maps and draft evaluations were carried out by the Species Conservation Unit and
presented to the individual expert groups for final evaluation. For each taxonomic group two
expert committee meetings were held. Comments received at the first meeting were included
and presented at the final meeting where the lists and conservation status were finalized.
Nomenclature of the fauna was done according to the latest published literature available.
All the species related data were entered into excel sheets that were used for the preparation
of species distribution maps using Arc view 3.2 software package. In most of the publications
only the name of the location was given with province or district, but no geographic information.
To overcome the problem a database was created using coordinates obtained from 1:50,000
scale maps of the Survey Department and geographic coordinates presented in the National
Gazetteer. The species distribution maps were used to calculate the Extent of Occurrence
(EOO) and Area of Occupancy (AOO) and to clarify the distribution points of the species. In
calculation of the AOO 2 x 2 Km grid was used. District boundary maps, climatic zone maps,
river basins and protected area network maps were overlaid for each species distribution map
presented at the expert meetings.
In application of Red List criteria, criteria B was used in most cases and criteria A and C were
used in cases where the population data is available. As a precautionary measure, Category
Critically Endangered possibly extinct CR(PE) was given to species with no distribution records
in last 60 years as no comprehensive surveys has been conducted during recent past.
xxi
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Dragonfly Fauna
(Insecta: Odonata) of Sri Lanka
Nancy van der Poorten1 and Karen Conniff2
1
Hammaliya Estate, Bandarakoswatte
2
C\O ICIMOD, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, G.P.O Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Introduction
Members of the order Odonata belong to one of two suborders: the Zygoptera (damselflies)
and the Anisoptera (dragonflies). The life of an odonate revolves around water: eggs are laid
in water; the larva spends its life in water feeding on aquatic prey; and adults usually court and
mate near the oviposition site. Because of this intimate connection to water, odonates have
been used as indicators of water quality and environmental quality for conservation work and
biodiversity studies. Odonates are also used to monitor the effects of climate change.
The odonate fauna of Sri Lanka has been studied since the mid-1800s. H. A. Hagen published
the first list of odonates from the island (then called Ceylon) in 1858-1859. He published
several more works describing the island’s species with E. de Sélys Longchamps, one of the
world’s foremost authorities on Odonata. Further studies by several well-known odonatologists
including W. F. Kirby, F. F. Laidlaw, F. C. Fraser and M. A. Lieftnick continued up to about 1970.
F. C. Fraser authored three volumes on the Odonata in the series The Fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma (1933, 1934, 1936). de Fonseka (2000) updated the taxonomy
and included information on distribution, habitat, larvae and adults. This book has been
invaluable in furthering interest and research. In the past 15 years, additional studies carried
out primarily by M. Bedjanič and the authors have advanced our knowledge of the species and
their distributions.
Worldwide there are about 5700 described species of odonates. The current list for Sri Lanka
includes 118 species in 12 families with a high degree of endemism: there are 47 endemic
species and an additional 8 endemic subspecies. Three new endemic species are in the process
of description. Since the last IUCN Red List publication (2007), five new endemic species have
been described: Drepanosticta bine, D. anamia, D. mojca (Bedjanič, M., 2010), Lyriothemis
defonsekai (van der Poorten, 2009a) and Libellago corbeti (van der Poorten, 2009b).
The odonate fauna of Sri Lanka includes many common Oriental species and is similar to the
fauna of south India with which Sri Lanka is zoogeographically related. There are, however,
several interesting exceptions and the high degree of endemism is noteworthy. All members
of the following families are endemic: Chlorocyphidae (4 species), Euphaeidae (1 species),
Protoneuridae (6 species), Platystictidae (18 species), Corduliidae (2 species), and Gomphidae
(all except for 3 species). Some of the endemic species seem to be taxonomically isolated
(e.g. Sinhalestes orientalis, Cyclogomphus gynostylus and Microgomphus wijaya).
Taxonomy
Since the last IUCN Red List publication (2007), several synonymies have been documented
(Bedjanič, 2011; Bedjanič, 2009; Bedjanič, 2008) through careful reading of the literature and study
of original specimens and newly available material. Two species have been removed from the list of
1
Sri Lankan odonates because of lack of supporting evidence for their occurrence: Libellago indica
(Hämäläinen et al., 2009) and Palpopleura s. sexmaculata (van der Poorten, 2011).
Distribution
The biology of odonates is intimately tied to water and each species has a requirement for a
specific type of water (e.g. fast- or slow-flowing streams, stagnant water, marshland). In Sri
Lanka, the majority of the common Oriental species are found at lowland tanks (reservoirs)
in the dry zone (e.g. Ictinogomphus rapax, Crocothemis s. servilia). One species is restricted
to coastal areas (Macrodiplax cora). Several other common species are widespread in the
wet lowlands and mid-hills, in marshes, streams and seeps (e.g. Orthetrum luzonicum).
A few species are restricted to the higher elevations (e.g. Indothemis g. gracilis, Sympetrum
fonscolombii). The endemics, however, tend to be localized to specialized habitats within the
wet zone rainforest. These habitats can be compared to small islands; they often have highly
specialized flora and fauna and it can be difficult for an individual to move to another habitat if
conditions become unfavorable. The habitat is fragile and easily disrupted. For example, the
15 species of Drepanosticta are almost all found in very restricted habitats, usually small shady
streams within a forest patch. Two endemic species (Lyriothemis defonsekai and a yet-to-be-
described species) are found only within a restricted area in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve
near a heavily shaded, well-vegetated stream. Elattoneura leucostigma is found only in small
well-vegetated streams in the dense montane forests. Several species of the Gomphidae
family (e.g. Microgomphus wijaya) require well-shaded fast-flowing streams that have dense
vegetation on the edges. By contrast, Mortonagrion ceylonicum requires well-shaded scrub
areas at the edge of still water or ditches.
Threats
Deforestation leading to disruption of the habitat and changes in water sources is probably the
most pressing threat because a number of Sri Lanka’s endemic species (e.g. Drepanosticta,
Platysticta, Libellago and members of the Gomphidae) are found in small patches of rainforest.
Forests have been logged to extract timber, to allow for expansion of plantations and villages
and, in some areas, to maintain security during the conflict period. Cutting of the undergrowth
by villagers for firewood produces changes in the habitat that impact unfavorably on the water
sources on which the odonates rely. For example, the thinning of the forest at Dombagaskanda
(Bodhinagala) has resulted in increased drying of the soils and streamlets between rains,
adversely affecting the Platysticta species found there.
Water pollution is also a serious threat. As a result of agricultural production, many chemicals
end up in the drains and streams where odonates breed. The increasing human population
also puts pressure on water sources, causing increased extraction and use of water and
increased pollution from soap products and other human pollutants. This is detrimental to the
odonates not only directly but also indirectly: other freshwater fauna which odonate larvae eat
are also affected negatively. For example, at Balangoda, in the past 5 years, the stream has
become filled with soap and algae due to the increased human population. The Gomphids and
Macromia that used to be seen here are no longer found.
2
Changes in water sources, such as damming of streams or cutting of canals, also affect
odonates. For example, the Mahaweli project has reduced the Mahaweli River to a stagnant,
slow-flowing river in many places, leading to the disappearance of the riverine species (e.g.
Libellago adami). Tanks that are not rehabilitated properly also lose their native odonate
fauna. Other irrigation schemes, such as the Uda Walawe scheme, do great damage to the
landscape as trees are cut, canals are built and rivers dammed. The large scale conversion
of wetlands to other uses also adversely affects the constituent odonate fauna. For example,
the Muthurajawela Wetland Sanctuary is being illegally developed with consequent detrimental
changes in odonate habitats.
Conservation
1. Enforce existing conservation measures in protected areas

For example, Sinharaja Forest Reserve, which is the only known location for three endemic
species should be protected from removal of vegetation so that the streams and seeps
on which the odonates rely are not damaged. Another example is Talangama Lake near
Colombo; it has protective legislation from various levels of government but still continues
to be subject to gross destruction of the habitat with the consequent loss of species.
2. Establish new protected areas in the wet zone and montane areas
The lake and shores around the Parliament in Sri Jayawardenapura is a rich habitat
for odonates including some less common ones but it is being destroyed by the cutting
of vegetation and development activities including the installation of a major roadway.
Similarly, the habitat around Water’s Edge in Battaramulla (Diyawannana ) was home
to Mortonagrion ceylonicum and Agriocnemis femina, two uncommon species and was
shown to have a very high diversity index. Due to dredging of the wetlands for flood
control, this habitat has been damaged. The lake and shores around the Parliament is an
ideal candidate for designation as a protected area. However, establishing protected areas
must be done with a view to protecting the fauna therein. Even though Diyawannana is
apparently designated as a sanctuary, this has not provided any protection for the odonate
fauna.
3. Legislate additional protection for streams, rivulets and forest corridors in the wet zone
In many places (e.g. Nuwara Eliya), streams are cut illegally to obtain water and vegetation
is cleared right to the edge, destroying the habitat. Streams, rivulets and forest corridors
need legislation to prohibit the diversion of streams and clear-cutting of the edges.
4. Restore already degraded areas in key locations

For example, at Hiyare Reservoir, much habitat degradation has occurred due to illegal
activities in the area but this could be reversed at this time with simple measures.
5. Limit agricultural expansion in forest areas

For example, Morapitiya Forest Reserve is slowly being encroached upon and its undergrowth
is being cut. This will cause the river to become stagnant and will affect the species that
depend on a fast-flowing river (e.g. Macromia zeylanica and Libellago corbeti).
6. Enforce existing legislation regarding corridors and reservations

In many places, the reservations around tanks and rivers are being cut despite legislative
protection. This not only impacts the health of the tank and river but also removes the
surrounding vegetation that is so important to odonates: newly emerged adults need to
spend a few days in a protected area until they mature, and the forested edges of rivers
and tanks are ideal for this.
3
7. Conduct comprehensive faunisitic work to study the distribution and biology of the odonate
species. Without this baseline information, conservation measures cannot be undertaken.
Research gaps
Though the odonates of the island are comparatively well-studied, there are still many gaps
in our knowledge. In 10 taxa, only one sex has been described (usually the male). In about
75 taxa, the larval stage and exuvia have not yet been described. The distribution of most
species is not well-known, particularly those found in the north and east. Several species have
not been seen for more than 50 years (e.g. Sinhalestes orientalis, Heliogomphus nietneri).
There are only one or two records for a few species that are not rare in other countries
(e.g. Lestes malabaricum and Pseudagrion decorum which are both northern species). Habitat
requirements for the adult and larval stages of most species have not been well-documented.
Conclusions and recommendations
1. Do comprehensive surveys in order to map the distributions of all species

2. Do studies to determine flight times and breeding times, habitat requirements for adults and
larval stages, and behavioural needs especially with regards to courtship, mating and
oviposition
3. Complete descriptions of both males and females for each species
4. Build up a scientifically managed specimen collection in the museum
5. Encourage high quality research by facilitating the granting of research permits
4. Encourage and fund research at the university level for Masters and PhD studies
5. Primary education in schools about the overall importance of biodiversity for the island’s
fauna
References
Bedjaniĉ, M., (2011). On the synonymy of three endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Platystictidae,
Protoneuridae). Notulae Odonatologicae, 7(8).
Bedjanič, M., (2010). Three new Drepanosticta species from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Platystictidae). Odonatologica,
39(3), pp.195-215.
Bedjanič, M., (2009). Drepanosticta starmuehlneri St. Quentin, 1972 from Sri Lanka, a synonym of D. lankanensis
(Fraser, 1931) (Zygoptera: Platystictidae). Notulae Odonatologicae, 7(4), pp.37-44.
Bedjanič, M., (2008). Notes on the synonymy, distribution and threat status of Elattoneura oculata (Kirby, 1894), an
endemic damselfly from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Protoneuridae). Odonatologica, 37(2), pp.145-150.
de Fonseka, T., (2000). The dragonflies of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust.
Hämäläinen, M., Bedjaniĉ M. & van der Poorten, N., (2009). Libellago indica (Fraser, 1928) deleted from the list of
Sri Lankan Odonata (Chlorocyphidae). Echo, 6, pp. 3-5 (published in Agrion, 13(1)).
van der Poorten, N., (2011). Palpoleura s. sexmaculata (Fabricius, 1787) deleted from the list of Odonates of Sri
Lanka (Libellulidae). Agrion, 15(2), pp.52-53.
van der Poorten, N., (2009a). Lyriothemis defonsekai sp. nov. from Sri Lanka, with a review of the known species
of the genus (Anisoptera: Libellulidae). Odonatologica, 38(1), pp.15-27.
van der Poorten, N., (2009b). Libellago corbeti sp. nov. from Sri Lanka (Odonata: Chlorocyphidae). Internationaln
Journal of Odonatology, 12(2), pp.223-230.
4
Table 01: List of Dragonflies in Sri Lanka
Scientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS Criteria

Family: Calopterygidae
Neurobasis chinensis E: Oriental Green-
(Linnaeus, 1758) wing VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Black-tipped
Vestalis apicalis Selys, 1873
Flashwing VU B1ab(iii) LC
Family: Chlorocyphidae
Libellago adami Fraser, E: Sri Lanka
1939 Adam's Gem VU B1ab(iii)
Libellago finalis E: Sri Lanka
(Hagen in Selys, 1869) Ultima Gem VU B1ab(iii)
Libellago greeni E: Sri Lanka
(Laidlaw, 1924) Green's Gem EN B2ab(iii)
Libellago corbeti van der E: Sri Lanka
Poorten, 2009 Ebony Gem CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Euphaeidae
E: Sri Lanka
Euphaea splendens Hagen
Shining
in Selys, 1853
Gossamerwing NT
Family: Lestidae
Lestes praemorsus Hagen E: Scalloped
in Selys, 1862 Spreadwing NT
Lestes elatus Hagen in E: White Tipped
Selys, 1862 Spreadwing LC LC
Lestes malabaricus Fraser, E: Malabar
1929 Spreadwing DD
E: Sri Lanka
Sinhalestes orientalis
Emerald B1ab(iii)+
(Hagen in Selys, 1859)
Spreadwing DD CR 2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka E:
Indolestes divisus
Metallic-backed B1ab(iii)+
Reedling EN 2ab(iii)
Indolestes gracilis E: Mountain
(Hagen in Selys, 1862) Reedling VU B1ab(iii) LC
Family: Coenagrionidae
Agriocnemis femina (Brauer, E: White-backed
1868) Wisp CR B2ab(iii) LC
Agriocnemis pygmaea E: Wandering
(Rambur, 1842) Wisp LC LC
Mortonagrion ceylonicum E: Sri Lanka
Lieftinck, 1971 Midget EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) DD
Onychargia atrocyana
Selys, 1865 E: Marsh Dancer VU B1ab(iii) LC
Paracercion malayanum E: Malay
(Selys, 1876) Lilysquatter LC LC
Enallagma parvum Selys,
1876 E: Little Blue DD LC
Aciagrion occidentale
Laidlaw, 1919 E: Asian Slim VU B1ab(iii) LC
Ischnura aurora
(Brauer, 1865) E: Dawn Bluetail NT LC
5
E: Common
Ischnura senegalensis
Bluetail, Marsh
(Rambur, 1842)
Bluetail LC LC
Ceriagrion cerinorubellum
(Brauer, 1865) E: Painted Waxtail VU B1ab(iii) LC
Ceriagrion
coromandelianum
(Fabricius, 1798) E: Yellow Waxtail LC LC
Pseudagrion decorum
(Rambur, 1842) E: Azure Sprite DD
Pseudagrion malabaricum
Fraser, 1924 E: Malabar Sprite LC LC
Pseudagrion
microcephalum
(Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Sprite LC
E: Sri Lanka
Pseudagrion rubriceps
Orange-faced
Selys, 1876
Sprite LC
Family: Platycnemididae
Copera marginipes E: Yellow
(Rambur, 1842) Featherleg LC LC
Family: Platystictidae
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta adami
Adam's B1ab(ii,iii)+
(Fraser, 1933)
Shadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR 2ab(ii,iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta austeni
Austin's B1ab(ii,iii)+
Lieftinck, 1940
Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CR 2ab(ii,iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta brincki
Brinck's
Lieftinck, 1971
Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta digna
Nobel
Shadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta hilaris
Merry B1ab(iii)+
Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CR 2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta lankanensis
Drooping
(Fraser, 1931)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta montana
Dark Knob-tipped B1ab(iii)+
Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CR 2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta nietneri
Nietner's
(Fraser, 1931)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta Bordered
submontana (Fraser, 1933) Knob-tipped B1ab(ii,iii)+
Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CR 2ab(ii,iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta tropica Dark-shouldered
(Hagen in Selys, 1860) Cornuted
Shadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
6
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta subtropica Blue-shouldered
(Fraser, 1933) Cornuted
E: Sri Lanka
Drepanosticta walli
Wall's
(Fraser, 1931)
Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) DD
Drepanosticta anamia
Bedjaniĉ, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)
Drepanosticta bine
Drepanosticta mojca
Platysticta apicalis Kirby, E: Sri Lanka Dark
1894 E: Forestdamsel EN B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Platysticta maculata Selys,
Blurry
1860
Forestdamsel EN B2ab(iii)
Platysticta greeni Kirby,
1891 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Family: Protoneuridae
Ellatoneura oculata E: Sri Lanka Two- B1ab(ii,iii)+
(Kirby, 1894) spotted Threadtail EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN 2ab(ii,iii)
Elattoneura caesia E: Sri Lanka B1ab(ii,iii)+
(Hagen in Selys, 1860) Jungle Threadtail VU B1ab(iii) EN 2ab(ii,iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Elattoneura centralis
Dark-glittering
Threadtail VU B1ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Elattoneura leucostigma
Smoky-winged B1ab(ii,iii)+
(Fraser, 1933)
Threadtail CR B2ab(iii) CR 2ab(ii,iii)
Elattoneura tenax (Hagen E: Sri Lanka Red-
in Selys, 1860) striped Threadtail EN B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Prodasineura sita
Stripe-headed
(Kirby, 1894)
Threadtail LC
Family: Gomphidae
Anisogomphus solitaris E: Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
Lieftinck, 1971 Solitaire Clubtail DD CR 2ab(iii)
Burmagomphus pyramidalis
Laidlaw, 1922 E: Sinuate Clubtail CR B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Cyclogomphus
Transvestite B1ab(iii)+
gynostylus Fraser, 1926
Clubtail CR B2ab(iii) VU 2ab(iii)
Megalogomphus E: Sri Lanka
ceylonicus (Laidlaw, 1922) Sabretail EN B2ab(iii)
Paragomphus henryi
(Campion and Laidlaw, E: Sri Lanka
1928) Brook Hooktail EN B2ab(iii) NT
Heliogomphus ceylonicus E: Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
(Hagen in Selys, 1878) Grappletail DD CR 2ab(iii)
Heliogomphus lyratus E: Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
Fraser, 1933 Lyrate Grappletail CR B2ab(iii) CR 2ab(iii)
7
E: Sri Lanka
Heliogomphus nietneri
Nietner's B1ab(iii)+
Grappletail DD CR 2ab(iii)
Heliogomphus walli E: Sri Lanka
Fraser, 1925 Wall's Grappletail EN B2ab(iii) NT
Macrogomphus E: Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
lankanensis Fraser, 1933 Forktail EN B2ab(iii) VU 2ab(iii)
Macrogomphus annulatus E: Keiser's
(Selys, 1854) Forktail DD DD
E: Sri Lanka
Microgomphus wijaya
Wijaya's B1ab(iii)+
Lieftinck, 1940
Scissortail EN B2ab(iii) EN 2ab(iii)
Gomphidia pearsoni E: Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
Fraser, 1933 Rivulet Tiger EN B2ab(iii) EN 2ab(iii)
Ictinogomphus rapax E: Rapacious
(Rambur, 1842) Flangetail LC LC
Family: Aeshnidae
Anax gutattus E: Pale-spotted
(Burmeister, 1839) Emperor LC LC
Anax immaculifrons
Rambur, 1842 E: Fiery Emperor VU B1ab(iii) LC
Anax indicus Lieftinck, 1942 Elephant Emperor LC LC
Anax tristis Hagen, 1867 DD
Hemianax ephippiger E: Vagrant
(Burmeister, 1839) Emperor DD LC
Gynacantha dravida E: Indian
Lieftinck, 1960 Duskhawker NT
Anaciaeschna donaldi
Fraser, 1922 E: Dark Hawker CR B2ab(iii) LC
Family: Corduliidae
Epophthalmia vittata E: Blue-eyed
Burmeister, 1839 Pondcruiser NT LC
Macromia flinti Lieftinck, E: Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
1977 Flint's Cruiser DD CR 2ab(iii)
Macromia zeylanica E: Sri Lanka
Fraser, 1927 Cruiser CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Libellulidae
Hylaeothemis fruhstorferi E: Fruhstorfer's B1ab(iii)+
(Karsch, 1889) Junglewatcher CR B1ab(iii) EN 2ab(iii)
Tetrathemis yerburii Kirby, E: Sri Lanka
1893 Yerbury's Elf EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii)
Brachydiplax sobrina E: Sombre
(Rambur, 1842) Lieutenant LC LC
Cratilla lineata (Brauer, E: Pale-faced
1878) Forestskimmer EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC
Lathrecista asiatica E: Pruinosed
(Fabricius, 1798) Bloodtail NT
Lyriothemis defonsekai E: Sri Lanka
van der Poorten, 2008 Vermilion Forester CR B1ab(iii)
Orthetrum chrysis E: Spine-tufted
(Selys, 1891) Skimmer VU B1ab(iii) LC
Orthetrum glaucum
(Brauer, 1865) E: Asian Skimmer NT LC
8
Orthetrum luzonicum
(Brauer, 1868) E: Marsh Skimmer NT LC
Orthetrum pruinosum
(Burmeister, 1839) E: Pink Skimmer NT LC
Orthetrum sabina
(Drury, 1770) E: Green Skimmer LC LC
Orthetrum triangulare E: Triangle
(Selys, 1878) Skimmer EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC
Potamarcha congener
(Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Pursuer LC LC
Acisoma panorpoides
Rambur, 1842 E: Asian Pintail LC LC
Brachythemis contaminata E: Asian
(Fabricius, 1793) Groundling LC LC
Bradinopyga geminata E: Indian
(Rambur, 1842) Rockdweller LC LC
Crocothemis servilia
(Drury, 1770) E: Oriental Scarlet LC LC
Diplacodes nebulosa E: Black-tipped
(Fabricius, 1793) Percher NT LC
Diplacodes trivialis
(Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Percher LC LC
Indothemis carnatica E: Light-tipped
(Fabricius, 1798) Demon NT NT
Indothemis limbata E: Restless
(Selys, 1891) Demon NT LC
Neurothemis intermedia E: Paddyfield
(Rambur, 1842) Parasol NT LC
Neurothemis tullia
(Drury, 1773) E: Pied Parasol LC LC
Rhodothemis rufa E: Spine-legged
(Rambur, 1842) Redbolt NT LC
Sympetrum fonscolombii E: Red-veined
(Selys, 1840) Darter EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Trithemis aurora E: Crimson
(Burmeister, 1839) Dropwing LC LC
Trithemis festiva E: Indigo
(Rambur, 1842) Dropwing VU B1ab(iii) LC
Trithemis pallidinervis E: Dancing
(Kirby, 1889) Dropwing NT LC
Onychothemis tonkinensis E: Aggressive
Martin, 1904 Riverhawk EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC
Rhyothemis triangularis E: Sapphire
Kirby, 1889 Flutterer VU B1ab(iii) LC
Rhyothemis variegata E: Variegate
(Linnaeus, 1763) Flutterer LC LC
Hydrobasileus croceus E: Amber-winged
(Brauer, 1867) Glider NT LC
E: Globe
Pantala flavescens
Skimmer,
(Fabricius, 1798)
Wandering Glider LC LC
Tramea basilaris E: Keyhole Glider,
(Palisot de Beauvois, 1805)) Wheeling Glider VU B1ab(iii) LC
9
Tramea limbata
(Desjardins, 1832) E: Sociable Glider LC LC
Tholymis tillarga E: Foggy-winged
(Fabricius, 1798) Twister LC LC
Zyxomma petiolatum
Rambur, 1842 E: Dingy Duskflyer NT LC
Aethriamanta brevipennis E: Elusive
(Rambur, 1842) Adjutant LC LC
Macrodiplax cora
(Kaup in Brauer, 1867) E: Costal Pennant VU B1ab(iii) LC
Urothemis signata
(Rambur, 1842) E: Scarlet Basker LC LC
Zygonyx iris Selys, 1869 E: Cascader VU LC
10
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Ants
(Order: Hymenoptera, Family: Formicidae) in Sri Lanka
R. K. S. Dias, K. R. K. A. Kosgamage and H. A. W. S. Peiris
Department of Zoology, University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya
Introduction
Ants are a common group of insects in most terrestrial habitats in Sri Lanka. Their habitats
vary from highly disturbed urbanized areas to undisturbed forests. Further, the ants occupy a
wide variety of microhabitats ranging from soil (up to a depth of about 20 cm) decaying wood,
plants, trees, litter, termite nests etc. Bingham (1903) was the first to attempt documenting
of the ant species in Sri Lanka. For the next 50 years, ants of Sri Lanka have received little
attention. During the past five decades several taxonomic works on ants of Sri Lanka have
been published (Bolton & Belshaw, 1987; Dorow & Kohout, 1995; Jayasooriya & Traniello,
1985; Wilson, 1964; Wilson, et al., 1956). A revival of taxonomic work on ants of Sri Lanka
in recent times began with the work initiated by the author in 2000. A preliminary taxonomic
study of the ants collected from the premises of the Kelaniya University (Gampaha District)
was carried out (Dias & Chaminda, 2000; Dias, et al., 2001) and this work was later extended
to other Districts such as Colombo, Ratnapura and Galle (Dias & Chaminda, 2001; Chaminda
& Dias, 2001). Books and articles that are relevant to systematics of ants published up to 2003
has been summarised by Dias (2005, 2006). Classification of ants has been revised by Bolton
(2003) and the recent revisions are presented in Bolton, et al., (2006, 2012). In addition, several
websites are available on world ants (www.antbase.org) and the ants of several countries
(Japanese ants colour image database, Ants of India, Ants of Papua New Guinea etc.). The
website on ants of Sri Lanka has been launched in 2011.
Current taxonomic status and taxonomic issues
According to the currently valid classification (Bolton, 2003; Bolton, et al., 2006), ants
belonging to twelve subfamilies, sixty three genera and, two hundred and fifteen species and
morphospecies have been recorded from Sri Lanka (Table A).
The provisional checklist of ants is based on Bolton (1995), specimens deposited at National
Museum, Colombo, the collections of the first author from the wet and dry zones during 2000
- 2011 and the collection from dry, intermediate and arid zone districts, namely, Anuradhapura,
Polonnaruwa, Kurunegala and Puttalam, by the other two authors for their postgraduate
studies. Solenopsis geminata, Oecophylla smaragdina, Meranoplus bicolor, Paratrechina
longicornis and Tapinoma melanocephalum have been listed from Vantharumoolai region
in Batticaloa District (Vinobaba L., personal communication). Based on the IUCN criteria,
nineteen ‘Endangered’ and thirty three ‘Critically Endangered’ species have been identified.
The Sri Lankan Relict Ant, Aneuretus simoni Emery is currently included in the ‘Endangered’
category.
11
Table A. Number of genera and species in each of the twelve ant subfamilies recorded
from Sri Lanka.
Subfamily Genera Species Morpho-species
Aenictinae 1 5
Amblyoponinae 2 1 3
Aneuretinae 1 1
Cerapachyinae 1 6 1
Dolichoderinae 5 8 4
Dorylinae 1 3
Ectatomminae 1 1
Formicinae 12 54 3
Leptanillinae 2 01 3
Myrmicinae 23 79 1
Ponerinae 11 31 6
Pseudomyrmecinae 1 4
61 194 21
In addition to the generic and species level classification, a number of ant genera have been
classified to subgenera, subspecies and varieties (Bolton et al. 2006) but the generic name
and species name of any ant is presented in Appendix Table 1. Also, Carebara is the currently
valid generic name of Oligomyrmex (Fernandez, 2004; Bolton et al. 2006). Among the ant
genera listed in Appendix Table 1 the following ant genera, Acanthomyrmex, Anillomyrma,
Gnamptogenys, Metapone, Paratopula, Rophalomastix, Myopias and Myopopone were never
observed during 2000 to 2011 period. Therefore, they are included in the ‘Data Deficient (DD)’
category. Inadequate research on ant systematics, lack of funding for accessing foreign ant
repositories and lack of morphological descriptions for identification to the species levels are
the major taxonomic issues in ant systematics. Also, identification to the species level requires
the collection of major and minor workers (at the same time) of certain ant genera such as
Pheidole but the sampling methods did not fulfil this need. Sampling methods that were suitable
for ground ants and ground-foraging ants were employed for our research and therefore, ant
species that occupy other microhabitats (e.g. arboreal – Polyrhachis spp., Tetraponera spp.)
and forage elsewhere had a very low representation in this collection.
Distribution
In order to determine the distribution pattern of ants in Sri Lanka an extensive survey was
conducted in Gampaha, Colombo, Galle and Kalutara Districts and intensive surveys conducted
in other Districts from 2000-2011. Two new records, the presence of Aneuretus simoni Emery
(Sri Lankan Relict Ant) in “Kirikanda” forest (Dias, et al., 2011 in press) and “Kalugala Kanda”
forest in Kalutara District (by the first author), were reported in 2010 and 2011 respectively.
Members of Ectatomminae were never observed in our collection.
Threats
Due to the lack of adequate research on individual ant species very little is evident as threats to
the ant fauna. Lack of ground vegetation and leaf litter seems to be the reason for the absence
of leaf litter ants, mostly common ponerines, in cultivated lands when compared with the ant
12
fauna in the nearby forests. Further, setting fire to land before cultivating or to promote grass
growth in pasture lands, which is a common practice in most parts of Sri Lanka has been
identified as a major threat to many species of ground dwelling ant fauna.
Conservation
Awareness programmes on the ecological and economic (where applicable) importance,

general biology and distribution of ants should be conducted at schools, universities and
through media. Ants that are considered as agricultural pests (e.g. Solenopsis geminata,
Meranoplus bicolor, Acropyga acutiventris), nuisance insects or household pests (tramp
species) and the medically important species (Dias, 2011) should be recognized and excluded
from the list. Habitats that are critically important for endemic and threatened ant species
(e.g. Aneuretus simoni, Stereomyrmex horni) that do not come within the protected area
net work must be identified and actions should be taken to ensure that these habitats are
maintained to ensure the survival of these species.
Research gaps and research needs
The inadequacy of research that focuses on forest ants of Sri Lanka (except for Perera 2003,
Dias and Perera, 2011, Gunawardene et al., 2008, Kosgamage, 2011, Peiris, 2012) with only
a few sporadic publications by foreign researchers is a major barrier for the development
of myrmecology in Sri Lanka. Available information on ants in Sri Lanka is restricted to few
Districts of Sri Lanka. Therefore, the survey on ants should be extended to natural and man
made habitats in all other Districts of Sri Lanka that are under different levels of disturbance.
Research projects on ant systematics, biology and ecology of individual species and distribution
of endemic species should be encouraged among undergraduate and postgraduate students.
One of the main reasons for lack of research on ants of Sri Lanka can be attributed to lack
of trained personnel in this field of specialization. Therefore, the curricula in the Universities
should be revised in order to enhance the theoretical knowledge and practical skills required
in ant systematics. Further, short training workshops should be conducted to field biologists
who are currently engaged in entomology research to encourage more research on ant fauna

Current Red Listing of ant species has been based on the existing information (1960 - 2011)
and a detailed check list including the conservation status of species that were evaluated is
given in Appendix 1. Aneuretus simoni, Cardiocondyla nuda, Centromyrmex feae, Cerapachys
aitkini, Cerapachys fossulatus, Cerapachys fragosus, Cerapachys typhlus, Ochetellus glaber,
Polyrhachis illaudatus, Polyrhachis rastellata, Pseudolasius isabellae, Stereomyrmex horni,
Technomyrmex brunneus, Technomyrmex elatior, Prenolepis naorojii, Myrmecina striata and
Dorylus labiatus could especially be considered as Critically Endangered among them. Lack
of adequate surveys on ants in various microhabitats and taxonomic issues pertaining to ant
identification are the major reasons identified for the current scarcity of information on ants
of Sri Lanka. Therefore, the ant list given in this paper may not include all the species that
are present in Sri Lanka today and therefore, needs to be improved in the future. In order to
achieve this goal, more surveys on ants should be conducted with the participation of university
students and other enthusiasts. Further, a book on the ants of Sri Lanka, giving morphological
descriptions and colour photographs (where possible), should be published to encourage
people to work on this lesser known yet common group of insects.
13
References
Bingham, C. T., (1903). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma: Hymenoptera -Vol. 2: Ants and
Cuckoo-wasps. London.
Bolton, B., (1994). Identification Guide to the Ant Genera of the World. USA: Harvard University Press.
Bolton, B., (1995). New General Catalogue of the Ants of the World. USA: Harvard University Press.
Bolton, B., (2003). Synopsis and classification of Formicidae. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute, 71,
pp.1 - 370.
Bolton, B. & Belshaw, R., (1993). Taxonomy and biology of the supposedly lestobiotic ant genus Paedalgus
(Hym:Formicidae). Systematic Entomology, 18, pp.18 –189.
Bolton, B., Alpert, G., Ward, P. S. & Naskrecky, P., (2006). Bolton’s Catalogue of Ants of the World. 1758–2005.
[CDROM], USA: Harvard University Press.
Chaminda, K. M. G .R. & Dias, R. K. S., (2001). Taxonomic key for the identification of Sri Lankan ants: Subfamilies -
Proceedings of the Third ANeT. ANeT Newsletter, 4, Abstract only.
Dias, R. K. S., (2005). Ants – Diversity and importance of ants in Sri Lanka as a component of biodiversity (in Sinhala).
In: H. Amarasekera, ed. 2005. Biodiversity heritage of Sri Lanka – Invertebrates. Nugegoda: Piyasiri Printing
Systems.
Dias, R. K. S., (2006). Current taxonomic status of ants of Sri Lanka. In: C. N. B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. The fauna
of Sri Lanka: Status of taxonomy, research and conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union (IUCN)
of Sri Lanka & the Government of Sri Lanka, pp. 43-52.
Dias, R. K. S., (2008). Amazing ants – present status of research on ants of Sri Lanka. In: N.C. Kumarasinghe,
ed. 2008. Social Insects and their Economic Importance and Conservation. Colombo: SLAAS and Biodiversity
Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, pp. 1 - 9.
Dias, RKS, Peiris, HAWS and HPGRC Ruchirani. 2011. Discovery of Aneuretus simoni Emery in a disturbed forest in
Kalutara, and Stereomyrmex horni Emery in Anuradhapura Sanctuary, Sri Lanka, Asian Myrmecology, 3, in
press
Dias, R. K. S. and K. A. M. Perera. 2011. Worker ant community observed by repeated sampling and information on
endemic Aneuretus simoni Emery in the Gilimale Forest Reserve in Sri Lanka. Asian Myrmecology, 4: 69 –
78 pp
Dias, R. K. S., (2011). Biology of medically important ants in Sri Lanka. In: A. Ratnatilaka, ed. 2011. Medically important
ants, bees, wasps and spiders. pp. 30 – 68.
Dias, R. K. S. & Chaminda, K. M. G. R., (2000). A preliminary taxonomic study of Sri Lankan ants. In: University
Malaysia Sabah, the Second ANeT workshop and seminar. Kota Kinabalu, East Malaysia: University Malaysia
Sabah.
Dias, R. K. S. & Chaminda, K. M. G. R., (2001). Systematics of some worker ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) collected
from several regions of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Third ANeT workshop and seminar held in Hanoi, Vietnam.
ANeT Newsletter, 4. Abstract only.
Dias, R. K. S., Chaminda, K.M.G.R. & Yamane, S., (2001). Systematics of the worker ant fauna collected from the
premises of Kelaniya University. Proceedings of the 57th SLAAS Annual Session, Abstract only.
Dias, R. K. S., Peiris, H. A. W. S. & Ruchirani, H. P. G. R. C., (2011). Discovery of Aneuretus simoni Emery in
a disturbed forest in Kalutara, and Stereomyrmex horni Emery in Anuradhapura Sanctuary, Sri Lanka. Asian
Myrmecology, 4, pp.99-102.
Dorow, W. H. O. & Kohout, R. J., (1995). A review of the Subgenus Hemioptica Roger of the genus Polyrhachis Fr.
Smith with description of a new species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae). Zool. Med. Leiden., 69, pp.93-
104.
Jayasooriya, A. K. & Traniello, J. F. O., (1985). The biology of the primitive ant Aneuretus simoni Emery (Formicidae:
Aneuretinae) – Distribution, abundance, colony structure and foraging ecology. Insectes Sociaux, 32(4), pp.363
-374.
Kosgamage, K. R. K. A., 2011. Diversity and distribution of worker ants (Family: Formicidae) in selected sites in two
dry zone Districts of Sri Lanka and the potential of Neemazal-F and citronella oil in the control of selected ant
species. M. Phil. Thesis, University of Kelaniya, 249 p.
Peiris, H. A. W. S., 2012. Similarities and differences of worker ant fauna in three types of habitats in four districts of
Sri Lanka. Thesis submitted for the Degree of M. Phil., University of Kelaniya.
Perera, K. A. M. 2003. The relative abundance and density of Aneuretus simoni Emery (Order: Hymenoptera, Family:
Formicidae) in a selected region in the forest (“Pompekelle”) associated with water pumping station in
Ratnapura. Thesis submitted for the B. Sc. Special Degree in Zoology, Department of Zoology, University of
Kelaniya.
Wilson, E. O., (1964). The true army ants of the Indo-Australian area (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Dorylinae). Pacific
Insects, 6(3), pp.427 - 483.
Wilson, E. O., Eisner, T., Wheeler, G. C. & Wheeler, J., (1956). Aneuretus simoni Emery, a major link in ant evolution.
Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 115(03), pp.81 -105.
14
Table 02: List of Ants in Sri Lanka
Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria

Subfamily: Aenictinae
Aenictus biroi Forel DD
E: Asian Reddish Brown Army
Aenictus ceylonicus (Mayr) Ant DD
Aenictus fergusoni (Karavaive) EN B2ab(iii)
Aenictus pachycerus (Dalla Torre) E: Army Ant EN B1ab(iii)
Aenictus porizonoides Walker DD
Subfamily: Aneuretinae
Aneuretus simoni Emery E: Sri Lankan Relict Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)
Subfamily: Myrmicinae
Myrmecina striata Emery CR B2ab(iii)
Acanthomyrmex luciolae Emery DD
Anillomyrma decamera Emery DD
Calyptomyrmex tamil Baroni Urbani DD
Calyptomyrmex vedda Baroni Urbani DD
Calyptomyrmex singalensis Baroni Urbani DD
Cardiocondyla nuda (Mayr) CR B2ab(iii)
Cataulacus simoni Emery DD
Cataulacus taprobanae Smith F. DD
Crematogaster anthracina Smith F. DD
Crematogaster biroi Mayr EN B2ab(iii)
Crematogaster apicalis Motchoulsky DD
Crematogaster brunnescens Motchoulsky DD
Crematogaster dohrni Mayr S: Kodaya VU B1ab(iii)
Crematogaster pellens Walker DD
Crematogaster politula Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)
Crematogaster ransonneti Mayr DD
Crematogaster rogenhoferi Mayr E: Thai Tree Ant CR B2ab(iii)
Crematogaster rogeri Mayr DD
Crematogaster rothneyi Forel S: Kodaya LC
Lophomyrmex quadrispinosus (Jerdon) LC
Meranoplus bicolor (Guerin-Meneville) LC
Metapone greeni Forel DD
Metapone johni Karavaiev DD
E: Flower Ant S: Thel Koom-
Monomorium floricola (Jerdon) biya LC
Monomorium subopacum (Smith F.) DD
Monomorium taprobanae Forel E: Sri Lanka Flower Ant DD
Monomorium latinode Mayr DD
Monomorium criniceps (Mayr) EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Singapore Ant S: Rathu
Monomorium destructor (Jerdon) Koombiya LC
Monomorium mayri Forel DD
Monomorium pharaonis (L.) E: Pharaoh Ant LC
Monomorium rogeri (Mayr) DD
15
Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders LC
Carebara bruni (Forel) DD
Carebara butteli (Forel) DD
Carebara deponens (Walker) DD
Carebara taprobanae (Forel) DD
Carebara escherichi (Forel) DD
Paratopula ceylonica (Emery) DD
Pheidole latinoda Roger DD
Pheidole nietneri Emery DD
Pheidole sulcaticeps Roger DD
Pheidole barreleti Forel DD
Pheidole ceylonica (Motchoulsky) DD
Pheidole diffidens (Walker) DD
Pheidole gracilipes (Motschoulsky) DD
Pheidole horni Emery DD
Pheidole malinsii Forel DD
Pheidole megacephala Forel E: Big Head Ant DD
Pheidole noda Forel DD
Pheidole parva Mayr DD
Pheidole pronotalis Fore DD
Pheidole rhombinoda Mayr CR B2ab(iii)
Pheidole rugosa Smith F. DD
Pheidole spathifera Forel DD
Pheidole templaria Forel DD
Pheidologeton ceylonensis Forel DD
Pheidologeton diversus (Smith F.) E: East Indian Harvesting Ant VU B1ab(iii)
Pheidologeton pygmaeus Forel DD
Recurvidris pickburni Bolton DD
Recurvidris recurvispinosa (Forel) VU B1ab(iii)
Rophalomastix escherichi Forel DD
E: Red Tropical Fire Ant S:
Solenopsis geminata (Fabricius) Nayi Koombiya LC
Solenopsis nitens Bingham E: Fire Ant DD
Stereomyrmex horni Emery CR B2ab(iii)
Strumigenys godeffroyi Mayr DD
Strumigenys lyroessa (Roger) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tetramorium bicarinatum (Nylander) LC
Tetramorium pacificum Mayr DD
Tetramorium simillimum (Smith) DD
Tetramorium curvispinosum Mayr DD
Tetramorium pilosum Emery DD
Tetramorium smithi Mayr VU B1ab(iii)
Tetramorium tortuosum Roger VU B1ab(iii)
Tetramorium transversarium Roger DD
Tetramorium walshi (Forel) VU B1ab(iii)
16
Tetramorium yerburyi Forel DD
Vollenhovia escherichi Forel DD
Subfamily: Cerapachyinae
Cerapachys fossulatus Forel CR B2ab(iii)
Cerapachys luteoviger Brown DD
Cerapachys coecus (Mayr) DD
Cerapachys fragosus (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)
Cerapachys typhlus (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)
Cerapachys aitkenii Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)
Subfamily: Dolichoderinae
Dolichoderus taprobanae (Smith F.) CR B2ab(iii)
Ochetellus glaber (Mayr) E: Black House Ant CR B2ab(iii)
Tapinoma indicum Forel LC
Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) E: Ghost Ant S: Hini Koombiya LC
Technomyrmex bicolor Forel VU B1ab(iii)
Technomyrmex albipes (Smith F.) S: Kalu Koombiya LC
Technomyrmex detorquens (Walker) DD
Technomyrmex elatior Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)
Subfamily: Dorylinae
Dorylus labiatus Shuckard CR B2ab(iii)
Dorylus laevigatus (Smith F.) E: Driver Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)
Dorylus orientalis Westwood E: Red Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)
Subfamily: Ectatomminae
Gnamptogenys coxalis Brown DD
Subfamily: Ponerinae
Anochetus consultans (Walker) DD
Anochetus graeffei Mayr VU B1ab(iii)
Anochetus longifossatus Mayr EN B1ab(iii)
Anochetus madaraszi Mayr DD
Anochetus nietneri (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)
Anochetus yerburyi Forel DD
Centromyrmex feae (Emery) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Cryptopone testacea Emery DD
Diacamma ceylonense Emery S: Kadiya EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Queenless Ponerine Ant
Diacamma rugosum Forel S: Kadiya EN B1+2ab(iii)
Harpegnathos saltator Jerdon E: Jerdon's Jumping Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)
Hypoponera ceylonensis (Mayr) DD
Hypoponera confinis (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)
Hypoponera taprobanae (Forel) DD
Leptogenys exudans (Walker) DD
Leptogenys hysterica Forel DD
Leptogenys processionalis (Jerdon) LC
Leptogenys pruinosa Forel EN B2ab(iii)
Leptogenys yerburyi Forel DD
17
Leptogenys diminuta (Smith F.) DD
Leptogenys falcigera Roger DD
Leptogenys meritans (Walker) DD
Leptogenys peuqueti (Andre) CR B2ab(iii)
Myopias amblyops Roger DD
E: Indian Trap-jaw Ant
Odontomachus simillimus Smith F. S: Dala Kadiya LC
Pachycondyla luteipes (Mayr) LC
Pachycondyla rubiginosa (Emery) CR B2ab(iii)
Pachycondyla sulcata (Forel) CR B2ab(iii)
Pachycondyla tesseronoda (Emery) LC
Platythyrea clypeata Forel DD
Platythyrea parallela (Smith F.) VU B1ab(iii)
Subfamily: Amblyoponinae
Myopopone maculata DD
Subfamily: Leptanillinae
Leptanilla besucheti Baroni Urbani DD
Subfamily: Pseudomyrmecinae
Tetraponera allaborans (Walker, 1859) VU B2ab(iii)
Tetraponera nigra (Jerdon) DD
Tetraponera petiolata (Smith F.) DD
E: Arboreal Bicolored Ant
Tetraponera rufonigra (Jerdon) S: Hathpolaya LC
Subfamily: Formicinae
Acropyga acutiventris Roger LC
E: Yellow Crazy Ant
Anoplolepis gracilipes (Smith F.) S: Ambalaya LC
Camponotus compressus Fabricius LC
Camponotus irritans (Smith F.) LC
Camponotus latebrosus Donisthorpe DD
Camponotus mitis (Smith F.) DD
Camponotus ominosus Forel DD
Camponotus simoni Emery DD
Camponotus thraso Forel DD
Camponotus wedda Forel DD
Camponotus albipes Emery DD
Camponotus auriculatus Mayr DD
Camponotus barbatus Roger DD
Camponotus fletcheri Donisthorpe DD
Camponotus greeni Forel DD
Camponotus indeflexus (Walker) DD
Camponotus isabellae Forel DD
Camponotus mendax Forel DD
Camponotus oblongus Forel EN B1+2ab(iii)
Camponotus reticulatus Roger LC
Camponotus rufoglaucus (Jerdon) VU B1ab(iii)
18
E: Golden Backed Carpenter
Camponotus sericeus (Fabricius) Ant LC
Camponotus sesquipedalis Roger DD
Camponotus varians Roger DD
Camponotus variegatus (Smith F.) CR B2ab(iii)
Lepisiota capensis (Mayr) E: Black Sugar Ant CR B2ab(iii)
Lepisiota frauenfeldi (Mayr) VU B1ab(iii)
Lepisiota opaca (Mayr) VU B1ab(iii)
Myrmoteras ceylonica Gregg DD
Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius) E: Weaver ant S: Dimiya LC
E: Longhorn Crazy Ant
Paratrechina longicornis (Latrielle) S: Kalu Koombiya LC
Paratrechina indica Forel EN B1+2ab(iii)
Paratrechina taylori (Forel) DD
Nylanderia yerburyi (Forel) LC
Plagiolepis jerdonii Forel VU B1ab(iii)
Plagiolepis pissina Roger DD
Polyrhachis bugnioni Forel DD
Polyrhachis exercita (Walker) DD
Polyrhachis horni Emery DD
Polyrhachis jerdonii Forel EN B1+2ab(iii)
Polyrhachis nigra Mayr DD
Polyrhachis rupicapra Roger DD
Polyrhachis thrinax Roger DD
Polyrhachis tibialis Santschi DD
Polyrhachis xanthippe Forel DD
Polyrhachis yerburyi Forel DD
Polyrhachis convexa Roger VU B1ab(iii)
Polyrhachis illaudata Walker CR B1+2ab(iii)
Polyrhachis punctillata Roger VU B1ab(iii)
Polyrhachis rastellata (Latreille) CR B2ab(iii)
Polyrhachis scissa (Roger) EN B2ab(iii)
Polyrhachis sophocles Forel DD
Prenolepis naorojii Forel CR B2ab(iii)
Pseudolasius isabellae Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)
No of species: 194 (Due to the recent revisions in the ant taxonomy and removal of morphospecies this number
has gone down)
No of endemics: 33 (based on "so far recorded from Sri Lanka only")
Global list contains only Aneuretus simoni as CR (B1+2c)
19
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Bees
(Hymenoptera: Apoidea) in Sri Lanka
W. A. Inoka P. Karunaratne and Jayanthi P. Edirisinghe
Department of Zoology, University of Peradenya, Peradeniya
Introduction
Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apiformes) are the most important pollinators of flowering plants
including agricultural crops resulting in fruits and seed production. Most of the world’s crops
are pollinated by bees comprising more than 20,000 identified species and a similar number of
species awaiting identification. The distribution of bees depends on climate and their ability to
disperse to suitable areas (Michener, 2000). The highest bee diversity has been recorded from
warm temperate desert regions of the world.
The earliest work on bees of Sri Lanka dates back to the British Colonial period where Dalla Torre
(1896) listed 17 species of bees and Bingham (1897) recorded and described 42 species of bees
from Sri Lanka. During the post-colonial period Sakagami and Ebmer (1987), Schwarz (1990),
Sakagami (1978 & 1991), Sakagami, Ebmer and Tadauchi (1996 and 1998), Snelling (1980)
and Baker (1996) worked on bees of Sri Lanka. The Smithsonian - Sri Lanka Insect Survey
conducted from 1969 through 1975 up to 1987 resulted in the identification of several more bee
species and led to several publications. Duplicate specimens of bees identified through this
survey have been deposited in two locations: the Sri Lanka National Museums, Colombo (58
spp.) and in the Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya (42 spp.). Through a survey of
published literature on bees of Sri Lanka, Wijesekara (2001) compiled an annotated list of bees
of Sri Lanka documenting 132 bee species belonging to 25 genera and 4 families. The land
mark publication on the ‘Bees of the world’ by Michener (2000) includes 29 genera and several
subgenera of bees from Sri Lanka. Later surveys conducted by local scientists resulted in the
updating of the checklist of bees of Sri Lanka with the addition of 5 new genera and 15 new
species including one species new to Science (Karunaratne, Edirisinghe & Pauly, 2005).
Taxonomy
Difficulty in accessing the published keys and descriptions of selected bee groups in the
region and the lack of an expert identified reference bee collection in the country are the major
impediments to the advancement of bee taxonomy. Further, lack of cooperation between bee
specialists in the region and the absence of a forum for exchanging scientific/research findings
are also major constraints faced by bee taxonomists in Sri Lanka. As a result there are many
morpho-species awaiting proper identification. The need for revising the bee taxa of Sri Lanka
is a major requirement as evidenced by the recent upgrading of the subfamily Nomiinae in Sri
Lanka (Karunaratne, Edirisinghe & Pauly, 2005) that resulted in 11 genera of bees that were
previously classified under 3 genera.
Distribution
Field studies conducted in the recent past have shown that most bee species are distributed
across a range of altitudes while few species are restricted to specific habitats above 900 m.
They are Homalictus singhalensis, Lasioglossum (Sudila) bidentatum, L. (Sudila) alphenum,
20
L. (Sudila) aulacophorum, and L. (Evylaeus) carnifrons. The Low country Dry zone harbours
the majority of bee species where disturbed habitats such as scrublands that comprise of a
diverse assemblage of herbaceous flowering plants, support the largest number of generalist
bee species.
Threats
The most serious threat faced by bees is the decline and fragmentation of natural habitats that
harbour their feeding plants and nesting sites. Encroachment of exotic invasive tall grass species
such as Panicum maximum into scrublands and agricultural lands that harbour large number of
bee species can be considered as a serious threat to the bees. These invasive grass species
eventually eliminate the herbaceous flowering plants that provide food and the nesting grounds for
bees. In agricultural habitats, uncontrolled application of insecticides and weedicides, especially
during the active period of bees, has lowered their populations significantly.
Conservation
As bees are the major pollinators of our crops and flowering plants, priority should be given to
proper management of this faunal group. Conservation of natural habitats is an essential task in
bee conservation. Presence of a variety of pollen and nectar producing plants that can provide
a year-around supply of food that is necessary to retain bees even during off seasons. Further,
ground nesting bees should have undisturbed soil to make their nests. Therefore, at least 25%
of the area covered by cultivated landscapes should be set aside for natural vegetation to keep
beneficial insects including bees. Also application of insecticides and weedicides in agricultural
habitats should be carried out during periods when bees are less active.
Conserving flowering plants that provide nectar and pollen for bees and establishing sites that
are suitable for nesting is another priority area that needs to be addressed. Further, application
of insecticides and weedicides should be carried out in a manner that would have the least
affect on bees. Measures such as application of insecticides prior to flowering and at a time of
the day when bees are less active on flowers would minimize their exposure to such chemicals.
Research gaps
The need for revising the bee taxa of Sri Lanka is a major requirement as evidenced by the
recent studies that have led to the discovery of several new species in Sri Lanka. Further,
much of the data available for bees in Sri Lanka is restricted to few locations. Therefore, lack
of knowledge about the distribution of bees is also a major gap in the knowledge on Sri Lankan
bees. Thus, an island-wide survey should be conducted to document distribution patterns of
the bees. This can be coupled with the establishment of a reference collection at the National
Museum. Bees play a crucial role as pollinators, especially in crop plants. Yet bee pollinators
of many crop plants are yet to be identified and documented. Therefore, an attempt should
be taken to identify and document bees that function as pollinators of crop plants and plants
that are of conservation value such as threatened and endemic plants. Studies done in India
have indicated that a significant increase in the yields can be achieved by augmenting the
pollinator bee populations. Similar studies can be undertaken in Sri Lanka as to how crop
pollination can be enhanced in both natural and built environments. The current trends in bee
populations remain unknown and as population fluctuations of bees will have a direct bearing
21
on agriculture, a mechanism must be established for monitoring the changes in bee diversity
and density in specific landscapes.
1. It is necessary to enhance the capacity of bee taxonomists to undertake the much needed
taxonomic revisions on bees of Sri Lanka, through education and training
2. It is also important to educate the local communities on the important role played by bees
as pollinators and encourage them to actively engage in the conservation of bees
3. Develop an user friendly field guide on bees that to enable and popularize the study of
bees
4. Prepare an information booklet outlining actions that can be taken to enhance the
population of bees
5. Introduce agronomic practices that requires a lesser usage of agrochemical that are
detrimental to bees
6. Undertake a coordinated programmes to enhance the bee diversity and density, especially
in agricultural landscapes
References
Baker, D. B., (1996). Notes on some palearctic and oriental Systropha, with descriptions of new species and a key
to the species (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Halictidae), J. Nat. Hist., 30, pp.1527-1547
Bingham, C. T., (1897). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Hymenoptera Vol. 1, Wasps and
Bees. London: Taylor and Francis.
Dalla Torre, C. G., (1896). Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus.
X: Aphidae (Anthophilla). Leipzig, pp. 643.
Gupta, R. K., (2003). An annotated catalogue of bees of the Indian Region, [online]
Available at: <http://geocities.com/ BeesInd2/ braunsapis.htm>
Karunaratne, W. A. I. P., (2004). Taxonomy and Ecology of Bees of Sri Lanka. PhD. University of Peradeniya.
Karunaratne, W. A. I. P., Edirisinghe, J. P., & Pauly, A., (2005). An updated checklist of bees of Sri Lanka with new
records - MAB Checklist and Handbook Series. Publication No. 23. Colombo: National Science Foundation.
Krombein, K. V. & Norden, B. B., (2001). Notes on trap-nesting Sri Lankan wasps and bees (Hymenoptera: Vespidae,
Pompilidae, Sphecidae, Colletidae, Megachilidae), Proc. of the Ent. Soc, 103(2), pp.274-281.
Michener, C. D., (2000). The Bees of the World. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkin University Press.
Punchihewa, R. W. K., (1994). Beekeeping for honey production in Sri Lanka: management of Asiatic Hive honeybee
Apis cerana in its natural tropical monsoonal environment. Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka.
Roubik, D. W., (1992). Ecology and Natural History of tropical bees. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sakagami, S. F. & Ebmer, P. A., (1987). Taxonomic notes on Oriental halictine bees of the genus Halictus (Subgen.
Seladonia) (Hymenoptera Apoidea), Linzer Biol. Beitr, 192, pp.301-357.
Sakagami, S. F., Ebmer, A. W. & Tadauchi, O., (1996). The Halictine bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. III. Sudila
(Hymenoptera: Halictidae) Part 1. Esakia, 36, pp.143-189.
Sakagami, S. F., Ebmer, A. W. & Tadauchi, O., (1998). The Halictine bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. III. Sudila
(Hymenoptera: Halictidae) Part 2. Esakia, 38, pp.55-83.
Sakagami, S. F., (1978). Tetragonula stingless bees of the Continental Asia and Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera, Apidae).
Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Series VI, Zoology, 21(2), pp.165-247.
Sakagami, S. F., (1991). The halictid bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. II. Nesohalictus (Hymenoptera: Halictidae).
Zool. Sci., 8, pp.169-178.
Snelling, R. R., (1980). New bees of the genus Hylaeus from Sri Lanka and India (Hymenoptera: Colletidae).
Contributions in Science, (328), pp.1-18.
Wijesekara, A., (2001). An annotated list of bees (Hymenoptera:Apodea: Apiformes) of Sri Lanka. Tijdschrift Voor
Entomologie, 144, pp.145-158.
22
Table 03 : List of Bees in Sri Lanka
Scientific Name NCS Criteria

Family: Colletidae
Hylaeus krombeini Snelling, 1980 CR B2ab(iii)
Hylaeus sedens Snelling, 1980 CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Halicitidae
Austronomia krombeini Hirashima, 1978 NT
Austronomia notiomorpha Hirashima, 1978 NT
Ceylalictus cereus (Nurse, 1901) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylalictus horni (Strand, 1913) CR
Ceylalictus taprobanae (Cameron, 1897) EN B2ab(iii)
Curvinomia formosa (Smith, 1858) EN B2ab(iii)
Curvinomia iridiscens (Smith, 1857) EN B2ab(iii)
Gnathonomia nasicana Bingham, 1897 EN B2ab(iii)
Halictus (Seladonia) lucidipennis Smith, 1853 LC
Halictus trincomalicus Cameron, 1903 CR B2ab(iii)
Homalictus paradnanus (Strand, 1914) EN B1ab(iii)
Homalictus singhalensis (Blüthgen, 1926) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Hoplonomia westwoodi (Gribodo, 1894) LC
Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) amblypygus (Strand, 1913) VU B1ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) cire (Cameron, 1897) VU B1ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) clarum (Nurse, 1902) NT
Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) semisculptum (Cockerell, 1911) CR B2ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) semisculptum (Cockerell, 1911) CR
Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) vagans (Smith, 1857) VU B1ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) albescens (Smith, 1853) EN B1ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Evylaeus) carinifrons (Cameron, 1904) LC
Lasioglossum (Nesohalictus) halictoides (Smith, 1859) VU B1ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Nesohalictus) serenum (Cameron, 1897) LC
Lasioglossum (Sudila) alphenum (Cameron, 1897) LC
Lasioglossum (Sudila) aulacophorum (Strand, 1913) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Sudila) bidentatum (Cameron, 1898) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Lasioglossum (Sudila) kandiense (Cockerell, 1913) CR B2ab(iii)
Lipotriches (Austronomia) ustula (Cockerell, 1911) EN B2ab(iii)
Lipotriches austella (Hirashima, 1978) EN B1ab(iii)
Lipotriches cromberi (Cockerell, 1911) EN B2ab(iii)
Lipotriches edirisinghei Pauly, 2006 VU B1ab(iii)
Lipotriches exagens (Walker, 1860) EN B1ab(iii)
Lipotriches fulvinerva (Cameron, 1907) EN
Lipotriches pulchriventris (Cameron, 1897) CR B2ab(iii)
Lipotriches sp nr. Comperta (Cockerell, 1912) CR B2ab(iii)
Nomia (Hoplonomia) strigata (Fabricius, 1793) CR B2ab(iii)
Nomia biroi Friese, 1913 EN B1ab(iii)
Nomia butteli Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)
Nomia crassipes Fabricius 1798 NT
Nomia crassiuscula Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)
23
Nomia elegantula Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)
Nomia matalea Starnd, 1913 EN B1ab(iii)
Nomia oxybeloides Smith, 1875 EN B1ab(iii)
Nomia puttalama Starnd, 1913 EN B1ab(iii)
Nomia rufa Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii)
Pachyhalictus bedanus (Blüthgen, 1926) CR B2ab(iii)
Pachyhalictus kalutarae (Cockerell, 1911) VU B1ab(iii)
Pachyhalictus sigiriellus (Cockerell, 1911) CR B2ab(iii)
Pachyhalictus vinctus (Walker, 1860) CR B2ab(iii)
Pseudapis oxybeloides (Smith, 1875) LC
Sphecodes biroi Friese, 1909 CR B2ab(iii)
Sphecodes crassicornis Smith, 1875 VU B1ab(iii)
Steganomus nodicornis (Smith, 1875) EN B2ab(iii)
Systropha tropicalis Cockerell, 1911 EN B2ab(iii)
Family: Megachilidae
Anthidiellum ramakrishnae (Cockerell, 1919) CR B2ab(iii)

Coelioxys angulata Smith, 1870 VU B1ab(iii)
Coelioxys apicata Smith, 1854 CR B1ab(iii)
Coelioxys capitata Smith, 1854 VU B1ab(iii)
Coelioxys confusus Smith, 1875 EN B2ab(iii)
Coelioxys fenestrata Smith, 1873 EN B1ab(iii)
Coelioxys fuscipennis Smith, 1854 CR B2ab(iii)
Coelioxys intacta Friese, 1923 CR B2ab(iii)
Coelioxys minutus Smith, 1879 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Coelioxys nitidoscutellaris Pasteels, 1987 CR B2ab(iii)
Coelioxys taiwanensis Cockerell, 1911 EN B1ab(iii)
Euaspis edentata Baker, 1995 EN B2ab(iii)
Heriades binghami Cameron, 1897 NT
Lithurgus atratus Smith, 1854 VU B1ab(iii)
Megachile amputata Smith, 1858 CR B2ab(iii)
Megachile ardens Smith, 1879 CR B2ab(iii)
Megachile conjuncta Smith, 1853 NT
Megachile disjuncta Fabricius, 1781 NT
Megachile hera Bingham, 1897 VU B1ab(iii)
Megachile kandyca Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii)
Megachile lanata Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii)
Megachile mystacea Fabricius, 1775 CR B2ab(iii)
Megachile nana Bingham, 1897 VU B1ab(iii)
Megachile nigricans Cameron, 1898 CR B2ab(iii)
Megachile reepeni Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii)
Megachile relata Smith, 1879 CR B2ab(iii)
Megachile umbripennis Smith, 1853 VU B1ab(iii)
Megachile vestita Smith, 1853 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Megachile vigilans Smith, 1878 EN B2ab(iii)
24
Family: Apidae
Amegilla (Glossamegilla) violacea Lepeletier, 1841 VU B1ab(iii)
Amegilla (Zebramegilla) fallax Smith, 1879 NT
Amegilla (Zebramegilla) subcoerulea Lepeletier, 1841 CR B2ab(iii)
Amegilla (Zonamegilla) cingulifera Cockerell, 1910 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Amegilla (Zonamegilla) comberi Cockerell, 1911 NT
Amegilla (Zonamegilla) niveocincta (Smith, 1854) CR B2ab(iii)
Amegilla (Zonamegilla) puttalama Strand, 1913 VU B1ab(iii)
Amegilla (Zonamegilla) subinsularis (Strand) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Amegilla (Zonamegilla) zonata Linnaeus, 1758 VU B1ab(iii)
Apis cerana Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii)
Apis dorsata Fabricius, 1793 EN B2ab(iii)
Apis florea Fabricius, 1787 EN B2ab(iii)
Braunsapis cupulifera Vachal, 1894 CR B2ab(iii)
Braunsapis mixta Smith, 1852 LC
Braunsapis picitarsis Cameron, 1902 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceratina (Ceratinidia) hieroglyphica Smith, 1854 LC
Ceratina (Pithitis) binghami Cockerell, 1910 LC
Ceratina (Pithitis) smaragdula Fabricius, 1787 EN B2ab(iii)
Ceratina (Simoceratina) tanganyicensis Strand, 1911 CR B2ab(iii)
Ceratina (Xanthoceratina) beata Cameron, 1897 CR B2ab(iii)
Nomada antennata Meade-Waldo, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)
Nomada bicellula Schwarz, 1990 EN B1ab(iii)
Nomada priscilla Nurse, 1902 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Nomada wickwari Meade-Waldo, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)
Tetralonia commixtana Strand, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)
Tetralonia fumida Cockerell, 1911 CR B2ab(iii)
Tetralonia taprobanicola Strand, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)
Thyreus ceylonicus Friese, 1905 NT
Thyreus histrio Fabricius, 1775 NT
Thyreus insignis Meyer, 1912 EN B2ab(iii)
Thyreus ramosellus Cockerell, 1919 EN B2ab(iii)
Thyreus surniculus Lieftinck, 1959 CR B2ab(iii)
Thyreus takaonis Cockerell, 1911 LC
Trigona iridipennis Smith, 1854 LC
Xylocopa amethystina Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii)
Xylocopa auripennis Lepeletier, 1841 CR B2ab(iii)
Xylocopa bhowara Maa, 1938 VU B1ab(iii)
Xylocopa bryorum Fabricius, 1775 CR B2ab(iii)
Xylocopa confusa Perez, 1901 EN B1ab(iii)
Xylocopa dejeanii Lepeletier, 1841 EN B1ab(iii)
Xylocopa fenestrata Fabricius, 1798 NT
Xylocopa nasalis Westwood, 1842 CR B2ab(iii)
Xylocopa ruficornis Fabricius, 1804 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Xylocopa tenuiscapa Westwood, 1840 LC
Xylocopa tranquibarica Fabricius, 1804 CR B2ab(iii)
25
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Butterflies of Sri Lanka
George van der Poorten
Hammaliya Estate, Bandarakoswatte.
Introduction
The study of butterflies in Sri Lanka began with a short account of 7 species from the island
by Sir J. Emerson Tennent in his book Ceylon: An account of the island, Volume 1 (1860).
This was followed by a more comprehensive account on the butterflies of Sri Lanka by
Frederick Moore in The Lepidoptera of Ceylon Volume 1 (1880-1881) and Volume 3 (1884-
87). Several scientific works such as Marshall & de Nicéville (1882-83), de Nicéville (1886,
1890), Manders (1899, 1903, 1904), Bingham (1905 & 1907), Ormiston (1924), Evans (1927
& 1932), Woodhouse (1942, 1949, 1950), and Talbot (1947) have contributed to furthering the
knowledge on butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka. However, much of the information in these books
was based on the original writings of Moore with some added information generated by studies
done in India and contributions by local naturalists including E. E. Green, Tunnard, Manders,
Wiley and Ormiston. In 1998, d’Abrera published a book with short accounts on all of the
species accompanied by color photographs. Since then several popular books and articles
have been published on butterflies; most of them however, are based on available literature
rather than new information.
To date, 245 species of butterflies (Order Lepidoptera: Superfamily Papilionoidae) have been
recorded from Sri Lanka, of which twenty-six species are endemic to the island. Sri Lanka
shares most of its butterfly fauna with peninsular India, with which it is zoographically related.
In particular, there are several species regionally endemic to the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.
Current taxonomic status
The phylogenetic analysis of the butterflies and skippers of the world by Ackery et. al., (1999)
in which they were classified under three superfamilies (Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea and
Papilionoidea), has been superceded by the work of van Nieukerken et. al., (2011) in which
all seven families of butterflies, including the skippers, are now classified in the superfamily
Papilionoidae. In Sri Lanka, all species of butterflies and skippers are classified under the
following six families: Papilionidae (15 species), Pieridae (28 species), Nymphalidae (68
species), Riodinidae (1 species), Lycaenidae (84 species) and Hesperiidae (49 species).
Of the 26 endemic species, 9 species each are found in the Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae
families while the remaining 8 species belong to the families Papilionidae (2), Pieridae (2) and
Hesperiidae (4). However, ongoing taxonomic work on the group may result in a change in the
number of endemic species (Kunte, K., in prep.).
Since the publication of 2007 IUCN Red List, two species new to Sri Lanka have been discovered:
Catopsilia scylla (van der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012c.) and Cephrenes trichopepla (van
der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012b, in press.). These two species are recent arrivals to
the island from possibly Malaysia and Australia, respectively. In addition, Spindasis greeni is
now considered a valid species. Some authors questioned its status as a species because it
was originally described from only one specimen. However, new information confirms that it is
indeed a valid species (van der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012a, in press).
26
Distribution
The distribution of butterflies in Sri Lanka is largely determined by climate, topography and
the underlying geology of the land, as these factors determine the types of vegetation that will
grow in a particular area. Many species of butterflies are generalists and occur in a range of
climatic zones because of their ability to survive on a wide range of larval and adult resources,
and their ability to migrate or disperse widely. However, there are few species that display a
very local and restricted distribution because they are constrained by one or more resources.
The following describes the species restricted to specific climatic zones, types of forests or
grasslands in which they are found and the habitats within them (endemics are indicated by *).
Arid zone
North and north-west
Coastal thorn scrub: Colotis fausta, Junonia hierta, Azanus ubaldus, and Colotis
danae
Meadows with seasonal flooding: Byblia ilithyia
South and south-east
Coastal thorn scrub: Tarucas callinara
Dry zone
Dry mixed evergreen forest (north): Spindasis nubilus*, Tajuria jehana, Virachola
isocrates
Dry mixed evergreen forest (south-east): Gomalia elma, Graphium nomius
Dry intermediate zone

Savannah grassland habitats of the Uva and Sabaragamuwa provinces: Symphaedra
nais, Ypthima singala*, Pratapa deva
Wet zone: lowland

Generalists: Parthenos sylvia, Papilio helenus, Nacaduba ollyetti*, Pachliopta jophon*
Bamboo habitats: Mycalesis rama*
Riparian habitats: Jamides coruscans*, Kallima philarchus*, Idea iasonia*
Seepages and marsh habitats: Thoressa decorata*
Dipterocarp forests: Rapala lankana, Arhopala ormistoni*, Horaga onyx, Horaga
albimacula, Nacaduba calauria
Mangrove habitats: Euploea phaenareta, Ideopsis similis
Wet zone: submontane

Generalists: Prioneris sita
Riparian habitats: Doleschallia bisaltide, Celaenorrhinus spilothyrus*
Rocky riparian habitats: Phalanta alcippe
Bamboo thickets: Lethe dynsate*, Lethe drypetis
Grasslands: Baracus vittatus*, Eurema laeta
Wet zone: montane

Generalists: Udara lanka*, Udara akasa, Spindasis greeni*, Vanessa indica, Parantica
taprobana*, Cepora nadina, Spindasis greeni*, Argynnis hyperbius
Bamboo habitats: Lethe daretis*
Grassland habitats: Baracus vittatus*, Eurema laeta
27
Threats to butterflies
The most significant threat to the butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka is the disappearance and
degradation of forest, grassland and coastal habitats due to human activity. In the wet zone,
the greatest concerns include the ever-increasing illegal encroachment of human settlements,
the illegal felling of trees for timber and firewood and the illegal expansion of tea and rubber
cultivations into the protected forest reserves. In the dry and arid zones, the situation is similar,
though it is the illegal cultivation of rice and other crops that threatens the butterfly habitats.
The coastal habitats of butterflies are threatened by a more recent phenomenon: the rapid
development of hotels and resorts in many near-pristine areas of the coast.
In addition to these general threats, there are specific ones. For example, the introduction of
the thorny non-native tree, Prosopis juliflora, to the arid zones has eliminated the native flora,
including the larval food plants and nectar sources of many species of butterflies, which were
once common in that eco-system. In the southern arid zone, the incursion of Prosopis will have
a dramatic impact on the survival of Tarucas callinara, which is entirely restricted to the coastal
arid zone of the south and south-east. The situation in Mannar and Arippu is the same where
the most affected species is Junonia hierta, a species entirely confined to the coastal belt of
the arid zone of the north and north-west. Several other butterfly species of the arid zone (e.g.
Ixias pyrene and Colotis amata), which are also found in the dry zone, have undergone local
extinctions in places where Prosopis has replaced the native thorn scrub.
The Knuckles Conservation Area also faces several specific threats. Pinus caribaea has become
naturalized and is invading the natural grasslands, which are the habitats of butterflies such
as Baracus vittatus, Eurema laeta, E. brigitta, and Mycalesis mineus. The native undergrowth
of much of the forested areas has been taken over by the cultivation of Elettaria cardamomom
and the naturalization of Cestrum nocturnum. In addition, the spread of these two species
along streams as well has displaced much of the native vegetation. In particular, Asystasia
chelonoides and Pseuderanthemum latifolium which are larval food plants of Doleschallia
bisaltide have declined and continue to disappear in many stream habitats. Similarly, several
species of Strobilanthes, which are the larval food plants of Kallima philarchus have also
declined with the consequent adverse effects for the butterfly.
The threat faced by Symphaedra nais in the Nilgala-Bibile savanna grasslands is not one
of invasion by foreign plant species, but one of yearly forest fires deliberately set by people
living in the area and uncontrolled utilization of its food tree. The fires are set to allow for new
growth of grass for improved grazing by animals and to promote flushing of the “beedi” tree,
Diospyros melanoxylon. The newly matured leaves of this plant are used by the local people
to manufacture a type of local cigarette called “Beedi”. These maturing leaves are also used
by the larvae of S. nais as their food source. The harvesting of these leaves destroys ova and
larvae in large numbers while adults perish under the fires set to the forests. The fires also
prevent young trees from developing into mature seed-bearing trees. At times, entire branches
are lopped off mature trees to make collecting the maturing leaves easier. These activities
coupled with the dying off of mature trees will result in a deficit in the seed bank for the future
generations of D. melanoxylon. The direct effects of fire, the harvesting of leaves and the likely
disappearance or drastic reduction of D. melanoxylon from this habitat do not bode well for the
survival of S. nais.
28
Another threat of increasing importance is the illicit removal of very young trees about 4–6
cm in diameter from the understorey of the wet zone forests for firewood, fences and other
uses. Several small tree species such as Humboldtia laurifolia (larval host plant of Jamides
coruscans) and several species of Polyalthia (larval food plants of Graphium doson and
Graphium agamemnon) are entirely understorey plants and their removal along with other
understorey plants will not only impact the larval food source but will also alter the composition
of the understorey by influencing its microclimate and thereby impacting shade-loving butterfly
species (Discophora lepida) and plant species (Thottea siliquosa, the sole larval food plant of
Pachliopta jophon).
The disappearance of suitable habitats and larval food plants in all climatic zones is reflected
in the reduced size of many populations of butterflies, particularly those that show seasonal
mass movements. This is particularly evident during the mass movements of Appias galene, A.
libythea, Catopsilia pomona, Hebomoia glaucippe and Papilo crino; the numbers seen today
are but a fraction of what was seen a few decades ago.
Conservation
Of the 245 species of butterflies in Sri Lanka, 100 species (41%) are listed as threatened species
(21 are critically endangered, 38 are endangered and 40 are vulnerable). A further 21 species
are listed as Near Threatened. The status of 6 species was not analyzed because of lack of
data on their occurrence and distribution. However, only Pachliopta jophon is listed as a globally
threatened species (critically endangered) by the IUCN. This indicates the need to update the
Global Red List with respect to the conservation status of the butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka.
These statistics also reflect the dire consequences of many of the threats outlined above as
well as the lack of information on the biology of many species of butterflies in Sri Lanka. The
status designated to the butterflies in this report has been based on EOO and AOO and has
not taken into consideration the rate of decline in numbers over several years (because of
lack of data), although this is a very important criterion in determining the loss of ground by a
species in its environment over time. Nonetheless, several species such as Rapala lankana,
Horaga onyx, H. albimacula, Gangara lebadea, Nacaduba calauria, Junonia hierta, Tajuria
arida, Spindasis greeni, Appias indra, and Cepora nadina, have been recorded in such low
numbers and in so few locations over many years that these must certainly be considered
the most critically endangered in the island and their conservation must be addressed with
a sense of urgency. These butterflies have been sighted less than a half dozen times over
the past 7 years since detailed records have been kept. Interestingly, these butterflies have
also been historically very rare even 100 years ago (Ormiston, 1924) and the assessment of
their status given here can be questioned until their biology is understood. They are also very
rare in museum collections and the information available on the specimens is scanty. There
is little or no information on what habitats they were found in and in which locations. All of
these species are habitat specialists of the wet zone lowlands or montane forests and cannot
survive outside pristine or near pristine forests as shown by the data collected by the Ministry
of the Environment and several independent researchers. This highlights the importance of
conserving the rain forests of the south and south-west, particularly those forest reserves that
are under state control, which are probably the last refuges of these species. Another butterfly,
Catapaecilma major, falls into this category but it flies in the dry and intermediate zones.
29
At least for one butterfly, Arhopala ormistoni, the mystery of its great rarity has been recently
uncovered. This is a species of the dense Dipterocarp forests of the wet zone, and it spends
its entire life high up in the canopy where it is very difficult to see and therefore record; it
seldom descends to levels where it can be observed easily. This points to the importance
of understanding the general biology of the butterflies before assessing the status and
conservation importance.
On the other hand, there are several species that are well adapted to altered landscapes and
that survive outside forests very well. These include many species (e.g. Ypthima, Leptosia
and Mycalesis) whose larvae feed on annual weed species that grow in abandoned lands and
roadsides and their populations certainly seem to be increasing compared to the past. The
establishment of butterfly gardens in urban and non-urban areas has certainly encouraged
these species. The private sector has been particularly active in the promotion of these butterfly
gardens for eco-tourism and it is hoped that the idea will spread to individuals, government and
non-governmental institutions more rapidly. Fortunately, there is a push by the Ministry of the
Environment to promote the idea of butterfly gardens by organizing seminars, workshops and
publications. More work need to be done to create awareness on butterfly conservation in rural
areas, particularly in villages that are bordering forests in the wet zone. Further, more funding
opportunities should be created for butterfly conservation projects to ensure long term survival
of butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka.
Recommendations for Research and Conservation
1. Establish an officially recognized group of amateur and professional lepidopterists to work

closely with designated biologists from the Ministry of the Environment and other affiliated
institutions to act as a consultative body on issues relating to butterfly conservation. This
group must be empowered to carry out island-wide surveys to monitor population fluctua-
tions and to gather information on all aspects of butterfly biology.
2. Establish an official website with a comprehensive database containing historical and cur-
rent information on the butterflies of the island.
3. Initiate a project to gather data on the habitats, distribution, flight periods, immature stag-
es, and the general biology of the endangered and critically endangered species. The find-
ings of such a study will enable identification of areas that can be protected and enhanced
for the conservation of the butterflies of Sri Lanka.
4. Conduct DNA and genitalia studies to verify the taxonomic status of the endemic species
and sub-species in Sri Lanka to compare with those of the Indian mainland, e.g. Tarucas
callinara, Tarucas nara, Pelopidas agna, Pelopidas mathias, Halpe egena, Halpe ceylo-
nica, Spindasis ictis, Spindasis elima, Spindasis nubilus, Acytolepis puspa and Acytolepis
lilacea.
References
Ackery, P., de Jong, R. & Vane-Wright, R. I., (1999). The Butterflies: Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea and Papilionoidae.
In: N.P. Kristensen, ed. 1999. The butterflies: Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea, and Papilionoidea. de Gruyter. Berlin.
pp. 263–300.
Kunte, K., (in press). A Systematic and Biogeographic Catalogue of Indian Butterflies: Butterfly Diversity and
Endemism in India’s Biodiversity Hotspots.
Ormiston, W., (1924). The Butterflies of Ceylon. Colombo: H. W. Cave & Co.
van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (in press, a). The biology of Spindasis greeni Heron, 1896 and a review
of the genus Spindasis in Sri Lanka (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). The Journal of Research in Lepidoptera.
30
van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (in press, b). Cephrenes trichopepla (Lower, 1908): A new record for
Sri Lanka with notes on its biology, life history and distribution (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). The Journal of
Research in Lepidoptera.
van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (2012). Catopsilia scylla (Linnaeus, 1763): A new record for Sri Lanka
with notes on its biology, life history and distribution (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). The Journal of Research on the
Lepidoptera, 45, pp.17-23.
van Nieukerken, E. K., Kaila, L., Kitching, I. J., Kristensen, N. P., Lees, D. C., Minet, J., Mitter, C., Mutanen, M.,
Regier, J. C., Simonsen, T. J., Wahlberg, N., Yen, S-H., Zahiri, R., Adamski, D., Baixeras, J., Bartsch, D.,
Bengtsson, B. Å., Brown, J. W. S. R., Bucheli, D.R. Davis, J. De Prins, W. De Prins, M. E. Epstein, P. Gentili-
Poole, C. Gielis, P. Hättenschwiler, A. Hausmann, J. D. Holloway, A. Kallies, O. Karsholt, A. Y. Kawahara, S.
J. C. Koster, M. Kozlov, V., Lafontaine, J. D., Lamas, G., Landry, J.-F., Lee, S., Nuss, M., Park, K.-T., Penz, C.,
Rota, J., Schintlmeister, A., Schmidt, B. C., Sohn, J.-C., Solis, M. A., Tarmann, G. M., Warren, A.D., Weller, S.,
Yakovlev, R. V., Zolotuhin, V. V. & Zwick. A., (2011). Order Lepidoptera Linnaeus, 1758. In: Z.-Q. Zhang, ed.
2011. Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness. Zootaxa,
3148, pp.212-221.
31
Table 04 : List of Butterflies in Sri Lanka
Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria

Family: Papilionidae
E: Tailed Jay;
Graphium agamemnon Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Thudanga Pralapani
E: Fivebar Swordtail;
Graphium antiphates Cramer, 1775 EN B2ab(iii)
S: Pancha iri kaga-waligaya
E: Common Jay ;
Graphium doson Felder, 1864 LC
S: Pralapani
E: Spot Swordtail;
Graphium nomius Esper, 1784 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Thith Kaga-waligaya
E: Bluebottle ;
Graphium sarpedon Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Neelabomi
E: Common Rose ;
Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Sewwandiya
E: Crimson Rose;
Pachliopta hector Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Arunu Sewwandiya
E: Sri Lanka Rose;
Pachliopta jophon Gray, 1852 EN B2ab(iii) CR* B1+2ac
S: Sri Lanka rosa papiliya
E: Mime;
Papilio clytia Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Rawana Papiliya
E: Banded Peacock;
Papilio crino Fabricius, 1792 VU B2ab(iii)
S: Mayurabada
E: Lime Butterfly;
Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Dehirisiya
E: Red Helen;
Papilio helenus Linnaeus, 1758 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Maha Kela Papiliya
E: Blue Mormon ;
Papilio polymnestor Cramer, 1775 LC
S: Neela Parindaya
E: Common Mormon;
Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Wesgaththi
E: Sri Lanka Birdwing;
Troides darsius Gray, 1852 S: Sri Lanka Maha Kurulu LC
Piya Paliliya
Family: Pieridae
E: Common Albatross;
Appias albina Boisduval, 1836 LC
S: Dingupath Samanalaya
E: Sri Lanka Lesser
Albatross; S: Sri Lanka
Appias galene Cramer, 1777 LC
Thundu Dingupath
Samanalaya
E: Plain Puffin; B1ab(iii)+
Appias indra Moore, 1857 CR
S: Dumbara-sudana 2ab(iii)
E: Striped Albatross;
Appias libythea Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Iri Sudana
E: Chocolate Albatross;
Appias lyncida Cramer, 1779 LC
S: Dumburuwan Sudana
Belenois aurota Fabricius, 1793 E: Pioneer ;S: Apsaravi LC
E: Lemon Emigrant;
Catopsilia pomona Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Dehi seriya
E: Mottled Emigrant;
Catopsilia pyranthe Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Lapa seriya
Catopsilia scylla Linnaeus, 1763 E: Orange Migrant LC
32
E: Lesser Gull;
Cepora nadina Lucas, 1852 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Heen Panduru-sudana
E: Common Gull;
Cepora nerissa Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Lihini Samanalaya
E: Small Salmon Arab;
Colotis amata Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Punchi Rosa Sudana
E: Crimson Tip; B1ab(iii)+
Colotis danae Fabricius, 1775 VU
S: Rathu-thudu Sudda 2ab(iii)
E: Little Orange Tip;
Colotis etrida Boisduval, 1836 NT
S: Heen Sudana
E: Plain Orange Tip;
Colotis aurora Cramer, 1780 S: Podu Tembiliwan VU B1ab(iii)
Sudana
E: Large Salmon Arab;
Colotis fausta Olivier, 1807 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Maha Rosa Sudana
Delias eucharis Drury, 1773 E: Jezebel; S: Pilila Risiya LC
E: Three-spot Grass Yellow;
Eurema blanda Boisduval, 1836 S: Thun pulli Thruna LC
Pithaya
E: Small Grass Yellow;
Eurema brigitta Stoll, 1780 LC
S: Rubella Thruna pithaya
E: Common Grass Yellow;
Eurema hecabe Linnaeus, 1764 LC
S: Thruna Pithaya
E: Spotless Grass Yellow;
Eurema laeta Boisduval, 1836 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Nothith Thruna Pithaya
E: Sri Lanka One-spot
Eurema ormistoni Moore, 1886 Grass Yellow; S: Sri Lanka VU B1ab(iii)
Kela kahakolaya
E: Great Orange Tip;
Hebomoia glaucippe Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Maha Ramba Thuduwa)
E: White Orange Tip;
Ixias marianne Cramer, 1779 LC
S: Ela Ramba Thuduwa
E: Yellow Orange Tip;
Ixias pyrene Linnaeus, 1764 LC
S: Padu Ramba Thuduwa
Leptosia nina Fabricius, 1793 E: Psyche; S: Manahari LC
E: Dark Wanderer;
Pareronia ceylanica Felder, 1865 LC
S: Anduru seriya
E: Painted Sawtooth; B1ab(iii)+
Prioneris sita Felder, 1865 EN
S: Vichitra Maha-sudda 2ab(iii)
Family: Nymphalidae
Acraea violae Fabricius, 1807 E: Tawny Coster ; S: Viyola LC
E: Indian Fritillary; B1ab(iii)+
Argynnis hyperbius Linnaeus, 1763 EN
S: Indiyanu Alankarikaya 2ab(iii)
E: Angled Castor;
Ariadne ariadne Linnaeus, 1763 LC
S: Naw-Risiya
E :Common Castor;
Ariadne merione Cramer, 1777 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Podu Pathan-sariya
Byblia ilithyia Drury, 1773 E :Joker; S: Kawataya VU B1ab(iii)
E :Ceylon Lace Wing;
Cethosia nietneri Felder, 1867 LC
S:Lanka Seda-piyapatha
E :Tawny Rajah;
Charaxes psaphon Westwood, 1848 NT
S: Maha Kumaraya
E :Black Rajah; S: Kalu
Charaxes solon Fabricius, 1793 NT
Raja-kumaraya
33
E :Yeoman;
Cirrochroa thais Fabricius, 1787 LC
S: Kela Raththiya
Cupha erymanthis Drury, 1773 E :Rustic; S: Raththiya LC
E: Plain Tiger;
Danaus chrysippus Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Pahan Gomara
E: Common Tiger;
Danaus genutia Cramer, 1779 LC
S: Agni Gomara
E: Southern Duffer;
Discophora lepida Moore, 1857 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Dumburu Kewattaya
E: Autumn Leaf;
Doleschallia bisaltide Cramer, 1777 EN B2ab(iii)
S: Yoda kela-kolaya
E: Redspot Duke;
Dophla evelina Stoll, 1790 LC
S: Rath-ne
E: Common Palmfly;
Elymnias hypermnestra Linnaeus, 1763 LC
S: Ramba-thaliya
E: Sri Lanka Palmfly; S: Sri B1ab(iii)+
Elymnias singhala Moore, 1875 EN
Lanka Thal-dumburuwa 2ab(iii)
E: Common Indian Crow;
Euploea core Cramer, 1779 LC
S: Indu Kakaya
E: Brown King Crow;
Euploea klugii Moore, 1888 LC
S: Raja Kaka-kotithiya
E: The Great Crow;
Euploea phaenareta Schaller, 1758 EN B2ab(iii)
S: Yoda Kaka-kotithiya
E: Double- branded Black
Euploea sylvester Fabricius, 1793 Crow; S: De-iri Kaka- NT
kotithiya
Euthalia aconthea Cramer, 1777 E: Baron ; S: Sitano LC
E: Gaudy Baron;
Euthalia lubentina Cramer, 1779 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Kela Achchilaya
E: Great Eggfly;
Hypolimnas bolina Linnaeus, 1756 LC
S: Maha-siwwa
E: Danaid Eggfly;
Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Punchi-siwwa
E: Sri Lanka Tree Nymph;
Idea iasonia Westwood, 1848 VU B1ab(iii) NT
S:Sri Lanka Pawenna
E: Blue Glassy Tiger;
Ideopsis similis Linnaeus, 1764 VU B1ab(iii)
S:Maha Nil-kotithiya
E: Peacock Pansy;
Junonia almana Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Mayura Pansaya
E: Grey Pansy;
Junonia atlites Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Alu Pansaya
E: Yellow Pansy;
Junonia hierta Fabricius, 1793 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Peetha Pansaya
E: Chocolate Soldier;
Junonia iphita Cramer, 1779 LC
S: Miyuru-Hewa
E: Lemon Pansy;
Junonia lemonias Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Pangiri Pansaya
E: Blue Pansy;
Junonia orithya Linnaeus, 1758 NT
S: Nil Alankarikaya
E :Sri Lanka Blue Oakleaf;
Kallima philarchus Westwood, 1848 EN B2ab(iii)
S: Sri Lanka Nil Kela-kolaya
E: Blue Admiral;
Kaniska canace Linnaeus, 1763 LC
S: Nil Seneviya
34
E: Sri Lanka Treebrown;
B1ab(iii)+
Lethe daretis Hewitson, 1868 S: Sri Lanka Gas- EN
2ab(iii)
dumburuwa
E: Tamil Treebrown; B1ab(iii)+
Lethe drypetis Hewitson, 1868 EN
S: Maha- Gas-dumburuwa 2ab(iii)
E :Sri Lanka Forester;
B1ab(iii)+
Lethe dynsate Hewitson, 1868 S: Sri Lanka Kela Gas- EN
2ab(iii)
dumburuwa
E: Common Treebrown;
Lethe rohria Fabricius, 1787 EN B2ab(iii)
S: Podu Gas-dumburuwa
E: Beak; B1ab(iii)+
Libythea celtis Laicharting, 1782 EN
S: Dumburu-thuduwa 2ab(iii)
E :Club Beak; S: Dandu
Libythea myrrha Godart, 1819 VU B1ab(iii)
Dumburu-thuduwa
E: Common Evening
Melanitis leda Linnaeus, 1763 LC
Brown; S: Gomman-guruwa
E: Dark Evening Brown;
Melanitis phedima Cramer, 1780 NT
S: Anduru Gomman-guruwa
E: Commander;
Moduza procris Cramer, 1777 LC
S: Maha Selaruwa
E: Dark-Brand Bushbrown;
Mycalesis mineus Linnaeus, 1758 S: Anduru-lapa panduru LC
Guruwa
E: Gladeye Bushbrown;
Mycalesis patnia Moore, 1857 S: Min-neth panduru LC
Guruwa)
E: Common Bushbrown;
Mycalesis perseus Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Panduru Guruwa
E: Sri Lanka Bushbrown;
B1ab(iii)+
Mycalesis rama Moore, 1892 S: Sri Lanka Panduru- EN
2ab(iii)
dumburuwa
E: Sri Lanka Tamil
Bushbrown;
Mycalesis subdita Moore, 1857 LC
S: Sri Lanka Damila
Panduru-dumburuwa
E: Common Sailor;
Neptis hylas Linnaeus, 1758 LC
S: Selaruwa
E: Chestnut-streaked
Neptis jumbah Moore, 1857 LC
Sailor; S: Wairan Selaruwa
E: Medus Brown;
Orsotriaena medus Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Iri Siw-mudda
E: Common Lascar;
Pantoporia hordonia Stoll, 1790 NT
S: Kaha Selaruwa
E: Glassy Tiger;
Parantica aglea Stoll, 1782 LC
S: Palingu Gomara
E: Sri Lanka Tiger; B1ab(iii)+
Parantica taprobana Felder, 1865 EN NT
S: Sri Lanka Nil-kotithiya 2ab(iii)
E: Clipper;
Parthenos sylvia Cramer, 1775 LC
S: Yoda Kela Selaruwa
E: Small Leopard;
Phalanta alcippe Cramer, 1780 CR B1ab(iii)
S: Punchi Thith-thambiliya
E: Leopard;
Phalanta phalantha Drury, 1773 LC
S: Maha Diwi-Pulliya
E: Nawab;
Polyura athamas Drury, 1770 LC
S: Kaha Kumaraya
35
E: Black Prince;
Rohana parisatis Westwood, 1850 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Kalu Kumaraya
E: Baronet; B1ab(iii)+
Symphaedra nais Forster, 1771 EN
S: Punchi Achchilaya 2ab(iii)
E: Blue Tiger;
Tirumala limniace Cramer, 1775 LC
S: Neela Gomara
E: Dark Blue Tiger;
Tirumala septentrionis Butler, 1865 NT
S: Anduruwan Nil-kotithiya
E: Painted Lady;
Vanessa cardui Linnaeus, 1761 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Vichithra Alnkarikaya
E: Indian Red Admiral; B1ab(iii)+
Vanessa indica Herbst, 1794 EN
S: Rathu seneviya 2ab(iii)
E: Cruiser;
Vindula erota Fabricius, 1793 NT
S: Yoda Thambiliya
E: White Four-ring;
Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson, 1864 LC
S: Sithiri Siwwa
E: Sri Lanka Jewel Four-
B1ab(iii)+
Ypthima singala Felder, 1868 ring; S: Sri Lanka Ran EN
2ab(iii)
Heen-dumburuwa
Family: Lycaenidae
E: Hampson's Hedge Blue; B1ab(iii)+
Acytolepis lilacea Hampson, 1889 EN
S: Hampson Gomu Neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Common Hedge Blue;
Acytolepis puspa Horsfield, 1828 LC
S: Gomu Neelaya
E: Purple Leafblue;
Amblypodia anita Hewitson, 1862 NT
S: Dam-path Neelaya
E: Pointed Ciliate Blue;
Anthene lycaenina Felder, 1868 LC
S: Ul Kirana-neelaya
E: Aberrant Bushblue; B1ab(iii)+
Arhopala abseus Hewitson, 1862 EN
S: Kela Gas-neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Large Oakblue;
Arhopala amantes Hewitson, 1862 LC
S: Maha-siduru Neelaya
E: Centaur Oakblue;
Arhopala centaurus Doubleday, 1847 LC
S: Samila Neelaya
E: Sri Lanka Ormiston's
Oakblue;
Arhopala ormistoni Riley, 1920 CR B1ab(iii)
S: Sri Lanka Siduru
Neelaya
E: African Babul Blue;
Azanus jesous Guérin, 1847 LC
S: Rata Neelaya
E: Bright Babul Blue; B1ab(iii)+
Azanus ubaldus Stoll, 1782 CR
S: Punchi neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Plane; S: Visithuru Digu-
Bindahara phocides Fabricius, 1793 EN B2ab(iii)
penda Neelaya
E: Angled Pierrot;
Caleta decidia Hewitson, 1876 LC
S: Mulu Konangiya
E: Common Pierrot;
Castalius rosimon Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Konangiya
E: Common Tinsel; B1ab(iii)+
Catapaecilma major Druce, 1895 EN
S: Visithuru Gas-neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Silver Forget-me-not;
Catochrysops panormus Felder, 1860 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Rajatha Sadasiya
E: Forget-me-not;
Catochrysops strabo Fabricius, 1793 LC
S:Sadasiya
36
E: Plain Hedge Blue; B1ab(iii)+
Celastrina lavendularis Moore, 1877 CR
S: Sarala Gomu Neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Common Imperial;
Cheritra freja Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Digu-penda Gas-neelaya
E: Lime Blue;
Chilades lajus Stoll, 1780 LC
S: Dehi-neelaya
E: Plains Cupid;
Chilades pandava Horsfield, 1829 LC
S: Meewana-sara
E: Small Cupid;
Chilades parrhasius Fabricius, 1793 LC
S: Punchi Panu-neelaya
E: Indian Sunbeam;
Curetis thetis Drury, 1773 LC
S: Wismi-keeta
E: Cornelian;
Deudorix epijarbas Moore, 1857 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Podu Kirana-neelaya
E: Banded Blue Pierrot;
Discolampa ethion Westwood, 1851 LC
S: Nil Konangiya
Euchrysops cnejus Fabricius, 1798 E: Gram Blue; S: Mun-risiya LC
E: Indian Cupid;
Everes lacturnus Godart, 1824 LC
S: Malavi Parasiya
Freyeria putli Kollar, 1844 E: Grass Jewel; S: Palamini LC
Horaga albimacula Wood-Mason & de E: Brown Onyx; B1ab(iii)+
CR
Nicéville, 1881 S:Guru Agasthiya 2ab(iii)
E: Blue Onyx;
Horaga onyx Moore, 1857 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Nil Agasthiya
E: Nilgiri Tit; S: Niilgiri
Hypolycaena nilgirica Moore, 1883 LC
neelaya
E: Pointed Lineblue;
Ionolyce helicon Felder, 1860 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Thuduri Neelaya
E: Silverstreak Blue;
Iraota timoleon Stoll,1790 NT
S: Redee Gas-neelaya
E: Metallic Cerulean;
Jamides alecto Felder, 1860 LC
S: Dili Seruliya
E: Dark Cerulean;
Jamides bochus Stoll, 1782 LC
S: Anduru Seruliya
E: Common Cerulean;
Jamides celeno Cramer, 1775 LC
S: Seruliya
E: Sri Lanka Cerulean;
Jamides coruscans Moore, 1877 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Sri Lanka Seru-nilaya
E: Sri Lanka Milky
Jamides lacteata de Nicéville, 1895 Cerulean; S: Sri Lanka Ela VU B1ab(iii)
Seruliya
E: Pea Blue; S: Mun-
Lampides boeticus Linnaeus, 1767 LC
neelaya
E: Zebra Blue;
Leptotes plinius Fabricius, 1793 LC
S: Sabaru Neelaya
E: Yamfly; S: Kadala
Loxura atymnus Stoll, 1780 LC
Samanalaya
Megisba malaya Horsfield, 1828 E: Malayan; S: Malalini LC
Nacaduba berenice Herrich-Schäffer, E: Rounded 6-Lineblue;
DD
1869 S: Wata Iri Neelaya
E: Opaque 6-Lineblue; B1ab(iii)+
Nacaduba beroe Felder & Felder, 1865 EN
S: Adisi-Iri Neelaya 2ab(iii)
37
E: Dark Ceylon 6-Lineblue;
Nacaduba calauria Felder, 1860 DD
S: Anduru Iri Neelaya
E: Pale 4-Lineblue; S:
Nacaduba hermus Felder, 1860 NT
Sawri-neela
E: Transparent 6-Lineblue;
Nacaduba kurava Moore, 1857 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Disi-Iri Neelaya
E: Sri Lanka Woodhouse's
Nacaduba ollyetti Corbet, 1947 4-Lineblue; S: Sri Lanka CR B2ab(iii)
Wanasi-neelaya
E: Large 4-Lineblue;
Nacaduba pactolus Felder, 1860 NT
S: Maha Nil-Iriya
E: Sri Lanka Pale Ceylon
Nacaduba sinhala Ormiston, 1924 6-Lineblue; S: Sri Lanka VU B1ab(iii)
Hela Iri Neelaya
Neopithecops zalmora Butler, 1870 E: Quaker; S: Samlani LC
E: Dingy Lineblue;
Petrelaea dana de Nicéville, 1883 EN B2ab(iii)
S: Dingi Nil-Iriya
E: White Royal; B1ab(iii)+
Pratapa deva Moore, 1857 EN
S: Sudu Raja-nilaya 2ab(iii)
E: Tailless Lineblue;
Prosotas dubiosa Semper, 1879 LC
S: Apus Iri Neelaya
E: Common Lineblue;
Prosotas nora Felder, 1860 LC
S: Iri Neelaya
E: White-tipped Lineblue; B1ab(iii)+
Prosotas noreia Felder, 1868 EN
S: Sudu Nil-iriya 2ab(iii)
E: Indian Red Flash;
Rapala iarbus Fabricius, 1787 DD
S: Rathu Debati
E: Malabar Flash; B1ab(iii)+
Rapala lankana Moore, 1879 CR
S: Kala Kiranaya 2ab(iii)
E: Slate Flash;
Rapala manea Hewitson, 1863 LC
S: Anduru Kiranaya
E: Indigo Flash; S: Nil
Rapala varuna Horsfield, 1829 VU B1ab(iii)
Debati
E: Monkey-puzzle;
Rathinda amor Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Rathinda
E: Apefly; S: Hanuman
Spalgis epeus Westwood, 1851 LC
Samanalaya
E: Scarce Shot Silverline;
Spindasis elima Moore, 1877 DD
S: Hiru Raja-thariya
E: Sri Lanka Green's
Spindasis greeni Heron, 1896 CR B2ab(iii)
Silverline
E: Ceylon Silverline;
Spindasis ictis Hewitson, 1865 LC
S: Hela Raja-thariya
E: Long -banded Silverline;
Spindasis lohita Horsfield, 1829 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Digu-iri Ridee-neelaya
E: Sri Lanka Clouded
Spindasis nubilus Moore, 1887 Silverline; S: Sri Lanka DD
Wala Raja-thariya
E: Plumbeous Silverline;
Spindasis schistacea Moore, 1881 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Lamba Raja-thariya
E: Common Silverline;
Spindasis vulcanus Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Raja-thariy
E: Common Acacia Blue;
Surendra vivarna Horsfield, 1829 LC
S: Andara Neelaya
38
E: Sri Lanka Indigo Royal;
Tajuria arida Riley, 1923 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Sri Lanka Raja-neelaya
E: Peacock Royal;
Tajuria cippus Fabricius, 1798 LC
S: Mayura Paramaya
E: Plains Blue Royal;
Tajuria jehana Moore, 1883 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Podu Raja-neelaya
E: Red Pierrot;
Talicada nyseus Guérin-Méneville, 1843 LC
S: Rathu Konangiya
E: Butler's Spotted Pierrot; B1ab(iii)+
Tarucus callinara Butler, 1886 EN
S: Thith Konangiya 2ab(iii)
E: Striped Pierrot;
Tarucus nara Kollar, 1848 LC
S: Thith-iri Mal-neelaya
E: White Hedge Blue; B1ab(iii)+
Udara akasa Horsfield, 1828 EN
S: Ela Gomu Neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka Hedge Blue; B1ab(iii)+
Udara lanka Moore, 1877 EN
S: Sri Lanka Udara-neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Singalese Hedge Blue; B1ab(iii)+
Udara singalensis R. Felder, 1868 EN
S:Singha Udara-neelaya 2ab(iii)
E: Common Guava Blue;
Virachola isocrates Fabricius, 1793 LC
S: Diwletha
E: Large Guava Blue;
Virachola perse Hewitson, 1863 VU B1ab(iii)
S:Maha Pera-neelaya
E: Redspot; S: Rathu
Zesius chrysomallus Hübner, 1819 LC
pulliya
E: Dark Grass Blue;
Zizeeria karsandra Moore, 1865 LC
S: Neela Kasandra
E: Lesser Grass Blue;
Zizina otis Fabricius, 1787 LC
S: Thuru-thana Neelaya
E: Tiny Grass Blue;
Zizula hylax Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Heen-thana Neelaya
Family: Riodinidae
E: Plum Judy;
Abisara echerius Stoll, 1790 LC
S: Dan-samanalaya
Family: Hesperiidae
E: Bush Hopper;
Ampittia dioscorides Fabricius, 1793 LC
S: Panduru Pimma
E: Brown Awl ;
Badamia exclamationis Fabricius, 1775 LC
S: Guruleesa
E: Sri Lanka Paintbrush
Baoris penicillata Moore, 1881 Swift ; S: Si Lanka Thudu- CR B2ab(iii)
sara
E: Sri Lanka Hedge Hopper;
Baracus vittatus Felder, 1862 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Sri Lanka Gomu Pimma
E: Orange-Tailed Awl ; B1ab(iii)+
Bibasis sena Moore, 1865 EN
S: Ramba Thudu Leesa 2ab(iii)
E: Wallace's Swift;
Borbo cinnara Wallace, 1866 LC
S: Wolas-sariya
E: Branded Orange Awlet;
Burara oedipodea Swainson, 1820 EN B2ab(iii)
S : Rambaleesa
E: Blank Swift; S: Kalu
Caltoris kumara Moore, 1878 VU B1ab(iii)
Paha Sariya
Caltoris philippina Herrich-Schäffer, E: Philippine Swift; B1ab(iii)+
CR
1869 S: Rata Sariya 2ab(iii)
39
E: Ceylon Golden Angle;
Caprona alida de Nicéville, 1891 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Lak-ran Mulla
E: Golden Angle;
Caprona ransonnettii Felder, 1868 LC
S: Ran Mulla
Celaenorrhinus spilothyrus R. Felder, E: Sri Lanka Black Flat ;
VU B1ab(iii)
1868 S: Sri Lanka Kala Kunchika
Cephrenes trichopepla Lower, 1908 E: Yellow Palm Dart LC
Choaspes benjaminii Guérin-Méneville, E: Indian Awl King ;
VU B2ab(iii)
1843 S:Raja-leesa
E: Tricolour Pied Flat ;
Coladenia indrani Moore, 1866 NT
S: Triwarana Kunchika
E: Banded Redeye;
Gangara lebadea Hewitson, 1868 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Irira-thasiya
E: Giant Redeye;
Gangara thyrsis Fabricius, 1775 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Mara-thasiya
E: African Marbled Skipper;
Gomalia elma Trimen, 1862 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Mabal Pimma
E: Ceylon Ace; B1ab(iii)+
Halpe ceylonica Moore, 1878 EN
S: Lanka-siya 2ab(iii)
Halpe egena Felder, 1868 E: Rare Ace; S: Dulabasiya EN B1ab(iii)
E: Ceylon Awl; S:Hela B1ab(iii)+
Hasora badra Moore, 1858 EN
Leesa 2ab(iii)
E: Common Banded Awl ;
Hasora chromus Cramer, 1780 LC
S: Iri-leesa
E: White Banded Awl;
Hasora taminatus Hübner, 1818 NT
S: Sudu iri-leesa
E: Tree Flitter; S: Ruk-
Hyarotis adrastus Stoll, 1780 LC
sariya
E: Chestnut Bob;
Iambrix salsala Moore, 1866 LC
S: Guru Bobaya
E: Common Redeye;
Matapa aria Moore, 1866 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Rathasiya
Notocrypta curvifascia C. & R. Felder, E: Restricted Demon;
VU B1ab(iii)
1862 S: Nethu Dassa
Notocrypta paralysos Wood-Mason & de E: Common Banded
VU B1ab(iii)
Nicéville, 1881 Demon; S: Iri Dassa
E: Common Dartlet;
Oriens goloides Moore, 1881 NT
S: Sariththa
E: Smallest Swift ;
Parnara bada Moore, 1878 NT
S: Tikiri sariya
E: Little Branded Swift ;
Pelopidas agna Moore, 1866 NT
S: Podi Iri-sariya
Pelopidas conjuncta Herrich-Schäffer, E: Conjoined Swift ;
VU B1ab(iii)
1869 S: Wihanga sariya
E: Small Branded Swift ;
Pelopidas mathias Fabricius, 1798 NT
S: Thudu Iri-sariya
E: Large Branded Swift;
Pelopidas thrax Hübner, 1821 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Maha Iri-sariya
Potanthus confuscius C. & R. Felder,
E: Tropic Dart; S: Gim-sara LC
1862
Potanthus pallida Evans, 1932 E: Indian Dart; S:Indu-sara DD
E: Common Dart;
Potanthus pseudomaesa Moore, 1881 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Hela-sara
40
E: Common Small Flat ;
Sarangesa dasahara Moore, 1866 NT
S: Kuda Kunchika
E: Indian Skipper ;
Spialia galba Fabricius, 1793 LC
S: Indu-pimma
E: Indian Palm Bob ;
Suastus gremius Fabricius, 1798 LC
S: Indu-thala Bobaya
E: Ceylon Palm Bob;
Suastus minuta Moore, 1877 EN B2ab(iii)
S: Hela-thala Bobaya
E: Ceylon Snow Flat;
Tagiades japetus Stoll, 1781 LC
S: Hima Kunchika
E: Water Snow Flat;
Tagiades litigiosa Möschler, 1878 VU B2ab(iii)
S: Diya Kunchika
E: Black Angle; B1ab(iii)+
Tapena thwaitesi Moore, 1881 EN
S: Kalu Mulla 2ab(iii)
E: Common Grass Dart;
Taractrocera maevius Fabricius, 1793 LC
S: Thana-sara
E: Dark Palmdart ;
Telicota bambusae Moore, 1878 VU B1ab(iii)
S: Anduru Thala-sara
E: Pale Palmdart;
Telicota colon Fabricius, 1775 NT
S: Thala-sara)
E: Sri Lanka Decorated
B1ab(iii)+
Thoressa decorata Moore, 1881 Ace; EN
2ab(iii)
S: Sri Lanka Sithirasiya
E: Grass Demon ;
Udaspes folus Cramer, 1775 LC
S: Thanapath Dassa
Note 1: Halpe ceylonica and H. egena may prove to be subspecies of H. homolea or seasonal forms
Note 2: Pelopidas thrax may prove to be P. subochracea
Note 3: Potanthus confuscius may prove to be P. satra
Note 4: Telicota bambusae was previously erroneously identified as T. ancilla
41
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Spiders
(Arachnida: Araneae) in Sri Lanka
Suresh P. Benjamin1, Ranil P. Nanayakkara2, Salindra K. Dayananda3
1
Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS), Hantana Road, Kandy
2
Biodiversity Education and Research,
3
Foundation for Nature Conservation and Preservation, Panadura
Introduction
Spiders are found all over the world and have colonized almost all habitats. Most species of
spiders are relatively small in size (around 2-10 mm in body length) while a few species may
reach up to 90mm in size (Foelix, 2011). Platnick (2011) has compiled a catalog of all the spiders
recorded to date which stands at, approximately, 42,000 species that belongs to 110 families.
However, this is only a small fraction of the true diversity of this order as the spider fauna of most
countries remains grossly understudied. The situation is the same in Sri Lanka that supports
a highly diverse spider assemblage. To date, 501 species representing 48 families have been
listed for Sri Lanka, including 256 (51.09%) endemic species (Platnick, 2011). Further, 11
species (not included in the list) that are only identified upto genus level are also found in Sri
Lanka which includes an additional family Deinopidae. However, this figure is likely to be a gross
underestimate as spiders are perhaps one of the least studied invertebrate groups in Sri Lanka,
even though they are one of the most conspicuous elements of the Sri Lankan forest landscape
(Benjamin and Bambaradeniya, 2006).
The exploration of Sri Lankan spider fauna began with the work of Pickard-Cambridge (1869),
followed mainly by species descriptions by the French Arachnologist E. Simon who visited the
island in 1892 to collect spiders (Pethiyagoda, 2007). Sri Lankan species have been regularly
included in taxonomic revision of genera and families. However, the exclusive study of Sri
Lanka spider fauna only began in the early 1990s (Benjamin and Bambaradeniya, 2006).
Currently, the Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS) is conducting an island-wide survey of
spiders. As this is a daunting task, the immediate focus is to make a complete collection of
spiders that will form the basis for future detailed taxonomic studies.
Taxonomy
After the work done by early arachnologists such as Pickard-Cambridge, Pocock and Simon,
there has been little interest in spider taxonomy of Sri Lanka. The work on Sri Lankan spiders
was reinitiated in 1970s when investigations had been carried out on few selected spider
families (Brignoli, 1972, 1975: Van Helsdingen, 1985). Wijesinghe (1987) has reviewed the
spiders of Sri Lanka and prepared a preliminary checklist comprising of 402 species. During
the last decade much has been done on spiders of Sri Lanka that has resulted in the revision
of several genera and description of few new species (Benjamin, 2006; Benjamin, 2010;
Benjamin and Jaleel, 2010; Kronestedt, 2010; Platnick et al., 2011). Further, these studies
also indicated that older nominal species need to be revised and re-described (Benjamin &
Hormiga, 2009; Dimitrov et al., 2009; Álvarez-Padilla & Benjamin, 2011). A comprehensive list
of recent publications related to Sri Lankan spiders is given in Platnick (2011) and Benjamin
(2006).
42
Distribution
Spiders are found in all habitats, both natural and man-made. Benjamin (2006) has hypothised
that the endemic Sri Lankan spider fauna are confined mostly to the intact natural forest
remaining in the south-west and central high lands. Further, as in the case of other faunal
groups, the endemic Sri Lankan spiders are thought to be closely related to Western Ghats
in India. These hypotheses are supported by the results of a recent study (Benjamin, 2010).
Spiders are one of the largest taxonomic groups that are present in Sri Lanka and they play
a key role in both man-made and natural ecosystems as predators. However, more than 75%
of the spider species assessed during the Red Listing process, have been listed under the
Data Deficient (DD) category that indicates the huge gap that exist in the knowledge base
on Sri Lankan spiders. The study of spiders in Sri Lanka is still in a neonate stage and many
new genera and species await discovery, particularly from the northern part of the country as
highlighted by the discovery of several new species which belong to the genus Poecilotheria
(Nanayakkara & Vishvanath 2011). Particularly the genus Poecilotheria has drawn the attention
of the scientific community across the World and several studies were initiated by different
researchers at various times within a period of 20 years.
Therefore, conducting an island-wide survey on spiders has been identified as a priority need.
This activity can be coupled with the establishment of a reference collection at the National
Museum as well as establishing a second reference collection in a state academic institution in
order to facilitate the study of spiders. This activity can be funded through the National Science
Foundation.
Number of recent studies indicate the clear need to revise the taxonomy of the spider fauna of
Sri Lanka. This reference collection can provide the basis for this activity. Further this can be
coupled with training of new taxonomist. The only guide available on Sri Lankan spiders is a
superficial treatment by Pocock (1900), published over a century ago. Therefore, production
of an easy-to-use photographic identification/field guide for the spiders of Sri Lanka is highly
recommended in order to popularize the study of spiders. Further, a web portal should be
established for dissemination of information about the Sri Lankan spiders.
Due to myths and folklore surrounding the spiders, particularly that of genus Poecilotheria
(Tarantulas) due to its imagined virulent poison and its effects on humans, these creatures
face summarily destruction whenever located. This is a great pity as spiders are in reality
important biological control agents, making a significant contribution to the agriculture and the
local populace. It is vitally important to educate the local community of the relevant areas on
the need to conserve these creatures, as well as of the benefits that can be accrued from their
presence and create awareness of the true facts and to dispel the myths.
Pesticide use in Sri Lanka is still to be regulated; the pesticides Control of Pesticides Act addresses
only threats to human health and not environmental health or impact on non-target organisms.
Therefore, pesticides approved for use in Sri Lanka should also be assessed for impact on
spiders as well as other non-target organisms before being approved for use in Sri Lanka.
43
Preliminary investigation carried out by Benjamin (2010) has demonstrated that long term
survival of most of the endemic and threatened spiders depend on protecting the remaining
natural ecosystems of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, as is the case for other taxonomic groups.
Therefore, the key habitats necessary for spider conservation must be identified and a plan
should be drawn up to determine how these habitats can be protected in the future.
References
Álvarez-Padilla, F. & Benjamin, S. P., (2011). Phylogenetic placement and redescription of the spider genus Atelidea
Simon, 1895 (Araneae, Tetragnathidae). Zootaxa, 2761, pp.51-63.
Benjamin, S. P., (2010). Revision and cladistic analysis of the jumping spider genus Onomastus (Araneae:
Salticidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 159, pp.711-745.
Benjamin, S. P. & Bambaradeniya, C. N. B., (2006). Systematics and conservation of spiders in Sri Lanka: current
status and future prospects. In: C. N. B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. The Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy,
Research and Conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of
Sri Lanka. pp. 70-76.
Benjamin, S. P. & Hormiga, G., (2009). Phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic genus Labullinyphia van
Helsdingen, 1985, with redescription of Labullinyphia tersa(Simon, 1894) from Sri Lanka (Araneae: Linyphiidae).
Contributions to Natural History, 12, pp.161-181.
Benjamin, S. P. & Jaleel Z., (2010). The genera Haplotmarus Simon, 1909 and Indoxysticus gen. nov.: two enigmatic
genera of crab spiders from the Oriental region (Araneae: Thomisidae). Zootaxa, 117, pp.1-9.
Dimitrov, D., Benjamin, S. P. & Hormiga, G., (2009). A revised phylogenetic analysis for the genus Clitaetra Simon,
1889 (Araneoidea, Nephilidae) with the first description of the male of the Sri Lankan species Clitaetra thisbe
Simon, 1903. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 159, pp.301-323.
Foelix, R. F., (2011). Biology of Spiders. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kronestedt, T., (2010). Draposa, a new wolf spider genus from South and Southeast Asia (Araneae: Lycosidae).
Zootaxa, 2637, pp.31-54.
Nanayakkara, R. & Vishvanath, N., (2011). Hitherto unrecorded species of Poecilotheria, (Tarantula) from Sri Lanka.
ScinnoTech-Alert, [e-journal] 2(7), Available through: National Science Foundation Sri Lanka Web site <http://
www.nsf.ac.lk/newsletter/VOL2NO7/tarantula.pdf>
Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). Pearls, spices and green gold: a history of biodiversity exploration in Sri Lanka. Colombo:
WHT Publications.
Pickard-Cambridge, O., (1869). Descriptions and sketches of some new species of Araneidea, with characters of a
new genus. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 4, pp.52-74.
Platnick, N. I., (2011). The World Spiders Catalog, Version 11.5, [online]
Available through: American Museum of Natural History <http://research.amnh.org/entomology/spiders/
catalog81-87/index.html>
Platnick, N. I., Duperre, N., Ott, R. & Kranz-Baltensperger, Y., (2011). The goblin spider genus Brignolia (Araneae,
Oonopidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 349, p.131.
Pocock, R. I., (1900). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida:I-XII. London: Taylor and
Francis.
Wijesinghe, D. P., (1987). The present status of spider taxonomy in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the workshop on
“Present Status of Faunal Taxonomy in Sri Lanka”, Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, pp
7-19.
44
Table 05: List of Spiders in Sri Lanka

Family: Agelenidae
Tegenaria taprobanica Strand, 1907 DD
Tegenaria domestica (Clerck, 1757) DD
Family: Araneidae
Anepsion maritatum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1877) DD
Arachnura scorpionides Vinson, 1863 E: Scorpion spider LC
Araneus enucleatus (Karsch, 1879) DD
Araneus minutalis (Simon, 1889) DD
E: Kidney garden spider/ Pale Orb
Araneus mitificus (Simon, 1886) LC
Weaver
Araneus obtusatus (Karsch, 1891) DD
E: Andrew’s Cross Spider; S: Kaha
Argiope aemula (Walckenaer, 1841) LC
visithuru kathira dal viyanna
Argiope aetherea (Walckenaer, 1841) DD
E: Signature Spider;
Argiope anasuja Thorell, 1887 LC
S: Liyana dal viyanna
E: Grass cross spider;
Argiope catenulata (Doleschall, 1859) DD
S: Thana kathira dal viyanna
Argiope pulchella Thorell, 1881 DD
Argiope taprobanica Thorell, 1887 DD
E: Indian Bark spider;
Caerostris indica Strand, 1915 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Indu kadan makuluwa
Chorizopes frontalis O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD
Chorizopes mucronatus Simon, 1895 DD
Cyclosa quinqueguttata (Thorell, 1881) DD
Cyclosa bifida (Doleschall, 1859) E: Long-bellied Cyclosa Spider LC
Cyclosa insulana (Costa, 1834) E: Brown Lobed Spider LC
Cyrtarachne perspicillata (Doleschall, 1859) DD
Cyrtarachne raniceps Pocock, 1900 DD
Cyrtophora cicatrosa (Stoliczka, 1869) DD
Cyrtophora citricola (Forsskål, 1775) DD
Cyrtophora exanthematica(Doleschall,1859) DD
Cyrtophora moluccensis (Doleschall, 1857) E: Common Tent-web Spider LC
Cyrtophora unicolor (Doleschall, 1857) DD
Eriovixia laglaizei (Simon, 1877) LC
E: Star Spider, Spiny-backed Orbwe-
Gasteracantha cancriformis (Linnaeus, 1758) CR B2ab(iii)
aver
E: Common Spiny orb-weavers/
Gasteracantha geminata (Fabricius, 1798) Common Kite Spider; LC
S: Podu Sarungal makuluwa
Gasteracantha remifera Butler, 1873 DD
Gea spinipes C. L. Koch, 1843 CR B2ab(iii)
Gea subarmata Thorell, 1890 DD
Glyptogona duriuscula Simon, 1895 DD
Hypsosinga taprobanica (Simon, 1895) DD
E: Long-horned Orb-weaver;
Macracantha arcuata (Fabricius, 1793) CR B2ab(iii)
S: Digu agathi sarungala makuluwa
45
Mangora semiargentea Simon, 1895 DD
Neogea nocticolor (Thorell, 1887) CR B2ab(iii)
E: Brown sailor spider;
Neoscona nautica (L. Koch, 1875) LC
S: Podu gewathu makuluwa
Neoscona punctigera (Doleschall, 1857) DD
Neoscona theisi (Walckenaer, 1841) DD
Neoscona vigilans (Blackwall, 1865) E: Neoscona Orb Weaver Spider CR B1+2ab(iii)
Ordgarius hobsoni (O. P.-Cambridge, 1877) DD
Parawixia dehaani (Doleschall, 1859) DD
Phonognatha vicitra Sherriffs, 1928 CR B2ab(iii)
Poltys columnaris Thorell, 1890 CR B2ab(iii)
Poltys illepidus C. L. Koch, 1843 DD
Thelacantha brevispina (Doleschall, 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Ursa vittigera Simon, 1895 DD
Family: Barychelidae
Diplothele halyi Simon, 1892 DD
Plagiobothrus semilunaris Karsch, 1891 DD
Sason robustum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883) DD
Sipalolasma ellioti Simon, 1892 DD
Sipalolasma greeni Pocock, 1900 DD
Family: Clubionidae
Clubiona drassodes O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 E: Common Sac Spider EN B1ab(iii)
Matidia flagellifera Simon, 1897 DD
Matidia simplex Simon, 1897 DD
Nusatidia bimaculata (Simon, 1897) DD
Simalio lucorum Simon, 1906 DD
Simalio phaeocephalus Simon, 1906 DD
Family: Corinnidae
Aetius decollatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1896 DD
Coenoptychus pulcher Simon, 1885 CR B2ab(iii)
Copa annulata Simon, 1896 DD
Copa spinosa Simon, 1896 DD
Koppe armata (Simon, 1896) DD
Oedignatha affinis Simon, 1897 DD
Oedignatha bicolor Simon, 1896 DD
Oedignatha coriacea Simon, 1897 DD
Oedignatha flavipes Simon, 1897 DD
Oedignatha gulosa Simon, 1897 DD
Oedignatha major Simon, 1896 DD
Oedignatha montigena Simon, 1897 DD
Oedignatha proboscidea (Strand, 1913) DD
Oedignatha retusa Simon, 1897 DD
Oedignatha scrobiculata Thorell, 1881 DD
Oedignatha striata Simon, 1897 DD
Orthobula impressa Simon, 1897 DD
Sphecotypus taprobanicus Simon, 1897 DD
46
Trachelas oreophilus Simon, 1906 DD
Trachelas quisquiliarum Simon, 1906 DD
Utivarachna accentuata (Simon, 1896) DD
Family: Ctenidae
Ctenus ceylonensis O. P.-Cambridge, 1897 DD
Ctenus karschi Roewer, 1951 DD
Ctenus thorelli O. P.-Cambridge, 1897 DD
Diallomus fuliginosus Simon, 1897 DD
Diallomus speciosus Simon, 1897 DD
Family: Dictynidae
Anaxibia nigricauda (Simon, 1905) DD
Atelolathys varia Simon, 1892 DD
Dictyna turbida Simon, 1905 DD
Dictynomorpha smaragdula (Simon, 1905) CR B2ab(iii)
Rhion pallidum O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD
Family: Dipluridae
Indothele dumicola Pocock, 1900 DD
Indothele lanka Coyle, 1995 DD
Family: Eresidae
Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch, 1891 DD
Family: Hahniidae
Alistra radleyi (Simon, 1898) DD
Alistra stenura (Simon, 1898) DD
Alistra taprobanica (Simon, 1898) DD
Hahnia oreophila Simon, 1898 DD
Hahnia pusio Simon, 1898 DD
Family: Hersiliidae
Hersilia pectinata Thorell, 1895 DD
E: Comon Two Tailed Spider; S: Her-
Hersilia savignyi Lucas, 1836 LC
siliya makuluwa
Hersilia sumatrana (Thorell, 1890) DD
Hersilia tibialis Baehr & Baehr, 1993 DD
Murricia crinifera Baehr & Baehr, 1993 DD
Neotama variata (Pocock, 1899) DD
Promurricia depressa Baehr & Baehr, 1993 DD
Family: Idiopidae
Heligmomerus taprobanicus Simon, 1892 DD
Scalidognathus oreophilus Simon, 1892 DD
Scalidognathus radialis (O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1869)
Family: Linyphiidae
Atypena ellioti Jocqué, 1983 DD
Atypena simoni Jocqué, 1983 DD
Ceratinopsis monticola (Simon, 1894) DD
Helsdingenia ceylonica (van Helsdingen, 1985) DD
Labullinyphia tersa (Simon, 1894) EN B1+2ab(III)
Microbathyphantes palmarius (Marples, 1955) DD
47
Nematogmus dentimanus Simon, 1886 DD
Neriene katyae van Helsdingen, 1969 DD
Nesioneta benoiti (van Helsdingen, 1978) DD
Obrimona tennenti (Simon, 1894) DD
Trematocephalus simplex Simon, 1894 DD
Trematocephalus tripunctatus Simon, 1894 DD
Typhistes antilope Simon, 1894 DD
Typhistes comatus Simon, 1894 DD
Family: Liocranidae
Argistes seriatus (Karsch, 1891) DD
Argistes velox Simon, 1897 DD
Paratus reticulatus Simon, 1898 DD
Sphingius scutatus Simon, 1897 DD
Family: Lycosidae
Draposa atropalpis (Gravely, 1924) DD
Draposa lyrivulva (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) DD
Draposa subhadrae (Patel & Reddy, 1993) DD
Hippasa greenalliae (Blackwall, 1867) DD
Hippasa olivacea (Thorell, 1887) DD
Hogna lupina (Karsch, 1879) DD
Lycosa indagatrix Walckenaer, 1837 DD
Lycosa nigrotibialis Simon, 1884 CR B2ab(iii)
Lycosa yerburyi Pocock, 1901 DD
Ocyale (cf)atalanta Audouni, 1826 DD
Ocyale lanca (Karsch, 1879) DD
Ocyale pilosa (Roewer, 1960) DD
Pardosa birmanica Simon, 1884 CR B2ab(iii)
Pardosa palliclava (Strand, 1907) DD
Pardosa pseudoannulata (Bösenberg & Strand,
CR B2ab(iii)
1906)
Pardosa pusiola (Thorell, 1891) DD
Pardosa semicana Simon, 1885 DD
Pardosa sumatrana (Thorell, 1890) DD
Pardosa timidula (Roewer, 1951) DD
Wadicosa quadrifera (Gravely, 1924) DD
Zoica parvula (Thorell, 1895) DD
Zoica puellula (Simon, 1898) DD
Family: Mimetidae
Mimetus indicus Simon, 1906 DD
Mimetus strinatii Brignoli, 1972 DD
Phobetinus sagittifer Simon, 1895 DD
Family: Miturgidae
Cheiracanthium incertum O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1869
Cheiracanthium indicum O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 DD
Cheiracanthium insigne O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 CR B2ab(iii)
48
Cheiracanthium melanostomum (Thorell, 1895) LC
Cheiracanthium taprobanense Strand, 1907 DD
Family: Mysmenidae
Mysmenella saltuensis (Simon, 1895) DD
Phricotelus stelliger Simon, 1895 DD
Family: Nemesiidae
Atmetochilus fossor Simon, 1887 DD
Family: Nephilidae
Clitaetra thisbe Simon, 1903 NT
E: Ornate Tree trunk Spider; S: Asia
Herennia multipuncta (Doleschall, 1859) LC
visithuru pathali makuluwa
Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) E: Giant Wood Spider NT
E: Hermit Spider; S: Podu vayiram
Nephilengys malabarensis (Walckenaer, 1841) LC
nives makuluwa
Family: Nesticidae
Nesticella aelleni (Brignoli, 1972) DD
Family: Ochyroceratidae
Merizocera brincki Brignoli, 1975 DD
Merizocera cruciata (Simon, 1893) DD
Merizocera oryzae Brignoli, 1975 DD
Merizocera picturata (Simon, 1893) DD
Psiloderces elasticus (Brignoli, 1975) DD
Speocera taprobanica Brignoli, 1981 DD
Family: Oecobiidae
Oecobius cellariorum (Dugès, 1836) CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Oonopidae
Aprusia kataragama Grismado & Deeleman, 2011 CR B2ab(iii)
Aprusia strenuus Simon, 1893 CR B2ab(iii)
Aprusia veddah Grismado & Deeleman, 2011 CR B2ab(iii)
Aprusia vestigator (Simon, 1893) EN B1ab(iii)
Brignolia ambigua (Simon, 1893) DD
Brignolia ratnapura Platnick et al., 2011 DD
Brignolia sinharaja Platnick et al., 2011 CR B2ab(iii)
Brignolia trichinalis (Benoit, 1979) ? DD
Brignolia nigripalpis (Simon, 1893) DD
Camptoscaphiella simoni Baehr, 2010 DD
Epectris mollis Simon, 1907 DD
Gamasomorpha microps Simon, 1907 DD
Gamasomorpha subclathrata Simon, 1907 DD
Gamasomorpha taprobanica Simon, 1893 DD
Ischnothyreus bipartitus Simon, 1893 DD
Ischnothyreus lymphaseus Simon, 1893 DD
Orchestina dentifera Simon, 1893 DD
Orchestina manicata Simon, 1893 DD
Orchestina pilifera Dalmas, 1916 DD
Orchestina tubifera Simon, 1893 DD
Xestaspis sublaevis Simon, 1893 DD
49
Family: Oxyopidae
Oxyopes ceylonicus Karsch, 1891 DD
Oxyopes daksina Sherriffs, 1955 DD
Oxyopes hindostanicus Pocock, 1901 DD
E: White-Striped Lynx Spider; S:
Oxyopes javanus Thorell, 1887 LC
Sudu Iri Lynx makuluwa
Oxyopes juvencus Strand, 1907 DD
E: Yellow-Striped Lynx Spider; S:
Oxyopes macilentus L. Koch, 1878 LC
Kaha Iri Lynx makuluwa
Oxyopes nilgiricus Sherriffs, 1955 DD
Oxyopes rufisternis Pocock, 1901 DD
Peucetia (cf)thalassina (Koch, 1846) DD
E: Green Lynx Spider; S: Kola Lynx
Peucetia viridana (Stoliczka, 1869) CR B2ab(iii)
makuluwa
Family: Palpimanidae
Steriphopus macleayi (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD
Family: Philodromidae
Gephyrota virescens (Simon, 1906) DD
Tibellus vitilis Simon, 1906 DD
Family: Pholcidae
Artema atlanta Walckenaer, 1837 DD
Belisana benjamini Huber, 2005 DD
Belisana keyti Huber, 2005 DD
Belisana ratnapura Huber, 2005 DD
Crossopriza lyoni (Blackwall, 1867) DD
Holocneminus multiguttatus (Simon, 1905) DD
Leptopholcus podophthalmus (Simon, 1893) DD
Micropholcus fauroti (Simon, 1887) DD
Modisimus culicinus (Simon, 1893) DD
Pholcus (cf)opilionoides (Schrank, 1781) DD
Pholcus fragillimus Strand, 1907 DD
Sihala ceylonicus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Smeringopus pallidus (Blackwall, 1858) DD
Wanniyala agrabopath Huber & Benjamin, 2005 CR B1+2ab(iii)
Wanniyala hakgala Huber & Benjamin, 2005 EN B1+2ab(iii)
Family: Pisauridae
Dolomedes boiei (Doleschall, 1859) DD
Dolomedes karschi Strand, 1913 DD
Perenethis sindica (Simon, 1897) DD
Perenethis venusta L. Koch, 1878 DD
Nilus albocinctus (Doleschall, 1859) DD
Family: Psechridae
Fecenia macilenta (Simon, 1885) EN B1ab(iii)
Fecenia travancoria Pocock, 1899 DD
Psechrus torvus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) LC
Family: Salticidae
Aelurillus kronestedti Azarkina, 2004 DD
50
Aelurillus quadrimaculatus Simon, 1889 DD
Asemonea tenuipes (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) CR B2ab(iii)
Ballus segmentatus Simon, 1900 DD
Ballus sellatus Simon, 1900 DD
Bianor angulosus (Karsch, 1879) DD
Brettus adonis Simon, 1900 DD
Carrhotus taprobanicus Simon, 1902 DD
Carrhotus viduus (C. L. Koch, 1846) DD
Chrysilla lauta Thorell, 1887 E: Elegant Golden Jumper EN B1+2ab(iii)
Colaxes horton Benjamin, 2004 DD
Colaxes wanlessi Benjamin, 2004 DD
Cosmophasis olorina (Simon, 1901) DD
Curubis annulata Simon, 1902 DD
Curubis erratica Simon, 1902 DD
Curubis tetrica Simon, 1902 DD
Epidelaxia albocruciata Simon, 1902 DD
Epidelaxia albostellata Simon, 1902 DD
Epidelaxia obscura Simon, 1902 DD
Epocilla aurantiaca (Simon, 1885) DD
Euophrys declivis Karsch, 1879 DD
Euryattus bleekeri (Doleschall, 1859) DD
Euryattus breviusculus (Simon, 1902) DD
Evarcha cancellata (Simon, 1902) DD
Evarcha flavocincta (C. L. Koch, 1846) E: Horned Grass Jumper EN B1+2ab(iii)
Flacillula lubrica (Simon, 1901) DD
Gelotia lanka Wijesinghe, 1991 DD
Harmochirus brachiatus (Thorell, 1877) DD
Hasarius [arcigerus] Karsch, 1891 DD
Hasarius adansoni (Audouin, 1826) E: Adanson’s House Jumper LC
Hispo bipartita Simon, 1903 DD
Hyllus semicupreus (Simon, 1885) NT
Icius [discatus] Karsch, 1891 DD
Irura pulchra Peckham & Peckham, 1901 DD
Maevia [roseolimbata] Hasselt, 1893 DD
Marengo crassipes Peckham & Peckham, 1892 DD
Marengo inornata (Simon, 1900) DD
Marengo nitida (Simon, 1900) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Marengo rattotensis Benjamin, 2006 CR B2ab(iii)
Marengo striatipes (Simon, 1900) DD
E: Common House Jumper; S: Podu
Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831) LC
Niwes makuluwa
E: Grey house Jumper; S: Alu Niwes
Menemerus fulvus (L. Koch, 1878) LC
makuluwa
Modunda aeneiceps Simon, 1901 DD
Myrmarachne bicurvata (O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1869)
51
Myrmarachne imbellis (Peckham & Peckham,
DD
1892)
E: Giant Ant-like Jumper; S: Kalu kadi
Myrmarachne maxillosa (C. L. Koch, 1846) NT
makuluwa
Myrmarachne melanocephala MacLeay, 1839 S: Sipi makuluwa LC
Myrmarachne plataleoides (O. P.-Cambridge, E: Kerengga/Red ant like Jumper;
LC
1869) S: Dimi makuluwa
Myrmarachne prava (Karsch, 1880) DD
Myrmarachne spissa (Peckham & Peckham,
DD
1892)
Onomastus nigricaudus Simon, 1900 CR B2ab(iii)
Onomastus pethiyagodai Benjamin, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)
Onomastus quinquenotatus Simon, 1900 CR B2ab(iii)
Onomastus rattotensis Benjamin, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)
Panachraesta paludosa Simon, 1900 DD
Panysinus semiermis Simon, 1902 DD
Phaeacius wanlessi Wijesinghe, 1991 LC
Phausina bivittata Simon, 1902 DD
Phausina flavofrenata Simon, 1902 DD
Phausina guttipes Simon, 1902 DD
Phintella bifurcilinea (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) DD
Phintella multimaculata (Simon, 1901) DD
E: Banded Phintella; S: Wayiram kuru
Phintella vittata (C. L. Koch, 1846) LC
Pinum makuluwa
Phintella volupe (Karsch, 1879) DD
Phyaces comosus Simon, 1902 DD
E: Larger Housefly catcher;
Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826) NT
S: Yoda Makulu masimaara
E: Common Housefly catcher;
Plexippus petersi (Karsch, 1878) LC
S: Makulu masimaara
Plexippus redimitus Simon, 1902 DD
Portia albimana (Simon, 1900) DD
Portia fimbriata (Doleschall, 1859) DD
E: White-mustached Portia;
Portia labiata (Thorell, 1887) NT
S: Sudu rewulathi Pinum makuluwa
Ptocasius fulvonitens Simon, 1902 DD
Rhene [tamula] (Karsch, 1879) DD
Rhene albigera (C. L. Koch, 1846) LC
Rhene flavicomans Simon, 1902 DD
Saitis chaperi Simon, 1885 DD
Sigytes paradisiacus Simon, 1902 DD
E: Red and Blue Tiny Jumper;
Siler semiglaucus (Simon, 1901) LC
S: Nil Visithuru Pinum Makuluwa
Simaetha cingulata (Karsch, 1891) DD
Simaetha laminata (Karsch, 1891) DD
Simaetha reducta (Karsch, 1891) DD
E: Spiny-legged Jumper;
Spartaeus spinimanus (Thorell, 1878) LC
S: Katupa Pinum makuluwa
Stagetillus taprobanicus (Simon, 1902) DD
52
Stergusa aurata Simon, 1902 DD
Stergusa aurichalcea Simon, 1902 DD
Stergusa stelligera Simon, 1902 DD
Tamigalesus munnaricus Zabka, 1988 DD
E: Two-striped Telamonia;
Telamonia dimidiata (Simon, 1899) LC
S: Yoda deiri Pinum makuluwa
Telamonia sponsa (Simon, 1902) DD
E: Fighting Spider;
Thiania bhamoensis Thorell, 1887 CR B2ab(iii)
S: Pora pinum makuluwa
Thiania bhamoensis Thorell, 1887 DD
Thiania pulcherrima C. L. Koch, 1846 DD
Thyene imperialis (Rossi, 1846) CR B2ab(iii)
Thyene concinna (Keyserling, 1881) DD
Uroballus henicurus Simon, 1902 DD
Uroballus octovittatus Simon, 1902 DD
Viciria polysticta Simon, 1902 DD
Family: Scytodidae
Scytodes fusca Walckenaer, 1837 DD
Scytodes lugubris (Thorell, 1887) LC
Scytodes venusta (Thorell, 1890) DD
Family: Segestriidae
Ariadna oreades Simon, 1906 DD
Ariadna taprobanica Simon, 1906 DD
Family: Selenopidae
Selenops radiatus Latreille, 1819 DD
Family: Sicariidae
Loxosceles rufescens (Dufour, 1820) DD
Family: Sparassidae
Heteropoda eluta Karsch, 1891 DD
Heteropoda kandiana Pocock, 1899 DD
Heteropoda leprosa Simon, 1884 DD
Heteropoda subtilis Karsch, 1891 DD
Heteropoda thoracica (C. L. Koch, 1845) DD
Heteropoda umbrata Karsch, 1891 DD
E: Domestic Huntsman Spider; S:
Heteropoda venatoria (Linnaeus, 1767) LC
Pulun kotta makuluwa
Olios ceylonicus (Leardi, 1902) DD
Olios greeni (Pocock, 1901) DD
Olios hirtus (Karsch, 1879) DD
Olios lamarcki (Latreille, 1806) DD
E: Common Green Huntsman Spider;
Olios milleti (Pocock, 1901) LC
S: Podu kola Dahaganna
Olios punctipes Simon, 1884 CR B2ab(iii)
Olios senilis Simon, 1880 DD
Pandercetes decipiens Pocock, 1899 DD
Pandercetes plumipes (Doleschall, 1859) DD
Rhitymna occidentalis Jäger, 2003 DD
53
Spariolenus taprobanicus (Walckenaer, 1837) DD
Stasina nalandica Karsch, 1891 DD
Stasina paripes (Karsch, 1879) DD
Thelcticopis hercules Pocock, 1901 DD
Family: Stenochilidae
Stenochilus crocatus Simon, 1884 DD
Family: Tetrablemmidae
Brignoliella ratnapura Shear, 1988 DD
Brignoliella scrobiculata (Simon, 1893) DD
Gunasekara ramboda Lehtinen, 1981 DD
Pahanga diyaluma Lehtinen, 1981 DD
Shearella lilawati Lehtinen, 1981 DD
Shearella selvarani Lehtinen, 1981 DD
Tetrablemma medioculatum O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1873
Family: Tetragnathidae
Atelidea spinosa Simon, 1895 EN B1+2ab(iii)
Dolichognatha albida (Simon, 1895) DD
Dolichognatha incanescens (Simon, 1895) DD
Dolichognatha nietneri O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 DD
Dolichognatha quinquemucronata (Simon,
DD
1895)
Dyschiriognatha dentata Zhu & Wen, 1978 DD
Guizygiella melanocrania (Thorell, 1887) CR B2ab(iii)
Leucauge argentata (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) DD
Leucauge celebesiana (Walckenaer, 1841) DD
E: Decorative Leucauge; S: Kola
Leucauge decorata (Blackwall, 1864) LC
Visithuru digu hanuka makuluwa
Leucauge ditissima (Thorell, 1887) DD
Leucauge lamperti Strand, 1907 DD
Leucauge undulata (Vinson, 1863) DD
E: Pear-Shaped Leucauge; S: Bathik
Opadometa fastigata (Simon, 1877) LC
digu hanuka makuluwa
Schenkeliella spinosa (O. P.-Cambridge, 1870) DD
Tetragnatha armata Karsch, 1891 DD
Tetragnatha mandibulata Walckenaer, 1841 DD
Tetragnatha maxillosa Thorell, 1895 DD
Tetragnatha determinata Karsch, 1891 DD
Tetragnatha foveata Karsch, 1891 DD
Tetragnatha geniculata Karsch, 1891 DD
Tetragnatha gracilis (Bryant, 1923) DD
Tetragnatha planata Karsch, 1891 DD
Tetragnatha tenera Thorell, 1881 DD
Tetragnatha virescens Okuma, 1979 DD
E: Common Long-jawed Orb weaver;
Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely, 1921 LC
S: Podu digu hanuka makuluwa
Tylorida culta (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) DD
54
Tylorida striata (Thorell, 1877) E: Striated Tylorida CR B2ab(iii)
Tylorida ventralis (Thorell, 1877) DD
Family: Theraphosidae
Chilobrachys nitelinus Karsch, 1891 EN B1ab(iii)
Plesiophrictus tenuipes Pocock, 1899 DD
E: Lemon Leg Tiger Spider; S: Thada
Poecilotheria fasciata (Latreille, 1804) kaha iri padathi divimakuluwa/ Yak- EN B2ab(iii)
sha divimakuluwa
E: Ornate Tiger Spider; S: Kaha iri
Poecilotheria ornata Pocock, 1899 EN B2ab(iii)
padathi divimakuluwa
E: Pederseni's Tiger Spider, Hamban-
Poecilotheria pederseni Kirk, 2001 thota Tiger Spider; S: Pedarsanige EN B2ab(iii)
Diwimakuluwa
E: Smithi's Tiger Spider; S: Smithige
Poecilotheria smithi Kirk, 1996 CR B2ab(iii)
Diwimakuluwa
E: Ivory Birdeating Tiger Spider;
Poecilotheria subfusca Pocock, 1895 S: Eth dala pahe iri padathi divimaku- EN B1+2ab(iii)
luwa
Family: Theridiidae
Argyrodes argentatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 DD
Argyrodes fissifrons O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 DD
E: Red and silver dew drop spider;
Argyrodes flavescens O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 NT
S: Rathu ridee pinibidu makuluwa
Argyrodes nasutus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 DD
Argyrodes scintillulanus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 DD
Ariamnes pavesii Leardi, 1902 DD
Cephalobares globiceps O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD
E: Cat’s eye Spider; S: Balal aes
Chrysso nigra (O. P.-Cambridge, 1880) EN B1+2ab(iii)
makuluwa
Chrysso spiniventris (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) EN B1ab(iii)
Coleosoma blandum O. P.-Cambridge, 1882 DD
Coscinida gentilis Simon, 1895 DD
Coscinida novemnotata Simon, 1895 DD
Coscinida triangulifera Simon, 1904 DD
Dipoena sertata (Simon, 1895) DD
Emertonella taczanowskii (Keyserling, 1886) DD
Enoplognatha oreophila (Simon, 1894) DD
Euryopis brevis(Cambridge, 1870) DD
Euryopis episinoides (Walckenaer, 1847) CR B2ab(iii)
Janula taprobanicus (Simon, 1895) DD
Kochiura aulica (C. L. Koch, 1838) DD
Latrodectus erythromelas Schmidt & Klaas,
DD
1991
Latrodectus hasselti Thorell, 1870 E: Red-back Spider CR B2ab(iii)
Molione trispinosa (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD
Moneta spinigera O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD
Nesticodes rufipes (Lucas, 1846) DD
Parasteatoda tepidariorum (C. L. Koch, 1841) DD
Parasteatoda mundula (L. Koch, 1872) E: Comb-footed Platform Spider EN B1+2ab(iii)
Parasteatoda tepidariorum (C. L. Koch, 1841) DD
55
Phoroncidia nasuta (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD
Phoroncidia septemaculeata O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1873
Phoroncidia testudo (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD
Phoroncidia thwaitesi O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 DD
Phycosoma spundana (Roberts, 1978) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Platnickina mneon (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) CR B2ab(iii)
Propostira quadrangulata Simon, 1894 DD
Steatoda rufoannulata (Simon, 1899) DD
Taphiassa punctigera Simon, 1895 DD
Theridion albomaculosum O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1869
Theridion ceylonicus Dunlop & Jekel, 2009 DD
Theridion gabardi Simon, 1895 DD
Theridion modestum (Simon, 1894) DD
Theridion nilgherinum Simon, 1905 DD
Theridion nodiferum Simon, 1895 DD
Theridion quadratum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1882) DD
Theridion teliferum Simon, 1895 DD
Theridula gonygaster (Simon, 1873) E: Cobweb Spider EN B1ab(iii)
Theridula opulenta (Walckenaer, 1841) DD
Thwaitesia margaritifera O. P.-Cambridge, 1881 DD
Family: Theridiosomatidae
Andasta semiargentea Simon, 1895 DD
Ogulnius pullus Bösenberg & Strand, 1906 DD
Theridiosoma genevensium (Brignoli, 1972) DD
Family: Thomisidae
Amyciae forticeps (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) LC
Ascurisoma striatipes (Simon, 1897) DD
Boliscus decipiens O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD
Borboropactus asper (O. P.-Cambridge, 1884) DD
Camaricus formosus Thorell, 1887 DD
Cymbacha simplex Simon, 1895 DD
Diaea placata O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD
Epidius longipalpis Thorell, 1877 DD
Epidius parvati Benjamin, 2000 DD
Holopelus piger O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD
Indoxysticus minutus (Tikader, 1960) CR B2ab(iii)
Lysiteles catulus Simon, 1895 DD
Monaeses attenuatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD
Monaeses cinerascens (Thorell, 1887) DD
Monaeses greeni O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD
E: Sri Lanka Elongated Green Crab
Oxytate subvirens (Strand, 1907) NT
Spider; S: Digu kola kakulu makuluwa
Oxytate taprobane Benjamin, 2001 CR B1+2ab(iii)
Pagida salticiformis (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883) DD
56
Peritraeus hystrix Simon, 1895 DD
Phrynarachne ceylonica (O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1884)
Phrynarachne decipiens (Forbes, 1883) CR B2ab(iii)
Phrynarachne fatalis O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD
Phrynarachne rothschildi Pocock & Rothschild,
DD
1903
Runcinia bifrons (Simon, 1895) DD
Stiphropus sigillatus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883) DD
Tagulis mystacinus Simon, 1895 DD
Talaus oblitus O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD
Tarrocanus capra Simon, 1895 DD
Thomisus callidus (Thorell, 1890) DD
Thomisus elongatus Stoliczka, 1869 DD
Thomisus granulifrons Simon, 1906 DD
Thomisus pugilis Stoliczka, 1869 DD
Thomisus spectabilis Doleschall, 1859 DD
Thomisus stoliczkai (Thorell, 1887) DD
Tmarus fasciolatus Simon, 1906 DD
Tmarus taiwanus Ono, 1977 CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Titanoecidae
Pandava laminata (Thorell, 1878) DD
Family: Uloboridae
Hyptiotes analis Simon, 1892 DD
Miagrammopes ferdinandi O. P.-Cambridge,
DD
1870
Miagrammopes thwaitesi O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD
Uloborus bigibbosus Simon, 1905 DD
Uloborus umboniger Kulczyn'ski, 1908* DD
E: Grey house Spider/ Common
Zosis geniculata (Olivier, 1789) house cribellate orb weaver; S: Podu LC
peeru dal viyanna
Family: Zodariidae
Cryptothele ceylonica O. P.-Cambridge, 1877 DD
Habronestes bradleyi (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) DD
Hermippus cruciatus Simon, 1905 DD
Suffasia attidiya Benjamin & Jocqué, 2000 CR B2ab(iiii)
Suffasia mahasumana Benjamin & Jocqué,
DD
2000
Family: Zorocratidae
Campostichomma manicatum Karsch, 1891 DD
Family: Zoropsidae
Devendra pardalis (Simon, 1898) DD
Devendra pumilus (Simon, 1898) DD
Devendra seriatus (Simon, 1898) DD
57
Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Crabs
(Crustacea: Decapoda) in Sri Lanka
M. M. Bahir and D. E. Gabadage
Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 150/6 Stanley Thilakaratne Mawatha, Nugegoda
Introduction
The exploration of Sri Lanka’s freshwater crabs began 132 years ago with the description
in 1880 of Thelphusa [Perbrinckia] enodis and Thelphusa [Ceylonthelphusa] rugosa by the
American zoologist, J. S. Kingsley. This was followed by several studies by Rathbun, (1904)
Roux (1915) and Fernando (1960). The first revision of the freshwater crab fauna of Sri Lanka
was carried out by Bott in 1970. A resurgence in the research interest on Sri Lanka’s freshwater
crabs was observed in 1990’s following a joint exploration carried out by the National University
of Singapore and the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka (Ng, 1994, 1995a, 1995b; Bahir,
1998, 1999; Ng & Tay, 2001; Bahir & Ng, 2005; Bahir & Yeo, 2005).
Up to 1994, only eight valid species of freshwater crabs belonging to four genera were recognized
from Sri Lanka. The extensive exploration work carried out by the National University of Singapore
and the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka resulted in the discovery of many new species and
genera of freshwater crabs taking the total number of species to 51 and genera to 7. Based on
the present state of knowledge of the peninsular Indian carcinofauna (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Bahir
& Yeo, 2005), 50 Sri Lankan freshwater-crab species and five of the genera (Ceylonthelphusa,
Perbrinckia, Mahatha, Clinothelphusa and Pastilla) are endemic to Sri Lanka while the two
lowland genera, Oziothelphusa and Spiralothelphusa, are shared with southern India. All the Sri
Lankan freshwater crabs belong to a single family, Gecarcinucidae.
Distribution
Sri Lanka supports a rich freshwater crab assemblage in comparison with other similar, well-
studied tropical Asian countries such as Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, which together
have a territory about twice the extent of Sri Lanka, and yet about the same number of
freshwater crab species (Ng, 1988), while Taiwan which is about little over half the size of Sri
Lanka (36,000 km2) has 34 species (Ng et al., 2001). Another unique feature of Sri Lankan
freshwater crabs is that they show 98.04% endemicity which has not been observed in any
other faunal group in Sri Lanka.
Nearly half the freshwater crabs known to date (23 species) are point endemics, rendering
them extremely vulnerable to habitat loss, degradation and stochastic events. The reason as
to why freshwater crabs show such a highly restricted distribution is unclear. However, this
phenomenon has been observed to a lesser extent in other taxa with low mobility such as
amphibians and reptiles as well. Out of the 51 known species of freshwater crabs 41 (80%) are
restricted to the wet zone. Only 4.6% of the wet zone (800 km2) now contains natural forest.
The wet zone of Sri Lanka also has a very high population density (700 per km2) one of the
highest population densities observed in all of the global biodiversity hotspots of the world
(Cincotta et al., 2000). Therefore, conserving freshwater crabs in such a human-dominated
landscape is going to be a challenging task.
58
Threats
Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species. Further, influx of fertilizer
and pesticides, local climate change (Schaefer, 1998), rainwater acidification and increased
erosion leading to sedimentation of water bodies can be sited as other major threats on the
habitats of the freshwater crabs. The water yield in the freshwater systems is also influenced
to a great extent by the loss of forest cover due to encroachment and illegal timber extraction.
Pesticides are key pollutants of many aquatic systems as these substances are freely and
widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not
impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon., 1980). Since
nearly half the freshwater crab species (24) of Sri Lanka are restricted to montane and
sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the
highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam et al., 2003). An estimated 292
MT ha-1 yr-1 of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing
silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB, 2003). A handful of freshwater-crab species have wide
distributions and are clearly tolerant of land-use change, given that they persist in rice fields (e.g.
Oziothelphusa spp.) and tea plantations (e.g. Ceylonthelphusa rugosa and Ceylonthelphusa
soror). Even such species, however, could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes
in the hydrology or pesticide-use regimes.
Conservation
Given the fact that most of the freshwater crabs have been discovered over the last two
decades and they are poorly represented in museum collections, there is no reliable historical
baseline against which to judge trends in distributions or population changes. Therefore it is
not possible to ascertain whether there have been any recent extinctions in the freshwater
crab fauna as has been recorded for flowering plants (~ 130 species: Dassanayake et al.,
1980–2004); amphibians (19 species: Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005; Stuart
et al., 2004; Meegaskumbura et al., 2012; Wickramasinghe et al., 2012); and freshwater fish (2
species: Pethiyagoda, 1994). However, according to the outcome of the current conservation
status review of the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka, nearly 90% of the freshwater crabs in Sri
Lanka are globally threatened with 66% being listed under the critically endangered category.
Thus, conservation of the entire freshwater crab fauna of Sri Lanka, given its remarkable
diversity, richness and endemism, is a matter of the highest priority. The urgency to take
appropriate conservation action is more so given the fact that freshwater crabs are not targeted
for exploitation in Sri Lanka and yet a high proportion of them are globally threatened. It is not
clear whether the exceedingly small populations seen in many species of crabs are a natural
phenomenon or have resulted due to a sudden decline. Further, it is not known whether the
freshwater crabs naturally have a severely restricted distribution, resulting in the extremely
small extents of occurrence that is observed for nearly 90% of the crabs in Sri Lanka or this
situation has resulted due to habitat loss or some other driver operating on this taxa.
As very little is known about the ecology of the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka, it is prudent
to take the precautionary approach when determining strategies for conserving this fauna.
Therefore, the conservation assessment made here should be accepted at face value, and
recovery strategies devised accordingly, until more data become available to support the
conclusion that each threatened species is in fact secure.
59
Nearly 80% of the known crab species of Sri Lanka are restricted to the wet zone where 95%
of the forest cover has been converted for human use during the last century. The remaining
forests are also severely fragmented with three fragments (Knuckles, Sinharaja and Peak
Wilderness) accounting for half of the remaining forest cover and the balance are contained in
> 100 fragments of varying size. Studies done in Brazil (Bierregaard et al., 2001; Ferraz et al.,
2003) have shown that extreme rainforest fragmentation could lead to catastrophic declines
and extinction of species within a short period of time. Therefore, the long-term security of Sri
Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-
use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest
sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data,
implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms.
Given the fact that conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving
patches of natural forest large enough to maintain good water quality, it is of concern that water
quality is deteriorating even in key natural habitats (Gunawardena et al., 1998). Many freshwater
crabs are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters and will not survive when exposed to
these factors. In Singapore for example, the small patch of primary forest of Bukit Timah Hill
(~70 ha) has been sufficient to maintain a thriving population of the endemic potamid Johora
singaporensis (Ng, 1988; 1989; 1990). The same is also true for Parathelphusa reticulata,
which is known to occur in only a small remnant patch of peat-swamp forest patch of less than
five hectares (Ng, 1989; 1990). Decade-long monitoring of these populations demonstrates
that crab species will persist even in small habitat fragments if these are managed well, though
exposed to extirpation by stochastic events (Brook et al., 2003).
Recommended conservation actions
The fact that exploration carried out during the last two decades alone has resulted in the
description of 43 new species, provide strong support for the necessity of a national freshwater
crab survey, leading to a gap analysis and the identification of key habitats for conservation
attention. It is also necessary to closely monitor at least the Critically Endangered species,
especially to detect actions that could alter habitat, so that these could be treated before they
impact on the population involved. Further, as discussed above, the long term conservation of
freshwater crabs depends heavily on maintaining water quality of their habitat. Since one of
the key drivers of freshwater habitat change is pesticides, it should become mandatory for all
pesticides be assessed for impact on non-target organisms and the environment in general, and
the labeling of such products should include information on environmental safeguards before
being approved for use within Sri Lanka. Many of the freshwater crabs occur outside the protected
area network in private lands (e.g. Perbrinckia armata, Perbrinckia callista and Clinothelphusa
kakoota). Therefore, introducing legal and institutional reforms necessary to engage local
communities in the in situ conservation of point-endemic freshwater crabs is an important step. At
the same time it is necessary to establish an ex situ management programme to maintain captive
populations of at least the Critically Endangered species. Finally, lack of information on many of
the freshwater crab species signifies the need for promoting further research and awareness
on this unique taxonomic group. Therefore, developing a user-friendly guide for identification
of freshwater crabs and conducting education and awareness programmes for school children,
university students, policy makers and the civil society are also identified as key elements of a
successful campaign to conserve the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka.
60
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62
Table 06: List of Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka
Common
Scientific Name Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria
Family: Gecarcinucidae
Ceylonthelphusa alpina Bahir &
Yeo, 2005 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa armata
(Ng, 1993) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa callista
(Ng, 1995) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa cavatrix
(Bahir, 1998) CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa diva Bahir &
Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa durrelli Bahir &
Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa kandambyi
Bahir, 1999 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) NT
Ceylonthelphusa kotagama
(Bahir, 1998) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa nata Ng & Tay,
2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa orthos Ng &
Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa rugosa
(Kingsley, 1880) NT LC
Ceylonthelphusa sanguinea
(Ng, 1995) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Ceylonthelphusa savitriae Bahir &
Ceylonthelphusa sentosa Bahir ,
1999 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC
Ceylonthelphusa soror
(Zehntner,1894) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC
Ceylonthelphusa venusta
(Ng,1995) CR B2ab(iii) NT
Clinothelphusa kakoota Tay & Ng,
2001 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)
Mahatha adonis Ng & Tay, 2001 NT LC
Mahatha helaya Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Mahatha iora Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)
Mahatha lacuna Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Mahatha ornatipes (Roux,1915) NT LC
Mahatha regina Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Oziothelphusa ceylonensis (Fer-
nando, 1960) NT LC
Oziothelphusa dakuna Bahir &
Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
Oziothelphusa gallicola Bahir &
Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
63
Common
Scientific Name Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria
Oziothelphusa hippocastanum
(Muller, 1887) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU
Oziothelphusa intuta Bahir & Yeo,
Oziothelphusa kodagoda Bahir &
Oziothelphusa mineriyaensis
Bott,1970 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC
Oziothelphusa populosa Bahir &
Yeo, 2005 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
Oziothelphusa ritigala Bahir &
Yeo, 2005 EN B1ab(iii) VU D2
Oziothelphusa stricta Ng & Tay,
2001 NT VU B1ab(iii)
Pastilla ruhuna Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Perbrinckia cracens Ng,1995 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Perbrinckia enodis Kingsley,1880 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Perbrinckia fenestra Bahir & Yeo,
2005 CR B2ab(iii) VU D2
Perbrinckia fido Bahir, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Perbrinckia gabadagei Bahir &
Perbrinckia glabra Ng, 1995 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Perbrinckia integra Ng, 1995 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU D2
Perbrinckia morayensis Ng & Tay,
Perbrinckia nana (Bahir,1999) EN B1ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
“Pulli Pathan
Perbrinckia punctata Ng, 1995 Kakuluwa” CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Perbrinckia quadratus Ng & Tay,
Perbrinckia rosae Bahir & Yeo,
Perbrinckia scitula Ng, 1995 CR B2ab(iii) LC
Perbrinckia uva Bahir,1998 CR B2ab(iii)
Spiralothelphusa fernando Ng,
1994 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
Spiralothelphusa parvula
(Fenando,1961) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
Perbrinckia scansor (Ng, 1995) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC
64
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Land snails in Sri Lanka:
K. B. Ranawana1 and T. G. M. Priyadarshana2
1
Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya
2
10/8 Theleawala Road, Mount Lavinia
Introduction
Molluscs (snails and slugs) are the second most diverse animal phyla after arthropods (Solem,
1981; Emberton et al., 1997). Majority of the molluscs are aquatic (marine and freshwater),
whereas only 25% comprise of terrestrial species (Emberton et al., 1997). Class Gastropoda
is the largest class of mollusks, which is considered as the most successful of all molluscan
classes and they have colonized a wide range of habitats including land, freshwater and
marine environments. Prosobranchia, Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata are the three major
subclasses of class Gastropoda. Majority of Opisthobranchs are marine inhabitants. Molluscs
are important elements in the studies on mechanisms of evolution and examining the effects of
ecology on evolutionary change (Crampton, 1932; Cain and Sheppard 1950; Cain and Currey,
1963; Cowie, 1992; Johnson et al., 1993). Their low vagility also makes them suitable as
indicators for biogeographical studies of early tectonic events (Solem, 1981). Due to their low
mobility, land snails have become models for studying the effects of pesticides and influence
of the activities of man in altering the environment.
Of the 253 species of land snails recorded from the country, 166 species belong to Sub class
Pulmonata and is represented by 28 families. The remaining 87 species belong to the subclass
Prosobranchia, which is represented by four families. This indicates that the pulmonate group
dominates land snails in Sri Lanka. The families Ariophantidae (mainly Cryptozona and
Euplecta) with 50 species and Glessulidae (22 species) are the largest pulmonate families
found in the country. Cyclophoridae (54 species) is the largest Prosobranch family.
Taxonomy
Taxonomic status of some of the land snail groups in Sri Lanka needs to be thoroughly revised.
For instance ‘Digoniaxis’ cingalensis (Benson 1863) was described from a single specimen
collected by Edgar Layard close to Matale, North of Kandy, Sri Lanka. The taxonomic status of D.
cingalensis remains a mystery because the type species of the genus Digoniaxis Jousseaume,
1894 was found on a beach near Aden, Yemen, which proves to be a marine pyramidellid.
Distribution
A significant portion of Sri Lankan snail fauna consists of Gondwana relicts, with origins dating
back prior to the breakup of the southern super-continent over 100 million years ago (Naggs
et al., 2003). Sri Lankan land snails are considered as the most distinct in the South Asian
Region, despite their faunistic affinities with the Indian mainland (Naggs et al., 2003). Species
richness and endemicity are high among Sri Lankan land snails (Naggs et al., 2003). Of the
253 species of land snails recorded from the country, majority (205 species, approximately
81%) are categorized as endemic according to the current available data. Further five land
snail genera are considered to be endemic to Sri Lanka. These include four stylommatophoran
65
pulmonates, namely Ravana, Ratnadvipia, Acavus, Oligospira and cyclophorid prosobranch
Aulopoma. These species show discontinued distribution and are restricted to few specific
habitats in the wet and southwestern portion of the island (Raheem, 2000).
Of the land snail genera recorded from the island, 13 (Ruthvenia, Thysanota, Cryptozona,
Euplecta, Mariaella, Eurychlamys, Corilla, Beddomea, Trachia, Leptopomodes, Micraulax,
Tortulosa and Nicida) are restricted to Sri Lanka and Peninsular India, primarily to Western
Ghats; approximately 50% of the 253 species recorded from the island belong to genera
endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka. About 18 exotic land snails and slug species, most
of which are agricultural pests, have also been recorded from the country during recent studies
(Naggs et al., 2003). However, this has increased up to 21 species according to the most
recent information.
Studies done by Raheem et al. (2000) and Ranawana (2005) showed that the lowland rainforest
zone and the montane rainforest zone in Sri Lanka have distinctive snail faunas. The lowland
rainforest fauna is composed of a widely distributed element and a localized or restricted-
range component. Widely distributed lowland rainforest species include Cryptozona chenui,
Ratnadvipia irradians, Acavus phoenix, Corilla adamsi, Beddomea albizonatus aggregate and
Leptopoma semiclausum. These taxa range across most or all of the forested areas of the
lowland wet zone while some species such as Ratnadvipia irradians occur in both forest and
non forest habitats (Raheem et al., 2000).
Threats
Molluscs, together with other animals and plants, are facing a rapid process of extinction largely
due to human activities, and the present extinctions of species occur in time spans of less
than ten years (Kay, 1995). Majority of the terrestrial molluscs are forest dwellers, sensitive
to habitat disturbance. Therefore, from the biodiversity conservation point of view they are of
regional and global concern (Emberton, 1995; Tattersfield et al., 2001).
Habitat loss is the main threat faced by land snails in the country. Highly diverse areas
such as lowland rainforests of the wet zone of the country are highly fragmented. Ground
cover of the mountain regions such as in the Knuckles Region are cleared for cardamom
cultivation. Most of the land snails are leaf litter inhabitants, thus clearance of forest floor
is detrimental to their survival. Vast area of land in the wet and dry zones of Sri Lanka was
inundated due to large scale dam construction for river diversion (especially the Mahaweli
river) and hydroelectric generation. These development activities cause loss of habitats, either
minimize the area available for a species or completely wipe out a species from a locality.
Frequent fires in the grasslands, scrublands and forests are detrimental to the survival of land
snails. This is evidenced by the record of very few snail species from the grasslands, where
repeated fires occurs. Use of agrochemicals is also harmful to native land snail species found
in association with human settlements. Species belonging to endemic genera such as Acavus
and Ratnadvipia, found in synanthropic habitats are severely affected by agrochemicals.
66
Conservation
Survival of highly diverse land snail fauna of Sri Lanka is therefore dependent on the effective
conservation of the country’s remaining rainforest fragments in the lowland rainforests of wet
zone and the montane forests as endemism is restricted to localized zones within these areas.
The following recommendations are made to promote research and conservation activities of
land snails of Sri Lanka (Ranawana, 2006).
Some of the key recommendations include

• Conduct research on the ecology and distribution of land snails of Sri Lanka, with particu-
lar emphasis on the endemic and relict taxa which in turn help to identify the land snail
hotspots.
• Develop plans for population restoration of endemic and relict species which are facing
the danger of extinction due to habitat loss (such as development activities and inunda-
tion of land due to dam building). The affected taxa could be translocated to suitable areas
having similar habitat conditions.
• Establish strict regulation to control the entry of exotic land snails in to the country mainly
through the import trade of vegetables and foliage plants. Attempts should be made to
control these exotic species as much as possible before they colonize natural forest habi-
tats in the country
• Care should be taken to control the spread of some predatory gastropods, which has
been introduced to the country in early 1950s to control Lissachatina fulica. Still, indi-
viduals of predatory gastropod Eustreptaxis kibweziensis are recorded from Peradeniya,
where it was first introduced. This predatory carnivore population has to be eradicated
before it enters the natural habitats.
• Increase the awareness of village communities and school children about the importance
of land snails as an integral component of the ecosystem. The message that “not all
snails are pests” should be clearly conveyed to the general public. The role of snails in
breaking down leaf litter should be recognized.
References
Cain, A. J. & Currey, J. D., (1963). Area effects in Cepaea. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 246(726), pp.1 -81.
Cain, A. J. & Sheppard. P. M., (1950). Selection of in the polymorphic land snail Cepaes nemoralis. Heridity, 4,
pp.275– 294.
Cowie, R. H., (1992). Variation in species diversity and shell shape in Hawaiian land snails: in situ speciation and
ecological relationships. Evolution, 49(6), pp.1191 – 1202.
Emberton, K. C., Pearce, T. A., Kasigawa, P. F., Tattersfield, P. & Habibu, Z., (1997). High diversity and regional
endemism in land snails of eastern Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation, 6(8), pp.1123 – 1136.
Emberton, K. C., (1995). Land-snail community morphologies of the highest-diversity sites of Madagascar, North
America and New Zealand, with recommended alternatives to height-diameter plots. Malacologia, 36(1 -2),
pp.43 -66.
Kay, E. A., (1995). Which molluscs for extinction?. In: E. A. Kay, ed. 1995. The conservation Biology of Molluscs.
Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Ch. 1, pp.1-11.
67
Naggs, F., Raheem, D. C., Mordan, P. B., Grimm, B., Ranawana, K. B. & Kumburegama, N. P. S., (2003).
Ancient relicts and contemporary exotics: faunal change and survivorship in Sri Lanka’s snail fauna. Slugs
& Snails: Agricultural, Veterinary & Environmental Perspectives. British Crop Protection Council Symposium
Proceedings, 80, pp.103 - 108.
Raheem, D., Butterworth, T., Inglis, C., Priyadarshana, T. G. M. & Perera, L. J. K. R., (2000). Land snail diversity in
Sri Lankan rainforest remnants.
Ranawana, K. B., (in press). Patterns of diversity and ecology of land snails in the Knuckles region, Sri Lanka.
Ranawana, K. B., (2006). Land snails in Sri Lanka. In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed., 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka:
Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri
Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. pp. 84-99.
Solem, A., (1984). A world model of land snail diversity and abundance. World – wide snails. In: A. Solem & A.C. van
Bruggen, eds. 1984. Biogeographical studies on none-marine Mollusca. Leiden: Brill and Backhuya, pp.6 -62.
Solem, A., (1981). Land snail biogeography: a true snail’s pace of change. In: G, Nelson & D. E. Rosen, eds. 1981.
Vicariance biogeography: a critique, pp.197 – 237.
Tattersfield, P., Warui, C. M., Seddon, M. B. & Kiringe, J. W., (2001). Land - snail faunas of afromontane forests of
Mount Kenya, Kenya: ecology, diversity and distribution patterns. Journal of Biogeography, 28(7), pp.843 -861.
68
Table 07: List of Land Snails in Sri Lanka
Abbreviations: Scientific NameEX (Exotic)

Family: Pupilidae
E: Muscerda’s
Microstele muscerda (Benson 1853) Moss Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)
E: Coenopictus
Pupoides coenopictus (Hutton 1834) EX Moss Snail NE
Family: Vertiginidae
E: Sri Lanka
Gastrocopta mimula (Benson 1853) Whorl Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Toothed Whorl
Nesopupa cinghalensis (Guide 1914) Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Pupisoma longstaffae (Godwm-Austen 1912) Grass Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Pupisoma miccyla (Benson 1860) DD
Family: Pyramidulidae
E: Sri Lanka Rock
Pyramidula halyi (Jousseaume 1894) Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)
Family: Buliminidae
E: Sr Lanka
Mirus panos (Benson 1853) Lesser Bulin EN B2ab(iii)
Mirus proletaria (Pfeiffer 1855) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Mirus stalix (Benson 1863) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Family: Cerastuidae
Rachis punctatus (Anton 1839) EX E: Pipe Snail NE
E: Sri lanka Pipe
Rhachistia adumbratus (Pfeiffer 1855) Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Rhachistia pulcher (Gray 1825) VU B1ab(iii)
Family: Endodontidae
E: Sri Lanka
Philalanka circumsculpta (Sykes 1897) Philalanka EN B1+2ab(iii)
Philalanka depressa (Preston 1909) EN B2ab(iii)
Philalanka edithae (Preston 1909) CR B1ab(iii)
Philalanka lamcabensis (Jousseaume 1894) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Philalanka liratula (Pfeiffer 1860) CR B2ab(iii)
Philalanka mononema (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)
Philalanka secessa (Godwin-Austen 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Philalanka sinhila (Godwin-Austen 1897) CR B2ab(iii)
Philalanka thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)
Philalanka trifilosa (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1ab(iii)
Family: Charopidae
E: Sri Lanka
Micro Hairy Ruth-
Ruthvenia biciliata (Pfeiffer 1854) venia CR B1+2ab(iii)
Ruthvenia caliginosa (Sykes 1898) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Ruthvenia clathratula (Pfeiffer 1850) EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Micro Hairy Thy-
Thysanota elegans (Preston 1909) sanota EN B1ab(iii)
69
Thysanota eumita (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)
Thysanota hispida (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Clausilioidae
E: Sri Lanka Door
Phaedusa ceylanica (Benson 1863) Snail EN B2ab(iii)
Family: Gastrodontoidae
E: Quick Gloss
Zonitoides arboreus (Say 1816) EX Glass Snail NE
Family: Oxychilidae
E: Garlic Glass
Oxychilus alliarius (Miller, 1822) EX Snail NE
Family: Euconulidae
E: Sri Lanka Bril-
Eurychlamys layardi (Benson 1860) liant Granule EN B1+2ab(iii)
Eurychlamys regulata (Benson 1860) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Eurychlamys winifredae (Preston 1909) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Family: Helicarionidae
E: Common Hive
Kaliella barrakporensis (Pfeiffer 1853) EX Snail NE
E: Sri Lanka Hive
Kaliella colletti (Sykes 1899) Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Kaliella delectabilis (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)
Kaliella leithiana (Godwin Austen 1883) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Kaliella salicensis (Godwin Austen 1897) DD
Sivella galerus (Benson 1856) CR B2ab(iii)
Sivella hyptiocyclos (Benson 1863) CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Ariophantidae
E: Common
Cryptozona bistrialis (Beck 1837) Translucent Snail LC
E: Sri Lanka Hard
Cryptozona ceraria (Benson 1853) Translucent Snail VU B1ab(iii)
Cryptozona chenui (Pfeiffer 1847) VU B1ab(iii)
Cryptozona juliana (Gray 1834) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Cryptozona novella (Pfeiffer 1855) EN B2ab(iii)
Cryptozona semirugata (Beck 1837) VU B1ab(iii)
E: Glass Translu-
Euplecta acuducta (Benson 1850) cent Snail CR B2ab(iii)
Euplecta albizonata (Dohm 1858) CR B2ab(iii)
Euplecta binoyaensis (Godwin Austen 1899) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Euplecta colletti (Sykes 1897) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Euplecta concavospira (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)
Euplecta emiliana (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Euplecta gardeneri (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)
Euplecta hyphasma (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)
Euplecta indica (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)
Euplecta isabellina (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)
Euplecta laevis (Blanford 1901) DD
Euplecta lankaensis (Preston 1909) DD
70
Euplecta layardi (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Euplecta neglecta (Preston 1909) DD
Euplecta partita (Pfeiffer 1854) NT
Euplecta phidias (Hanley & Theobald 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Euplecta prestoni (Godwin-Austen 1897) CR B1ab(iii)
Euplecta rosamonda (Benson 1860) DD
Euplecta scobinoides (Sykes 1897) CR B1ab(iii)
Euplecta semidecussata (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)
Euplecta subopaca (Pfeiffer 1854) DD
Euplecta trimeni (Jousseaume 1894) DD
Euplecta turritella (Adams 1869) DD
Euplecta travancorica (Benson 1865) NT
Euplecta verrucula (Pfeiffer 1854) DD
E: Sri Lanka Rat-
Ratnadvipia edgariana (Benson 1853) nadivipa DD
Ratnadvipia irradians (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)
Ratnadvipia karui (Raheem & Naggs 2006) CR B1+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Ravana politissima (Pfeiffer 1854) Ravana Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Common
Mariaella dussumieri (Gray 1855) EX Shelled Slug NE
E: Macro Lucid
Macrochlamys indica (Godwin Austen 1883) Snail DD
E: Sri Lanka
Macrochlamys kandiensis (Godwin-Austen 1883) Macro Lucid Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)
Macrochlamys nepas (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)
Macrochlamys perfucata (Benson 1853) DD
Macrochlamys tratanensis (Jousseaume 1894) CR B2ab(iii)

Macrachlamys umbrina (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Macrachlamys vilipensa (Benson 1853) DD
Macrochlamys woodiana (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka Mi-
Microcystina bintennensis (Godwin-Austen 1899) cro Lucid Snail DD
Microcystina lita (Sykes 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka Lu-
Satiella membranacea (Benson 1853) cid Satiella Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Sitala operiens (Sykes 1898) Sitala Snail DD
Sitala phyllophila (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)
Sitala pyramidalis (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)
Family Milacidae
E: Smooth Jet
Milax gagates (Draparnaud 1801) EX
Slug NE
Family: Agriolimacidae
E: Gray Field
Deroceras reticulatum (Miller 1774) EX Slug NE
Deroceras laeve (Muller 1774) EX
E: Marsh Slug NE
71
Family: Ferussaciidae
Digoniaxis cingalensis (Benson 1863) LC
Family: Glessulidae
E: Corkscrew
Glessula capillacea (Pfeiffer 1855) Snail CR B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Glessula ceylanica (Pfeiffer 1845) Corkscrew Snail EN B2ab(iii)
Glessula collettae (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)
Glessula deshayesi (Pfeiffer 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Glessula fulgens (Pfeiffer 1858) CR B1ab(iii)
Glessula inornata (Pfeiffer 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Glessula lankana (Pilsbry 1908) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Glessula layardi (Pilsbry 1908) CR B2ab(iii)
Glessula nitens (Gray 1825) DD
Glessula pachycheila (Benson 1853) DD
Glessula pallens (Beddome 1906) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Glessula panaetha (Benson 1860) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Glessula parabilis (Benson 1856) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Glessula prestoni (Gude 1914) CR B2ab(iii)
Glessula punctogallana (Pfeiffer 1852) EN B1ab(iii)
Glessula pusilla (Beddome 1906) EX NE
Glessula reynelli (Gude 1914) DD
Glessula sattaraensis (Hanley & Theobald 1874) CR B2ab(iii)
Glessula serena (Benson 1860) EN B2ab(iii)
Glessula simoni (Jousseaume 1894) DD
Glessula sinhila (Preston 1909) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Glessula veruina (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Subulinidae
E: Common Awl
Subulina octona (Bruguiere 1789) EX Snail NE
E: Graceful Awl
Allopeas gracile (Hutton 1834) EX Snail NE
E: Sri Lanka Awl
Allopeas layardi (Benson 1863) Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Allopeas mariae (Jousseaume 1894) CR B2ab(iii)
Allopeas prestoni (Sykes 1898) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Allopeas pussilus (Adams 1867) DD
Allopeas sykesi (Pilsbry 1906) CR B2ab(iii)
E: Achatina’s Awl
Paropeas achatinaceum (Pfeiffer 1846) EX Snail NE
E: Chrysalis Awl
Zootecus insularis (Ehrenberg 1831) EX Snail NE
Family: Achatinidae
E: Giant African
Lissachatina fulica (Bowdich 1822) EX Snail NE
Family: Streptaxidae
E: Eustreptex
Eustreptexis kideziensis (Smith 1895) EX Hunter Snail NE
72
E: Sri Lanka
Indoartemon cingalensis (Benson 1853) Hunter Snail CR B2ab(iii)
Indoartemon gracilis (Collet 1898) CR B2ab(iii)
Indoartemon layardianus (Benson 1853) VU B1ab(iii)
E: Perrotte’s
Perrottetia peroteti (Petit de la Saussaye 1841) Hunter Snail DD
E: Sri Lanka
Ravana’s Hunter
Perrottetia ravanae (Blanford 1899) Snail DD
E: Two-toned
Gulella bicolor (Hutton 1834) EX Hunter Snail NE
E: Plangucula’s
Sinoennea planguncula (Benson 1863) Hunter Snail DD
Family: Acavidae
E: Sri Lanka Red
mouthed Lustful
Acavus haemastoma (Lennaeus 1758) Snail EN B2ab(iii)
E: Arabian Lustful
Acavus phoenix (Pfeiffer 1854) Snail NT
E: Superb Lustful
Acavus superbus (Pfeiffer 1850) Snail VU B1ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
White Lip Blunted
Oligospira polei (Collet 1899) Snail EN B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Small Blunted
Oligospira skinneri (Reeve 1854) Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Common Blunted
Oligospira waltoni (Reeve 1842) Snail VU B1ab(iii)
Family: Corillidae
E: Sri Lanka
Corilla adamsi (Gude 1914) Toothed Lip Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Corilla beddomeae (Hanley 1875) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Corilla carabinata (Ferussac 1821) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Corilla colletti (Sykes 1897) VU B1ab(iii)
Corilla erronea (Albers 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Corilla fryae (Gude 1896) DD
Corilla gudei (Sykes 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Corilla humberti (Brot 1864) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Corilla lesleyae (Barnacle 1959) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Corilla odontophora (Benson 1865) CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Camaenidae
Beddomea albizonatus (Reeve 1849) VU B1ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka Bed-
Beddomea ceylanicus (Pfeiffer 1846) domea Snail CR B2ab(iii)
Beddomea intermedius (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)
Beddomea trifasciatus (Gmelin 1786) VU B1ab(iii)
E: Strawberry
Trachia fallaciosa (Ferussac 1821) Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)
Trachia vittata (Muller 1774) CR B2ab(iii)
73
E: Sri Lanka
Landouria radleyi (Jousseaume 1894) Landouria EN B1+2ab(iii)
Family: Bradybaenidae
E: Asian Tramp
Bradybaena similaris (Femssac 1822) EX Snail NE
Family: Succineidae
Succinea ceylanica (Pfeiffer 1855) E: Amber Snail CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Cochlicopidae
E: Glossy Pillar
Cochlicopa lubrica (Muller 1774) EX Snail NE
Family: Arionidae
E: Hedgehog
Arion intermedius (Normand 1852) EX Slug NE
Family: Veronicellidae
E: Leatherleaf
Laevicaulis alte (Femssac 1821) Slug LC
E: Tropical Leath-
Semperula maculata (Tempieton 1888) erleaf Slug LC
Semperula siamensis (Martens 1867) LC
Family: Cyclophoroidea
Cyclophorus alabastrinus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Large Operculate
Cyclophorus ceylanicus (Pfeiffer 1849) Snail VU B1ab(iii)
E: Involvulus
Cyclophorus involvulus (Muller 1774) Operculte Snail EN B2ab(iii)
Cyclophorus menkeanus (Philippi 1848) VU B1ab(iii)
E: Grande’s
Aulopoma grande (Pfeiffer 1855) Operculate Snail VU B1ab(iii)
E: Helicinum
Aulopoma helicinum (Chemnitz 1786) Operculate Snail VU B1ab(iii)
E: Itier’s Opercu-
Aulopoma itieri (Guerin 1847) late Snail EN B1ab(iii)
E: Sphaeroid’s
Aulopoma sphaeroideum (Dohrn 1857) Operculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
E: Cyathopom’s
Cyathopoma album (Beddome 1875) Operculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Cyathopoma artatum (Sykes 1897) DD
Cyathopoma ceylanicum (Beddome 1875) EN B2ab(iii)
Cyathopoma colletti (Sykes 1898) DD
Cyathopoma conoideum (Sykes 1898) DD
Cyathopoma innocens (Sykes 1899) CR B2ab(iii)
Cyathopoma leptomita (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)
Cyathopoma mariae (Jousseaume 1894) DD
Cyathopoma ogdenianum (Preston 1909) CR B2ab(iii)
Cyathopoma perconoideum (Preston 1909) DD
Cyathopoma prestoni (Sykes 1897) CR B2ab(iii)
Cyathopoma serendibense (Preston 1903) DD
Cyathopoma turbinatum (Sykes 1897) DD
Cyathopoma uvaense (Preston 1909) DD
74
E: Japonia’s
Japonia binoyae (Sykes 1897) Operculate Snail DD
Japonia occulta (Sykes 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Japonia vesca (Sykes 1897) EN B2ab(iii)
E: Leptopoma’s
Leptopoma apicatum (Benson 1856) Operculate Snail DD
Leptopoma elatum (Pfeiffer 1852) DD
E: Leptopomoid’s
Leptopoma semiclausum (Pfeiffer 1855) Operculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Leptopomoides conulus (Pfeiffer 1855) DD
Leptopomoides flammeus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Leptopomoides halophilus (Benson 1851) DD
Leptopomoides orophilus (Benson 1853) DD
Leptopomoides poecilus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Leptopomoides taprobanensis (Preston 1909) CR B1+2ab(iii)

E: Micraulax
Micraulax coeloconus (Benson 1851) Opeculate Snail CR B2ab(iii)
Scabrina brounae (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)
E: Hairy Opercu-
Scabrina liratula (Preston 1909) late Snail DD
E: Theobald’s
Theobaldius annulatus (Pfeiffer 1847) Operculate Snail LC
Theobaldius bairdi (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)
Theobaldius cadiscus (Benson 1860) CR B2ab(iii)
Theobaldius cratera (Benson 1856) DD
Theobaldius cytopoma (Benson 1860) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Theobaldius layardi (Adams 1868) VU B1ab(iii)
Theobaldius liliputianus (Preston 1909) DD
Theobaldius loxostoma (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Theobaldius parapsis (Benson 1853) DD
Theobaldius parma (Benson 1856) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Theobaldius subplicatulus (Beddome 1875) VU B1ab(iii)
Theobaldius thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)
Pterocyclus bifrons (Pfeiffer 1855) DD
E: Ptero’s Oper-
Pterocyclus bilabiatus (Sowerby 1835) culate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)
Pterocyclus cingalensis (Benson 1853) NT
Pterocyclus cumingi (Pfeiffer 1851) NT
Pterocyclus troscheli (Benson 1851) NT
Family: Diplomatinidae
E: Sri Lanka
Nicida’s Opercu-
Nicida catathymia (Sykes 1898) late Snail NT
Nicida ceylanica (Beddome 1875) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Nicida delectabilis (Preston 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Nicida lankaensis (Preston 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Nicida pedronis (Beddome 1875) DD
75
Nicida prestoni (Sykes 1897) CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Pupinidae
E: Sri Lanka
Tortu’s Opercu-
Tortulosa aurea (Pfeiffer 1855) late Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa austeniana (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)
Tortulosa barnaclei (Tomlin 1928) DD
Tortulosa blanfordi (Dohrn 1862) DD
Tortulosa colletti (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)
Tortulosa congener (Sykes 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa connectens (Fulton 1903) DD
Tortulosa cumingi (Pfeiffer 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa decora (Benson 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa duplicata (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)
Tortulosa eurytrema (Pfeiffer 1852) DD
Tortulosa greeni (Sykes 1899) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa haemastoma (Pfeiffer 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa hartleyi (Tomlin 1928) DD
Tortulosa layardi (Pfeiffer 1851) EN B2ab(iii)
Tortulosa leucocheilus (Adams & Sowerby 1866) DD

Tortulosa marginata (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa nevilli (Sykes 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa nietneri (Nevill 1871) DD
Tortulosa prestoni (Sykes 1905) DD
Tortulosa pyramidata (PfeifFer 1852) EN B1+2ab(iii)
Tortulosa rugosa (Fulton 1904) DD
Tortulosa smithi (Sykes 1905) CR B2ab(iii)
Tortulosa sykesi (Fulton 1904) CR B2ab(iii)
Tortulosa templemani (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)
Tortulosa thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1852) CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Truncatellidae
Truncatella ceylanica (Pfeiffsr 1856) DD
76
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the
Freshwater Fishes in Sri Lanka
Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake
IUCN Sri Lanka, 53, Horton Place, Colombo 7.
Introduction
Sri Lanka supports a rich freshwater fish assemblage that comprises of 91 species including 50
endemics (Bailey and Gans, 1998; Goonatialke, 2007; Silva et al., 2008; Meegaskumbura, et
al., 2008; Pethiyagoda, 1991; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a; Pethiyagoda
et al., 2008b; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c; Silva et al., 2011; Pethiyagoda et al., 2012; Watson,
1998). Other than these indigenous species, 24 exotic species have been introduced to the
island, mainly to boost the inland fishery (Goonatilake, 2007). Senanayake and Moyle (1982)
have identified four major Ichthyological zones (Southwestern, Mahaweli, Dry and Transition)
according to the distribution patterns of freshwater fish in Sri Lanka. Out of these four zones,
Southwestern and Mahaweli zones bear the highest freshwater fish diversity in the island.
Taxonomy
The island’s freshwater fish fauna has received significant attention from early European
ichthyologists that dates back to early 19th Century. Georges Cuvier and Achille Valenciennes
described several species of fish (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828–49) from Sri Lanka based
on a single collection made in 1827 near the Kinniyar hot springs by the French explorer A.
Reynaud. However, the first local exploration of the fish fauna by an expert took place in the early
1860s, when the Dutch ichthyologist P. Bleeker described several new species of freshwater
fish based on a collection from the Gin River basin. In the early 1900’s Bleeker’s work has
been followed by a German ichthyologist, George Duncker, who explored several localities
including Gin river basin that led to the compilation of first checklist of Sri Lankan freshwater
fishes (Duncker, 1912). These early efforts on fish exploration by European ichthyologists were
followed in the mid 20th Century by local naturalists of whom the most notable being P.E.P.
Deraniyagala who has described several new species and produced the first illustrated book
on Sri Lankan freshwater fish (Deraniyagala, 1952). His work has been followed by Mendis
(1954) and Munro (1955).
The first systematic exploration of the island’s freshwater fish fauna was carried out during the
late 1970s by Ranil Senanayake for his doctoral dissertation that has led to a comprehensive
review of the conservation status of freshwater fishes for the first time in Sri Lanka (Senanayake,
1980; Senanayake and Moyle, 1982). This work was followed by a more extensive survey on
freshwater fish by the Wildlife Heritage Trust that has led to the discovery of many new species
of freshwater fish (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1991; Meegaskumbura, et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda
et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008b; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c;
Pethiyagoda et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2008; Silva et al., 2011).
Taxonomic nomenclature of freshwater fish has also been extensively revised during the past
two decades, the most recent being the taxonomic revision of the genus Puntius by Pethiyagoda
et al. (2012) that has resulted in the splitting of this genus into four genera, namely Puntius,
77
Pethia, Systomus and, Dawkinsia. Likewise, revision of the Genera Rasbora (Silva et al., 2011)
and Danio (Kevin et al., 2010) resulted in some species of genus Rasbora being placed under
the genus Rasboroides and all species of genus Danio being placed under the genus Devario.
Further, what was listed as Chela ceylonensis was split in to three species and placed under the
genus Labuca (Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a). Also, species names of several species have also
been revised over the past decade. For instance, Puntius filamentous, Puntius amphibious,
Macroganthus aral, Labeo porcellus and Channa marulius have been renamed as Puntius
singhala, Puntius kamalika, Macrognathus pentophthalmos, Labeo lankae and Channa ara
respectively (Pethiyagoda & Kottelat, 1991; Silva et al., 2008 and Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c;
Pethiyagoda, 1994).
Distribution
Senanayake and Moyle (1982) have proposed four major Ichtyological zones (Southwestern,
Mahaweli, Dry and Transition) based the on distribution pattern of freshwater fishes. Of these
the South Western and Mahaweli zones support the highest diversity in freshwater fish while
the Dry Zone species have a higher affinity with the freshwater fish in the Indian peninsula.
Number of species such as Pethia bandula (Minipura at Kegalle District) and Stiphodon
martenstyni (Atweltota near Matugama) and Rasboroides nigromaginata are only known from
a single location (point endemics). Further, some species such as Dawkinsia srilankensis,
Laubuca insularis, Systomus martenstyni, Labeo fisheri and Labeo lankae are only known
from a single river basin. However, species such as Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi, Devario
pathirana, Rasbora wilpita which were also thought to be restricted to a single river basin,
namely the Nilwala basin, have been shown to occur also in the Kelani river basin.
Threats
Arguably, the freshwater fish are the most vulnerable taxonomic group as most of the threatened
or endemic freshwater species are found in streams that are lying outside the Protected Area
Network of Sri Lanka. Therefore these habitats are highly susceptible to various threats such
as forest clearance, gem mining, expanding agriculture, large and small scale hydro projects,
exposure to chemical pollutants including agrochemicals and sedimentation due to soil erosion.
Several species such as Ophisternon bengalense, Systomus martenstyni, Labeo fisheri

and Labeo lankae have become threatened during the past few decades due to loss of their
habitat, land reclamation or habitat conversion as a result of reservoir projects. Further, natural
processes such as spread of alien invasive plant species such as like Annona gabra, Eichornia
crassipes bring about rapid habitat changes that make these marsh habitats less suitable for
freshwater fish. The water quality of many of the suburban water bodies have also undergone
drastic changes due to accumulation of toxic compounds discharged by industries. A case in
point is the Attidiya-Bellanwila Sanctuary where the number of freshwater species recorded has
changed from 54 to a mere 8 species (Goonatilake unpublished data, 2012) within a span of
about 20 years due to pollution and spread of invasive alien plant species. On the other hand, in
rural areas heavy use of agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizer has contributed to the
population decline of at least two endemic fish species, Pethiya bandula and Aplocheilus dayi
and several species of indigenous fish. Intentional and accidental introduction of invasive alien
78
fish species such as Chitala chitala (Clown knife fish) and Hypostomus plecostomus (Sucker-
mouth catfish) is posing a major threat to native fresh water fishes (Gunawardane, 2002).
Number of endemic species have a high demand in the aquarium trade and hence over-
exploitation of naturally occurring populations for export has resulted in marked reduction
in their populations and in some instances to local extinctions. Further, destructive fishing
techniques such as the use of Kala wel (a plant that is toxic to fish), Dynamite and other
chemicals such as anti-lice compounds by local communities to capture fish lead to complete
wipe-out of all the fish in a water hole. Therefore, such fishing methods should be banned and
discouraged through awareness-raising among local communities.
Conservation
As mentioned earlier, most of the threatened and endemic freshwater fish are found in habitats
located outside the Protected Area Network. These habitats are under high human pressure.
Therefore, they need to be protected; especially their catchment areas that will decide the
water yield as well as the quality of water. Any type of development affecting these habitats
needs to be clearly assessed before granting approval. Further, species oriented conservation
programmes and habitat oriented conservation programmes should be developed for at least
the critically endangered species. As most of the species occur outside the protected areas the
local communities have to be involved in conservation of these species. Such a programme
has been successfully implemented for Pethia bundula that has resulted in curtailing of illegal
collection of the fish and the recovery of the population. Likewise conservation action plans
should be drawn up for all identified threatened species.
Ex-situ breeding programmes should also be established with the aim of boosting dwindling
wild population. However, translocation or reintroduction programmes should be planned
with utmost care to prevent hybridisation and introduction of diseases to the population. Thus
far, a number of translocations have been attempted in Sri Lanka with the aim of conserving
threatened species. Some of these translocation programmes have been highly successful
while some have failed to achieve the desired objectives. Therefore, these programmes should
be carefully reviewed to document the lessons learnt before attempting further translocations.
The recent field surveys in both the dry and wet zone, and phylogenetic studies have
demonstrated that there still are new species to be discovered. Therefore, island-wide
systematic surveys should be carried out to document the distribution and ecological conditions
necessary for freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. The baseline data generated from such as a
survey can be used to make proper assessments of the conservation status of species as
well as to draw up species conservation plans. Lack of financial support is the main obstacle
for such a systematic island-wide survey. A model already exists in the neighbouring India,
where they have a dedicated zoological survey to gather baseline data not only for fishes but
for other taxonomic groups as well. The National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka had such a
programme in the 1980’s which needs to be resurrected.
79
Sri Lanka has a rich freshwater fish fauna of which more than 50% are endemic species.
However, nearly 50% freshwater fish are also listed as threatened species due to a number of
threats. Therefore, it is important to develop a conservation action plan for the endemic and
threatened freshwater fish of Sri Lanka. Such an action plan should first identify priority list of
species as well as critical habitats of freshwater fish that require immediate conservation action.
This should be followed with preparation and implementation of species specific recovery
plans. The implementation of such plans requires large investments and therefore, possibility
of private sector involvement in financing such recovery plans should be pursued. Also, a
national programme to protect catchments as well as enforce river and stream reservations
is another identified need which will benefit not only fish but other terrestrial species as well.
As most of the species occur in human dominated landscapes a conservation model involving
local communities in conservation of freshwater fish should be developed, at least for the
restricted range species. At the same time, the ex situ breeding programmes should obtain the
expertise available in the ornamental fish industry, especially to develop breeding techniques
for threatened species that are difficult to breed in captivity. All pesticides approved for release
in Sri Lanka should be assessed for impact on non-target organisms and the environment
in general, and the labelling of such products should include information on environmental
safeguards. Further, all future intentional release of exotic fishes should be preceded by an
environmental impact assessment involving specific safeguards against invasiveness, and at
the same time a ban should be imposed on importation of exotic fish species that are known
to be invasive in other countries. Also, international agencies that fund development projects
must be appraised of the negative consequences that can arise due to fisheries development
projects in Sri Lanka
References
Bailey, R. M. & Gans, C., (1998). The new synbranchid fishes, Monopterus roseni from Peninsular India and M.
desilvai from Sri Lanka. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, 726, p.18.
Cuvier, G. & Valenciennes, A., (1842). Histoire naturelle des poissons, vol. 16. Paris: P. Bertrand. xx+472 pp., pls
465–487.
Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1952). A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon, 1: fishes. Colombo: National
Museum.
Duncker, G., (1912). Die Susswasserfische Ceylons. Jahrb. Hamburg Wiss. Anst., Beiheft 2, 29 (2): pp.241–272.
Goonatilake, S. de A., (2007). Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka.
Goonatilake, S. de A., (2012). Personal records. [field records] (Personal communication, 2012).
Gunawardane, J., (2002). Occurrence of Chitala chitala (Syn. Notopterus chitala) in native freshwater habitats. Sri
Lanka Naturalist, 5(1), pp.6-7.
Tang, K. L., Agnew, M. K., Hirt, M. V., Sado, T., Schneider, L. M., Freyhof, J., Sulaiman, Z., Swartz, E., Vidthayanon,
C., Miya, M., Saitoh, K., Simons, A. M., Wood, R. M. & Mayden, R. L., (2010). Systematics of the subfamily
Danioninae (Teleostei: Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 57(1), pp.189-214.
Kottelat, M. & Pethiyagoda, R., (1991). Descriptions of three new species of cyprinid fishes from Sri Lanka. In: R.
Pethiyagoda., 1991. Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.
Meegaskumbura, M., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2008). Puntius reval, a new barb from Sri Lanka
(Teleostei; Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19 (2), pp.141-152.
Mendis, A. S., (1954). Fishes of Ceylon. Colombo: Fisheries Research Station.
Munro, I. S. R., (1955). The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of Ceylon. Canberra: Department of External Affairs.
Pethiyagoda, R. & Kottelat, M., (2005). A review of the barbs of the Puntius filamentosus group (Teleostei: Cyprinidae)
of southern India and Sri Lanka. In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds. 2005. Contributions to
biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka: The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement 12. pp.127–144.
80
Pethiyagoda, R., (1991). Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.
Pethiyagoda, R., Kottelat, M., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Meegaskumbura, M., (2008a). A review of the genus Labuca
in Sri Lanka, with description of three new species (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19
(1), p. 726.
Pethiyagoda, R., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Meegaskumbura, M., (2008b). Puntius kelumi, a new species of cyprinid
fish from Sri Lanka (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19, pp. 201- 214.
Pethiyagoda, R., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Kariyawasam, L., (2008c). The Sri Lankan spiny eel, Macrognathus
pentophthalmos (Teleostei: Mastacembelidae), and its enigmatic decline. Zootaxa, 1931, pp.37–48.
Pethiyagoda, R., Meegaskumbura, M. & Maduwage, K., (2012). A synopsis of the South Asian fishes referred to
Puntius (Pisces: Cyprinidae.) Ichthyol. Explor. Fresh waters, 23 (1), pp.69-95.
Senanayake, F. R., (1980). The biogeography and ecology of the inland fishes of Sri Lanka. PhD. University of
California.
Senanayake, F. R. & Moyle, P. B., (1982). Conservation of freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation,
22, pp.181-195.
Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2008). Puntius kamalika, a new species of barb from Sri Lanka
(Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Zootaxa, 1824, pp.55–64.
Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2011). A review of the genus Rasbora in Sri Lanka, with description of
two new species (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 21, pp.27- 50.
Watson, R. E., (1998). Stiphodon martenstyni, a new species of freshwater goby from Sri Lanka (Teleostei: Gobiidae:
Sicydiini). Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3(1), pp.69-78.
81
Table 08: List of Freshwater Fish in Sri Lanka

Family: Cyprinidae
E:Sri Lanka Large
Amblypharyngodon grandisquamis B1ab(iii)+
Silver Carplet; EN
Jordan & Starks, 1917 2ab(iii)
S:Gangiliya
Amblypharyngodon melettinus E: Silver Carplet;
LC LC
(Valenciennes,1844) S: Soraya
E: Sri Lanka
Dawkinsia singhala (Dunker, 1912)
Filamented Barb; LC LC
syn. Puntius singhala
S:Damkola pethiya
Dawkinsia srilankensis E:Sri Lanka Blotched
(Senanayake,1985) syn. Puntius Filamented Barb ; CR B2ab(iii) CR
srilankensis S:Dankuda pethiya
E:Sri Lanka Knuckles
Devario aequipinnatus (McClelland, Danio; S:Dumbara
CR B2ab(iii) LC
1839) saalaya, Damkola
saalaya
E:Giant Danio;
Devario malabaricus (Jerdon,1849) S:Rath kailaya, LC LC
Damkola saalaya
E:Sri Lanka Barred
Devario pathirana (Kottelat & B1ab(iii)+
Danio; CR EN B1ab(iii)
Pethiyagoda, 1990) 2ab(iii)
S: Pathirana saalaya
E:Sri Lanka Flying
Esomus thermoicos
Barb; S:Ravul dandiya, LC LC
(Valenciennes,1842)
Thatu dandiya
E:Sri Lanka Stone
Sucker;
Garra ceylonensis Bleeker,1863 VU B2ab(iii) EN
S:Gal paanduruva, Gal
paandiya
E:Sri Lanka Philips'
Garra;
Garra phillipsi Deraniyagala, 1933 DD DD
S:Gal paanduruva, Gal
paandiya
E:Common Labeo;
Labeo dussumieri
S:Hiri kanaya, Gan LC LC
(Valenciennes,1842)
kanaya
E:Sri Lanka Mountain
Labeo; S:Loku gadaya,
Labeo fisheri Jordan & Starks,1917 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
Kalu gadaya, Weli
gadaya, Gadaya
E:Sri Lanka Orange-Fin
Labeo; S:Thambalaya,
Labeo lankae Deraniyagala, 1952 CR B2ab(iii) CR A1c+2c, C1
Thambalaya vanna,
Hiri kanaya
Laubuca insularis Pethiyagoda, E: Sri Lanka Knuckles
Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage & Laubuca;
CR B2ab(iii)
Meegaskumbura, 2008 S: Dumbara kara-
adaya
E: Sri Lanka Blue
Laubuca lankensis (Deraniyagala,
Laubuca; VU B1ab(iii)
1960)
S: Nilkara kara-adaya
Laubuca ruhuna Pethiyagoda,
E:Sri Lanka Ruhunu
Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage & B1ab(iii)+
Laubuca; EN
Meegaskumbura, 2008 2ab(iii)
S: Ruhunu kara-adaya
82
Laubuca varuna Pethiyagoda, E:Sri Lanka Varuna
Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage & Laubuca; Varuna kara- CR B2ab(iii)
Meegaskumbura, 2008 adaya
E:Sri Lanka Bandula
Pethia bandula (Kottelat &
Barb; B1ab(iii)+
Pethiyagoda, 1991) syn. Puntius CR CR B1+2c, C1
S: Bandula pethiya, 2ab(iii)
bandula
Jayanthiya
E: Sri Lanka Cuming's
Pethia cumingii (Gunther, 1868) syn. B1ab(iii)+
Barb; S:Depulliya, EN LR/cd
Puntius cumingii 2ab(iii)
Pothya
Pethia melanomaculata E: Sri Lanka tic tac
(Deraniyagala, 1956) syn. Puntius Barb; VU B1ab(iii)
melanomaculatus S: Pothaya
E:Sri Lanka Black Ruby
Pethia nigrofasciata (Gunther, 1868)
Barb; S:Bulath hapaya, EN B2ab(iii) LR/cd
syn. Puntius nigrofasciatus
Manamaalaya
Pethia reval (Meegaskumbura, Silva, E: Sri Lanka Redfined
B1ab(iii)+
Maduwage & Pethiyagoda, 2008) Barb; EN
2ab(iii)
syn. Puntius reval S: Ratuwaral pothaya
E:Redside Barb;
Puntius bimaculatus (Bleeker,1863) LC LC
S: Ipili kadaya
E:Long-Snouted Barb;
S:Katu pethiya, Katu
Puntius dorsalis (Jerdon,1849) LC
kuriya, Rathu varal
pethiya
Puntius kamalika Silva, Maduwage E: Sri Lanka Kamalica's B1ab(iii)+
EN
& Pethiyagoda, 2008 Barb; S: Mada pethiya 2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka Redeye
Puntius kelumi Pethiyagoda, Silva, Barb; B1ab(iii)+
EN
Maduwage & Meegaskumbura, 2008 S: Rathu-es 2ab(iii)
katupethiya
E: Sri Lanka Layards
bard;
Puntius layardi (Günther, 1868) DD
S: Leyardge
katupethiya
E: Sri Lanka four spot
Puntius tetraspilus (Günther, 1868) Long snouted bard; DD
S: Siu tit katupethiya
E:Swamp Barb; S:Kota
Puntius thermalis (Valenciennes, in
pethiya: LC LC
Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1844)
S: Kota pethiya
E:Sri Lanka Cherry
Puntius titteya Deraniyagala 1929 Barb; EN B2ab(iii) LR/cd
S: Le thiththaya
E:Silver Barb;
S: Bandi thiththaya,
Puntius vittatus (Day,1865) LC LC
Podi pethiya, Ipili
kadaya
Rasbora armitagei Silva, Maduwage E: Sri Lanka Armitagi
B1ab(iii)+
& Pethiyagoda, 2010 Rasbora; CR
2ab(iii)
S: Rakvana dandiya
E:Broad line Strip
Rasbora dandiya (Valenciennes, in
Rasbora; LC
Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1844)
S: Dandiya, Kudamassa
E:Narrow line Rasbora
Rasbora microcephalus (Jerdon,
S: Kiri dandiya, LC LC
1849)
Kudamassa
83
Rasbora naggsi Silva, Maduwage & Sri Lanka Naggasi
B1ab(iii)+
Pethiyagoda, 2010 Rasbora; CR
2ab(iii)
S: Belihuloya dandiya
E:Sri Lanka Wilpita
Rasbora wilpita Kottelat & B1ab(iii)+
Rasbora; S: Wilpita EN EN B1+2c
Pethiyagoda, 1991 2ab(iii)
dandiya
E: Horadandia
Rasboroides atukorali (Deraniyagala,
athukorale; VU B1ab(iii)
1943)
S: Horadandia
E: Sri Lanka blackline
Rasboroides nigromaginata golden Rasbora;
CR B2ab(iii)
Meinken, 1957 S: Kaluiri
halmaldandiya
E: Sri Lanka Golden
Rasboroides vaterifloris Rasbora; B1ab(iii)+
EN LR/cd
(Deraniyagala,1930) S:Halmal dandiya, 2ab(iii)
Halmal thiththaya
Systomus pleurotaenia E: Sri Lanka Black-
B1ab(iii)+
(Bleeker,1863) syn. Puntius Lined Barb; EN LR/cd
2ab(iii)
pleurotaenia S:Heetha mathsaya
E:Sri Lanka Asoka
Systomus asoka (Kottelat &
Barb; B1ab(iii)+
Pethiyagoda, 1989) syn. Puntius CR EN A1c, B1+2c
S: Ran manissa, Asoka 2ab(iii)
asoka
pethiya
Systomus martenstyni (Kottelat & E:Sri Lanka
B1ab(iii)+
Pethiyagoda, 1991) syn. Puntius Martenstyn's Barb; CR EN B1+2c
2ab(iii)
martenstyni S: Dumbara pethiya
E: Sri Lanka Olive
Systomus spilurus (Günther, 1868) Barb;
DD
syn. Puntius spilurus S: Sri Lanka mas
pethiya
E: Sri Lanka thibiri
Systomus timbiri (Deraniyagala,
Barb; DD
1963) syn. Puntius timbiri
S: Sri Lanka pethiya
E:Mahseer;
Tor khudree Sykes, 1841 NT EN A2acde
S: Lehella, Horapolaya
Family: Balitoridae
E:Sri Lanka Tiger
Acanthocobitis urophthalmus B1ab(iii)+
Loach; S: Wairan EN LR/cd
(Gunther, 1868) 2ab(iii)
ahirava, Pol ahirava
E:Sri Lanka Banded
Mountain Loach;
Schistura notostigma (Bleeker,1863) S:Kandu ahirava, NT
Pol ahirava, Gomara
ahirava
Family: Cobitidae
E:Sri Lanka Jonklaas's
Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi
Loach; S:Ahirava, CR B2ab(iii) EN B1+2c, C1
(Deraniyagala,1956)
Wairan ahirava
E:Common Spiny
Lepidocephalichthys thermalis
Loach; S:Ahirava, LC LC
(Valenciennes,1846)
Wairan ahirava
Family - Bagridae
E:Long-Whiskered
Mystus gulio (Hamilton,1822) Catfish; Anguluwa, LC LC
Maana ankutta
84
E: Striped Dwarf
Mystus vittatus (Bloch,1794) Catfish; S: Iri ankutta, LC LC
Hiri ankutta
Mystus ankutta Pethiyagoda, Silva & E: Sri Lanka Dwarf
B1ab(iii)+
Maduwage, 2008 Catfish; S: Sri Lanka EN
2ab(iii)
ankutta
E: Yellow Catfish;
Mystus seengtee (Sykes, 1839) LC
S: Path ankutta
Family: Claridae
E:Sri Lanka Walking
Clarias brachysoma Gunther 1864 Catfish; S:Magura,Vel NT
magura, Kaha magura
Family: Siluridae
E: Butter Catfish;
Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch,1794) S: Walapoththa, LC NT
Penavalaya,Kokassa
E:Shark Catfish;
Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider,
S:Walaya, Maha EN B2ab(iii) NT
1801)
Walaya
Family: Heteropneustidae
E:Stinging Catfish;
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch,1797) S:Hunga, Kaha hunga, LC LC
Le hunga
Family: Gobiidae
Awaous melanocephalus E: Scribbled Goby;
LC
(Bleeker,1849) S:Bali Weligowwa
E:Bar-Eyed Goby;
Glossogobius giuris Hamilton, 1822 S:Maha weligowwa, LC
Bali weligemba
Oligolepis acutipennis (Valenciennes, E: Sharptail goby;
DD
1837) S: Weligowwa
E:Redneck Goby;
Schismatogobius deraniyagalai B1ab(iii)+
S:Kata rathu EN
Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1989 2ab(iii)
weligowwa
E:Stone Goby; B1ab(iii)+
Sicyopterus griseus Day,1878 CR LC
S:Maha gal weligowwa 2ab(iii)
E:Red-Tailed Goby;
Sicyopterus halei (Day,1888) CR B2ab(iii) DD
S:Gal weligowwa
E:Sri Lanka Lipstick
Sicyopus jonklaasi (Klausewitz & B1ab(iii)+
Goby; S:Thol rathu EN DD
Henrich,1986) 2ab(iii)
weligowwa
E:Malabar Goby;
Stenogobius malabaricus (Day,1865) DD
S:Weligowwa
E:Sri Lanka
Stiphodon martenstyni
Martenstyn's Goby; CR(PE) B2ab(iii)
Watson,1998
S: Weligowwa
Family: Anguillidae
E:Level Finned Eel;
S:Mada aandha,
Anguilla bicolor Mc Clelland, 1844 LC LC
kakkutu aandha,
kalapu aandha
E:Long Finned Eel;
S: Vairan aandha,
Anguilla nebulosa Mc Clelland, 1844 polmal aandha, LC LC
kabaraaandha, kaha
aandha, pulli aandha
85
Family: Mastacembelidae
E:Marbled Spiny Eel;
Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede,
S:Gan theliya, Oya LC LC
1803)
theliya
Macrognathus pentophthalmos B1ab(iii)+
Sri Lanka spiny eel CR(PE)
Gronow 2ab(iii)
Family: Synbranchidae
E:Sri Lanka Lesser
Monopterus desilvai Bailey & Gans, Swamp Eel;
CR B2ab(iii)
1998 S:Dumburu potta
aandha, potta aandha
Ophisternon bengalense Mc Clelland, E:'Asian Swamp Eel; B1ab(iii)+
CR LC
1844 S:Potta aandha 2ab(iii)
Family: Channidae
E:Sri Lanka Giant
Channa ara (Deraniyagala,1945) Snakehead; S:Aara, EN B2ab(iii)
Kalumaha, Gangara
E: Brown Snakehead;
Channa gachua (Bleeker,1877) S:Paradal kanaya, LC LC
kanaya
E:Smooth-Breasted
Channa orientalis (Bloch &
Snakehead; S:Kola VU B1ab(iii)
Schneider, 1801)
kanaya, Gas kanaya
E:Spotted Snakehead;
Channa punctata (Bloch,1794) S:Mada kanaya, mada LC LC
ara, madakariya
E:Murrel;
Channa striata (Bloch,1793) LC LC
S: Loola, Halpath maha
Family: Aplocheilidae
E:Sri Lanka Day's
Aplocheilus dayi (Steindachner,
Killifish; EN B2ab(iii)
1892)
S:Uda handaya
E:Dwarf Panchax;
Aplocheilus parvus (Raj,1919) S:Kalapu handaya, LC
Uda handaya
E:Sri Lanka Werneri's B1ab(iii)+
Aplocheilus werneri Meinken, 1966 EN
Killifish; S: Iri handaya 2ab(iii)
Family: Belonidae
E:Freshwater Gar Fish;
Xenentodon cancila Hamilton, 1822 NT LC
S:Yonna
Family: Cichlidae
E:Green Chromide;
Etroplus suratensis (Bloch, 1785) LC LC
S:Koraliya, Mal koraliya
E:Orange Chromide;
Etroplus maculatus (Bloch, 1785) S:Kaha koraliya, LC LC
Ralliya, Ran koraliya
Family: Belontidae
E:Sri Lanka Combtail;
Belontia signata (Gunther 1861) S: Thalkossa, Pulutta, NT LR/cd
Kola moda
E:Sri Lanka Ornate
Malpulutta kretseri Deraniyagala,
Paradise Fish; CR B2ab(iii) LR/cd
1937
S: Malpulutta
86
E:Spike Tailed Paradise
Pseudosphromenus cupanus (Cuvier, Fish;
LC LC
1831) S: Pulutta, Thalkossa,
Thal kadaya
Family: Anabantidae
E:Climbing Perch;
Anabas testudineus (Bloch,1795) S:Kaavaiya, Pol LC DD
kaavaiya
Family: Eleotridae
E: Upside-down
Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822) Sleeper; S: Uduppuva, LC LC
Vaniya
E:Brown Gudgeon,
Eleotris fusca (Forster, 1801) Dusky Sleeper; LC LC
S: Puwakbadilla
Family: Adrianichthyidae
E: Common Blue Eye;
Oryzias dancena (Hamilton 1822) Indian ricefish; DD LC
S: Handi hadaya
E: Spotted Ricefish
Oryzias carnaticus (Jerdon, 1849) DD LC
S: Handi hadaya
87
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Amphibians in Sri Lanka
Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi1 and Madhava Meegaskumbura2
1
Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya
2
Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya
Introduction
Knowledge on Sri Lanka’s amphibians has increased rapidly during the past decade. The first
review of this fauna, Kirtisinghe, (1957) recognized 35 species. This figure was increased to 53
species by Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996) based on examination of museum materials
and the preliminary findings of a field survey that commenced in 1993. This field survey has
resulted in a complete re-evaluation of the Amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. Further, this survey
facilitated the re-discovery of several species that had otherwise been known only from type
specimens collected in the 19th century. In 1998, Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi,
based on the findings of their extensive field survey, announced that Sri Lanka’s amphibian
fauna might comprise of as many as 250 species, a figure that was subsequently revised to
~ 140 species by Meegaskumbura et al., (2002). To date, descriptions of 111 valid amphibian
species have been published (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005; Meegaskumbura
& Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005; Mendis, 2012). This includes 95 endemic species and three
endemic genera, Adenomus, Lankanectes and Nannophrys.
Bossuyt et al., (2004) demonstrated conclusively that the Sri Lankan Philautids have long been
isolated from the Indian group, with no biotic exchange having taken place between the island
and the mainland populations in the past ~ 500,000 years. The presence of ancient lineages of
amphibians in Sri Lanka was also demonstrated by Roelants et al., (2004), who showed that
the endemic genus Lankanectes diverged from the mainstream of Ranidae before the India-
Sri Lanka plate separated from the Madagascar plate in the Upper Cretaceous. Sri Lanka’s
Amphibian fauna are therefore important not just for their species richness, but also for their
representation of ancient lineages.
Conservation
In year 2004, the conservation status of all species of amphibians described and considered
valid world-wide, including 94 species from Sri Lanka, has been carried out (The Global
Amphibian Assessment). This analysis has shown that out of the 34 species of amphibians
confirmed as extinct worldwide in the past 500 years, 21 are from Sri Lanka. These comprise of
19 species belonging to genus Pseudophilautus, and one species each of the endemic genera
Adenomus and Nannophrys. However, Wickramasinghe et al., (2012) have re-discovered
Adenomus kandianus and reported the possible rediscovery of Pseudophilautus stellatus,
another species that had been listed as extinct in Sri Lanka, which will bring down the number
of species that are listed as extinct in Sri Lanka to 19.
The amphibians are not exploited for commercial purposes in Sri Lanka. Yet, many species of
amphibians are running a high risk of becoming extinct. Habitat loss is the main threat faced by
the amphibian fauna. The vast majority of the amphibians are restricted to the south-western
wet zone quarter of the island (Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996), where more than 95%
88
of the original forest cover has now vanished. Only ~ 800 km² of relatively undisturbed forest
now remain in the wet zone, and even this is severely fragmented. Three fragments (Knuckles,
Sinharaja, Peak Wilderness) account for half of these forests while the balance 400 km² are
contained in > 100 fragments of varying size, many of which exist only on maps. Clearly,
fragmentation is a threat and needs to be addressed through the active management of habitat
quality at key sites, and through the establishment of habitat corridors between them.
Fragmentation per se, is however, unlikely to be the only significant threat. Pesticide use in Sri
Lanka is still to be regulated; the Control of Pesticides Act addresses only threats to human
health and not environmental health or impact on non-target organisms. Taken together with
massive erosion from sloping lands, aquatic ecosystems in general are at grave risk, and
these risks remain un-assessed to date.
The extent of air pollution too, is yet to be assessed in Sri Lanka except in the context of human
health in urban areas. Acid rain and mist have been implicated in forest die-back in many other
countries. The single report there has been of this phenomenon in Sri Lanka (Gunawardena
et al., 1998), has largely been ignored by the conservation establishment even though forest
die-back has been reported in several key amphibian habitats in Sri Lanka including Horton
Plains, Peak Wilderness and Knuckles.
While threats to amphibians mentioned above are self-evident, the causes for the extreme
rarity of many species and the extinction of relatively high number of species (19 or ca. 17%
of the reported species) are as yet not fully understood. In a phase during which new species
continue to be discovered, it could be argued that a discussion of either rarity or extinction
is inappropriate, and that rare and even “extinct” species could be discovered with further
exploration as evidenced by rediscovery of Adenomus kandianus by Wickramasinghe et al.,
(2012). However, given the record of exploration of the last decade, Sri Lanka is now one of
the better-explored countries with respect to amphibians.
The population declines observed in many parts of the world have, as yet, not been observed
in Sri Lanka, but this could be because no populations have been monitored over sufficiently
long periods of time. Further, amphibian species may be under-sampled in surveys because
their populations are in any case small, or because individuals are otherwise difficult to locate
(e.g. cryptic coloration; small size; restriction to arboreal or canopy habitats; lack of prominent
vocalisation in males). Therefore, it is imperative that monitoring be carried out, at least in major
bio-geo-climatic zones and prominent habitats within these zones. In addition to monitoring
populations, it is also necessary to acquire data on parameters known to pose threats to
amphibians, such as UV radiation, water quality, climatic variation, and infection by known
pathogens such as the oomycete, Saprolegnia ferax (Kiesecker et al., 2001) and the chytrid
fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatids (Blaustein et al., 1994; Pounds et al., 2006).
Research needs
While keeping and breeding amphibians as a hobby is commonplace in much of the developed
world, it is both illegal and unfashionable in Sri Lanka. Two consequences of this are a lack
of popular empathy with amphibians (which are, by and large, treated with revulsion), and
89
a lack of human resources skilled and interested in managing captive populations. Captive
breeding and reintroduction are clearly actions of last resort, but given a track record of 19
extinctions and many more species being listed as threatened, it is one that needs to be
considered at least for some Sri Lankan species. A starting point would be the accumulation of
local climatic and water quality data, together with in situ observations of activity patterns, diet
resource utilization, breeding behaviour and larval development, together with an assessment
of threats at each life-history stage. Such a programme would also need to examine possible
in situ options, such as improved upstream water-quality management and the maintenance
of riparian vegetation. With these data in hand, an informed judgment could be made with
regard to restoring degraded former habitats for a rigorous reintroduction programme. Even if
ex situ measures were not to be implemented immediately, the importance of developing the
methodologies for this cannot be over-emphasized.
The keys provided by Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996); Manamenrda-Arachchi &

Pethiyagoda (2005) and Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi (2005) facilitate the
identification of all currently known Sri Lankan amphibians. With names and diagnoses
available for these species, reliable work could commence on assessing populations, habitat
requirements and distributions with a view to improving conservation practices. By offering
only protection, the present regulatory framework discourages engagement with this fauna
by scientists and interested citizens. The threats to amphibians in Sri Lanka however, will
persist regardless of how effectively they are protected. The need of the hour is science-based
conservation that seeks to address threats such as environmental pollution, climate changes
and habitat degradation.
References:
Blaustein, A. R., Hokit, D. G., O’Hara, R. K. & Holt, R. A., (1994). Pathogenic fungus contributes to amphibian losses
in the Pacific Northwest. Biological Conservation, 67(3), pp.251–254.
Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D. J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A.,
Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M. M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P. K. L., Schneider, C. J., Oommen O. V. &
Milinkovitch, M. C., (2004). Local endemism within the Western Ghats–Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot. Science,
306(5695), pp.479–481.
Dutta, S. K. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (1996). The amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage
Trust of Sri Lanka,
Gunawardena, E. R. N., Rajapakshe, U., Nandasena, K. A. & Rosier, P. T. W., (1998). Water quality issues in
the uplands of Sri Lanka. In: H.P.M. Gunasena, ed. 1998. Proceedings of the final workshop: University of
Peradeniya — Oxford Forestry Institute Link Project. Peradeniya: Faculty of Agriculture, Univ. Peradeniya,
pp.37–44.
Kiesecker, J. M., Balustein A. R. & Belden, L. K., (2001). Complex causes of amphibian population declines. Nature,
410, pp.681–684.
Kirtisinghe, P., (1957). The Amphibia of Ceylon. Colombo: Published by the author.
Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2005). The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautus Gistel,
1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae), with description of 27 new species. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement,
12, pp.163–303.
Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (2005). Descriptions of eight new species of shrub frogs (Ranidae:
Rhacophorinae: Philautus) from Sri Lanka. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.305–338.
Meegaskumbura, M., Bossuyt, F., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., Bahir, M., Milinkovitch, M. C. &
Schneider, C. J., (2002). Sri Lanka: an amphibian hotspot. Science, 298(5592), p.379.
Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., (2011). Two new species of shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae:
Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 2747, pp.1–18.
Pethiyagoda, R. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (1998). Occasional Papers of the Wildlife Heritage Trust, 2: Evaluating
Sri Lanka’s amphibian diversity. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.
90
Pounds, J. A., Bustamante, M. R., Coloma, L. A., Consuegra, J. A., Fogden, M. P. L., Foster, P. N., Marca, E. L.,
Masters, K. L., Merino-Viteri, A., Puschendorf, R., Ron, S. R., Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. A., Still, C. J. & Young, B.
E. (2006). Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature, 439,
pp.161-167.
Roelants, K., Jiang, J. & Bossuyt, F., (2004). Endemic ranid (Amphibia: Anura) genera in southern mountain
ranges of the Indian subcontinent represent ancient frog lineages: evidence from molecular data. Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution, 31(2), pp.730–740.
Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Vidanapathirana, D. R. & Wickramasinghe, N., (2012). Back from the dead: The world’s
rarest toad Adenomus kandianus rediscovered in Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 3347, pp.63–68.
Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Munindradasa, D. A. I. & Fernando, P., (2012). A new species of Polypedates Tschudi
(Amphibia, Anura, Rhacophoridae) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 3498, pp.63–80.
91
Table 09: List of Amphibians in Sri Lanka

Family: Bufonidae
Adenomus dasi Manamendra- E:Das's dwarf toad; B1ab(iii)+
CR B2ab(iii) CR
Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 1998 S: Das ge kuru gemba 2ab(iii))
E:Kandy dwarf toad;
Adenomus kandianus (Günther,
S:Mahanuwara kuru CR B2ab(iii) EX
1872)
gemba
E:Kelaart's dwarf toad;
B1ab(iii)+
Adenomus kelaartii (Günther, 1858) S: Kelaartge kuru VU B1ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
gemba
Duttaphrynus atukoralei Bogert & E:Atukorale's toad
NT
Senanayake, 1966 S:Atukoralage gemba
Duttaphrynus kotagamai Fernando E:Kotagama's toad; B1ab(iii)+ B1ab(iii)+
EN EN
& Dayawansa, 1994 S:Kotagamage gemba 2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
Duttaphrynus melanostictus E:Common toad;
LC
Schneider, 1799 S:Gey gemba
Duttaphrynus noellerti
E:Nollert's toad; B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & EN EN B1ab(iii)
S: Nollertge gemba 2ab(iii)
Pethiyagoda, 1998
Duttaphrynus scaber Schneider, E:Schneider's toad;
VU B1ab(iii)
1799 S:Schneiderge gemba
Family: Microhylidae
E:Sri Lankan bullfrog;
Kaloula taprobanica (Parker, 1934) S:Visithuru rathu LC
gemba
E:Karunaratne's
Microhyla karunaratnei Fernando & narrow-mouthed frog; B1ab(iii)+
EN CR B1ab(iii)
Siriwardhane, 1996 S: Karunaratnege 2ab(iii)
muva patu madiya
E:Ornate narrow
Microhyla ornata (Duméril & Bibron, mouthed frog;
LC
1841) S:Visithuru muva patu
madiya
E:Red narrow mouthed
Microhyla rubra (Jerdon, 1854) frog; S:Rathu muva LC
patu madiya
E:Sri Lanka narrow
Microhyla zeylanica Parker & Hill,
mouthed frog; S:Lanka CR B2ab(iii) EN B1+2
1949
muva patu madiya
E:Nagao's ramanella;
Ramanella nagaoi Manamendra- B1ab(iii)+
S:Nagaoge mota EN VU D2
Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001 2ab(iii)
hombu madiya
E:Obscure ramanella;
Ramanella obscura (Günther, 1864) S: Dumburu mota VU B1ab(iii)
hombu madiya
E:Parker's ramanella;
B1ab(iii)+
Ramanella palmata (Parker, 1934) S:Parkerge mota CR EN B1ab(iii)
2ab(iii)
hombu madiya
E:Variegated
Ramanella variegata (Stoliczka, ramanella;
LC
1872) S:Bada sudu mota
hombu madiya
92
E:Marbled baloon frog;
Uperodon systoma (Schneider, 1799) LC
S:Baloon madiya
Family: Ranidae
E:Sri Lanka wood frog;
Hylarana gracilis Gravenhorst, 1829 LC
S:Lanka diya madiya
E:Golden frog;
Hylarana aurantiaca Boulenger, 1904 EN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)
S:Ranvan diya madiya
E:Bronzed frog;
Hylarana temporalis (Günther,
S:Thambavan diya NT
1864)
madiya
Family: Dicroglossidae
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider, E:Indian skipper frog;
LC
1799) S:Uthpathana madiya
E:Indian green frog;
Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson,
S:Sayangili pala LC
1834)
madiya
E:Sri Lanka frog;
Fejervarya greenii (Boulenger, B1ab(iii)+ B1ab(iii)+
S:Lanka kandukara EN EN
1904) 2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
madiya
Fejervarya kirtisinghei E:Kirtisinghe's frog;
Manamendra-Arachchi & Gabadage, S: Kirtisinghege VU B1ab(iii)
1994 madiya
Fejervarya cf. syhadrensis E:Common paddy field
LC
(Annandale, 1919) frog; S:Vel madiya
E:Jurdon's bullfrog;
Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon,
S:Jurdonge diya LC
1853)
madiya
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin, E:Indian bullfrog;
DD
1802) S:Indiya diya madiya
E:Sri Lankan rock frog;
Nannophrys ceylonensis (Günther, B1ab(iii)+
S:Lanka galpara diya EN B2ab(iii) VU
1868) 2ab(iii)
madiya
E:Gunther's rock frog;
Nannophrys guentheri Boulenger,
S: Guntherge galpara EX EX
1882
diya madiya
E:Marbled rock frog;
Nannophyrus marmorata B1ab(iii)+
S:Dumbara galpara CR CR B1ab(iii)
Kirtisinghe, 1946 2ab(iii)
diya madiya
Nannophrys naeyakai Fernando,
E:Sri Lanka Tribal rock
S. S., Wickramasingha, L.J.M. & CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
frog
Rodrigo, R.K., 2007
E:Short-headed
Sphaerotheca breviceps (Schneider, burrowing frog;
LC
1799) S:Thunhichi veli diya
madiya
E:Roland's burrowing
Sphaerotheca rolandae (Dubois,
frog; S:Lapavan veli LC
1983)
diya madiya
Family: Nyctibatrachidae
E:Corrugated water
Lankanectes corrugatus (Peters,
frog; S:Vaka reli diya VU B1ab(iii)
1863)
madiya
93
Family: Rhacophoridae
Pseudophilautus abundus E:Labugama shrub

B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Labugama EN
2ab(iii)
Pethiyagoda, 2005 panduru madiya
E:Thwaites's shrub
Pseudophilautus adspersus
frog; S:Thwaitesge EX EX
(Günther, 1872)
panduru madiya
E:Horton Plains shrub
Pseudophilautus alto Manamendra- B1ab(iii)+ B1ab(iii)+
frog; S:Mahaeliya EN EN
Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus asankai E:Asanka's shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S: Asankage panduru CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
Pethiyagoda, 2005 madiya
Pseudophilautus auratus E:Golden shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+ B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Ranwan panduru EN EN
2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus caeruleus E:Blue thigh shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Nil kalawethi CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
E:Hollow-snouted
Pseudophilautus cavirostris B1ab(iii)+ B1ab(iii)+
shrub frog; S:Hirigadu EN EN
(Günther, 1869) 2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus cuspis E:Sharp-snouted shrub
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S: Thiyunu hombu EN EN
2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus decoris E:Elegant shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Bhushana panduru CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
E:Dimbulla shrub frog;
Pseudophilautus dimbullae
S:Dimbulla panduru EX EX
(Shreve, 1940)
madiya
E:Queenwood shrb
Pseudophilautus eximius (Shreve,
frog; S:Queenwood EX EX
1940)
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus extirpo E:Blunt-snouted shrub
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Mota-hombu EX EX
E:Leaf-nesting shrub
Pseudophilautus femoralis B1ab(iii)+
frog; S:Pala panduru CR B2ab(iii) EN
(Günther, 1864) 2ab(iii)
madiya
E:Ferguson's shrub
Pseudophilautus fergusonianus
frog; S:Fergusonge VU B1ab(iii)
(Ahl, 1927)
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus folicola E:Leaf dwelling shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Vakutu kola VU B1ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus frankenbergi E:Frankenberg's shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Frankenbergge CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus fulvus E:Knuckles shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Dumbara panduru CR B1ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
94
Pseudophilautus halyi E:Pattipola shrub frog;
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Pattipola panduru EX EX
Pseudophilautus hallidayi E:Halliday's shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S::Hallidayge panduru EN VU B1ab(iii)
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus hoffmanni E:Hoffman's shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Hoffmange CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus hoipolloi E:Anthropogenic
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & shrub frog; S:Gevathu EN
2ab(iii)
E:Webless shrub
Pseudophilautus hypomelas
frog; S:Patala rahith EX EX
(Günther, 1876)
apnduru madiya
Pseudophilautus leucorhinus E:White-nosed shrub
(Lichtenstein, Weinland & Von frog; S:Sudu nasethi EX EX
Martens, 1856) panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus limbus E:Haycock shrub frog;
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Haycock panduru CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus lunatus E:Handapan Ella shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Handapan ella CR B2ab(iii) CR
2ab(iii)
E:Bigfoot shrub frog;
Pseudophilautus macropus B1ab(iii)+
S:Vishala padethi CR B1ab(iii) CR
panduru madiya
E:Malcomsmith's shrub
Pseudophilautus malcolmsmithi
frog; S:Malcomsmithge EX EX
(Ahl, 1927)
panduru madiya
E:Small eared shrub
Pseudophilautus microtympanum B1ab(iii)+
frog; S:Kudakan CR B2ab(iii) EN
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus mittermeieri E:Mittermeier's shrub
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- frog; S:Mittermeierge CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
Arachcchi, 2005 panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus mooreorum E:Moore's shrub frog;
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- S:Moorige panduru CR EN
2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
Arachcchi, 2005 madiya
E:Southern shrub
Pseudophilautus nanus (Günther,
frog; S:Dakunu diga EX EX
1869)
panduru madiya
E:Pointed-snouted
Pseudophilautus nasutus (Günther,
shrub frog; S:Ul hombu EX EX
1869)
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus nemus E:Whistling shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- S:Urahanbana panduru CR B2ab(iii) CR
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus ocularis E:Golden-eyed shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- frog; S:Ranwan-es ethi CR B1ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
E:Sharp-snouted shrub
Pseudophilautus oxyrhynchus
frog; S:Thiyunu hombu EX EX
(Günther, 1872)
panduru madiya
95
Pseudophilautus papillosus E:Papillated shrub
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- frog; S:Dive-getithathi CR CR
2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
E:Side-striped shrub
Pseudophilautus pleurotaenia B1ab(iii)+
frog; S:Pathi thirethi CR B2ab(iii) EN
(Boulenger, 1904) 2ab(iii)
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus popularis E:Common shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- S:Sulabha panduru NT EN
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus poppiae E:Poppy's shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- S:Poppyge panduru CR
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus procax E:Cheeky shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- S:Kammule pellamethi CR B2ab(iii) CR
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus regius E:Polonnaruwa shrub
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- frog; S:Rajarata VU B1ab(iii)
E:Reticulated thigh
Pseudophilautus reticulatus B1ab(iii)+
shrub frog; S:Jalabha EN B2ab(iii) EN
panduru madiya
E:Farnland shrub frog;
Pseudophilautus rugatus (Ahl,
S:Farnland panduru EX EX
1927)
madiya
Pseudophilautus rus E:Kandian shrub frog;
Megaskumbura & Manamendra- S:Nuwara panduru CR B2ab(iii)
E:Muller's shrub frog;
Pseudophilautus sarasinorum B1ab(iii)+ B1ab(iii)+
S:Mullerge panduru EN EN
(Müller, 1887) 2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
madiya
E:Schmarda's shrub
Pseudophilautus schmarda B1ab(iii)+
frog; S:Gorahendi CR B2ab(iii) EN
(Kelaart, 1854) 2ab(iii)
panduru madiya
E:Annandale's shrub
Pseudophilautus semiruber
frog; S:Annandalege DD
(Annandale, 1913)
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus silus E:Pug-nosed shrub
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Mukkan hombu EN EN
2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
Pethiyagoda, 2005 ethi panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus silvaticus
E:Forest shrub frog; B1ab(iii)+ B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & EN EN
S:Kela panduru madiya 2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
Pethiyagoda, 2005
Pseudophilautus simba E:Sinharaja shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Sinharaja panduru CR B2ab(iii) CR
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus sordidus E:Grubby shrub frog;
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Anduru lapavan VU B1ab(iii)
E:Spotted shrub frog;
Pseudophilautus stellatus (Kelaart, CR
S:Pulli sahitha panduru EX
1853) (PE)
madiya
Pseudophilautus steineri E:Steiner's shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Steinerge panduru CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
96
E:Orange canthal
Pseudophilautus stictomerus shrub frog; S:Thembili- B1ab(iii)+
EN
(Günther, 1876) hombu ethi panduru 2ab(iii)
madiya
Pseudophilautus stuarti E:Stuart's shrub frog;
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & S:Stuartge panduru CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
E:Striped-snouted
Pseudophilautus temporalis
shrub frog; S:Hombu EX EX
(Günther, 1864)
thirethi panduru madiya
E:Gunther's shrub frog;
Pseudophilautus variabilis
S:Guntherge panduru EX EX
(Günther, 1859)
madiya
Pseudophilautus viridis E:Dull-green shrub
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Anduru kola EN EN
2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
E:White blotched shrub
Pseudophilautus zal Manamendra-
frog; S:Sudu pulli ethi EX EX
Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005
panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus zimmeri E:Rummassala shrub
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Rummassala EX EX
Pseudophilautus zorro E:Gannoruwa shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Manamendra-Arachchi & frog; S:Gannoruwa CR B2ab(iii) EN
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus pardus
Meegaskumbura, M., Manamendra- E:Leopard shrub frog EX EX
Arachchi, K & Pethiyagoda, R., 2007
Pseudophilautus maia Ferguson,
EX EX
1876
Pseudophilautus singu
B1ab(iii)+
Meegaskumbura, M., Manamendra- EN EN B2ab(ii,iii)
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus tanu
B1ab(iii)+
Meegaskumbura, M., Manamendra- E: Sri Lanka petite frog EN EN B2ab(iii)
2ab(iii)
Pseudophilautus schneideri E:Schneider's shrub
B1ab(iii)+
Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra- frog; S:Schneiderge EN
2ab(iii)
Arachchi, K., 2011 panduru madiya
Pseudophilautus hankeni E:Hanken's shrub frog;
Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra- S:Hankenge panduru CR B2ab(iii)
Arachchi, K., 2011 madiya
E:Common hourglass
Polypedates cruciger Blyth, 1852 tree frog; S:Sulabha LC
pahimbu gas madiya
E:Spotted tree frog;
Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834) LC
S:Pulli gas madiya
Polypedates ranwellai
Wickranasinghe, Munindradasa & E: Ranwellas tree frog CR B2ab(iii)
Fernando, 2012
E:Mountain hourglass
B1ab(iii)+
Taruga eques Günther, 1858 tree frog; S:Kandukara EN EN B1ab(iii)
2ab(iii)
gas madiya
97
E:Morningside tree
Taruga fastigo Manamendra- B1ab(iii)+
frog; S:Ensal watta gas CR CR B1ab(iii)
Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001 2ab(iii)
madiya
E:Long-snouted tree
Taruga longinasus (Ahl, 1931) frog; S:Dik hombu gas EN EN
2ab(iii) 2ab(iii)
madiya
Family: Icthyophiidae
Ichthyophis glutinosus (Linnaeus, E:Ceylon caecilian;
VU B1ab(iii)
1758) S: Kaha hiridanda
Ichthyophis orthoplicatus Taylor, E:Pattipola caecilian; B1ab(iii)+
EN VU B1ab(iii)
1965 S:Dumburu hiridanda 2ab(iii)
E:Lesser yellow
Ichthyophis pseudangularis Taylor,
banded caecilian; S: EN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)
1965
Kuda kaha hiridanda
98
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Reptile Fauna in Sri Lanka
L. J. Mendis Wickramasinghe
Herpetological Foundation of Sri Lanka, 31/5, Alwis Town, Hendala, Wattala, Sri Lanka
Introduction
Since the description of the first reptile, Cylindrophis maculate (syn. Anguis maculata) from
Sri Lanka by Carl Linnaeus in 1754, large number of reptile species have been recorded
from Sri Lanka (Batuwita and Bahir, 2005; Batuwita and Pethiyagoda, 2007; Das, et al.
2008; Deraniyagala 1953 and 1955; de Silva 1980; de Silva 1990; Gans & Fetcho, 1982;
Gower and Maduwage 2011; Greer, 1991; Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007; Pethiyagoda &
Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998; Smith 1933, 1935 & 1943, Smith et al. 2008; Taylor 1950a, 1950b
& 1953, Wall 1921; Wickramasinghe, et al. 2009, Wood et.al., 2012). These published works
indicates that Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich reptile fauna. The current list of reptile fauna of
Sri Lanka comprise of 211 species of which 59% (124) are considered as endemic species. The
reptile fauna can be further categorized in to 103 species of serpentoid reptiles (49 endemic)
belonging to 10 families, one Subfamilie and 40 genera (five endemic - Pseudotyphlops,
Aspidura, Balanophis, Cercaspis and Haplocercus), and 108 species of tetrapod reptiles
(76 endemic) belonging to 12 families with 34 genera (six endemic - Ceratophora, Cophotis,
Lyriocephalus, Chalcidoseps, Nessia and Lankascincus).
Taxonomy
Since the publication of the 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka, 24 new
species have been added to the list of reptiles in Sri Lanka. Out of these, 17 are new to science
that includes four species of serpentoid reptiles Calliophis haematoetron (Smith et al. 2008),
Rhinophis erangaviraji (Wickramasinghe, et al. 2009), Rhinophis lineatus, and Rhinophis
zigzag (Gower and Maduwage 2011), and 13 species of tetrapod reptiles Cnemaspis amith,
C. clivicola, C. kallima, C. latha, C. menikay, C. pava, C. phillipsi, C. pulchara, C. punctata,
C. silvula, C. upendrai (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007), Lankascincus greeri (Batuwita
and Pethiyagoda 2007), Eutropis tammanna (Das, et al. 2008). The remaining seven species
has resulted due to three re-validations Hypnale zara (Gray, 1849) by Maduwage et al. 2009
and Dendrelaphis schokari (Kuhl, 1820) by Rooijen & Vogel 2008 and Hemidactylus pieresii
Kelaart, 1853 by Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2012, a probable new species Hypnale sp. ‘amal’
(Maduwage et al. 2009), two new records for Sri Lanka Hydrophis fasciatus (Abyerami and
Sivashanthini 2008) and Chalcides cf. ocellatus that resulted in a range extension of the genus
Chalcides from India to Sri Lanka (Karunarathna et al. 2008), and finally Enhydris enhydris
(Schneider, 1799) was included since a specimen from Sri Lanka (CAS 12767) was examined
and identified by Murphy & Voris (2005) from the California Academy of Science.
Number of taxonomic revisions has taken place during the last decade resulting in chang-
es in reptile nomenclature at family, genus and species level. Nine genera belonging to the
family Colubridae which consisted of 22 genera earlier have been placed under two other
families based on molecular studies (genera Cerberus, Enhydris and Gerarda are included in
family Homolapsidae, and genera Amphiesma, Atretium, Argyrogena, Aspidura, Balanophis,
Macropisthodon,and Xenochrophis are included in family Natricidae Vidal et al. 2009; Za-
her et al. 2009). Genus level name changes included Sphenomorphus dorsicatenatus being
changed to Lankascincus dorsicatenatus (Batuwita and Pethiyagoda, 2007), all members of
the genus Mabuya being placed under the genus Eutropis (Mausfeld and Schmitz, 2003), and
Cosymbotus platyurus being changed to Hemidactylus platyurus (Carranza and Arnold, 2006).
Several species level name changes have also been affected resulting in Lissemys punctata
99
been changed to L. ceylonensis (Praschag et al. 2011), Hemidactylus brookii parvimaculatus
to H. parvimaculatus (Bauer et al. 2010a), Hemidactylus maculates hunae to H. hunae (Bauer
et al. 2010b), Hemidactylus triedrus lankae to H. lankae (Bauer et al. 2010), Hypnale nepa
to H. zara (Maduwage et al. 2009) and Geckoella triedrus (Günther, 1864) to Cyrtodactylus
triedra (Wood, et al. 2012). Further, several species have been removed from the list of rep-
tiles in Sri Lanka due to taxonomic revisions. For instance, Hypnale walli, has been declared
as a junior synonym of Hypnale nepa (Maduwage et al. 2009), Boiga ranawanei, as a junior
synonym of Boiga beddomei (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2007) and Cnemaspis
ranwellai, as a junior synonym of Cnemaspis scalpensis (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007).
Distribution
The name changes mentioned above have also resulted in status changes of number of species,
where Lissemys ceylonensis, Hemidactylus hunae, and H. lankae are now listed as species
endemic to Sri Lanka (Praschag et al. 2011; Bauer et al. 2010). Further, Wickramasinghe et
al., (2011) have shown that Dasia halianus is also endemic to Sri Lanka. In addition number
of recent studies has provided evidence to change the previously known distribution pattern
of several species of reptiles. For instance, Cnemaspis kandianus and C. tropidagastur that
were formerly considered to have a wide distribution in Sri Lanka is now known to be confined
to Kandy district and certain parts of the Matale district (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007).
Likewise, Dendrelaphis tristis, who was thought to have a wide distribution, has now been
confined to the dry and arid zones, but may be rarely found from the wet zone, while the
species commonly found in the wet zone was re-validated as D. schokari who can also rarely
be found from the dry zone of the island, but never in the arid zone. On the other hand the
distribution range of number of species such as C. podihuna (Karunarathna et al 2010), C.
molligodai, and C. silvulai, (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011a, 2012), Calodactylodes
illingworthorum, (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011b), Liopeltis calamaria (Karunarathna
and Perera 2010), Lankascincus greeri (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011a, Karunarathna
et al 2012; Peabotuwage et al 2012) has been expanded with the availability of new information.
Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) was not included in the current list despite the fact that
several authors (Das & de Silva 2005; Somaweera 2006; Somaweera & Somaweera 2009)
have included the species in their publications, due to the fact that there is no evidence for its
landing sights and no sight records for the species in the island’s surrounding oceans.
Threats
Deforestation, leading to loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation are the main threats faced
by reptile fauna of Sri Lanka. The rate of forest depletion and loss of wild life habitats in Sri
Lanka is considered one of the highest in South Asia with more than 50% of the forest cover
being lost during the last century alone. Loss of forest cover is especially prominent in the dry
zone of Sri Lanka which may be the reason for low level of endemicity observed in the reptile
fauna. This idea is further supported by the fact that most of the dry zone restricted endemic
reptiles are found in forests associated with isolated hills (Cnemaspis ritigalaensis in Ritigala,
Cnemaspis kumarasinghei in Moneragala and Cnemaspis podihuna in Lahugala), which are
perhaps the only forests patches that have been preserved untouched by man for centuries.
Majority of the endemic and threatened reptiles are restricted to the Lowland and Montane
forests that are fast disappearing is identified as the biggest threat to the reptile fauna of Sri
Lanka. In addition, mortality related to man-made forest fires, application of agrochemicals,
road kills, non selective killing of snakes and predation by farm and domestic animals have
also been identified as threats faced by the reptile fauna.
100
The crocodile populations are under increased threat and have even attracted the attention
of the international scientific community. Once again, habitat loss and habitat fragmentation
resulting due to ever expanding human population and rapid development projects that brings
these animals into conflict with humans is considered as the main threat to the two crocodile
populations in Sri Lanka. Capture and relocation, the main management tool used at present
to mitigate such conflicts, cannot be considered as an effective conservation measure as the
remaining natural habitats cannot absorb more animals as they are already near their carrying
capacity. Therefore the next best option would be to devise an alternate location for them such
as a ‘crocodile sanctuary’ so that their destiny will not have to end at the hands of humans.
Conservation
Less than 33% of the Sri Lankan reptiles are listed in the global list of threatened species. Out
of the species of reptiles that are globally assessed, most are listed under the Data Deficient
(DD) category. The main reason for this low representation in the global threatened list is the
lack of data on many species of reptiles endemic to Sri Lanka, especially species belonging to
Typhlopidae, Uropeltidae, and Hydrophidae snake families. Most of the species belonging to
family Uropeltidae except species with single records have been assessed in the current list.
Since systematic studies for the families Typhlopidae, and Hydrophidae have only commenced
recently, species of these families were placed under the DD category for the time being until
more information becomes available. No specific conservation programmes have been carried
out for reptiles of Sri Lanka except for sea turtles. There is a need to formulate species recovery
plans for at least identified critically endangered and endangered species and their habitats
(Erdelen 2012). Further there are habitats that support unique reptile species assemblages
such as Aruwakkalu which is the type locality of four burrowing reptiles species Rhinophis
dorsimaculatus (Orange shield tail), Rhinophis porrectus (Willey’s earth snake), and Nessia
hickanala (Sharkhead snakeskink) which is being mined extensively by the Cement industry.
Such habitats have to be identified and preserved to ensure long term conservation of the
reptile fauna of Sri Lanka.
Research Needs
Absence or lack of accurate data on many species of Sri Lankan reptiles is the major impediment
in correctly assessing their current conservation status as well as preparing species specific
conservation action plans for the threatened reptile species. Most of the studies done to date
have focussed mainly on the distribution of reptiles with little attention being paid to study
the ecology and biology of at least the threatened and endemic reptile species. Therefore, a
research agenda needs to be prepared for the reptiles identifying the priority areas that need
to be focussed in order to facilitate research that will address the present information gaps in
reptile fauna of Sri Lanka. Further, there is practically no information available on the reptile
fauna of Northern and North-eastern parts of the island due to three decades of civil war
that existed in the region. It should be noted that some species of Typhlops that have been
described from this region has not been recorded after their initial descriptions (Taylor, 1947;
Smith, 1943). Also reptile fauna found in the isolated mountains in the dry zone needs to be
investigated further as studies done to date have shown that the natural forests associated
with such isolated hills may be the last refugees for the herpetofauna inhabiting the dry zone
(Wickramasinghe & Munindradasa 2007; Gower & Maduwage 2011). A systematic study of the
distribution of reptile fauna in Sri Lanka is also a major research need as 22 reptile species
101
have not been recorded after their initial description and 12 species have not been recorded
for nearly a century. Further, the type localities of many reptile species are given as Ceylon
or the name of a major town, which is not precise and prevents a proper assessment of the
status of such species. Study of systematics of the reptile fauna is also another identified need
especially the taxonomic status of the marine snake fauna of Sri Lanka which has not been
revised for the past 52 years since the work done by Deraniyagala (1955). Since then, virtually
no in-depth study on systematic has been carried out by scientists on marine snake fauna in
coastal waters of Sri Lanka.
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Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Vidanapathirana, D. R., Wickramasinghe, N., & Ranwella, P. N., (2009). A New Species
of Rhinophis Hemprich, 1820 (Reptilia: Serpentes: Uropeltidae) from Rakwana massif, Sri Lanka. Zootaxa,
2044, pp.1–22.
Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Wickramasinghe, N. & Kariyawasam, L., (2011). Taxonomic status of the arboreal
Skink Lizard Dasia halianus (Haly & Nevill, 1887) in Sri Lanka and the redescription of Dasia subcaeruleum
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Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Wickramasinghe, N. & Kariyawasam, L., (2011). Taxonomic status of the arboreal
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(Boulenger, 1891) from India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 3(8), pp.1961–1974.
103
Table 10: List of Reptiles in Sri Lanka

Family: Crocodylidae
E: Mugger crocodile / Marsh
crocodile; S: Hala kimbula; A1a,
Crocodylus palustris Lesson, 1831 T: Kulathi Muthalei NT VU C2a
E: Saltwater crocodile / Estua-
rine crocodile; S: Gata kim-
Crocodylus porosus Schneider,1801 bula; T: Semmukku Muthalei EN B2ab(iii) LR/lc
Family: Bataguridae
Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger, E: Black turtle; S: Gal ibba; LR/
1812) T: Amai, Karuppu Amai LC nt
Family: Cheloniidae
E: Loggerhead sea turtle;
S: Olugedi kasbaeva / Kan-
nadi kasbaeva; T: Perunthalai
Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) Amai EN B2ab(iii) EN A1abd
E: Green turtle; S: Gal kas-
baeva / Mas kasbaeva / Vali
Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) kasbaeva; T: Pal Amai EN B2ab(iii) EN A2bd
E: Hawksbill sea turtle;
Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, S: Pothu kasbaeva / Leli kas-
1766) baeva; T: Nanja Amai EN B2ab(iii) CR A2bd
E: Olive ridley sea turtle;
Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, S: Batu kasbaeva / Mada
1829) kasbaeva; T: Pul Amai EN B2ab(iii) VU A2bd
Family: Dermochelidae
E: Leatherback sea turtle;
S: Dara kasbaeva / Tun Dara
Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) kasbaeva; T: Dhoni Amai EN B2ab(iii) CR A1abd
Family: Testudinidae
E: Indian star tortoise;
S: Mevara ibba/ Taraka ibba;
Geochelone elegans (Schoepff, 1795) T: Katu Amai NT LR/lc
Family: Trionychidae
E: Flapshell turtle; S: Kiri ibba;
Lissemys ceylonensis (Gray, 1856) T: Pal Amai LC
Family: Agamidae
E: Green garden lizard;
S: Pala katussa; T: Pachai
Calotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758) Karata LC
E: Painted lip lizard; S: Thola-
Calotes ceylonensis (Müller, 1887) visituru katussa NT
E: Desilvas’ whistling lizard /
Desilvas’ forest lizard;
Calotes desilvai Bahir & Maduwage, S: Desilvage sivuruhandalana
2005 katussa CR B2ab(iii)
E: Crestless lizard; S: Kondu
Calotes liocephalus Günther, 1872 datirahita katussa EN B2ab(iii) EN B1+2bc
E: Whistling lizard / Forest
lizard; S: Sivuruhandalana
Calotes liolepis Boulenger, 1885 katussa NT
104
E: Black cheek lizard; S: Kalu B1ab(iii)
Calotes nigrilabris Peters, 1860 kopul katussa EN +2ab(iii)
E: Common garden lizard;
Calotes versicolor (Daudin, 1802) S: Gara katussa LC
E: Rough horn lizard;
S: Raluang katussa / Kuru B1ab(iii)
Ceratophora aspera Günther, 1864 angkatussa EN +2ab(iii) VU B1ab
Ceratophora erdeleni Pethiyagoda & E: Erdelen’s horn lizard;
Manamendra-Arachchi. 1998 S: Erdelenge angkatussa CR B1ab(iii)
Ceratophora karu Pethiyagoda & E: Karunaratne’s horn lizard;
Manamendra-Arachchi. 1998 S: Karunaratnage angkatusua CR B1ab(iii)
E: Rhinohorn lizard; B1ab(iii)
Ceratophora stoddartii Gray, 1835 S: Kagamuva angkatussa EN +2ab(iii)
Ceratophora tennentii Günther and E: Leafnose lizard; S: Pethi
Gray, 1861 angkatussa. CR B2ab(iii) EN B1+2bc
E: Pygmy lizard; S: Kandukara B1ab(iii)
Cophotis ceylanica Peters, 1861 kurukatussa EN +2ab(iii)
Cophotis dumbara Samarawickrama,
Ranawana, Rajapaksha, Ananjeva, Or-
lov, Ranasinghe & Samarawickrama, E: Knuckles pygmy lizard;
2006 S: Dumbara kurukatussa CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)
E: Lyre head lizard / Hump-
Lyriocephalus scutatus (Linnaeus, snouted lizard; S: Gatahombu
1758) katussa / Karamal bodiliya VU B1ab(iii) NT
Otocryptis nigristigma Bahir & Silva, E: Black spotted kangaroo liz-
2005 ard; S: Wiyali Pinum katussa LC
E: Sri Lankan kangaroo lizard;
S: Gomu talikatussa / Pinum
Otocryptis wiegmanni Wagler, 1830 katussa / LC
E: Fanthroated lizard; S: Pu-
Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier, 1829 lina talikatussa / Vali katussa LC LC
Family: Chameleonidae
E: Sri Lankan chameleon;
Chamaeleo zeylanicus Laurenti, 1768 S: Bodilima / Bodiliya EN B2ab(iii)
Family: Gekkonidae
Calodactylodes illingworthorum E: Lankan golden gecko;
Deraniyagala, 1953 S: Maha galhuna EN B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis alwisi Wickramasinghe & E: Alwis’s day gecko; S: Al-
Munundradasa, 2007 wisge divasarihuna NT
Cnemaspis amith Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Amith’s day gecko;
2007 S: Amithge divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis clivicola Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Montain day gecko;
2007 S: Kandukara divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis gemunu Bauer, De Silva, E: Gemunu’s day gecko; B1ab(iii)
greenbaum & Jackman, 2007 S: Gemunuge divasarihuna CR +2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis kallima Manamendra- E: Gammaduwa day gecko;
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, B1ab(iii)
2007 S: Gammaduva divasarihuna CR +2ab(iii)
E: Kandyan day gecko; B1ab(iii)
Cnemaspis kandiana (Kelaart, 1853) S: Kandukara divasarihuna EN +2ab(iii) LC
E: Kumarasinghe’s day gecko;
Cnemaspis kumarasinghei Wickra- S: Kumarasinghege divasari- B1ab(iii)
masinghe & Munundradasa, 2007 huna EN +2ab(iii)
105
Cnemaspis latha Manamendra-Arach- E: Elegant day gecko;
chi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 S: Bushana divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis menikay Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Jewel day gecko; S: Ratna
2007 divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis molligodai Wickramas- E: Molligod’s day gecko; B1ab(iii)
inghe & Munundradasa, 2007 S: Molligodage divasarihuna EN +2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis pava Manamendra-Arach- E: Little day gecko; S: Kuda
chi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis phillipsi Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Phillip’s day gecko; S: Phil-
2007 lipge divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis podihuna Deraniyagala, E: Dwarf day gecko; S: Kuda
1944 divasarihuna / Podi galhuna VU B1ab(iii) LC
Cnemaspis pulchra Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Rakvana day gecko; B1ab(iii)
2007 S: Rakvana divasarihuna CR +2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis punctata Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Dotted day gecko; S: Thith
2007 divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis retigalensis Wickramas- E: Ritigala day gecko; S: Riti-
inghe & Munundradasa, 2007 gala divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis samanalensis Wickrama- E: Peakwilderness day gecko; B1ab(iii)
singhe & Munundradasa, 2007 S: Samanaola divasarihuna CR +2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis scalpensis (Ferguson, E: Gannoruva day gecko; B1ab(iii)
1877) S: Gannoruva divasarihuna EN +2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis silvula Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Forest day gecko; S: Vana B1ab(iii)
2007 divasarihuna EN +2ab(iii)
Cnemaspis tropidogaster (Boulenger, E: Roughbelly day gecko;
1885) S: Ralodara divasarihuna DD DD
Cnemaspis upendrai Manamendra-
Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, E: Upendra’s day gecko;
2007 S: Upendrage divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)
E: Narrow headed forest
Cyrtodactylus cracens Batuwita & gecko; S: Hisa-patu Mukalam B1ab(iii)
Bahir, 2005 huna EN +2ab(iii)
Cyrtodactylus edwardtaylori Batuwita E: Taylors forest gecko;
& Bahir, 2005 S: Taylorge mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii)
E: Great forest gecko;
Cyrtodactylus fraenatus (Günther, S; Maha halae huna / Muka-
1864) lam huna CR B1ab(iii)
Cyrtodactylus ramboda Batuwita & E: Ramboda forest gecko;
Bahir, 2005 S; Ramboda mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii)
Cyrtodactylus soba Batuwita & Bahir, E: Knuckles forest gecko;
2005 S: Dumbara mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii)
Cyrtodactylus subsolanus Batuwita & E: Rakwana forest gecko; B1ab(iii)
Bahir, 2005 S: Rakwana mukalam huna CR +2ab(iii)
E: Spotted bowfinger gecko;
Cyrtodactylus triedra (Günther, 1864) S: Pulli vakaniyahuna VU B1ab(iii) NT
Geckoella collegalensis (Beddome, E: Collegal rockgecko;
1870) S: Collegalge vakaniyahuna DD
106
E: Blotch bowfinger gecko /
Geckoella yakhuna (Deraniyagala, Demon gecko; S: Lapavan
1945) vakaniyahuna / Yak huna VU B1ab(iii)
E: Four-claw gecko;
Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1834) S: Caturanguli huna LC
E: Kandyan gecko; S: Hali
Hemidactylus depressus Gray, 1842 gehuna LC LC
Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel in E: Common house-gecko;
Duméril & Bibron, 1836 S: Sulaba gehuna LC LC
Hemidactylus hunae Deraniyagala, E: Spotted giant-gecko / Rock
1937 gecko; S: Davanta tit huna EN B1ab(iii)
Hemidactylus lankae Deraniyagala, E: Termite hill gecko; S; Hum-
1953 bas huna LC
E: Bark gecko / Sycamore
Hemidactylus leschenaultii Duméril & gecko; S: Kimbul huna / Gas
Bibron, 1836 huna / Kumbuk huna LC
Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Deraniya- E: Spotted housegecko;
gala, 1953 S: Pulli gehuna LC
E: Pieresii’s housegecko;
Hemidactylus pieresii Kelaart, 1853 S; Pimburu huna EN B1ab(iii)
Hemidactylus platyurus (Schneider, E: Frilltail gecko; S: Nagutava-
1792) karali huna DD
Hemidactylus scabriceps (Annandale, E: Scaly gecko; S; Korapotu
1906) huna DD DD
E: Slender gecko;
Hemiphyllodactylus typus Bleeker, 1860 S: Sihin huna VU B1ab(iii)
Lepidodactylus lugubris (Duméril & E: Scaly-finger gecko / Mourn-
Bibron, 1836) ing gecko; S: Salkapa huna VU B1ab(iii)
Family: Lacertidae
E: Leschenault’s Snake eye
Ophisops leschenaultii Milne- Edwards, lizard; S: Panduru sarpakshi
1829 katusa CR B2ab(iii)
E: Lesser snake eye lizard;
Ophisops minor (Deraniyagala, 1971) S: Kuda sarpakshi katusa CR B2ab(iii)
Family: Scincidae
E: White spotted skink;
Chalcides cf. ocellatus Forskal, 1775 S: Sudu-pulli hikanala DD
Chalcidoseps thwaitesii (Günther, E: Fourtoe snakeskink;
1872) S: Caturanguli sarpiyahikanala CR B2ab(iii)
Dasia halianus (Haly & Nevill in: Nevill, E: Haly’s treeskink; S: Helige
1887) rukhiraluva NT
E: Beddome’s stripe skink;
Eutropis beddomii (Jerdon, 1870) S: Vairan hikanala EN B2ab(iii)
E: Bibron’s sand skink; B1ab(iii)
Eutropis bibronii (Gray, 1838) S: Vali hikanala EN +2ab(iii)
E: Common skink;
Eutropis carinata (Schneider, 1801) S: Sulaba hikanala LC
E: Taylor’s skink; S: Taylorge B1ab(iii)
Eutropis floweri Taylor, 1950 hikanala EN +2ab(iii)
E: Bronzegreen little skink;
Eutropis macularia (Byth, 1853) S: Pingu hikanala LC
E: Spotted skink; S: Pulli
Eutropis madaraszi Méhely, 1897 hikanala VU B1ab(iii)
107
Eutropis tammanna Das, de Silva & E: Tmmanna skink; S: Tam-
Austin, 2008 manna hikanala LC
E: Deignan’s lankaskink; B1ab(iii)
Lankascincus deignani (Taylor, 1950) S: Deignange lakhikanala EN +2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)
Lankascincus deraniyagalae Greer, E: Deraniyagal’s lankaskink;
1991 S: Daraniyagalge lakhikanala EN B2ab(iii)
Lankascincus dorsicatenatus (Dera- E: Catenated litter skink; B1ab(iii)
niyagala, 1953) S: Damwal singitihikanala EN +2ab(iii)
E: Common lankaskink;
Lankascincus fallax (Peters, 1860) S: Sulaba lakhikanala LC
E: Gans’s lankaskink;
Lankascincus gansi Greer, 1991 S: Gansge lakhikanala VU B1ab(iii)
Lankascincus greari Batuwita & Pethi- E: Geer’s lanka skink; B1ab(iii)
yagoda, 2007 S: Geerge lakhikanala EN +2ab(iii)
Lankascincus munindradasai Wick- E: Munidradasa’s lanka skink;
ramasinghe, Rodrigo, Dayawansa & S: Munindradasage lakh-
Jayantha, 2007 ikanala CR B1ab(iii)
Lankascincus sripadensis Wick- E: Sripada forest skink;
ramasinghe, Rodrigo, Dayawansa & S: Sripakandu duburu
Jayantha, 2007 hikanala CR B2ab(iii)
Lankascincus taprobanensis (Ke- E: Smooth lanka skink; B1ab(iii)
laart, 1854) S: Sumudu lakhikanala EN +2ab(iii) NT
E: Taylor’s lanka skink;
Lankascincus taylori Greer, 1991 S: Telorge lakhikanala EN B2ab(iii)
E: Dotted skink;
Lygosoma punctatus (Gmelin, 1799) S: Tit hiraluhikanala LC
E: Taylor’s skink;
Lygosoma singha (Taylor, 1950) S: Taylorge hiraluhikanala DD
E: Smith’s snakeskink;
Nessia bipes Smith, 1935 S: Smithge sarpahiraluva EN
E: Threetoe Snakeskink;
Nessia burtonii Gray, 1839 S: Triyanguli sarpahiraluva LC
E: Deraniyagala’s snakeskink;
S: Derniyagalage sarpahi-
Nessia deraniyagalai Taylor, 1950 raluva DD
Nessia didactylus (Deraniyagala, E: Two toe snakeskink;
1934) S: Dvayanguli sarpahiraluva EN
E: Sharkhead snakeskink; B1ab(iii)
Nessia hickanala Deraniyagala, 1940 S: Morahis sarpahiraluva CR +2ab(iii)
E: Layard’s snakeskink; B1ab(iii)
Nessia layardi (Kelaart, 1854) S: Leyardge sarpahiraluva EN +2ab(iii)
E: Toeless snakeskink;
Nessia monodactylus (Gray, 1839) S: Ananguli sarpahiraluva EN B2ab(iii)
E: Sarasin’s snakeskink;
Nessia sarasinorum (Müller, 1889) S: Sarasinge sarpahiraluva VU B1ab(iii)
Sphenomorphus dussumieri (Duméril & E: Dussumier’s litter skink;
Bibron, 1839) S: Salkasahita singitihikanala DD LC
Sphenomorphus megalops (Annan- E: Annandale’s litter skink;
dale, 1906) S: Annandalege singitihikanala DD
Family: Varanidae
Varanus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) E: Land monitor; S; Talagoya LC LC
E: Water monitor;
Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) S: Kabaragoya LC LC
108
Family: Acrochordidae
Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider, E: Wart snake; S: Diya goya/
1799) Redi naya VU B2ab(iii) LC
Family: Boidae
E: Sand boa; B: Vali pimbura,
Gongylophis conica (Schneider, 1796) kota pimbura VU B2ab(iii)
Family: Pythonidae
LR/
Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Indian python; S: Pimbura LC nt
Family: Cylindrophidae
Cylindrophis maculata (Linnaeus,
1758) E: Pipe snake, S: Depath naya NT
Family: Natricidae
E: Buff striped keelback;
Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Aharukuka LC B1ab(iii)
E: Boie’s roughside;
Aspidura brachyorrhos (Boie, 1827) S: Le madilla VU B2ab(iii) DD
E: Cope’s roughside;
Aspidura copei Günther, 1864 S: Kalumedilla DD
Aspidura deraniyagalae Gans & E: Deraniyagala’s roughside;
Fetcho, 1982 S: Kandu madilla CR B1ab(iii)
Aspidura drummondhayi Boulenger, E: Drummond – Hay’s rough-
1904 side; S: Ketiwalmadilla EN B2ab(iii)
E: Guenther’s roughside;
Aspidura guentheri Ferguson, 1876 S: Kudamadilla NT B1ab(iii)
E: Common roughside;
Aspidura trachyprocta Cope, 1860 S: Dalawa madilla EN B2ab(iii) LC
E: The Olive keelback water-
Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) snake; S: Diyawarna. LC NT
Balanophis ceylonensis (Günther, E: Sri Lanka keelback;
1858) S: Nihaluwa EN B1ab(iii)
Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, E: The green keelback;
1839) S: Palabariya NT
Xenochrophis asperrimus (Bouleng- E: The checkered keelback;
er, 1891) S: Diya polonga / Diya bariya LC B2ab(iii)
Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, E: Checkered Keelback;
1799) S: Diya bariya LC
Family: Homalopsidae
E: Dog-faced water snake;
Cerberus rynchops (Schneider, 1799) S: Kuna diya kaluwa. LC LC
Gerarda prevostianus (Eydoux & Ger- E: Gerard’s water snake;
vais, 1837) S: Prevostge diyabariya EN B2ab(iii) LC
E: Rainbow mud snake;
Enhydris enhydris (Shneider, 1799) S: Dedunu diyabariyawa DD
Family: Colubridae
E: Green vine snake;
Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) S: Ahaetulla LC
Ahaetulla pulverulenta (Duméril, Bibron E: Brown vine snake;
& Duméril, 1854) S; Henakandaya LC
E: Banded racer;
Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) S: Wal gerandiya DD
E: Barnes’s cat snake,
Boiga barnesii (Günther, 1869) S: Panduru mapila VU B1ab(iii)
109
E: Beddoms cat snake;
Boiga beddomei (Wall, 1909) S: Kaha mapila NT DD
E: Sri Lanka cat snake;
Boiga ceylonensis (Günther, 1858) S: Nidi mapila LC
Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Du- E: Forsten’s cat snake;
méril, 1854) S: Naga mapila NT LC
E: Gamma cat snake;
Boiga trigonatus (Schneider, 1802) S: Ran mapila LC LC
E: The Sri Lanka wolf snake;
Cercaspis carinata (Kuhl, 1820) S: Dhara radanakaya EN B2ab(iii)
E: Ornate flying snake;
Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw, 1802) S: Polmal karawala, Malsara VU B1ab(iii)
E: Striped flying snake;
Chrysopelea taprobanica Smith, 1943 S: Dangara danda LC
E: Trinket snake;
Coeloganthus helena (Daudin, 1803) S: Katakaluwa LC
Dendrelaphis bifrenalis (Boulenger, E: Boulenger’s bronze back;
1890) S: Pandura haldanda NT LC
Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus (Gray, E: Gunther’s bronze back;
1834) S: Viri haldanda VU B1ab(iii)
E: Oliver’s bronze back;
Dendrelaphis oliveri (Taylor, 1950) S: Oliverge haldanda DD
E: Schokari’s bronze back;
Dendrelaphis schokari (Kuhl, 1820) S: Schokarige haldanda LC
E: Common bronze back;
Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) S: Tura haldanda LC
E: The scarce bridal;
Dryocalamus gracilis (Günther, 1864) S: Megata radanakaya DD DD
E: Bridal snake; S: Geta
Dryocalamus nympha (Daudin, 1803) Radanakaya / Geta karawala LC
E: The black spine snake /
Haplocercus ceylonensis Günther, Mould snake; S: Kurunkar-
1858 awala. EN B2ab(iii)
Liopeltis calamaria (Günther, 1858) E: Reed snake; S: Punbariya NT
E: Wolf snake, house snake;
Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Alu radanakaya LC
E: Flowery wolf snake; S: Mal
Lycodon osmanhilli Taylor, 1950 radanakaya LC LC
E: Shaw’s wolf snake;
Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) S: Kabara radanakaya LC
E: Common kukri snake/
Banded Kukri; S: Arani dath
Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) ketiya LC
E: Templeton’s kukri snake;
Oligodon calamarius (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Kabara dath ketiya EN B2ab(iii) DD
Oligodon sublineatus Duméril & E: Dumerul’s kuki snake;
Bibron, 1854 S: Pulli dath ketiya LC LC
E: Variegated kukri snake /
Russell’s kukri snake;
Oligodon taeniolata (Jerdon, 1853) S: Wairi dattketiya LC LC
Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Rat snake; S: Gerandiya. LC
110
Sibynophis subpunctatus (Duméril & E: Jerdon’s polyodent;
Bibron, 1854) S: Dathigomaraya NT
Family: Elapidae
E: The common krait; S: Thel
Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) karawala/ Maga maruwa LC B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka krait / Ceylon
krait; S: Mudu karawala/ Hath
Bungarus ceylonicus Günther, 1864 karawala VU B1ab(iii)
Calliophis haematoetron Smith,
Manamendra-Arachchi & Somaweera, E: Red bellied coral snake;
2008 S: Bada rathu depath kaluwa CR B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka coral snake;
Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802) S: Depath kaluwa NT
E: Indian cobra;
Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Naya/ Nagaya LC
Family: Hydrophidae
E: Stoke’s sea snake;
Astrotia stokesii (Gray in Stokes, 1846) S: Mahavalakkadiya LC
E: Hook nose sea snake;
Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin, 1803) S: Valakkadiya LC
E: Peter’s sea snake;
Hydrophis bituberculatus Peters, 1872 S: Peterge muhudunaya DD
E: The chitul; S: Wairan muhu-
Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin, 1803 dunaya LC
Hydrophis fasciatus (Schneider, 1799) LC
E: John’s sea snake;
Hydrophis gracilis (Shaw, 1802) S: Kudahis Muhudu naya LC
E: Persian Gulf seasnake;
S: Persiyanu bokke muhudu
Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray, 1849) naya LC
Hydrophis mammilaris (Daudin, 1803) DD
E: Gray’s sea snake;
Hydrophis ornatus (Gray, 1849) S: Grayge Muhudu naya LC
E: Narrow banded sea snake;
Hydrophis spiralis (Shaw, 1802) S: Sihin Mudhu naya LC
E: Guenther’s sea snake;
Hydrophis stricticollis Günther, 1864 S: Guntherge muhudunaya DD
E: Jerdon’s sea snake;
Kerilia jerdonii Gray, 1849 S: Jerdonge Muhudu naya LC
E: Shaw’s sea snake;
Lapemis curtus (Shaw, 1802) S: Shawge kuda muhudunaya LC
E: Yellow bellied sea snake;
Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus, 1766) S: Badakaha muhudu naya LC
E: Schmidt’s sea snake;
Praescutata viperina (Schmidt, 1852) S: Polon muhudunaya LC
Family: Typhlopidae
Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, E: Common blind snake;
1803) S: Dumuta kanaulla LC
E: Smith’s blind snake;
Typhlops ceylonicus Smith, 1943 S: Smithge kanaulla DD
E: Lanka blind snake; S: Lak
Typhlops lankaensis Taylor, 1947 kanaulla CR B2ab(iii)
111
E: Pied typhlops; S: Dewarna
Typhlops leucomelas Boulenger, 1890 kanaulla CR B2ab(iii)
E: Malcolm’s blind snake;
Typhlops malcolmi Taylor, 1947 S: Malcomge kanaulla DD
Typhlops mirus Jan in: Jan & Sordelli, E: Jan’s blind snake; S: Heen-
1860 kanaulla. CR B1ab(iii)
E: Stoliczka’s blind snake; B1ab(iii)
Typhlops porrectus Stoliczka, 1871 S: Stoliczkage kanaulla EN +B2ab
E: Taylor’s blind snake;
Typhlops tenebrarum Taylor, 1947 S: Taylorge kanaulla DD
E: Veddha’s blind snake;
Typhlops veddae Taylor, 1947 S: Veddage kanaulla DD
E: Violet blind snake;
Typhlops violaceus Taylor, 1947 S: Dan kanaulla DD
Family: Uropeltidae
Platyplectrurus madurensis Beddome E: Madura blind snake;
1877 S: Madura kanaulla DD
Pseudotyphlops philippinus Schle- E: Large shield tail; S: Maha
gel, 1839 bimulla EN B2ab(iii)
E: Blyth’s earth snake; B1ab(iii)
Rhinophis blythii Kelaart, 1853 S: Gomarathudulla EN +B2ab
Rhinophis dorsimaculatus Deraniya- E: Orange shield tail; S: Th-
gala, 1941 ambapani walga ebaya DD
Rhinophis drummondhayi (Wall, E: Drummond-Hay’s earth
1921) snake; S: Thapothudulla EN B2ab(iii) NT
Rhinophis erangaviraji Wickramasing- E: Viraj’s shieldtail snake or
he, Vidanapathirana, Wickramasinghe Eranga Viraj’s Rhinophis; B1ab(iii)
& Ranwella, 2009 S: Eranga Virajge thudulla CR +B2ab
E: Kelaarts earth snake; B1ab(iii)
Rhinophis homolepis Hemprich, 1820 S: Depaththudulla EN +B2ab
Rhinophis lineatus Gower & Madu- E: Striped rhinophis;
wage, 2011 S: Dick-iri thudulla CR B2ab(iii)
Rhinophis oxyrynchus (Schneider, E: Schneider’s earth snake;
1801) S: Ulthudulla LC LC
E: Cuvier’s earth snake; B1ab(iii)
Rhinophis philippinus (Cuvier, 1829) S: Cuvierge walga ebaya EN +B2ab
E: Willey’s earth snake;
Rhinophis porrectus Wall, 1921 S: Digthudulla DD
E: Muller’s earth snake;
Rhinophis punctatus Müller, 1832 S: Ticthudulla DD
E: Deraniyagala’s shield tail;
Rhinophis tricoloratus Deraniyagala, S: Deraniyagalage walga
1975 ebaya CR B1ab(iii)+B2ab
Rhinophis zigzag Gower & Madu- E: Zigzag Rhinophis;
wage, 2011 S: Ack-wack thudulla CR B2ab(iii)
E: Black shield tail;
Uropeltis melanogaster Gray, 1858 S: Kaluwakatulla EN B1ab(iii)+B2ab
E: Phillips’s shield tail;
Uropeltis phillipsi (Nicholls, 1929) S: Iriwakatulla EN B2ab(iii)
E: Ruhunu shield tail;
Uropeltis ruhunae Deraniyagala, 1954 S: Ruhunuwakatulla DD
112
Family: Viperidae
E: Russell’s viper; S: Tith
Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) Polonga/ Gata polaga LC
E: Saw scale viper; S: Vali
Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) polonga VU B2ab(iii)
E: The Merrem’s Hump nose
Hypnale hypnale (Merrem, 1820) viper; S: Polonthelissa LC
E: Merrem’s hump-nosed
viper; S: Polonthelissa/ Kunak-
Hypnale nepa (Laurenti, 1768) atuwa EN B2ab(iii) LC
E: Stripe-necked hump-nosed
viper; S: Wayiram gelathi
Hypnale zara (Gray, 1849) Kunakatuwa VU Biab(iii)
Hypnale sp. ‘amal’ Maduwage, Silva,
Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, E: Amal’s Hump nose viper; S:
2009 A: Amalge polonthelissa CR B2ab(iii)
Trimeresurus trigonocephalus (So- E: Green pit viper; B: Pala
nini et Latreille, 1801) polonga LC
113
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Birds in Sri Lanka
Devaka K Weerakoon1 and Kithsiri Gunawardena2
1
Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3
2
3E, Kynsey Road, Colombo 8
Introduction
The early formal Sri Lankan literature does not carry detailed descriptions on birds other than
casual references. Since the 14th century birds have been extensively featured in Sinhalese
poetry Sandesha Kavya. Detailed documentation of the Sri Lankan avifauna began in the 16th
century with the arrival of Europeans such as Ribeiro, Baldaeus, Queyroz and Knox. However,
the first formal account of a Sri Lankan species, Sri Lanka Lorikeet, was given by George Edwards
(1743) in his book Natural History of Uncommon Birds. The systematic study of the avifauna of
Sri Lanka began in the mid 18th century with major contributions from naturalists such as Loten,
Joinville, Templeton, Layard, Kelaart and Holdsworth. Then came the monumental four volume
publication by Capt. Vincent Legge, A History of the Birds of Ceylon, which remains the most
comprehensive account on the birds of Sri Lanka to date. Since then the knowledge on Sri
Lankan avifauna has been updated periodically by many ornithologists such as Murray, Wait,
Baker, Ripley, Whistler, Henry, Phillips, Kotagama, Rasmussen, Anderton and Warakagoda
Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna that stands at 453 species at present. This include 240
species of birds that are known to breed in Sri Lanka, of which 33 are accepted by some
ornithologists as endemic species while some ornithologists consider only 27 species as
endemic and the remaining 6 are considered as proposed endemics. Further, 21 species that
are listed as breeding residents, also have migrant populations which also include migrants of
different races of the species that occur in the country. The remaining 213 species are migrants
of which 72 species are encountered rarely and therefore considered as vagrants. It should be
noted that only 240 resident birds have been evaluated in this Red List.
Taxonomy
The taxonomy of Asian birds has been subject to many changes over the last two decades,
consequent to increased research efforts and new methodologies which were adopted in avian
taxonomy. This resulted in several changes in the scientific nomenclature of Birds of Sri Lanka.
Kotagama et. al. (2006) recognized sixty four families representing the bird species present
in Sri Lanka based on Sibley & Monroe (1990). Since then, twenty new families have been
added, due to elevation of subfamilies or tribes to full family status (Tribes Haematopodini,
Recurvirostrini, Stercorariini, Artamini, Rhipidurini, Dicrurini, Monarchini, Dicaeini were
upgraded to family level while tribe Oriolini has been split and upgraded to two families,
Oriolidae and Campephagidae which also include members of the tribe Vangini. Further,
subfamilies Dromadinae, Hydrobatinae, Aegithininae, Turdinae, Passerinae, Motacillinae,
Ploceinae, Estrildinae and Emberizinae are upgraded to family level. Subfamily Garrulacinae
and tribe Timaliini are placed in the family Timaliidae). Members of five families have been
“lumped” with other existing families (Dendrocygnidae, Megalaimidae, Centropodidae and
Batrachostomidae now placed in Anatidae, Ramphastidae, Cuculidae and Podargidae
114
respectively). Further, Halcyonidae and Cerylidae are placed in the family Alcedinidae and
members of family Irenidae are placed in family Chloropseidae). Therefore, the avifauna of Sri
Lanka is currently represented by 79 families (Dickinson, 2003).
Many species level taxonomic changes have also been affected recently, due to either lumping
or splitting of existing species. These include splitting of Phoenicopterus ruber into P. roseus and
P. ruber (Knox et al., 2002); Corvus macrorhynchos into C. levaillantii and C. macrorhynchos
(Sibley & Monroe, 1990); Hirundo tahitica into H. domicola and H. tahitica (Sibley & Monroe,
1990); Mirafra assamica into M. affinis, M. assamica, M. erythrocephala and M. microptera
(Alström, 1998); Chloropsis cochinchinensis into C. jerdoni, C. cochinchinensis, and C.
kinabaluensis (Wells et al., 2003); Sula dactylatra into S. dactylatra and S. granti (AOU, 2000);
Spilornis minimus into S. klossi and S. cheela (Rasmussen & Anderton (2005); Spizaetus
cirrhatus into S. cirrhatus and S. floris (Gjershaug et al., 2004); Otus scops into O. senegalensis
(Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993), O. sunia (AOU, 1998), O. alius (Rassmussen, 1998) and
O. scops; Acrocephalus stentoreus into A. stentoreus and A. orinus (Bensch & Pearson,
2002); Seicercus burkii into S. burkii, S. valentini, S. whistleri, S. soror and S tephrocephalus
(Alström & Olsson, 1999) and S. omeiensis (Martens et al., 1999); Lonchura malacca into
L. malacca and L. atricapilla (AOU, 2000). Further, Pomatorhinus horsfieldii has been split
into P. melanurus and P. horsfieldii (Collar, 2006; Rasmussen & Anderton, 2005), of which P.
melanurus is listed as endemic to Sri Lanka. Like wise, Dicrurus paradiseus has been split into
D. paradiseus and D. lophorinus of which the latter is endemic to Sri Lanka. Zoothera dauma
imbricata previously considered as a subspecies is now recognized as a distinct species, Z.
imbricata that is endemic to Sri Lanka (Collar, 2005; Rasmussen & Anderton 2005).
Number of species that has been listed for Sri Lanka has been lumped together with other
species. These include lumping of Coturnix chinensis and C. adansonii into C. chinensis
(Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993); Puffinus bannermani, P. persicus and P. subalaris into P.
lherminieri (Brooke, 2004); Butorides sundevalli and B. striatus into B. striata (AOU, 2003);
Egretta garzetta and E. dimorpha into E. garzetta (Kushlan & Hancock, 2005); Copsychus
malabaricus and C. stricklandii into C. malabaricus (Collar, 2004); Motacilla alba and M.
lugens into M. alba (AOU, 2005); Anthus richardi, A. cinnamomeus, A. camaroonensis and A.
latistriatus into A. richardi (Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993).
Distribution
Sri Lanka is divided into 6 Avifaunal Zones based on the distribution patterns of the resident
bird species (Kotagama, 1993). These include the Northern or Indian zone that shares many
similarities with the South Indian avifauna; Low country wet zone, Mid country wet zone and
Hill country wet zone that contain most of the endemic and threatened species; Dry zone and
the Uva zone, which contain mostly common bird species as well as few rare species that are
restricted to these zones. The Northern avifaunal zone has not been accessible for nearly 30
years due to the conflict that existed in the area. However, following the culmination of the war
in 2009 these areas have once again become accessible which has resulted in a wealth of new
information about Sri Lankan avifauna.
115
Threats
In Sri Lanka, wild birds are rarely exploited as a source of food. However, there is an emerging
trend which began in the recent past of capturing some of the species for the illegal pet trade.
As in the case of all other taxa, habitat loss is the main threat faced by the birds of Sri Lanka.
Nearly one third of all the resident birds in Sri Lanka are forest birds including all the endemic
species. Out of the endemic birds, more than 60% are restricted to the forests in the wet
zone. These forests are being rapidly depleted to support the needs of the burgeoning human
population. Therefore, loss of forest cover and fragmentation of forests are the main threats
faced by the birds of Sri Lanka. Wetlands are also an important bird habitat in Sri Lanka with
nearly 25% of the resident birds and more than 75% of the migrants depend on such habitats.
Many of these wetland habitats are adversely impacted due to conversion, changes in salinity
and hydrology, pollution of water ways, spread of invasive species (e.g. spread of Prosopis
juliflora in Bundala and Wankalai, Annona glabra in Bellanwila-Attidiya), expansion of prawn
farming and salt production. As a result, species richness and the carrying capacity of many
wetland habitats have declined rapidly. Even though land use change has impacted most bird
species in a detrimental manner, some species such as Lonchura spp., Psittacula kramerii,
Stigmatopelia chinensis, Corvus splendens, Centropus chinensis have shown a marked
increase in their range and numbers.
Research Needs
Compared to other taxonomic groups, birds have received a great deal of attention from both
amateur and professional bird watchers. However, information available on birds is restricted
mostly to their distribution while, for most birds, especially the threatened species, information
on their biology and ecology is inadequate. This has been identified as a serious impediment
in formulating species specific conservation plans for threatened species in Sri Lanka. Even
though the taxonomy of many species of birds have been revised based on regional revisions,
a number of taxonomic issues, especially the status of the proposed endemic species, remain
unresolved at present. While taking stringent measures to preserve the existing habitat,
establishment of a captive breeding programme for the threatened endemic birds, preferably
in the National Zoological gardens as well as at such a facility in the hill country for the hill
species, is also a critical need, if it becomes necessary in the future to conduct reintroduction
or population enhancement as a conservation measure. Lastly, a systematic monitoring
mechanism of the critical bird species, important bird habitats and large breeding colonies
needs to be established for Sri Lanka.
References
Alström, P., (1998). Taxonomy of the Mirafra assamica complex. Forktail, 13, pp.97-107.
Alström, P. & Olsson, U., (1999). The golden-spectacled warbler: a complex of sibling species, including a previously
undescribed species. Ibis, 141, pp.545-568.
AOU., (1998). Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists’
Union.
AOU., (2000). Forty-second supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds.
The Auk, 117(3), pp.847-858.
AOU., (2003). Forty-fourth supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds.
The Auk, 120(3), pp.923-931.
116
AOU., (2005). Forty-sixth supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds. The
Auk, 122(3), pp.1026-1031.
Bensch, S. & Pearson, D., (2002). The Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus revisited. Ibis, 144, pp.259-
267.
Brooke, M., (2004). Albatrosses and petrels across the world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Collar, N. J., (2004). Species limits in some Indonesian thrushes. Forktail, 20, pp.71-87.
Collar, N. J., (2005). Family Turdidae (Thrushes). In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliot, & D.A. Christie, eds. 2005. Handbook of
the Birds of the World Vol. 10. Cuckoo-shrikes to Thrushes. Barcelona: Lynx Editions. pp.514-810.
Collar, N. J., (2006). A partial revision of the Asian Babblers (Timaliidae). Forktail, 22, pp.85-112.
Dickinson, E. C., (2003). The Howard and Moore complete checklist of the birds of the world. 3rd edition. London:
Christopher Helm.
Dowsett, R. J. & Forbes-Watson, A. D., (1993). Checklist of birds of the Afrotropical and Malagasy regions. Liege,
Belgium: Tauraco Press.
Gjershaug, J. O., Kvalfy, K., Rfv, N., Prawiradilaga, D. M., Suparman, U. & Rahman, Z., (2004). The taxonomic
status of Flores Hawk Eagle Spizaetus floris. Forktail, 20, pp.55-62.
Kaluthota, C. D. & Kotgama, S. W., (2009). Revised avifaunal list of Sri Lanka. Occasional Paper No. 2 of the Field
Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. Colombo: FOGSL. pp 25.
Knox, A. G., Collinson, M., Helbig, A. J., Parkin, D. T. & Sangster, G., (2002). Taxonomic recommendations for
British birds. Ibis, 144, pp.707-710.
Kotagama, S. W., (1993). Wildlife conservation and development of the south east dry zone. In The South-east dry
Zone of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Agrarian Research and Training Institute.
Kotagama, S. W., De Silva, R. I., Wijayasinha, A. S. & Abeygunawardane, V., (2006). Avifaunal list of Sri Lanka.
In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of taxonomy, research and conservation.
Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. pp. 164-203.
Kushlan, J. A. & Hancock, J. A., (2005). Bird families of the world 14: The herons. U.K.: Oxford University Press.
Martens, J., Eck, S., Päckert, M. & Sun, Y. H., (1999). The Golden-spectacled Warbler Seicercus burkii - A species
swarm (Aves: Passeriformes: Sylviidae) Part 1. Zool. Abh. Staatl. Mus. Tierk. Desden, 50, pp.281-327.
Rasmussen, P. C., (1998). A new scopsowl from Great Nicobar Island. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club, 118, pp.141-153.
Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C., (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol, 2. Smithsonian Institution
and Lynx Editions.
Sibley, C. G. & Monroe, B. L., (1990). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven & London: Yale
University Press.
Warakagoda, D. & Sirivardana, U., (2009). The avifauna of Sri Lanka: An over view of the current status. Taprobanica,
1(1), pp. 28-35.
Warakagoda, D., Inskipp, I., Inskipp, T. & Grimmett, R., (2012). Birds of Sri Lanka. Christopher Helm, an imprint of
Bloomsberry Publishing Plc.
Wells, D. R., Dickinson, E. C. & Dekker, R. W. R. J., (2003). A preliminary review of the Chloropseidae and Irenidae.
Zool. Verh., 344, pp.25-42.
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Table 11: List of Birds in Sri Lanka
Abbreviations: Scientific NamePE (possibly Endemic)
* Only the breeding population has been considered in this assessment

Family: Phasianidae
Francolinus pictus (Jardine & E:Painted Francolin; CR B1ab(iii) LC
Selby, 1828) S: Thith Ussa-watuwa;
T: Varna cowthari.
Francolinus pondicerianus E:Grey Francolin; NT LC
(Gmelin, 1789) S: Alu Ussa-watuwa;
T: Cowthari.
Coturnix chinensis Linnaeus, E:Blue Quail; S: Nil EN B2ab(iii) LC
1766 piriwatuwa, Wil-watuwa;
T: Neelamaarbuk kaadai.
Perdicula asiatica (Latham, E:Jungle Bush-quail; CR B2ab(iii) LC
1790) S: Wana panduru watuwa,
Wil watuwa;
T: Kaatuputhar kaadai.
Galloperdix bicalcarata E:Sri Lanka Spurfowl; NT LC
(Forster, 1781) S: Sri Lanka haban
kukula;
T: Sinnak kaatuk koli.
Gallus lafayetii Lesson, 1831 E: Sri Lanka Junglefowl; LC LC
S: Sri Lanka Wali kukula;
T: Kattu-koli
Pavo cristatus Linnaeus, 1758 E:Indian Peafowl; LC LC
S: Monara; T: Neela mayil.
Family: Anatidae
Dendrocygna javanica E:Lesser Whistling-duck; LC LC
(Horsfield, 1821) S: Heen thamba seruwa;
T: Siriya seelkani siravi.
Nettapus coromandelianus E:Cotton pygmy -goose; NT LC
(Gmelin, 1789) S: Mal seruwa;
T: Kullathara.
Anas poecilorhyncha Forster, E: Spot-billed Duck; S: CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
JR 1781* Thithhota tharava 2ab(iii)
Family: Turnicidae
Turnix suscitator (Gmelin, E: Barred Buttonquail; LC LC
1789) S: Punchi bola
watuyuruwa; T: Kadai
Family: Picidae
Dendrocopos nanus (Vigors, E:Brown-capped LC LC
1832) Woodpecker; S:Bora isasi
piri-kerala, Mal Kerella;
T: Sinna marang kothi.
Dendrocopos mahrattensis E:Yellow-crowned NT LC
(Latham, 1801) Woodpecker; S: Kahasilu
Piri -kerala; T: Manjal nettri
marang kothi.
Celeus brachyurus (Vieillot, E:Rufous Woodpecker; LC LC
1818) S: Borath anu-kerela,
Dumburu Kerela;
T: Karunchirappu marang
kothi.
118
Picus chlorolophus Vieillot, E:Lesser Yellownape; NT LC
1818 S: Heen kahagelasi
Kerela, Konde -kaha
Kerela;
T: Manjal pidari siru
marang kothi.
Picus xanthopygaeus (Gray & E:Streak-throated EN B1ab(iii) LC
Gray, 1846) Woodpecker; S: Irigela +2abI(iii)
Kerela; T: Sethil vayittru
marang kothi.
Dinopium benghalense E:Black-rumped LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) Flameback; S: Ginipita
pili-kerela, Pita-rang
Kerela; T: Siriya pon
muthuhu marang kothi.
Chrysocolaptes lucidus E:Greater Flameback ; LC
(Scopoli, 1786) PE S:Lepita maha-kerela,
Mukalang Kerela;
T: Periya ponmuthuhu
marang kothi.
Chrysocolaptes festivus E:White -naped VU B2ab(iii)
(Boddaert, 1783) Woodpecker;
S: Sudugelesi maha-
kerela, Maha-rang Kerela;
T: Karumuthuhu marang
kothi.
Family: Ramphastidae
Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin, E:Brown-headed Barbet; LC LC
1788) S: Polos Kottoruwa;
T: Paluppu thalai
kukkuruvan.
Megalaima flavifrons E:Sri Lanka Yellow-fronted LC LC
(Cuvier, 1816) Barbet; S: Sri Lanka
kahamunath Kottoruwa,
Mukalang Kottoruwa;
T:Ilankai manjal kuruttu
kukkuravan.
Megalaima rubricapillus E: Crimson-fronted LC LC
(Gmelin, 1788) PE Barbet ; S: Rathmunath
Kottoruwa, Mal Kottoruwa;
T: Sennettri kukkuravan.
Megalaima haemacephala E: Coppersmith Barbet; S: LC LC
(Müller, 1776) Rathlaya Kottoruwa, Mal
Kottoruwa;
T: Senmaarbu Kukkuruvan
Family: Bucerotidae
Ocyceros gingalensis E: Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill; LC LC
(Shaw, 1811) S: Sri Lanka Alu Kandetta;
T: Ilankai naarai irattai
chondu kuruvi.
Anthracoceros coronatus E: Malabar Pied Hornbill; LC NT
(Boddaert, 1783) S: Poru Kandetta;
T: Malabar karuppuvellai
iruvaayan.
Family: Upopidae
Upupa epops Linnaeus, 1758 E:Eurasian Hoopoe; LC LC
S: Poroluwa;
T: Kondalthi.
119
Family: Trogonidae
Harpactes fasciatus (Pennant, E:Malabar Trogon; S: NT LC
1769) Lohavannichcha, Gini-
kurulla; T: Malabar
theekakai.
Family: Coraciidae
Coracias benghalensis E:Indian Roller; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S:Dumbonna; T: Panan-
kadai, Kottai-kili
Eurystomus orientalis E:Asian Dollarbird; EN B2ab(iii) LC
(Linnaeus, 1766) S: Dumkava;
T: Pulupporukki
Family: Alcedinidae
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus, E:Common Kingfisher; LC LC
1758) S: Mal Pilihuduwa; T:
Siriya neela meen kothi.
Alcedo meninting Horsfield, E:Blue-Eared Kingfisher; CR B2ab(iii) LC
1821 S: Nilkan Pilihuduwa; T:
Neela kaathu meen kothi.
Ceyx erithaca (Linnaeus, E:Black-Backed NT LC
1758) Kingfisher; S:Pitakalu
Heen-pilihuduwa, Rang
Pilihuduwa;
T: Siru meen kothi.
Pelargopsis capensis E: Stork-billed Kingfisher; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1766) S:Manathudu maha
pilihuduwa; T: Parutha
alahu meen kothi.
Halcyon smyrnensis E:White-Throated LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) Kingfisher; S:Gelasudu
medi-pilihuduwa; T: Ven
marabu meen kothi.
Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Pied Kingfisher; LC LC
S: Gomara pilihuduwa; T:
Siriya karuppu vellai meen
kothi.
Family: Meropidae
Merops orientalis Latham, E:Little Green Bee-eater; LC LC
1802 S:Punchi binguharaya;
T: Siriya pachai
panchuruttaan.
Merops leschenaulti Vieillot, E:Chestnut-headed Bee- LC LC
1817 eater; S:Thambalahis
binguharaya; T: Senthalai
panchuruttan.
Merops philippinus Linnaeus, E: Blue-tailed Bee-eater; CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
1766* S: Nilpenda binguhariya +2ab(iii)
Family: Cuculidae
Clamator jacobinus E:Pied Cuckoo; S:Gomara LC LC
(Boddaert, 1783) kondakoha; T:Kadalai
kuyil.
Cuculus varius Vahl, 1797 E:Common Hawk-cuckoo; EN B2ab(iii) LC
S:Ukusu kokilaya; T: Kuyil
Cacomantis sonneratii E:Banded Bay Cuckoo; NT LC
(Latham, 1790) S:Vaira anukoha;
T: Sempaluppu vari kuyil.
120
Surniculus lugubris (Horsfield, E:Drongo Cuckoo; NT
1821) S:Kavudukoha; T:Karichan
kuyil.
Eudynamys scolopaceus E:Asian Koel; S:Kovula; T: LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) Asia Kuyil.
Phaenicophaeus viridirostris E:Blue-faced Malkoha; S: LC LC
(Jerdon, 1840) Wathanil malkoha;
T: Neela muha malkoha.
Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii E:Sirkeer Malkoha; VU B1ab(iii) LC
(Lesson, 1830) S:Pathan Malkoha;
T: Sevvalahu malkoha.
Phaenicophaeus E:Sri Lanka Red-faced VU B1ab(iii) VU C2a(i)
pyrrhocephalus (Pennant, Malkoha; S:Sri Lanka
1769) Watharathu Malkoha; T:
Ilankai semmuka malkoha.
Centropus sinensis E:Greater Coucal; LC LC
(Stephens, 1815) S:Atikukula;
T: Periya sembaham.
Centropus chlororhynchus E:Sri Lanka Green-billed EN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);
Blyth, 1849 Coucal; S:Sri Lanka Bata C2a(i)
Atikukula; T: Ilankai pachai
alahu sembaham.
Cuculus micropterus Gould, E:Indian Cuckoo; S: Indu LC LC
1838 * kokilaya
Family: Psittacidae
Loriculus beryllinus E:Sri Lanka Hanging LC LC
(Forster, 1781) Parrot; S:Sri Lanka
giramaliththa;
T: Ilankai sinna kili.
Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus, E:Alexandrine Parakeet; LC LC
1766) S: Labu girawa; T:Periya
pachai Kili
Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, E:Rose-ringed Parakeet; LC LC
1769) S:Rena girawa;
T: Pachai Kili
Psittacula cyanocephala E:Plum-headed Parakeet; NT LC
(Linnaeus, 1766) S:Pandu girawa; T:
Senthalai Kili.
Psittacula calthropae (Blyth, E:Sri Lanka Emerald- NT LC
1849) collared Parakeet;
S:Sri Lanka Alu girawa; T:
Ilankai naadu Kili.
Family: Apodidae
Collocalia unicolor (Jerdon, E:Indian Swiftlet; LC LC
1840) S:Indu upa-thurithaya,
Wehilihiniya;
T: Sinna ulavaaran.
Hirundapus giganteus E:Brown-backed NT
(Temminck, 1825) Needletail; S:Pitabora
katu-thurithaya;
T: Paluppu muthuhu mulvl
ulavaaran.
Cypsiurus balasiensis (Gray, E:Asian Palm-swift; S:Asia LC LC
1829) thal-thurithaya;
T: Panai ulavaaran.
121
Tachymarptis melba E:Alpine Swift; S:Alpine EN B2ab(iii) LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) piri-thurithaya;
T: Alphine ulavaaran.
Apus affinis (Gray, 1830) E:Little Swift; S: Punchi LC LC
thurithaya; T: Naadu
ulavaaran.
Family: Hemiprocnidae
Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell, E:Crested Treeswift; S: LC
1833) Silu ruk-thurithaya; T:
Kondai ulavaaran.
Family: Tytonidae
Tyto alba (Scopoli, 1769) E:Barn Owl; S: Atu NT LC
wesbassa, Bakamuna; T:
Koohai aanthai.
Phodilus badius (Horsfield, E:Oriental Bay-owl; EN B1ab(iii) LC
1821) S:Peradigu gurubassa; +2ab(iii)
T: Kaatu sempaluppu
aanthai.
Family: Strigidae
Otus sunia Hodgson, 1836 E:Oriental Scops-owl; NT
S:Peradigu kanbassa; T:
Keelai theya sevi aanthai.
Otus bakkamoena Pennant, E:Collared Scops-owl; LC LC
1769 S: Karapati Kanbassa; T:
Pattaikaluthu sevi aanthai.
Otus thilohoffmanni E:Sri Lanka Serendib EN B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(ii,iii);
Warakagoda & Rasmussen, Scops-owl; S: Sri Lanka +2ab(iii) C2a(i)
2004 pandu kanbassa;
T: Ilankai serendib sevi
aanthai.
Bubo nipalensis Hodgson, E:Spot-Bellied Eagle- NT LC
1836 owl; S:Ukusubakamuna,
Ulama; T:Pullivayittru
kaluhu aanthai.
Ketupa zeylonensis (Gmelin, E:Brown Fish-owl; S:Bora LC LC
1788) kevulbakamuna; T: Meen
pidi aanthai.
Strix leptogrammica E:Brown Wood-owl; NT LC
Temminck, 1831 S:Bora Wanabakamuna;
T: Paluppu kaatu aanthai.
Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell, E:Jungle Owlet; S:Wana NT LC
1833) Upabassa; T: Kaatu siru
aanthai.
Glaucidium castanonotum E:Sri Lanka Chestnut- VU B1ab(iii) NT
(Blyth, 1846) backed Owlet;
S:Sri Lanka Pitathambala
Upabassa; T: Ilankai
semmanjal muthuhu siru
aanthai.
Ninox scutulata (Raffles, E:Brown Hawk-owl; LC LC
1822) S:Dumburu Ukusubassa;
T: Vettaikara aanthai.
Family: Podargidae
Batrachostomus moniliger E:Frogmouth; LC LC
Blyth, 1846 S:Madimuhuna;
T: Ceylon thavalai vaayan.
Family:Caprimulgidae
122
Caprimulgus indicus Latham, E:Grey Nightjar; VU B1ab(iii) LC
1790 S: Alu bimbassa;
T: Kaatu pakki.
Caprimulgus atripennis E:Jerdon's Nightjar; LC LC
Jerdon, 1845 S: Digupenda bimbassa;
T: Jerdon pakki.
Caprimulgus asiaticus E:Indian Nightjar; LC LC
Latham, 1790 S: Indu Bimbassa; T: Siru
pakki.
Family: Columbidae
Columba livia Gmelin, 1789 E;Rock Pigeon; S: CR- B2ab(iii) LC
Pareviya; T:Maada Puraa. considering
only wild
population
Columba torringtoniae E:Sri Lanka Wood- VU B1ab(iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);
(Blyth & Kelaart, 1853) Pigeon; S:Sri Lanka Maila C2a(i)
Paraviya (Mailagoya); T:
Ilankai karuppup Puraa.
Stigmatopelia chinensis E:Spotted Dove; LC LC
(Scopoli, 1786) S: Alu-kobeiya;
T: Pulli Puraa.
Streptopelia decaocto E:Eurasian Collared NT LC
(Frivaldszky, 1838) Dove; S: Mala kobeiya; T:
Panjavaran Puraa.
Chalcophaps indica E:Emerald Dove; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S: Neela kobeiya;
T: Pathekai Puraa.
Treron bicinctus (Jerdon, E:Orange-breasted LC LC

1840) Green-pigeon;
S: Layaran batagoya;
T: Orange maarbu Pachai
Puraa.
Treron pompadora (Gmelin, E:Pompadour Green LC LC
1789) PE Pigeon; S: Pitadam
Batagoya; T: Sambal nettri
Pachai Puraa.
Treron phoenicopterus E:Yellow-footed Green- CR B2ab(iii) LC
(Latham, 1790) Pigeon; S: Ranpa
Batagoya; T: Manjal kaal
pachai puraa.
Ducula aenea (Linnaeus, E:Green Imperial-Pigeon; LC LC
1766) S: Nil Mahagoya;
T: Pachai arasa Puraa.
Family: Rallidae
Gallirallus striatus (Linnaeus, E:Slaty-breasted Rail; VU B2ab(iii) LC
1766) S:Layalu Geli-reluwa;
T: Saambal maarbu
sambang koli.
Amaurornis phoenicurus E:White-breasted LC LC
(Pennant, 1769) Waterhen; S: Layasudu
korawakka; T: Ven maarbu
kaanaang koli.
Porzana fusca (Linnaeus, E:Ruddy-breasted Crake; VU B2ab(iii) LC
1766) S: Layarathu vil-keralaiya;
T: Sem maarbu kaanaang
koli.
123
Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin, E:Watercock; S:Korawa; T: NT LC
1789) Thaneer kolli.
Porphyrio porphyrio E:Purple Swamphen; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S:Dam madi-kithala;
T: Neela thodai koli.
Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus, E:Common Moorhen; LC LC
1758) S: Podu galinuwa, Wil
kukkula; T: Thaalai koli.
Fulica atra Linnaeus, 1758 E:Common Coot; LC LC
S: Podu kithala; T: Nama
koli.
Rallina eurizonoides E: Slaty-legged Crake; S: CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
Lafresnaye, 1845* Alupa keraliya 2ab(iii)
Family: Rostratulidae
Rostratula benghalensis E:Greater Painted-Snipe; VU B2ab(iii)
(Linnaeus, 1758) S:Raja ulu-kaswatuwa;
T: Mayil ullaan.
Family: Jacanidae
Hydrophasianus chirurgus E:Pheasant-Tailed Jacana; LC LC
(Scopoli, 1786) S: Savul-diyasana, Pan
kukula;
T: Neela vaal illaik koli.
Family: Burhinidae
Burhinus oedicnemus E:Eurasian Thick-Knee; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S:Golu-kirala;
T: Perungkanni.
Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier, E:Great Thick-Knee; LC LC
1829) S: Gal kirala;
T: Valaimukku
perungkanni.
Family: Recurvirostridae
Himantopus himantopus E: Black-Winged Stilt; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S:Kalupiya ipalpava,
Kalapu-kirala;
T: Nedungkaal ullaan.
Family: Charadriidae
Charadrius dubius Scopoli, E:Little Ringed Plover; VU B2ab(iii) LC
1786 S:Punchi mala oleviya; T:
Sinna pattani uppuk kothi.
Charadrius alexandrinus E:Kentish Plover; S:Kent VU B2ab(iii) LC
Linnaeus, 1758 oleviya; T: Kentish pattani
uppuk kothi.
Vanellus malarbaricus E:Yellow-Wattled Lapwing; LC LC
(Boddaert, 1783) S:Kaha yatimal kirala; T:
Manjal mooku aart kaati.
Vanellus indicus (Boddaert, E:Red-Wattled Lapwing; LC LC
1783) S:Rath yatimal kirala; T:
Sihappu mooku aart kaati.
Family: Glareolidae
Glareola maldivarum Forster, E:Oriental Pranticole; EN B2ab(iii) LC
1795 S: Mala javasariya;
T: Thotkuruvi.
Glareola lactea Temminck, E:Small Pranticole; VU B1ab(iii) LC
1820 S:Ounchi javasariya;
T: Sinna Thotkuruvi.
Cursorius coromandelicus E: Indian Courser; CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
Gmelin, 1789 S: Javalihiniya 2ab(iii)
124
Family: Laridae
Sterna bergii Lichtenstein, E:Great Crested NT LC
1823 Tern; S:Maha konda
muhudulihiniya;
T: Periya kondai aalaa.
Sterna nilotica Brehm,1830* E:Gull-billed Tern; S: CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
Galuthudu muhudulihiniya 2ab(iii)
Sterna caspia Pallas, 1770* E: Caspian Tern; CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
S:kaspiya muhudulihiniya 2ab(iii)
Sterna dougallii Montagu, E: Roseate Tern; S:Arunu CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
1813 muhudulihiniya 2ab(iii)
Sterna hirundo Linnaeus, E: Common Tern; S: Podu CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
1758* muhudulihiniya 2ab(iii)
Sterna albifrons Pallas, 1764* E: Little Tern; S: Punchi VU B2ab(iii) LC
muhudulihiniya
Sterna saundersi Hume, E: Saunder's Tern; S: CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
1877* Sondara muhudulihiniya 2ab(iii)
Sterna anaethetus Scopoli, E: Bridled Tern; S: Katakali CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
Sterna fuscata Linnaeus, E: Sooty Tern; S: Dumbutu CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
Family: Dromadidae
Dromas ardeola Paykull, E: Crab Plover; S: kakulu- CR B1ab(iii)+ LC
1805* oleviya 2ab(iii)
Family: Accipitridae
Aviceda jerdoni (Blyth, 1842) E:Jerdon's Baza; EN B1ab(iii) LC
S: Bora saratakussa, +2ab(iii)
Kurulugoya;
T: Jerdon parunthu.
Pernis ptilorhyncus E:Oriental Honey- NT LC
(Temminck, 1821) Buzzard; S: Silu
bambarakussa, Rajaliya;
T: Then parunthu.
Elanus caeruleus E:Black-Winged Kite; NT LC
(Desfontaines, 1789) S: Kaluuris pathanakussa,
kurulugoya;
T: Karunthol parunthu.
Milvus migrans (Boddaert, E: Black Kite; S: Bora LC
1783) parakussa, Ukussa;
T: Karum parunthu.
Haliastur indus (Boddaert, E:Brahminy Kite; LC LC
1783) S:Bamunu piyakussa,
Ukussa; T: Sem parunthu.
Haliaeetus leucogaster E:White-Bellied Sea- LC LC
(Gmelin, 1788) eagle; S: Kusa alli
muhudukussa; T: Ven
vayitru kadat kaluhu.
Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus E:Grey-Headed NT NT
(Horsfield, 1821) Fish-eagle; S: Aluhis
masukussa, Wewa
rajaliya; T: Siriya
sambalthalai meen
kaluhu.
125
Spilornis cheela (Latham, E:Crested Serpent-eagle; LC LC
1790) S: Silu sarapakussa;
T: Kondai paambu kaluhu.
Accipiter trivirgatus E:Crested Goshawk; VU B1ab(iii) LC
(Temminck, 1824) S:Silu kurulugoya,
kurulugoya; T: Kondai
valooru.
Accipiter badius (Gmelin, E:Shikra; S:Kurulugoya; T: LC LC
1788) Valooru.
Accipiter virgatus (Temminck, E:Besra; S: Besra VU B2ab(iii) LC
1822) kurulugoya; T: Kaatuk
kaluhu.
Ictinaetus malayensis E:Black Eagle; NT LC
(Temminck, 1822) S: Kalukussa, kalu
rajaliya; T: Karung kaluhu.
Hieraaetus kienerii (G.de E:Rufous-bellied Eagle; NT
Sparre, 1835) S:Kusarath rajaliya;
T: Sevvayitru kaluhu.
Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin, E:Changeable Hawk- LC
1788) eagle; S: Perali
kondakussa, Konde
Rajaliya; T: Niram marum
kaluhu.
Spizaetus nipalensis E:Mountain Hawk-eagle; VU B1ab(iii)
Hodgson, 1836 S:Hel kondakussa, Maha
konde Rajaliya; T: Malai
kaluhu.
Family: Falconidae
Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, E:Common Kestrel; EN B2ab(iii) LC
1758 S: Podu ukusugoya;
T: Sivappu valooru.
Falco peregrinus Tunstall, E:Peregrine Falcon, VU B2ab(iii) LC
1771 Shahin Falcon;
S: Para ukusugoya;
T: Periya rasali.
Family: Podicipedidae
Tachybaptus ruficollis (Pallas, E:Little Grebe; S:Punchi LC LC
1764) gembithuruva; T: Sinna
mookulippan.
Family: Anhingidae
Anhinga melanogaster E:Oriental Darter; LC NT
Pennant, 1769 S:Ahikava;
T: Paambu thara.
Family: Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot, E:Little Cormorant; LC LC
1817) S:Punchi diyakava;
T: Siriya neerkaham.
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis E:Indian Cormorant; LC LC
Stephens, 1826 S: Indu diyakava; T:
Naduthoura neerkaaham.
Phalacrocorax carbo E:Great Cormorant; NT LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S: Maha diyakava;
T: Periya neerkaaham.
Family: Ardeidae
126
Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus, E:Little Egret; S:Punchi LC LC
1766) anu-koka, sudu-kokka;
T: Sinna kokku.
Ardea cinerea Linnaeus, 1758 E:Grey Heron; S: Alu LC LC
kokka; T: Sambal kokku.
Ardea purpurea Linnaeus, E:Purple Heron; LC LC
1766 S: Karaval kokka;
T: Senneela kokku.
Casmerodius albus E:Great Egret; S:Sudu- LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) maha kokka; T: Periya
kokku
Mesophoyx intermedia E:Intermediate Egret; LC LC
(Wagler, 1829) S: Sudu medi-kokka;
T: Naduthara kokku.
Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus, E:Cattle Egret; S:Geri- LC LC
1758) kokka, Harak kokka;
T: Unnik kokku.
Ardeola grayii (Sykes, 1832) E:Indian Pond-heron; LC LC
S:Kana kokka;
T: Mudaiyan.
Butorides striata (Linnaeus, E:Striated Heron; S:Pala- LC LC
1758) kokka; T: Siriya pachchai
kokku.
Nycticorax nycticorax E:Black-Crowned Night- NT LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) heron; S:Rekana- kokka;
T: Irak kokku.
Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin, E:Yellow Bittern; S: Kaha NT LC
1789) meti-kokka; T: Manjal
kuruhu.
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus E:Cinnamon Bittern; NT LC
(Gmelin, 1789) S:Kurundu meti-kokka;
T: Seng kuruhu.
Ixobrychus flavicollis (Latham, E:Black Bittern; LC LC
1790) S:Kalu meti-kokka;
T: Karung kuruhu.
Family: Threskiornithidae
Threskiornis melanocephalus E:Black-headed Ibis; LC NT
(Latham, 1790) S:Hisakalu dekettha;
T: Vellai arivaal mookan.
Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus, E:Eurasian Spoonbill; LC LC
1758 S: Hendialava; T: Karandi
vaayan.
Family: Pelecanidae
Pelecanus philippensis E:Spot-billed Pelican; LC NT
Gmelin, 1789 S:Thithhota pasthuduwa;
T: Pullialahu koolikkada.
Family: Ciconiidae
Mycteria leucocephala E:Painted Stork; LC NT
(Pennant, 1769) S:Lathuvakiya;
T: Manjalmooku naarai.
Anastomus oscitans E:Asian Openbill; LC LC
(Boddaert, 1783) S: Vivarathuduwa;
T: Naththai-kuththi-narai
Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert, E:Wooly-Necked Stork; S: NT LC
1783) Padili manava;
T: Venkaluthu naarai.
127
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus E:Black Necked Stork; CR B2ab(iii) NT
(Latham, 1790) S:Ali manava;
T: Karungkaluthu naarai.
Leptoptilos javanicus E:Lesser Adjutant; S:Heen VU B2ab(iii) VU A2cd+3cd+4cd
(Horsfield, 1821) bahuru-manava; T:
Siriyapotha.
Family: Chloropseidae
Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth, E:Jerdon's Leafbird; LC LC
1844) S:Jaradan kolarisiya, Gira-
kurulla;
T: Jerdon pachaichittu.
Chloropsis aurifrons E:Golden Fronted LC LC
(Temminck, 1829) Leafbird; S:Ran nalal
kolarisiya;
T: Pachaichittu.
Family: Laniidae
Lanius schach Linnaeus, E:Long Tailed Shrike; VU B1ab(iii)
1758 S:Dikpenda sabaraiththa;
T: Neela vaal keechaan.
Family: Corvidae
Urocissa ornata (Wagler, E:Sri Lanka Magpie; S:Sri VU B1ab(iii) VU B1ab(ii,iii,iv)
1829) Lanka Kahibella; +2ab(iii)
T: Ilankai neela kuruvi.
Corvus splendens Vieillot, E:House Crow; LC LC
1817 S: Colomba kaputa;
T: Kaakai.
Corvus levaillantii Lesson, E:Jungle Crow; S:Kalu LC LC
1831 kaputa; T: Andang kaakai.
Family: Artamidae
Artamus fuscus Vieillot, 1817 E;Ashy Woodswallow; LC LC
S:Alu vanalihiniya;
T: Sambal kaatu thakai
vilaan.
Family: Oriolidae
Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus, E:Black Hooded Oriole; LC LC
1758) S:Kahakurulla;
T: Karunthalai maangkuyil.
Family: Campephagidae
Coracina macei (Lesson, E:Large Cuckooshrike; S: LC LC
1831) Maha kovulsaratiththa; T:
Periya kuyil keechaan.
Coracina melanoptera E:Black-headed LC LC
(Rüppell, 1839) Cuckooshrike; S:Kaluhis
kovulsaratiththa;
T: Karunthalai kuyil
keechaan.
Pericrocotus cinnamomeus E:Small Minivet; S:Punchi LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1766) miniviththa;
T: Sinna min sittu.
Pericrocotus flammeus E:Scarlet Minivet; LC LC
(Forster, 1781) S:Dilirath miniviththa;
T: Sihappu min sittu.
Hemipus picatus (Sykes, E:Bar Winged Flycatcher LC LC
1832) Shrike; S:Wairapiya
masisaratiththa, Panu
kurulla; T: Karuppu vellai
eepidi keechaan.
128
Tephrodornis pondicerianus E:Common Woodshrike; LC LC
(Gmelin, 1789) PE S: Podu vanasaratiththa;
T: Kaatu keechaan.
Family: Rhipiduridae
Rhipidura aureola Lesson, E:White-browed Fantail; LC LC
1830 S:Bamasudu pavanpenda;
T: Venpuruva visirivaal
eepidippaan.
Family: Dicruridae
Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot, E:Black Drongo; S:Kalu LC LC
1817 kavuda; T: Karung
karichaan.
Dicrurus caerulescens E:White-bellied Drongo; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S:Kavuda;
T: Venvayittru karichaan.
Dicrurus paradiseus E:Greater Racket-tailed NT
(Linnaeus, 1766) Drongo; S:Maha kavuda;
T: Thuduppuval karichaan.
Dicrurus lophorhinus E: Sri Lanka Crested VU B1ab(iii)
Vieillot, 1817 Drongo
Family: Monarchiidae
Hypothymis azurea E:Black-naped Monarch; LC LC
(Boddaert, 1783) S: Kalu gelasi radamara;
T: Karumpidari arasaee
pidipaan.
Terpsiphone paradisi E:Asian Paradise LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) Flycatcher; S: Asia
rahanmara, Redi hora;
T: Arasavaal eepidipaan.
Family: Aegithinidae
Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus, E:Common Iora; S:Podu LC LC
1758) iorava; T: Manjal chittu.
Aegithina nigrolutea E:White-tailed Iora; VU B1ab(iii)
(Marshall, 1876) S:Pendasudu iorava;
T: Venvaal chittu.
Family: Turdidae
Myophonus blighi E:Sri Lanka Whistling EN B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);
(Holdsworth, 1872) Thrush, Arrenga; +2ab(iii) C2a(i)
S: Sri Lanka arangaya;
T: Ilankai seezhkai oli
paadum kuruvi.
Zoothera spiloptera (Blyth, E:Sri Lanka Spot winged VU B1ab(iii) NT
1847) Thrush; S:Sri Lanka
thithpiya thirasikaya, Wal
avichchiya; T: Ilankai
pullichiraku paadum
kuruvi.
Zoothera imbricata E:Sri Lanka Scaly Thrush; EN B2ab(iii) NT
E.L. Layard, 1854 S: Sri Lanka kayuru
thirasikaya;
T: Ilankai ponnira poong
kuruvi.
Turdus merula Linnaeus, E:Eurasian Blackbird; S: EN B1ab(iii)
1758 Kalu bimsariya; +2ab(iii
T: Malaichittaan.
129
Family: Muscicapidae
Eumyias sordidus (Walden, E:Sri Lanka Dull Blue VU B1ab(iii) NT
1870) Flycatcher; S:Sri Lanka
anumasimara; T: Ilankai
neela vettivaat kuruvi.
Cyornis tickelliae Blyth, 1843 E:Tickell's Blue Flycatcher; LC LC
S: Layaran nil-masimara,
Kopi kurulla; T: Tickell
neela ee pidippaan.
Copsychus saularis E:Oriental Magpie Robin; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S: Polkichcha; T: Karuppu
vellai solaippadi.
Copsychus malabaricus E:White Rumped Shama; LC LC
(Scopoli, 1788) S: Vana Polkichcha;
T: Solanippaadi.
Saxicoloides fulicatus E:Indian Robin; LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1766) S: Kalukichcha, Kalu
polkichcha; T: Karunj
chittu.
Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus, E:Pied Bushchat; EN B1ab(iii) LC
1766) S: Gomara sitibichcha; +2ab(iii
T: Karuppu vellai puthar
chittu.
Culicicapa ceylonensis E: Grey- headed canary- LC LC
Swainson, 1820 flycatcher; S: Aluhis kaha-
masimaaraa
Family: Sturnidae
Sturnus albofrontatus E:Sri Lanka White Faced EN B1ab(iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);
(Layard, 1854) Starling; S: Sri Lanka +2ab(iii C2a(i)
vathasudu sarikava;
T: Ilankai soorai kuruvi.
Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus, E:Common Myna; LC LC
1766) S: Myna; T: Naakanavai.
Gracula ptilogenys Blyth, E:Sri Lanka Myna; VU B1ab(iiii) NT
1846 S: Sri Lanka Salalihiniya;
T: Ilankai myna.
Gracula religiosa Linnaeus, E:Hill Myna; LC LC
1758 S: Salalihiniya;
T: Malai naakanavai.
Family: Sittidae
Sitta frontalis Swainson, 1820 E:Velvet Fronted LC LC
Nuthatch; S: Villuda
yatikuriththa; T: Velvet
nettri maram irangi.
Family: Paridae
Pavus major Linnaeus, 1758 E:Great Tit; S: Maha LC
tikiriththa; T: Periya
pattaari kuruvi.
Family: Hirundinidae
Hirundo domicola Jerdon, E:Hill Swallow; S: Kandu VU B1ab(iiii) LC
1844 wehilihiniya; T: Pacific
thakaivilaan.
Hirundo hyperythra Blyth, E:Red rumped swallow; S: LC
1849PE Nithambarath wehilihiniya;
T: Sivanthapitta
thakaivilaan.
130
Family: Pycnonotidae
Pycnonotus melanicterus E:Black-crested Bulbul; S: LC LC
(Gmelin, 1789) PE Kalu isasi kondaya;
T: Karungkondai sinnaan.
Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus, E:Red-vented Bulbul; LC LC
1766) S:Kondaya; T: Sinnaan.
Pycnonotus penicillatus E:Sri Lanka Yellow-eared VU B1ab(iiii) NT
Blyth, 1851 Bulbul; +2ab(iii)
S: Sri Lanka kahakan
kondaya; T: Ilankai manjal
sevikkondai kuruvi.
Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson, E:White Browed Bulbul; LC LC
1841) S:Bamasudu Kondaya; T:
Ven puruva sinnaan.
Iole indica (Jerdon, 1839) E:Yellow Browed Bulbul; LC LC
S: Bamakaha Kondaya; T:
Manjal puruva sinnaan.
Hypsipetes leucocephalus E:Asian Black Bulbul; LC LC
(Gmelin, 1789) S:Kalu piri-kondaya;
T: Karung sinnaan.
Family: Cisticolidae
Cisticola juncidis (Rafinesque, E:Zitting Cisticola; LC LC
1810) S: Iri Pavansariya;
T: Naatu visirivaal kathir
kuruvi.
Prinia hodgsonii Blyth, 1844 E:Gray-breasted Prinia; S: LC LC
Layalu prinia;
T: Frankkin kathir kuruvi.
Prinia sylvatica Jerdon, 1840 E:Jungle Prinia; S: Vana LC LC
prinia, Hambu kurulla;
T: Kaatu kathir kuruvi.
Prinia socialis Sykes, 1832 E:Ashy Prinia; S:Alu LC LC
prinia; T: Sambal kathir
kuruvi.
Prinia inornata Sykes, 1832 E:Plain Prinia; S: Sarala LC
prinia; T: Kathir kuruvi.
Family: Zosteropidae
Zosterops ceylonensis E:Sri Lanka White Eye; NT LC
Holdsworth, 1872 S: Sri Lanka sithasiya, Mal
kurulla; T: Ilankai ven vilik
kuruvi.
Zosterops palpebrosus E:Oriental White Eye; LC LC
(Temminck, 1824) S:Peradigu sithasiya;
T: Vellai kanni.
Family: Sylviidae
Bradypterus palliseri (Blyth, E:Sri Lanka Bush Warbler; EN B1ab(iiii) NT
1851) S: Sri Lanka vanaraviya; +2ab(iii)
T: Ilankai pattrai thinnung
kuruvi.
Acrocephalus stentoreus E:Clamorous Reed NT LC
(Ehrenberg, 1833) Warbler; S: Gos
panraviya; T:Periya nanal
kathir kuruvi.
Orthotomus sutorius E:Common Tailorbird; LC LC
(Pennant, 1769) S: Battichcha; T: Thaiyat
kaara kathir kuruvi.
131
Family: Timaliidae
Garrulax cinereifrons Blyth, E:Sri Lanka Ashy-headed EN B1ab(iiii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);
1851 Laughingthrush; S:Sri +2ab(iii) C2a(i)
Lanka hisalu upa-
demalichcha;
T: Ilankai saambal thalai
punnahaikum paadum
kuruvi.
Pellorneum fuscocapillus E:Sri Lanka Brown LC LC
(Blyth, 1849) Capped Babbler; S:
Sri Lanka Boraga piri-
demalichcha; T: Ilankai
kabilakulla velaikkara
kuruvi.
Pomatorhinus melanurus E:Sri Lanka Scimitar LC LC
Blyth, 1847 Babbler; S: Sri Lanka
de-demalichcha; T: Ilankai
koduvaal velaikkara
kuruvi.
Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin, E:Tawny-bellied Babbler; LC LC
1831) S: Kusakaha landu-
demalichcha;
T: Karunj chirappu vayittru
silamban.
Rhopocichla atriceps (Jerdon, E:Dark Fronted Babbler; LC LC
1839) S: Vathaduru panduru-
demalichcha, Parandel-
kurulla; T: Karunthalai
chilamban.
Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin, E:Yellow Eyed Babbler; LC LC
1789) S:Nethkaha thana-
demalichcha; T: Manjal
kan silamban.
Turdoides rufescens (Blyth, E:Sri Lanka Orange VU B1ab(iiii) NT
1847) Billed Babbler; S:Sri +2ab(iii)
Lanka rathu-demalichcha;
T: Ilankai sev valuhu
velaikkara kuruvi.
Turdoides affinis (Jerdon, E:Yellow Billed Babbler; LC LC
1845) S:Demalichcha;
T: Manjal alahu silamban.
Family: Alaudidae
Mirafra affinis Blyth, 1845 E:Jerdon's Bushlark; LC LC
S:Panduru gomaritta;
T: Jerdan puthar vaanam
paadi.
Eremopterix griseus (Scopoli, E:Ashy Crowned Sparrow LC LC
1786) Lark; S: Kirulalu Bimritta;
T: Sambal thalai vaanam
paadi.
Alauda gulgula Franklin, 1831 E:Oriental Skylark; LC LC
S: Peradigu ahsritta;
T: Vaanam paadi.
Family: Dicaeidae
Dicaeum agile (Tickell, 1833) E:Thick Billed NT LC
Flowerpecker; S:Mathudu
pililichcha; T: Parutha
alahu malar kothi.
132
Dicaeum vincens (Sclater, E:Sri Lanka White VU B1ab(iiii) NT
1872) Throated Flowerpecker; +2ab(iii)
S:Sri Lanka Pililichcha; T:
Ilankai venthondai malar
kothi.
Dicaeum erythrorhynchos E:Pale Billed LC LC
(Latham, 1790) Flowerpecker; S:Lathudu
Pililichcha; T: Dickel malar
kothi.
Family: Nectariniidae
Nectarinia zeylonica E:Purple Rumped LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1766) Sunbird; S:Nithamba dam
sutikka;
T: Oothapitta thenchittu.
Nectarinia asiatica (Latham, E:Purple Sunbird; LC LC
1790) S: Dam sutikka;
T: Ootha thenchittu.
Nectarinia lotenia (Linnaeus, E:Long Billed Sunbird; LC LC
1766) S: Dikthudu Sutikka;
T: Loten thenchittu.
Family: Passeridae
Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, E:House Sparrow; LC
1758) S:Gekurulla;
T: Chittukkuruvi.
Family: Motacillidae
Anthus rufulus Vieillot, 1818 E:Paddyfield Pipit; S:Keth LC LC
waratichcha;
T: Vayal nettaikkaadi.
Family: Ploceidae
Ploceus manyar (Horsfield, E:Streaked Weaver; NT LC
1821) S:Pan Wadukurulla;
T: Karung keetru
thookanaang kuruvi.
Ploceus philippinus E:Baya Weaver; S:Ruk LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1766) Wadukurulla;
T: Thookkanaang kuruvi.
Family: Estrildidae
Lonchura malabarica E:White Throated Munia; VU B2ab(iiii) LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) S:Sarala Weekurulla;
T:Ven thondai sillai.
Lonchura striata (Linnaus, E:White Rumped Munia; LC LC
1766) S:Nithamba sudu
Weekurulla;
T: Ven muthuhu sillai.
Lonchura kelaarti (Jerdon, E:Black Throated Munia; VU LC
1863) S:Gelakalu Weekurulla; T:
Karunthondai sillai.
Lonchura punctulata E:Scaly Breasted LC LC
(Linnaeus, 1758) Munia; S: Laya kayuru
Weekurulla; T:Pulli sillai.
Lonchura malacca (Linnaeus, E:Tricoloured Munia; LC LC
1766) S: Thepaha Weekurulla; T:
Karunthalai sillai.
133
The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Mammals in Sri Lanka
Devaka K. Weerakoon
Introduction
The first systematic account of the mammals of Sri Lanka was done by Kelaart (1852).
Thereafter, Phillips (1935) has written a more extensive review of the mammals of Sri Lanka
which, even though somewhat outdated in terms of information, remains the standard reference
work for the mammals of Sri Lanka even at present. After Phillips, several attempts have been
made to revise the taxonomic status of the country’s mammals. Some of these reviews have
focused specifically on the Sri Lankan situation (Hill, 1939; Eisenberg and Mckay, 1970; Hill,
1980; Mckay 1984) while others treated the country’s mammals in a regional context (Ellerman
and Morrison-Scott 1966; Corbet and Hill, 1992). In addition, there are a number of reviews
that have focused on specific taxonomic groups (Moore, 1960; Ellerman, 1961; Musser, 1981;
Bates & Harrison, 1997; Marshall, 1977; Sirinivasulu and Pradhan, 2003; Chakraborty et al.,
2004; Sirinivasulu and Jordan, 2004; Sirinivasulu and Sirinivasulu, 2004; Sirinivasulu et al.,
2004a and Sirinivasulu et al., 2004b).
Taxonomy
A total of 144 species and subspecies of mammals were described from Sri Lanka from 1758
to1965. Of these, 24 are currently considered as valid species. According to literature, there
are 95 species of indigenous mammals in Sri Lanka, of which 21 species are endemic to
the island. Another 12 species have been introduced to Sri Lanka by humans, of which four
species, namely Bubalis bubalis, Equus caballus, Equus asinus and Rattus norvegicus, have
well established feral populations.
The endemic status of the Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew, Feroculus feroculus had to be revised
as it has been reported from equivalent bioclimatic zones in Kerala & Tamil Nadu provinces
of India (Pradhan et al., 1997). At the same time recent revisions of the South Asian murids
(Sirinivasulu and Pradhan, 2003; Dissanayake, 2012) and primates (Walker and Molur, 2004)
have indicated that Funambulus layardi, Funambulus obscurus and Loris tardigradus are
endemic to Sri Lanka. Further, revision of the genus Moschiola (Groves & Meijaard, 2005)
and the species Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Groves et al., 2009) resulted in splitting of the two
previously known species into five endemic species, Moschiola meminna, Moschiola kathygre,
Paradoxurus aureus, Paradoxurus stenocephalus and Paradoxurus montanus. Finally, another
species of shrew, Crocidura hikmiya, has been added to the list of endemic species of Sri
Lanka (Meegaskumbura et al., 2007), bringing the total number of endemic species to 21.
Most revisions of Sri Lankan mammals have been based mainly on museum collections rather
than detailed field studies. The work of Phillips therefore remains the only truly reliable source
even today, even though advances in systematics during recent years have made some of
his nomenclature obsolete and, as noted above, the endemic status of several species of
mammals have changed. Other aspects that need to be resolved are the subspecific status
of some Sri Lankan mammals and the status of two species of small mammals described by
Deraniyagala (1958 and 1964), Podihik kura and Gatamiya weragami.
134
Several Sri Lankan mammals are represented by sub species whose status have not been
clearly established. Therefore, these sub species were not considered during the present
conservation assessment. However, some of the sub species are quite rare in Sri Lanka
eg. Loris tardigradus nycticeboides, Macaca sinica opisthomeles, Semnopithecus vetulus
monticola even though the species itself is found in abundance. Therefore, if these sub species
are to be conserved as genetically stable units in the future, the correct sub species status has
to be clearly resolved. Both Gatamiya weragami and Podihik kura are not currently considered
in the list of Sri Lankan mammals. Corbett and Hill (1992) consider that the former is probably a
synonym of Mus booduga, while the description of the latter was based on a juvenile specimen
of Suncus murinus. However, Deraniyagala placed P. kura in the subfamily Soricinae, which
possess reddish incisor enamel, while the subfamily Crocidurinae, to which Suncus belongs,
has white enamel. The status of Podihik, at least, needs to be re-examined.
All these taxonomic issues point to the need to carry out a systematic review of the taxonomy
of Sri Lankan mammals based on detailed field collections as well as existing museum
specimens.
Distribution
Eisenberg and McKay (1970) proposed a system for classifying the habitats of mammals in
Sri Lanka based on the climate map of Muller-Dombois and Sirisena (1967); they recognized
seven mammalian zones, namely monsoon scrub jungle in the northwest (A1) and southeast
(A2), monsoon forest and grassland (B), inter monsoon forest (C), rain forests and grasslands
below 3000 feet (D1), between 3000-5000 feet (D2) and above 5000 feet (D3). Out of these,
most of the endemic and threatened mammals of Sri Lanka are restricted to the zones D1,
D2 and D3. However, these three zones remain poorly explored, especially zones D2 and D3.
As recent studies have lead to the description of at least 5 new endemic species during the
last five years alone from these three zones, a detailed survey of the mammals in these three
zones is a timely need.
Research gaps related to the taxonomy of mammals of Sri Lanka
Most of the research on mammals of Sri Lanka has been biased towards the large charismatic
animals with little emphasis on the small mammals. Many of the small mammals have not
been recorded in recent times and their present status remains unknown. Furthermore, many
areas of Sri Lanka, such as the north, northwest, isolated hills in the dry zone and the montane
regions (especially, the Knuckles Range and Sinharaja), have not been properly surveyed and
may harbour species that are not recorded to date. It is extremely important, therefore, for Sri
Lanka to establish a systematic survey program for the country’s mammals (for both terrestrial
and marine), with a special emphasis on small mammals, under the auspices of the national
museum or any other relevant government agency. Such a survey would bring a wealth of
information on the mammalian fauna of Sri Lanka as well as provide the basis to resolve many
of the taxonomic issues we face today.
135
Conservation issues pertaining to mammals of Sri Lanka
Even though many, perhaps most, of the mammals show a wide distribution within Sri Lanka, a
majority of the endemic and threatened mammals are confined to the wet zone and especially,
the montane zone where habitat loss and degradation are taking place at a rapid rate.
Furthermore, fragmentation of habitats also has a detrimental effect on mammal populations,
especially small mammals who have low mobility. Expansion of human settlements into
forested areas has resulted in an influx of pest species (house rat and brown rat) and domestic
predators (cat and dog) into the remaining natural habitats. These compete with indigenous
species as well as increase the predator pressure on already stressed natural populations.
A number of small predators, such as the fishing cat and the mongoose, live in small urban
forests and marshes which are at risk of being converted to human use, endangering these
small urban populations. Increased mortality due to hunting and conflict also remains a major
concern, especially for the large charismatic species.
References:
Bates, P. J. J. & Harrison, D. L., (1997). Bats of the Indian sub-continent. London: Harrison Zoological Museum.
Chakraborty, S., Sirinivasalu, C., Sirinivasalu, B., Pradhan, M. S. & Nameer, P. O., (2004). Checklist of insectivores
(Mammalia: Insectivora) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1361-1371.
Corbet, G. B. & Hill, J. E., (1992). Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1958). Ceylon Administration Reports for 1957 (Part IV) Education E3-E23 Part 1.
Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1964). Some aspects of the Fauna of Ceylon. Journal Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society, 9(1), pp.165-220
Dissanayake, R. & Tatsuo, O., (2012). The systematics of the dusky striped squirrel Funambulus sublineatus
(Waterhouse, 1838) (Rodentia: Sciuridae) and its relationship to Layard’s Squirrel Funambulus layardi Blyth
1849. J. Nat. Hist., 46(1-2), pp.91-116
Eisenberg, J. F. & Mckay, G. M., (1970). An annotated checklist of the recent mammals of Ceylon with keys to
species. Ceylon Journal of Science, 8(2), pp.69-99.
Ellerman, J. R., (1961). The fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon: Mammalia, Rodentia. Volume 3.
2nd Edition. Culcutta: Zoological Survey of India.
Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S., (1966). Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals. 2nd Edition.
London: British museum of Natural History.
Groves, C. P. & Meijaard, E., (2005). Interspecific variation in Moschiola, the Indian chevrotain. Raffles Bulletin of
Zoology, 12, pp.413-421.
Groves, C. P. & Rajapaksha, C. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (2009). The taxonomy of the endemic golden palm
civet of Sri Lanka. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 155, pp.238–251.
Hill, J. E., (1980). The mammals of Sri Lanka. Spolia Zeylanica, 35, pp.203-211.
Hill, W. C. O., (1939). A revised checklist of the mammals of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science, 21(2), pp.139-184.
Kelaart, E. F., (1852). Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae: Being contributions to the Zoology of Ceylon. Colombo:
Printed for the Author.
Marshall, J. T. Jr., (1977). A synopsis of Asian species of Mus (Rodentia: Muridae). Bulletin of the American Museum
of Natural History, 158, pp.173-220.
Mckay, G. M., (1984). Ecology and biogeography of mammals. In: C.H. Fernando. ed. 1984. Biogeography and
Ecology of Sri Lanka. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, pp.413-429.
Meegaskumbura, S., Meegaskumbura, M., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Schneider, C. J., (2007).
Crocidura hikmiya, a new shrew (Mammalia: Soricomorpha: Soricidae) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 1665, pp.19–
30
Moore, J. C., (1960). Squirrel geography of the Indian subregion. Systematic Zoology, 9(1), pp.1-17.
Muller-Dombois, D. & Sirisena, V. A., (1967). Climate map of Ceylon. Colombo: Ceylon Survey Department, Ceylon.
Musser, G. G., (1981). Results of the Archbold expeditions number 105. Notes on sytematics of Indo-malayan murid
rodents, and descriptions of new genera and species from Ceylon, Sulawesi, and the Philippines. Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History, 168, pp.225-234.
136
Phillips, W. W. A., (1935). Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon- Ceylon Journal of Science. London: Dulau & Company.
Pradhan, M. S., Sharma, R. M. & Shanker, K., (1997). First record of Kelaart’s Long-clawed Shrew Feroculus
feroculus (Kelaart) from peninsular India. Mammalia, 61(3), pp.448-450.
Shanker, K. & Sukumar, R., (1998). Community structure and demography of small-mammal populations in insular
montane forests in southern India. Oecologia, 116, pp.243-251.
Sirinivasalu, C. & Pradhan, M. S., (2003). Checklist of murids (Mammalia: Rodentia: Muridae) of South Asia. Zoos
Print Journal, 18(12), pp.1286-1310.
Sirinivasalu, C. & Jordan, M. J. R., (2004). Checklist of dipodids, myoxids, and hystricids (Mammalia: Rodentia:
Dipodidae, Myoxidae, and Hystricidae) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1346-1350.
Sirinivasalu, C. & Sirinivasalu, B., (2004). Checklist of scandents and pholidots (Mammalia: Scandentia and
Pholidota) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1372-1374.
Sirinivasalu, C., Chakraborty, S. & Pradhan, M. S., (2004a). Checklist of sciurids (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae)
of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1351-1360.
Sirinivasalu, C., Sirinivasalu, B., Chakraborty, S., Pradhan, M. S. & Nameer, P. O., (2004b). Checklist of lagomorphs
(Mammalia: Lagomorpha) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1375-1380.
Walker, S. & Molur, S., (2003). Summary of the status of the South Asian primates - Extracted from the Status of
South Asian Primates: Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (C.A.M.P.) Work shop report 2003.
Coimbatore, India: Zoo Outreach Organisation and CBSG-South Asia and WILD.
Notes on the Marine Mammals of Sri Lanka
The maritime zone of Sri Lanka is inhabited by 30 species of marine mammals. Even though it has been
known that marine mammals inhabited the ocean around Sri Lanka as far back as the 14th century
based on the writings of the travelers, the scientific study of the marine mammals has only begun in the
1980’s. Therefore, what is known about the diversity, ecology and conservation of marine mammals is
based on information gathered by research carried out during the last three decades. The 30 species
of marine mammals recorded in Sri Lankan waters are classified under two orders, Cetartiodactyla
(includes 29 species of whales, dolphins and porpoises in five families) and Sirenia (includes 1 species
of Dugong).
As indicated above, the research studies on Marine Mammals in Sri Lanka has only started during
the last three decades. Even these are mostly short-term studies due to funding restrictions, logistical
restrictions in studying large ranging oceanic animals and lack of access to certain parts of the ocean
due to security reasons. However, in order to reach a clear understanding of large ranging mammals
such as whales and dolphins long term studies are necessary. Due to the lack of information, the national
status of marine mammals has not been assessed and only their global status is listed in this paper.
The biggest threat to the marine mammals inhabiting the oceans around Sri Lanka is posed by the
fisheries industry. Large numbers of Dolphins and Dugongs are killed each year both directly and
indirectly (by-catch) by fisherman. In addition, increased shipping traffic, marine pollution by both land
based and marine based sources, habitat destruction, especially shallow near shore habitats such as
sea grass beds are the other major threats faced by marine mammals. Even though Sri Lanka’s maritime
zone is nearly eight times larger than its land area, there is a major discrepancy in the allocation of areas
for conservation as evidenced by the fact that there are only four Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka
as opposed to more than 100 protected areas declared on land under the management of Department
of Wildlife Conservation and Forest Department. These four protected areas are primarily aimed at
conserving coral reefs and are poorly enforced at present.
During the past decade Sri Lanka has gained a reputation as an ideal site for whale and dolphin watching,
both among local and foreign tourists. However, at present there are no regulations in place to control
or monitor the whale watching industry and as such it may pose a major threat to the marine mammals,
especially the larger whales. Lessons learned from other countries indicate that poorly regulated whale
watching can have adverse impacts on the marine mammal populations. As Sri Lanka plans to expand
its tourist industry in the coming years, marine mammals can prove an important economic resource as
it can be marketed as a major tourism experience. Therefore, it is critically important that Sri Lanka pays
more attention towards protecting its marine mammals.
137
Table 12: List of Mammals in Sri Lanka

Family : Manidae
E: Pangolin;
Manis crassicaudata Gray, 1827 S: Kaballewa NT NT
Family : Soricidae
E: Horsfield’s
shrew;
Crocidura horsfieldi (Tomes, 1856) S: Kunuhik-miya CR B2ab(iii) DD
E: Sri Lanka
long-tailed shrew;
S: Sri Lanka
Crocidura miya Phillips, 1929 Kunuhik-miya CR B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
Crocidura hikmiya Meegaskumbura,
Meegaskumbura, Pethiyagoda,
Manamendra-arachchi & Schneider,
2007 CR B2ab(iii)
E: Kelaart’s long-
clawed shrew; B1ab(iii)+
Feroculus feroculus (Kelaart, 1850) S: Pirihik-miya EN 2ab(iii) EN B1+2ab(ii,iii)
E: Sri Lanka
Pearson’s long-
clawed shrew;
S: Sri Lanka
Solisorex pearsoni Thomas, 1924 Mahik-miya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
E: Pigmy shrew;
Suncus etruscus (Savi, 1822) S: Podi Hik-miya EN B1ab(iii) LC
E: Sri Lanka
pigmy shrew;
S: Sri Lanka Podi B1ab(iii)+
Suncus fellowes-gordoni Phillips,1932 Hik-miya EN 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
E:Sri Lanka
Highland shrew;
S:Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
Suncus montanus (Kelaart, 1850) Kandu Hik-miya EN 2ab(iii) VU B2ab(ii,iii)
E: Common musk
shrew; S: Podhu
Suncus murinus (Linnaeus, 1766) Hik-miya LC LC
E: Sri Lanka
jungle shrew;
S: Sri Lanka Kele
Suncus zeylanicus Phillips, 1928 Hik-miya DD EN B2ab(iii)
Family : Emballonuridae
E: Long-armed
sheath-tailed
bat; S: Dikba B1ab(iii)+
Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825 Kepulum- vavula EN 2ab(iii) LC
E: Black-bearded
sheath-tailed
Taphozous melanopogon Temminck, bat; S: Ravulkalu
1841 Kepulum- vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Pouch-bearing
sheath-tailed
Saccolaimus saccolaimus Temminck, bat; S: Maha
1838 Kepulum- vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC
138
Family : Hipposideridae
E: Bicolored
leaf-nosed
bat; S: Depata
Hipposideros ater Temleton, 1848 Pathnehe-vavula LC LC
E: Fulvous-
leaf nosed bat;
S: Malekaha B1ab(iii)+
Hipposideros fulvus Gray, 1838 Pathnehe-vavula EN 2ab(iii) LC
E: Dekhan
leaf-nosed bat;
S: Kesdiga
Hipposideros galeritus Cantor, 1846 Pathnehe-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Great leaf-
nosed bat;
S: Maha
Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850 Pathnehe-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Schneider’s
leaf-nosed
bat; S: Kesketi
Hipposideros speoris (Schneider, 1800) Pathnehe-vavula LC LC
Family : Megadermatidae
E: Greater False
Vampire bat;
S: Boru Ley-
Megaderma lyra Geoffroy, 1810 vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Lesser False
Vampire bat;
S: Kandiga Boru
Megaderma spasma (Linnaeus, 1758) Ley-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
Family : Molossidae
E: Continental
wrinkled-lip bat;
S: Mahadive
Tadarida aegyptiaca (Geoffroy, 1818) Rallithol-vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC
E: Common
wrinkled-lip
bat; S: Podhu
Chaerephon plicatus (Buchnnan, 1800) Rallithol-vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC
Family : Pteropodidae
E: Lesser dog-
nosed fruit bat;
S: Heen Thala- B1ab(iii)+
Cynopterus brachyotis (Muller, 1838) vavula EN 2ab(iii) LC
E: Short-nosed
fruit bat; S: Thala-
Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl, 1797) vavula LC LC
E: Flying fox;
Pteropus giganteus (Brunnich, 1782) S: Ma-vavula LC LC
E: Fulvous fruit
bat;
Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest, S: Rath dumburu
1820) pala vavula LC LC
Family : Rhinolophidae
E: Great horse-
shoe bat;
S: Maha
Rhinolophus beddomei Anderson, 1905 Ashladan-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
139
E: Rufous horse-
shoe bat;
S: Borath
Rhinolophus rouxii Temminck, 1835 Ashladan-vavula LC LC
Family : Vespertillionidae
E: Tickle’s bat;
Hesperoptenus tickelli (Blyth, 1851) S: Awara-vavula DD LC
E: Malpas’s bat;
S: Rathbora B1ab(iii)+
Kerivoula hardwickii (Horsefield, 1824) Kehel-vavula CR 2ab(iii)
E: Painted bat;
S: Visithuru
Kerivoula picta (Pallas, 1767) Kehel-vavula NT LC
E: Long-winged
bat; S: Dickpiya-
Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1819) vavula EN B2ab(iii)
E: Brown bat;
Myotis hasseltii (Temminck, 1840) S: Bora-vavula NT LC
E: Tube-nosed
bat; S: Nalanehe-
Murina cyclotis Dobson, 1872 vavula NT LC
E: Chocolate bat;
S: Bora koseta-
Falsistrellus affinis (Dobson, 1871) vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC
E: Kelaart’s
pipistrel;
S: Rathbora
Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Kelaart, 1852) koseta-vavula EN B2ab(iii) LC
E: Indian pipistrel;
S: Indu koseta-
Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838) vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Pigmy pipistrel;
S: Heen koseta-
Pipistrellus tenuis (Temminck, 1840) vavula LC LC
E: Great yellow
bat; S: Maha
Scotophilus heathii Horsefield, 1831 kaha-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Lesser yellow
bat; S: Heen
Scotophilus kuhlii Leach, 1821 kaha-vavula DD LC
Family : Cercopithecidae
E: Sri Lanka
toque monkey;
S: Sri Lanka
Macaca sinica (Linnaeus, 1771) Rilawa LC EN A2cd
E: Grey langur;
Semnopithecus priam Blyth, 1844 S: Eli-wandura LC NT
E:Sri Lanka
Purple-faced
langur; S: Sri
Semnopithecus vetulus (Erxleben, Lanka kalu-
1777) wandura EN B2ab(iii) EN A2cd+3cd+4cd
Family : Lorisidae
E: Grey slender
loris; S: Alu
Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908 Unahapuluwa NT LC
140
E: Sri Lanka red
slender loris;
S: Sri Lanka Rath
Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus, 1758) Unahapuluwa VU B1ab(iii) EN C2a(i)
Family : Canidae
E: Jackal;
Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758 S: Nariya / Hiwala LC LC
Family : Felidae
E: Jungle cat;
Felis chaus Gueldenstaedt, 1776 S: Wal Balala NT LC
E: Leopard;
Panthera pardus (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Kotiya/ Diviya EN B2ab(iii) NT
E: Rusty-spotted
cat; S: Kola
Prionailurus rubiginosus (Geoffroy, Diviya / Balal
1831) Diviya EN B2ab(iii) VU C2a(i)
E: Fishing cat;
Prionailurus viverrinus (Bennett, 1833) S: Handun Diviya EN B2ab(iii) EN A2cd+4cd
Family : Herpestidae
E: Brown
mongoose;
Herpestes brachyurus Gray, 1837 S: Bora Mugatiya LC
E: Grey
mongoose;
Herpestes edwardsii (Geoffroy, 1818) S: Alu Mugatiya LC LC
E: Black-tipped
or Ruddy
mongoose;
S: Rath Mugatiya
Herpestes smithii Gray, 1837 / Hothambuwa LC LC
E: Stripe-necked
or badger
mongoose;
S: Maha
Mugatiya / Gal
Herpestes vitticollis Bennett, 1835 Mugatiya VU B1ab(iii) LC
Family : Mustelidae
E: Otter; S: Diya-
Lutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758) balla VU B1ab(iii) NT
Family : Ursidae
Melursus ursinus (Show & Nodder, E: Sloth bear;
1791) S: Walaha EN B2ab(iii) VU A2cd+4cd;C1
Family : Viverridae
Paradoxurus hermaphoditus (Pallas, E: Palm cat;
1777) S: Uguduwa LC LC
Paradoxurus aureus Cuvier, 1822 E: Golden Palm
Civet EN B2ab(iii)
Paradoxurus stenocephalus Groves,
Rajapaksha & Manamendra-Arachchi, E: Golden Dry- B1ab(iii)+
2009 zone Palm Civet CR 2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lankan
Paradoxurus montanus Kelaart, 1852 Brown Palm Civet EN B2ab(iii)
E: Ring-tailed
Viverricula indica (Desmarest, 1817) civet; S: Urulewa LC LC
141
Family : Elephantidae
E: Elephant;
Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 S: Etha / Aliya EN B2ab(iii) EN A2c
Family : Bovidae
E: Wild buffalo;
S: Kulu Haraka / A2cde+
Bubalus arnee (Kerr, 1792) Wal Meema VU B2ab(iii) EN 3cde+4cde; C1
Family : Cervidae
E: Spotted deer;
Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) S: Tith Muwa LC LC
E: Hog deer;
S: Vil Muwa / B1ab(iii)+
Axis porcinus (Zimmermann, 1777) Gona Muwa CR 2ab(iii)
E: Sambur;
Rusa unicolor Kerr, 1792 S: Gona NT VU A2cd+3cd+4cd
E: Barking deer;
S: Olu Muwa /
Muntiacus muntjak (Zimmermann, 1780) Weli Muwa NT
Family : Suidae
E: Wild boar;
Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 S: Wal Ura LC LC
Family : Tragulidae
E: Sri Lanka
mouse-deer;
S: Sri Lanka
Moschiola meminna Erexleben, 1777 Meminna LC LC
E: Sri Lanka
pigmy mouse-
Moschiola kathygre Groves & deer; S: Sri Lanka
Meijaard, 2004 Kuru Meminna VU B1ab(iii) LC
Family : Hystricidae
E: Porcupine;
Hystrix indica (Kerr, 1792) S: Ittewa LC LC
Family : Muridae
E: Mole rat;
Bandicota bengalensis (Gray 1835) S: Heen Uru-miya LC LC
E: Malabar
bandicoot;
Bandicota indica (Bechstein, 1800) S: Uru-miya LC LC
E: White-tailed
rat;
S: Waligasudu-
Madromys blanfordi (Thomas, 1881) miya EN B2ab(iii) LC
E: Bush rat; B1ab(iii)+
Golunda ellioti Gray, 1837 S: Panduru-miya EN 2ab(iii) LC
E: Soft-furred
field rat;
S: Kesmudu
Millardia meltada (Gray, 1837) Keth-miya EN B2ab(iii) LC
E: Field mouse;
S: Wel Heen-
Mus booduga (Gray, 1837) miya LC LC
142
E: Sri Lanka
spiny mouse;
S: Sri Lanka katu B1ab(iii)+
Mus fernandoni (Phillips, 1932) Heen-miya EN 2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii)
E: Sri Lanka
spiny rat; S: Sri
Lanka Depahe
Mus mayori (Thomas, 1915) Katu Heen-miya EN B2ab(iii) VU B2ab(iii)
E: Indian house
mouse;
S: Ge Heen-miya/
Mus musculus Linnaeus, 1758 Koseta-miya LC
E: Nelu rat; S: Sri
Rattus montanus Phillips, 1932 Lanka Nelu Miya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
E: Common rat;
Rattus rattus (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Podu Ge Miya LC
Rattus tanezumi Temminck, 1844 NT
E: Sri Lanka
bicolored rat;
S: Sri Lanka B1ab(iii)+
Srilankamys ohiensis (Phillips, 1929) Depehe-miya EN 2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
E: Sri lanka long-
tailed tree mouse;
S: Sri Lanka Gas-
Vandeleuria nolthenii Phillips, 1929 miya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)
E: Long-tailed
tree mouse;
Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett, 1832) S: Gas-miya VU B1ab(iii) LC
E: Antelope rat;
Tatera indica (Hardwicke, 1807) S: Weli-miya LC LC
Family : Pteromyidae
E: Giant flying
squirrel; B1ab(iii)+
Petaurista philippensis (Elliot, 1839) S: Ma-hambawa EN 2ab(iii) LC
E: Small flying
squirrel; S: Heen- B1ab(iii)+
Petinomys fuscocapillus (Jerdon, 1847) hambawa EN 2ab(iii) NT
Family : Sciuridae
E: Sri Lanka
flame-striped
jungle squirrel;
S: Sri Lanka A3c+4c;
Funambulus layardi (Blyth, 1849) Mukalan Leena VU B1ab(iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Palm squirrel;
Funambulus palmarum (Linnaeus, 1766) S: Leena LC LC
E: Dusky-striped
Funambulus obscurus (Pelzein & jungle squirrel;
Kohl, 1886) S:Punchi Leena VU B1an(iii) VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Giant squirrel;
Ratufa macroura (Pennant, 1769) S: Dandu-leena LC NT
Family : Leporidae
E: Black-naped
hare;
Lepus nigricollis Cuvier, 1823 S: Wal Hawa LC LC
143
Scientific Name Common Name GCS Criteria
Family: Balaenopteridae
E: Mink Whale;
Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede, 1804 S: Minki thalmasa LC
Balaenoptera borealis Lesson, 1828 E: Sei Whale; S: Sei thalmasa EN A1ad
Balaenoptera edeni Anderson, 1879 E: Bride's whale; S: Bridege thalmasa DD
Balaenoptera musculus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Blue whale; S: Nil thalmasa EN A1abd
Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Fin Whale; S: Waral thalmasa EN A1d
E: Hump-backed Whale;
Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781) S: Molli thalmasa LC
Family: Physeteridae
Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Sperm Whale; S: Manda thalmasa VU A1d
Family: Kogiidae
E: Pygmy Sperm Whale;
Kogia breviceps (Balaninville, 1838) S: Kurumanda thalmasa DD
E: Dwarf Sperm Whale;
Kogia sima (Owen, 1866) S: Mitimanda thalmasa DD
Family: Ziphiidae
E: Longman’s Beaked Whale;
Indopacetus pacificus Longman, 1926 S: Longmange hota ul thalmasa DD
E: Blainville's beaked Whale;
Mesoplodon densirostris Blainville, 1817 S: Blanvilge hota ul thalmasa DD
Mesoplodon hotaula Nishiwaki & Kamiya, E: Ginko-toothed Beaked Whale;
1958 S: Japan hota ul thalmasa DD
E: Cuvier's beak Whale;
Zpihius cavirostris Cuvier, 1823 S: Cuvierge hota ul thalmasa LC
Family: Delphinidae
Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758 E: Common Dolphin; S: Podu mulla LC
E: Pygmy Killer Whale;
Feresa attenuata Gray, 1875 S: Kuru minimaru thalmasa DD
E: Short-finned Pilot Whale; S: Keti waral
Globicephala macrorhyncus Gray, 1846 niyamu thalmasa DD
E: Rissos Dolphin/ Grey Dolphin;
Grampus griseus (Cuvier, 1812) S: Malina mulla LC
Lagenodelphis hosei Fraser, 1957 E: Fraser's Dolphin; S: Keti hota mulla LC
Orcinus orca (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Killer whale; S: Minimaru thalmasa DD
E: Melon headed Whale;
Peponocephala electra (Gray, 1846) S: Puhu lolu mulla LC
E: False Killer Whale;
Pseudorca crassidens (Owen, 1846) S: Wyaja minimaru thalmasa DD
E: Indo-pacific hump-back Dolphin; S:
Sousa chinensis (Osbeck, 1765) Kabara mulla NT
Stenella attenuata (Gray, 1846) E: Spotted Dolphin; S: Thith mulla LC
Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen, 1833) E: Striped Dolphin; S: Wyiram mulla LC
Stenella longirostris (Gray, 1828) E: Spinner Dolphin; S: Sannali mulla DD
E: Rough-toothed Dolphin;
Steno bredanensis (Lesson, 1828) S: Ralu dath mulla LC
E: Bottle nosed Dolphin;
Tursiops truncatus (Monotagu, 1821) S: Digasumbu mulla LC
E: Indo-pacific Bottlenosed Dolphin; S: Indu
Tursiops aduncus (Ehrenberg, 1833) digasumbu mulla DD
Family: Phocoenidae
Neophocaena phocaenoides (Cuvier, 1829) E: Finless Porpoise; S: Awaral mulla VU A2cde
Family: Dugongidae
Dugong dugong (Muller, 1776) E: Dugong; S: Muhudu Ura VU A2bcd
144
Analysis of Faunal Groups
Devaka Weerakoon
Altogether 748 inland indigenous vertebrate species were assessed. However, the 30 marine
mammals were excluded from the analysis due to insufficient data. For them only the global listing
is provided. Out of these 345 (46%) species were evaluated to be Nationally Threatened (Table 1).
Among the threatened vertebrate species, 233 (68%) are endemic to Sri Lanka. Nineteen species
of endemic amphibians have not been recorded in Sri Lanka during the past 100 years, and these
were considered as Extinct. Further, two species of fish, one species of amphibian and 1 species
of reptile were listed as possibly extinct as there are no recent records for this species. Of the
surviving inland vertebrates, 122 species are Critically Endangered: i.e., one in every 6 species of
inland indigenous vertebrates of Sri Lanka is currently facing a high risk of extinction (CR) in the
wild. Among the total endemic vertebrate species, 92 (29%) are Critically Endangered, 98 (31%)
are Endangered and 39 (12%) are Vulnerable. Among the vertebrate fauna, the highest number
of threatened species was recorded among reptiles (107 or 31%), followed by amphibians, birds,
mammals and freshwater fish. One in every two species of freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles
and mammals and one in every five species of birds in the island are currently facing the risk of
becoming extinct in the wild.
Among the selected groups of inland invertebrate fauna evaluated, the highest number of threatened
species was recorded among the Land snails (179), followed by bees, butterflies, spiders,
dragonflies, ants and freshwater crabs (Table1). However, within a single group of invertebrates
evaluated, the highest proportion of threatened species was recorded among the freshwater crabs
(90% of the total crab species recorded to date), where one in every two species in Sri Lanka is
currently facing an immediate and extremely high risk of extinction (CR) in the wild.
Of the vertebrate species evaluated, five freshwater fish, three amphibians, 15 reptiles, 35 birds
and seven mammals were assessed as Near Threatened (NT). Similarly, among the evaluated
invertebrate species, eight spiders, five freshwater crabs, 17 dragonflies, 12 bees, 21 butterflies
and 12 land snails were evaluated as Near Threatened.
Among the inland vertebrate species evaluated, nine freshwater fish, one amphibian, 27 reptiles
and six mammals were included in the Data Deficient category. Among the invertebrate species
assessed, 394 spiders, 11 dragonflies, 109 ants, 06 butterflies and 36 land snails had to be
included in the Data Deficient category, because they lacked sufficient distribution data within
Sri Lanka. The number of species listed in the data deficient category is extremely high among the
spiders and ants as very little information exists about members of these two groups. However, they
were included in the assessment to encourage further study of these two economically important
taxonomic groups.
145
Table 1. Conservation status of the assessed vertebrates and invertebrates of Sri Lanka
(Endemics are shown in brackets)
Total Total
Taxonomic Group EX CR (PE) CR EN VU NT DD LC
Species Threatened
Spiders 41 (14) 21 (10) 8 (2) 394 (231) 37 501(257) 62(24)

Freshwater crabs 34 (34) 12 (11) 5 (5) 51(50) 46(45)
Dragonflies 26 (22) 18 (14) 17 (4) 17 (1) 11 (5) 29 (1) 118 (47) 61(40)
Ants 25 (5) 18 (3) 16 109 (25) 26 194 (33) 59(8)
Bees 48 38 20 12 12 130 106
Butterflies 21 (5) 38 (10) 40 (7) 21 6(1) 119 (3) 245 (26) 99 (22)
Land Snails
(Excluding 21 not 80 (70) 76 (72) 23 (20) 12 (10) 36 (32) 5 (1) 253 (205) 179 (162)
evaluated)
Freshwater fish 2 (2) 19 (16) 19 (17) 5 (4) 5 (3) 9 (5) 32 (3) 91 (50) 45 (39)
Amphibians 19 (19) 1 (1) 34 (34) 28 (27) 10 (9) 3 (3) 1 15 (2) 111(95) 73 (71)
Reptiles (Including
1 (1) 38 (36) 50 (39) 18 (11) 15 (7) 27 (15) 62 (15) 211 (124) 107 (87)
marine reptiles)
Birds 18 18 (7) 31 (11) 35 (3) 138 (6) 240 (27) 67 (18)
Mammals
(Excluding
13 (6) 25 (8) 15 (4) 7 (0) 6 (1) 29 (2) 95 (21) 53 (18)
the 30 marine
mammals)
An analysis of the geographical distribution of threatened vertebrate fauna in the different

administrative districts in the island (Table 2) revealed that districts in the lowland wet zone
(ie., Ratnapura, Galle, Matara, Kalutara, Kegalle) and the central highlands (Kandy, Nuwara-Eliya,
Matale, Badulla) harbour a higher number of threatened taxa. According to information compiled
during this study, the highest number of threatened vertebrate fauna occur in the Ratnapura
District. The analyses also show clearly that districts in the Northern Province (Jaffna, Kilinochchi,
Mullaitivu, Vavuniya) and the Eastern Province (Ampara, Batticaloa and Trincomalee) lack sufficient
distribution data, compared to other areas of the island.
146
Table 2. The geographic distribution of threatened vertebrates in Sri Lanka
Freshwater Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

District Total
CR EN VU CR EN VU CR EN VU CR EN VU CR EN VU
Ampara 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (2) 7 (3) 1 (0) 2 (0) 11 (1) 3 (1) 32 (11)
Anuradhapura 1 (1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 3 (2) 2 (2) 5 (3) 8 (3) 1 (0) 6 (0) 12 (1) 12 (1) 57 (18)
Badulla 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (4) 5 (5) 5 (4) 14 (12) 5 (3) 1 (0) 6 (1) 18 (10) 4 (3) 11 (4) 10 (2) 88 (52)
Batticaloa 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) 1 (1) 5 (1)
Colombo 3 (2) 14 (12) 3 (2) 7 (6) 6 (6) 2 (1) 3 (0) 2 (0) 11 (3) 3 (1) 4 (1) 58 (34)
Galle 4 (3) 18 (17) 3 (2) 3 (3) 20 (19) 8 (8) 4 (4) 11 (10) 13 (8) 10 (5) 16 (10) 1 (0) 8 (2) 10 (3) 129 (94)
Gampaha 2 (1) 10 (9) 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (2) 3 (1) 3 (1) 5 (2) 3 (1) 6 (2) 35 (21)
Hambantota 1 (1) 2 (2) 6 (3) 11 (6) 2 (0) 7 (0) 20 (6) 10 (2) 7 (1) 66 (21)
Jaffna 1 (0) 1 (0) 3 (0) 1 (0) 3 (0) 9 (0)
Kalutara 7 (5) 16 (14) 3 (2) 9 (8) 5 (5) 9 (9) 8 (5) 8 (4) 17 (10) 1 (0) 5 (2) 9 (3) 97 (62)
Kandy 5 (5) 2 (1) 3 (3) 13 (13) 12 (12) 8 (8) 9 (7) 25 (23) 13 (10) 1 (0) 15 (6) 19 (11) 1 (1) 12 (4) 6 (2) 144 (108)
147
Kegalle 4 (2) 15 (13) 2 (2) 1 (1) 10 (9) 5 (5) 1 (1) 9 (9) 9 (7) 11 (7) 17 (11) 2 (2) 8 (3) 94 (72)
Kilinochchi 0 (0)
Kurunegala 2 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (0) 3 (1) 1 (0) 6 (2) 6 (0) 26 (10)
Mannar 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) 4 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 6 (0) 1 (0) 18 (1)
Matale 4 (4) 2 (2) 5 (5) 5 (5) 8 (7) 7 (6) 8 (8) 8 (6) 2 (0) 10 (2) 23 (7) 2 (0) 9 (2) 5 (1) 96 (55)
Matara 4 (3) 10 (10) 3 (2) 2 (2) 13 (12) 6 (6) 2 (2) 12 (11) 10 (7) 6 (4) 15 (11) 5 (2) 8 (3) 96 (75)
Monaragala 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (4) 3 (1) 6 (5) 11 (8) 4 (0) 6 (0) 14 (4) 10 (3) 5 (1) 69 (31)
Mullaitivu 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) 11 (1) 2 (1) 22 (3)
Nuwara Eliya 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 12 (12) 17 (16) 7 (7) 7 (6) 18 (15) 10 (7) 1 (0) 6 (0) 4 (3) 14 (6) 8 (3) 107 (78)
Polonnaruwa 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 4 (3) 1 (1) 3 (2) 6 (5) 1 (0) 6 (1) 18 (10) 5 (1) 6 (1) 59 (32)
Puttalam 1 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (0) 6 (2) 2 (0) 5 (0) 3 (0) 27 (7)
Ratnapura 6 (5) 15 (13) 2 (2) 19 (19) 27 (26) 8 (8) 13 (12) 23 (21) 12 (9) 2 (0) 11 (3) 1 (1) 15 (5) 12 (3) 166 (127)
Trincomalee 1 (1) 1 (0) 2 (1) 2 (0) 10 (5) 16 (10) 5 (1) 1 (0) 36 (18)
Vavuniya 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (0) 3 (1) 5 (2) 11 (3)
Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Pteridophyte Flora of Sri Lanka
R.H.G. Ranil and D.K.N.G. Pushpakumara
University of Peradeniya
Introduction
The recorded history of exploration of pteridophytes in Sri Lanka dates back to 1672-1675
when Poul Hermann had collected a few fern specimens which were first described by Linneus
(1747) in Flora Zeylanica. The majority of Sri Lankan pteridophytes have been collected in the
19th century during the British period and some of them have been published as catalogues
and checklists. However, only Beddome (1863-1883) and Sledge (1950-1954) had conducted
systematic studies and contributed significantly to today’s knowledge on taxonomy and diversity
of Sri Lankan pteridophytes (Beddome, 1883; Sledge, 1982). Thereafter, Manton (1953) and
Manton and Sledge (1954) reported chromosome numbers and some taxonomic issues of
selected Sri Lankan Pteridophytes. Recently, Shaffer-Fehre (2006) has edited the volume 15
of the revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon on pteridophyta (Fern and Fern Allies).
The local involvement of pteridological studies began with Abeywickrama (1956; 1964;
1978), Abeywickrama and Dassanayake (1956); and Abeywickrama and De Fonseka, (1975)
with the preparations of checklists of pteridophytes and description of some fern families.
Dassanayake (1964), Jayasekara (1996), Jayasekara et al., (1996), Dhanasekera (undated),
Fenando (2002), Herat and Rathnayake (2004) and Ranil et al., (2004; 2005; 2006) have also
contributed to the present knowledge on Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. However, only recently,
Ranil and co workers initiated a detailed study on biology, ecology and variation of tree ferns
(Cyatheaceae) in Kanneliya and Sinharaja MAB reserves combining field and laboratory
studies and also taxonomic studies on island-wide Sri Lankan fern flora. As a result, Ranil et
al. (2010a; 2010b) have described two new pteridophyte species from Sri Lanka and identified
conservation priorities for Sri Lankan tree ferns in 2011 (Ranil et al., 2011). Ranil et al.,
(in prep.) reviewed and revised the list of endemic pteridophytes in Sri Lanka.
Currently, about 348 pteridophyte taxa from 30 families have been recorded from Sri Lanka,
of which 50 taxa are reported to be endemic to the country (Shaffer-Fehre, 2006). Among
Asian countries, Sri Lanka is second only to Taiwan in terms of the number of pteridophyte
species per 10,000 km2 (Ranil et al., 2008a). Geographical isolation, and a wide range of
climatic, elevational and soil type variation in Sri Lanka may have resulted in rich diversity
of pteridophyte flora as well along with exceptionally high level of endemism. It is reported
that Sri Lankan pteridophytes have strong phyto-geographical relationships with South Indian
species. Further, both the Sri Lankan and the South Indian pteridophyte flora also have phyto-
geographical relationship with three regions, namely the Sino-Himalayan flora, the Malesian
flora from South East Asia, and an African element connected with the Seychelles, Mascarenes,
Madagascar and East Africa (Fraser-Jenkins, 1984). Despite historical and recent information
on pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka, this is the first instance that the pteridophyte flora has been
assessed based on the national Red Listing criteria.
148
Taxonomy
The present knowledge of ptridophytes is largely based on Shaffer-Fehre (2006) which is

mainly based on morphology and specimens of existing herbarium collections rather than new
information. It has been prepared during 1993-1995 period but published in 2006. However,
with the advancement of plant molecular studies, taxonomic status of many fern species have
changed and many revisions have been made. On the other hand, recently an extensive
field survey of South Indian fern flora has been carried out, though such information has not
been widely published yet. Recent review of endemic pteridophyte flora in Sri Lanka parallel
to information generated through South Indian survey via personal communication revealed
that the changes of number of endemic taxa from 50 (Shaffer-Fehre, 2006) to 44 (Ranil et
al., in prep.). All these indicated the need of a systematic review of the taxonomy of Sri
Lankan pteridophytes based on detailed field works and existing herbarium collections and
also considering with advances of taxonomy and systematics due to molecular studies on
pteridophytes. For the red listing process, except for three families, namely Aspleniaceae,
Cyatheaceae and Thelypteridaceae (where there is no agreement among pteridologists to
place Sri Lankan species within families, hence followed Shaffer-Fehre (2006), all species
have been arranged based on the linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes
and ferns proposed by Christenhusz et al., (2011). Changes of genera and families according
to Christenhusz et al. (2011) are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Changes of genera and families based on recent classification proposed by

Christenhusz et al. (2011).
Flora of Ceylon (2006) by Redlist (2012) based on Chris-

Taxa
Shaffer-Fehre (2006) tenhusz et al. (2011)
Genera
Antrophyum Vittariaceae Pteridaceae
Arthropteris Oleandraceae Tectariaceae
Athyrium Woodsiaceae Athyriaceae
Bolbitis Lomariopsidaceae Dryopteridaceae
Ceratopteris Parkeriaceae Pteridaceae
Deparia Woodsiaceae Athyriaceae
Diplazium Woodsiaceae Athyriaceae
Elaphoglossum Lomariopsidaceae Dryopteridaceae
Hypodematium Woodsiaceae Hypodematiaceae
Leucostegia Davalliaceae Hypodematiaceae
Lindsaea Dennstaedtiaceae Lindsaeaceae
Loxogramme Loxogrammaceae Polypodiaceae
Lygodium Schizaeaceae Lygodiaceae
Monogramma Vittariaceae Pteridaceae
Nephrolepis Oleandraceae Nephrolepidaceae
Pteridrys Dryopteridaceae Tectariaceae
Sphenomeris Dennstaedtiaceae Lindsaeaceae
Tectaria Dryopteridaceae Tectariaceae
Teratophyllum Lomariopsidaceae Dryopteridaceae
Vittaria Vittariaceae Pteridaceae
Family
Grammitidaceae Grammitidaceae Polypodiaceae
149
Distribution
Limited research has been conducted to identify distribution of pterdophyte flora in Sri Lanka.
About 81% of pteridophyte specimens in the National Herbarium have been collected from
the wet zone area of the country (Jayasekera and Wijesundara, 1993). The wet zone which
accounts for only one third of the country’s total land area also contains almost all endemic
pteridophytes except one species (Ranil et al., in prep.). Further, study on distribution pattern
of endemic pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka revealed that those are more-or-less equally
distributed among the wet zone areas of the up, mid and low countries with 34, 31 and 32 taxa,
respectively (Ranil et al., 2008a). Majority of endemic pteridophytes (78%) of Sri Lanka had
been collected from the Central Province where Nuwara Eliya district alone provided the highest
number of endemic taxa collected with 34 taxa followed by Sabaragamuwa and Southern
provinces. Even though some species occur in a few districts, their known occurrence has
been limited only to a few isolated localities (i.e. Cyathea hookeri, C. sinuata, C. sledgei and
C. srilankensis; Ranil et al., 2010a; 2010b). Long duration of rainfall and high relative humidity
associated with elevational gradient may be one of the reasons for the presence of higher
number of endemic taxa in the wet zone and the Central Province. In addition, close proximity
to the Botanical Gardens of Peradeniya and Hakgala had also influenced a higher number of
species collections from the Central Province and Nuwara Eliya district.
A B C
Endemic and endangered tree ferns in lowland rainforests.
A: Cyathea sledgei Ranil et al.,: A recently described new endemic tree fern species in Kanneliya
MAB reserve.
B: Cyathea srilankensis Ranil: A recently discovered new endemic tree fern species in Beraliya
proposed forest reserve.
C: Cyathea sinuata Hook. & Grew.: The only known simple leaf tree ferns in the world.
A B
Two endemic ferns species in southern lowland rainforests.

A: Tectaria thwaitesii (Bedd.) Ching: An endemic fern species in roadside banks of Kottawa forest
reserve.
B: Oreogrammits sledgei (Parris) Parris: An endemic fern species grows on moist rock in Sinharaja
world heritage site.
150
Threats
Vast majority of pteridophyte flora and almost all endemic pteridophytes in Sri Lanka are
confined to the wet zone areas of the lowland, sub montane and montane regions. However,
most of the remaining forests in the wet zone area are fragmented and small. They are
continued to be degraded due to illegal encroachment and suffer further fragmentation due to
higher population densities in such areas. The area is highly subjected to habitat loss, spread
of alien-invasive species, soil erosion and environmental pollution. These are considered
as the most immediate threats to the pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka. In areas such as the
Knuckles region, the forest understorey which is the main habitat for pteridophytes has been
cleared for cardamom cultivation whereas in Udawattakele forest understorey is invaded by
alien-invasive species; also make significant threats to regeneration of pteridophytes. Another
threat of increasing importance is the illicit removal and over exploitation of ornamentally
important rare ferns from the wild. These problems will be worsening by change of climate
and increasing human population pressure.
Conservation issues
The effective conservation of Sri Lankan pteridophyte flora will depend largely on how effective
the conservation of natural forests in the wet zone areas of the country. For this, minimizing of
fragmentation and habitat loss through effective land use planning and a sound policy framework
is a must. Further, according to the present Red Listing, of the 335 pteridophyte species,
219 species (66%) are listed as threatened species (20, 41, 87 and 71 species are critically
endangered and possibly extinct (CR(PE)) critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN) and
vulnerable (VU). Another 40 species are listed as near threatened (NT). This highlighted that, in
addition to conservation of natural forests in the wet zone areas, monitoring of populations of at
least threatened species is a necessary to understand effectiveness of the in situ conservation of
pteridophyte flora. At present, ex situ conservation is limited to a few local species at the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya and Botanic Gardens of Hakgala and Henerathgoda. Therefore,
strengthening of ferneries of the network of the National Botanic Gardens is urgently required as
a supplementary conservation measure for Sri Lankan pteridophytes.
Research gaps and needs
Further enhancement of current knowledge and understanding of pteridophytes flora needs

several measures. As highlighted a comprehensive taxonomic revision need to be carried out
in the light of recent floral survey in the South Asia and recent advances of taxonomy due to
use of molecular investigations. A close collaboration between pteridologists in India (as well
as elsewhere) and Sri Lanka is a pre-requisite. Much of the specimens of pteridophytes have
been collected from 1847 to 1900 by European pteridologists and deposited in herbaria of
elsewhere than the National Herbarium. Thus, an island-wide floristic survey on pteridophyte
taxa is urgently required in Sri Lanka which helps to revise the taxonomy, distribution and
other conservation issues of the island pteridophyte flora. Upgrading of the collection of the
National Herbarium is also a must and should be carried out parallel to the floristic survey.
Further, recent work by Ranil et al., (2008b) provides encouraging results on domestication
of C. walkerae and need to expand to other species which has commercial potentials. Public
awareness programs on the conservation and sustainable use of pteridophytes should also be
initiated promoting in situ and ex situ conservation.
151
Conclusions and Recommendations
Lowland rainforests, sub-montane and montane forests are the major natural vegetation
types supporting the biodiversity of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. However, these ecosystems
are heavily affected by various biotic and abiotic influences and already highly fragmented.
Increasing population pressure and climate change further worsen the situation. These facts
highlight the importance of conserving the remaining forest ecosystems of the wet zone of
the country. It is also essential to conduct further research to fill the gaps of knowledge of
Sri Lankan pteridophytes which will provide a basis to resolve many of the taxonomic and
conservation issues pteridophytes face today.
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153
Table 13: Summary of the Status of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka
(Endemics are shown in bracket)
CR Total Total
Family EX EW CR EN VU NT DD LC
(PE) Threatened Species
Aspleniaceae 4 (1) 3 6 (1) 7 4 5 16 (1) 29 (2)

Athyriaceae 3 9 7 4 1 2 19 (3) 26 (5)
Blechnaceaea 2 1 1 2 4 6
Cyatheaceae 1 5 1 7 (4) 7 (5)
Davalliaceae 1 1 1 1 1 3 5
Dennstaedtiaceae 3 2 1 1 3 4 10 (1)
Dryopteridaceae 1 6 12 7 3 2 25 (6) 31 (8)
Equisetaceae 1 1 1
Gleicheniaceae 1 1 0 2
Hymenophyllaceae 4 9 5 1 18 (3) 19 (3)
Hypodematiaceae 1 1 1 2
Isoetaceae 1 1 1
Lindsaeaceae 4 3 2 1 2 9 (2) 12 (2)
Lycopodiaceae 1 7 3 1 1 1 11 14
Lygodiaceae 1 1 1 1 3
Marattiaceae 1 1 1 2
Marsileaceae 1 1 1 2
Nephrolepidaceae 1 1 1 1 1 4
Oleandraceae 1 1 1
Ophioglossaceae 1 8 9 9
Osmundaceae 1 1 (1) 1 (1)
Polypodiaceae 2 9 6 7 6 2 14 22 (5) 46 (9)
Psilotaceae 1 1 1
Pteridaceae 6 1 4 8 8 2 17 13 (4) 46 (4)
Schizaeaceae 1 0 1
Selaginellaceae 2 5 2 2 (1) 9 (1)
Tectariaceae 1 1 3 3 1 3 7 (1) 12 (2)
Thelypteridaceae 3 2 9 10 4 1 5 21 (2) 34 (6)
Totals 21 (5) 42 (10) 88 (11) 70 (12) 40 (9) 12 (1) 63 (1) 200 (33) 336 (49)
154
Table 14: List of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka
(Endemic species are marked in Bold letters )
Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS

Family : Lycopodiaceae
Huperzia ceylanica (Spring) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia hamiltonii (Spreng.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. S: Maha-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia phyllantha (Hook. & Arn.) Holub S: Maha-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia pinifolia Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia pulcherrima (Hook. & Grev.) Pichi.-Serm. S: Kuda-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia serrata (Thunb. ex Murray) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia squarrosa (G. Forst.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Huperzia subulifolia (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.)
S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Trevis.
Huperzia vernicosa (Hook. & Grev.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya DD
Lycopodiella caroliniana (L.) Pichi.-Serm. NT
S: Badal-hanassa,
Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pichi.-Serm. LC
Badal-wanassa
Lycopodium japonicum Thunb. ex Murray EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)

Lycopodium wightianum Wall. ex Grev. & Hook. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Isoetaceae
Isoetes coromandelina L.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Family : Selaginellaceae
Selaginella calostachya (Hook. & Grev.) Alston NT
Selaginella ciliaris (Retz.) Spring LC
Selaginella cochleata (Hook. & Grev.) Spring LC
Selaginella crassipes Spring NT
Selaginella integerrima (Hook. & Grev.) Spring NT
Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring NT
Selaginella latifolia (Hook. & Grev.) Spring VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Selaginella praetermissa Alston NT
Selaginella wightii Hieron. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Equisetaceae
Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Ophioglossaceae
Botrychium daucifolium Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. S: Thani-wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophioglossum costatum R.Br. S: Ek-pethi-pium EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophioglossum gramineum Willd. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophioglossum nudicaule L.fil. S: Diya-gabbalu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophioglossum pendulum L. S: Pati-dhathu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophioglossum petiolatum Hook. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophioglossum reticulatum L. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC
155
Family : Psilotaceae
Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Marattiaceae
Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. S: Wal-meda NT
Marattia fraxinea Smith EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Osmundaceae
Osmunda collina Sledge EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Hymenophyllaceae
Abrodictyum obscurum (Blume) Ebihara &
K.Iwats. (Syn: Selenodesmium obscurum (Blume) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Copel.)
Crepidomanes bipunctatum (Poir.) Copel. (Syn:
CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crepidomanes bilabiatum (Nees & Blume) Copel.)
Crepidomanes campanulatum (Roxb.)
EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Jayasekara
Crepidomanes intramarginale (Hook.fil & Grev.)
Copel.
Crepidomanes kurzi (Bedd.)Tagawa & Iwatsuki CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crepidomanes kurzii (Bedd.) Tagawa & K. Iwats. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crepidomanes proliferum (Blume) Bostock (Syn:
Gonocormus prolifer (Blum.) Prantl) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crepidomanes saxifragoides (C.Presl.) P.S.Green
(Syn:Gonocormus saxifragoides (Presl.) Bosch) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Didymoglossum bimarginatum (Bosch) Ebihara &

EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
K.Iwats. (Syn: Microgonium bimarginatum Bosch)
Didymoglossum exiguum (Bedd.) Copel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)

Didymoglossum motleyi (Bosch) Ebihara &
CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
K.Iwats. (Syn: Microgonium motleyi Bosch)
Didymoglossum wallii (Thwaites) Copel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hymenophyllum denticulatum Sw. (Syn:
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Meringium denticulatum (Sw.) Copel.)
Hymenophyllum exsertum Wall. ex Hook. (Syn:
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mecodium gardneri (Bosch) Jayasekara)
Hymenophyllum javanicum A.Sperng. (Syn:
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mecodium javanicum (Spreng.) Copel.)
Hymenophyllum macroglossum Bosch (Syn:
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Meringium macroglossum (Bosch) Copel.)
Hymenophyllum nitidulum (Bosch) Ebihara &
K.Iwats. (Syn:Microtrichomanes nitidulum (Bosch) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Copel.)
Hymenophyllum pallidum (Blume) Ebihara &

K.Iwats. (Syn: Pleuromanes pallidum (Blume)
C.Presl.) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hymenophyllum polyanthos (Sw.) Sw.
NT
(Syn: Mecodium polyanthos (Sw.) Copel.)
Family : Gleicheniaceae
Dicranopteris lineairs (Burm.f.) Underw. var.
S: Kakilla LC
linearis
Dicranopteris lineairs (Burm.f.) Underw. var.
S: Kakilla
montana DD
156
Family : Lygodiaceae
Lygodium circinnatum (Burm. f.) Sw. S: Maha-pamba VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. S: Pamba-wel NT
Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. S: Pamba-wel LC
Family : Schizaeaceae
Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw. NT
Family : Marsileaceae
Marsilea coromandelina Willd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Hathara
Marsilea minuta L. LC
pethiya
Family : Cyatheaceae
S: Gini-hota, Gini-
Cyathea crinita (Hook.) Copel. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
watara
S: Gini-hota, Gini-
Cyathea gigantea (Wall. ex Hook.) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
watara
S: Gini-hota, Gini-
Cyathea hookeri Thwaites CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
watara
S: Gini-hota, Gini-
Cyathea sinuata Hook. & Grev. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
watara
Cyathea sledgei Ranil, Pushpakumara & Fras.- S: Gini-hota, Gini-

Jenk. watara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Gini-hota, Gini-

Cyathea srilankensis Ranil watara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Gini-hota, Gini-
Cyathea walkerae Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
watara
Family : Lindsaeaceae
Lindsaea caudata Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindsaea cultrata (Willd.) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindsaea ensifolia subsp. ensiofolia Sw. LC
Lindsaea glandulifera Alderw. DD
Lindsaea hetrophylla Dryand. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindsaea odorata Roxb.var. odorata EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindsaea orbiculata (Lam.) Mett. ex Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindsaea repens (Bory)Thwaites var. pectinata
(Blume) Mett. ex Kuhn
Lindsaea schizophylla (Baker) H.Christ CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindsaea venusta Kaulf. ex Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindsaea walkerae Hook. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sphenomeris chinensis var. chinensis (L.) Maxon LC
Family : Dennstaedtiaceae
Dennstaedtia scabra (Wall. ex Hook.) T.Moore VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J.Sm. LC
Hypolepis glandulifera Brownsey & Chinnock LC
Microlepia dubia (Roxb.) C.V.Morton CR(PE)
Microlepia majuscula (Lowe) T.Moore CR(PE)
Microlepia platyphylla (D.Don) J.Sm. CR(PE)
157
Microlepia rhomboidea (Hook.) C.Presl ex Prantl CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Microlepia speluncae (L.) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Microlepia strigosa (Thunb. ex Murray) C.Presl CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Waralla, An-
Pteridium revolutum (Blume) Nakai kakilla, Monara LC
Kakilla
Family : Pteridaceae
Acrostichum aureum L. LC LC
Acrostichum speciosum Willd. DD
Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Adiantum capillus- veneris L. LC
Adiantum caudatum L. S: Thuda-vediya LC
Adiantum flabellulatum L. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Adiantum hispidulum Sw. LC
Adiantum indicum J. Ghatak NT
Adiantum philippense L. LC
Adiantum zollingeri Mett. ex Kuhn LC
Anogramma leptophylla (L.) Link CR(PE)
Antrophyum plantagineum (Cav.) Kaulf. NT

Antrophyum reticulatum (G.Forst.) Kaulf. LC
Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. NT LC
Cheilanthes anceps Blanf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cheilanthes bicolor (Roxb.) Griff. ex Fras.-Jenk. DD
Cheilanthes bullosa Kunze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cheilanthes krameri Franch. & Sav. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cheilanthes opposita Kaulf. LC
Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.f.) Sw. LC
Cheilanthes thwaitesii Mett. ex Kuhn LC
Coniogramme serra Fée VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Doryopteris concolor (Langsd. & Fisch.) Kuhn NT
Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.) T.Moore
LC
(Syn:Parahemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Panigrahi )
Idiopteris hookeriana (Agardh) T.G.Walker NT
CR(PE)
Monogramma paradoxa (Fée) Bedd.
Pellaea boivinii Hook. CR(PE)

Pellaea falcata (R.Br.) Fée CR(PE)
Pteris argyraea T.Moore EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)

Pteris biaurita L. LC
Pteris confusa T.G.Walker LC
Pteris cretica L. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pteris ensiformis Burm.f. LC
Pteris gongalensis T.G.Walker CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pteris longipes D.Don CR(PE)
158
Pteris mertensioides Willd. CR(PE)
Pteris multiaurita J.Agardh LC

Pteris praetermissa T.G.Walker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pteris quadriaurita Retz. LC
Pteris reptans T.G.Walker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pteris tripartita Sw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pteris vittata L. LC
Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vittaria elongata Sw. NT
Vittaria microlepis Hieron. NT
Vittaria scolopendrina (Bory) Thwaites NT
Family : Aspleniaceae
Asplenium aethiopicum (Burm. f.) Bech. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium affine Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium bipinnatum (Sledge) Philcox VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium cheilosorum Kunze ex Mett. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium decorum Kunze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium decrescens Kunze LC
Asplenium disjunctum Sledge CR(PE)
Asplenium ensiforme Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Asplenium erectum (Bory ex Willd.) in L. LC
Asplenium excisum C. Presl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium formosum Willd. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium gardneri Baker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium grevillii Hook. & Grev. CR(PE)
Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd. NT

Asplenium indicum Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium laciniatum D.Don EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium longipes Fée EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium nidus L. S: Gal-Palu NT
Asplenium nitidum Sw. CR(PE)
Asplenium normale D.Don NT

Asplenium obscurum Blume CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium pellucidum Lam. CR(PE)
Asplenium polyodon G.Frost. LC

Asplenium serricula Fée LC
Asplenium tenerum G.Forst. LC
Asplenium tenuifolium D.Don CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium unilaterale Lam. NT
Asplenium yoshinagae Makino CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Asplenium zenkerianum Kunze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
159
Family : Thelypteridaceae
Amauropelta hakgalensis Holttum DD
Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Amphineuron opulentum (Kaulf.) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Amphineuron terminans (Hook.) Holttum LC
Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Jermy LC
Christella hispidula (Decne.) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Christella meeboldii (Rosenst.) Holttum CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Christella papilio ( C.Hope ) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Christella parasitica (L.) H.Lév. LC

Christella subpubescens (Blume) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Christella zeylanica (Fée) Holttum CR(PE)
Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H.Ito NT

Macrothelypteris torresiana (Gaudich.) Ching NT
Metathelypteris flaccida (Blume) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Parathelypteris beddomei (Baker) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pneumatopteris truncata (Poir.) Holtt. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pronephrium articulatum (Houlston & T.Moore)
Holttum
Pronephrium gardneri Holttum CR(PE)
Pronephrium thwaitesii (Hook.) Holttum CR(PE)
Pronephrium triphyllum (Sw.) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Pseudocyclosorus tylodes (Kunze) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pseudophegopteris pyrrhorhachis (Kunze) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sphaerostephanos arbuscula (Willd.) Holttum LC
Sphaerostephanos subtruncatus (Bory) Holttum CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sphaerostephanos unitus (L.) Holttum LC
Stegnogramma pozoi (Lag.) K.Iwats var. petiolata
EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Ching) Sledge
Thelypteris confluens (Thunb.) T.Morton EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Trigonospora angustifrons Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Trigonospora calcarata (Blume) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Trigonospora caudipinna (Ching) Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Trigonospora ciliata (Wall. ex Benth.) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Trigonospora glandulosa Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Trigonospora obtusiloba Sledge NT
Trigonospora zeylanica (Ching) Sledge NT
Family : Blechnaceae
Blechnum colensoi (Hook f.) N.A.Wakef. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Blechnum divis (Kunze) Christenh.
(Syn: Doodia dives Kunze)
Blechnum orientale L. S: Baru-koku LC
Blechnum spinulosum Poir.
(Syn: Doodia caudata ( Cav.) R. Br.)
160
Blechnum zeelandicum Christenh.
(Syn: Doodia squarrosa Col.)
Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Beddo. LC
Family : Athyriaceae
Athyrium anisopterum Christ EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Athyrium cumingianum (C. Presl) Ching EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Athyrium hohenackerianum (Kunze) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Athyrium praetermissum Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Athyrium puncticaule (Blume) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Athyrium setiferum C. Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Athyrium solenopteris (Kunze) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Athyrium wardii (Hook) Mak. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Deparia boryana (Willd.) M. Kato VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Deparia lancea (Thunb. ex Murray) Fraser-Jenk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Deparia petersenii ( Kunze ) M.Kato subsp.
NT
petersenii
Deparia polyrhizos (Baker) Seriz. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Deparia zeylanica (Hook) M. Kato. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplazium beddomei C. Chr. NT
Diplazium brachylobum (Sledge) Manickam &
DD
Irudayaraj
Diplazium cognatum (Hieron.) Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplazium decurrens Bedd. NT
Diplazium dilatatum Blume LC
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. NT
Diplazium javanicum (Blume) Makino EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplazium muricatum (Mett.) Alderw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplazium paradoxum Fée EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplazium polypodioides Blume LC
Diplazium procumbens Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplazium sylvaticum (Bory) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplazium travancoricum Bedd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Hypodematiaceae
Hypodematium crenatum (Forssk.) Kuhn in von
Decken subsp. crenatum
Leucostegia immersa C.Presl DD
Family : Dryopteridaceae
Arachniodes amabilis (Blume) Tindale EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Arachniodes aristata (Forst.f.) Tindale LC
Arachniodes tripinnata (Goldm.) Sledge NT
Bolbitis angustipinna (Hayata) H.Ito CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bolbitis appendiculata subsp. appendiculata
EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
(Willd.) K.Iwats.
Bolbitis subcrenata ( Hook. & Grev. ) Ching in
C.Chr.
Ctenitis thwaitesii Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diacalpe aspidioides Blume EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
161
Dryopsis obtusiloba (Bak.) Holttum & Edwards VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dryopteris approximata Sledge CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dryopteris deparioides (T. Moore) Kuntze. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dryopteris hirtipes (Blume) Kuntze. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dryopteris macrochlamys (Fée) Fras.-Jenk. LC
Dryopteris pulvinulifera (Bedd.) Kuntze. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dryopteris sledgei Fraser-Jenk. CR(PE)
Dryopteris sparsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don)

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Kuntze.
Dryopteris wallichiana subsp. madrasensis
(Fraser-Jenk.) Fraser-Jenk.
Elaphoglossum angulatum (Bl.) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaphoglossum ceylanicum Krajina ex Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaphoglossum commutatum (Mett. ex Kuhn)
Alderw.
Elaphoglossum spathulatum (Bory) T.Moore CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lastreopsis rufescens (Bl.) Ching EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lastreopsis tenera (R.Br.) Tindale VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polystichum amabile (Blume) J.Sm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polystichum anomalum (Hook. & Arn.) J. Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polystichum biaristatum (Blume) T.Moore VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polystichum harpophyllum (Zenker ex Kunze)
NT
Sledge
Polystichum mucronifolium (Blume) C.Presl. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polystichum piceo-paleaceum Tag. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polystichum walkerae (Hook.) Sledge NT
Teratophyllum aculeatum Mett.; Kuhn var.
aculeatum
Family : Nephrolepidaceae
Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott DD
Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl NT
Nephrolepis falcata (Cav.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Nephrolepis hirsutula (G. Forst.) C.Presl LC
Family : Tectariaceae
Arthropteris palisotii (Desv.) Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pteridrys syrmatica (Willd.) C.Chr. & Ching DD
Pteridrys zeylanica Ching in C.Chr. & Ching CR(PE)
Tectaria coadunata (J.Sm.) C.Chr. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)

Tectaria decurrens (C.Presl) Copel. LC
Tectaria devexa (Kunze ex Mett.) Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tectaria paradoxa (Fée) Sledge LC
Tectaria polymorpha (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tectaria subtriphylla (Hook. & Arn.) Copel. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tectaria thwaitesii (Bedd.) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tectaria trimenii (Bedd.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
162
Tectaria zeilanica (Houtt.) Sledge LC
Family : Oleandraceae
Oleandra musifolia (Blume) C. Presl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Davalliaceae
Davallia denticulata Mett. ex Kuhn var.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
denticulata
Davallia hymenophylloides Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Davallia pulchra D.Don CR(PE)
Davallia repens Kuhn LC

Davallia solida Sw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Polypodiaceae
Calymmodon glabrescens Copel. NT
Chrysogrammitis glandulosa (J.Sm.) Parris CR(PE)
Ctenopterella (?) thwaitesii (Bedd.) Parris

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Syn: Ctenopteris thwaitesii (Beddome) Sledge)
Ctenopterella blechnoides (Grev.) Parris
(Syn: Ctenopteris blechnoides(Grev.) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
W.H.Wagner & Grether)
Ctenopterella cornigera (Baker) Parris
(Syn: Xiphopteris cornigera (Baker) Copel.)
Dasygrammitis mollicoma (Nees & Blume) Parris
(Syn: Ctenopteris mollicoma (Nees & Blume) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Kunze)
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Smith S: Benduru LC
Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T.Moore S: Benduru EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lepisorus amaurolepidus (Sledge) Bir & Trikha LC
Lepisorus mucronatus (Fée) Li Wang
(Syn: Belvisia mucronata (Fée) Copel var DD
mucronata)
Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching LC
Lepisorus spicatus (L.f.) Li Wang
NT
(Syn:Belvisia spicata (L.f) Mirbel ex Copel.)
Leptochilus decurrens Blume LC
Leptochilus macrophyllus var. pedunculatus
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Hook. & Grev.) Noot
Loxogramme cuspidata (Zenker) Price EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Loxogramme parallela Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Microsorum insigne (Blume) Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Microsorum membranaceum (D.Don) Ching NT
Microsorum membranifolium (R. Br.) Ching LC
Microsorum pteropum (Blume) Copel. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel. NT
Microsorum scolopendrium (Burm. f.) Copel. LC
Oreogrammitis attenuata (Kunze) Parris
(Syn:Grammitis attenuata Kunze)
163
Oreogrammitis medialis (Baker) Parris
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Syn:Grammitis medialis (Baker) Ching )
Oreogrammitis reinwardtii (Blume) Parris
(Syn:Grammitis reinwardtii Blume)
Oreogrammitis sledgei (Parris) Parris
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Syn:Grammitis sledgei Parris)
Oreogrammitis wallii(Beddome) Parris
(Syn: Grammitis wallii(Bedd.) Copel.)
Oreogrammitis zeylanica(Fée ) Parris
NT
(Syn: Grammitis zeylanicaFée)
Pleopeltis lanceolata Kaulf. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Prosaptia alata (Blume) Christ LC
Prosaptia ceylanicaParris CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Prosaptia contigua (G.Forst.) C.Presl LC
Prosaptia obliquata (Blume) Mett. LC
Pyrrosia ceylanica (Giesenh.) Sledge CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pyrrosia gardneri (Mett.) Sledge LC
S: Panam-pethi,
Pyrrosia heterophylla (L.) Price LC
Kasi-pethi
Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farw. LC
Pyrrosia pannosa (Mett .ex Kuhn) Ching NT
Pyrrosia porosa (C.Presl) Hovenkamp var. porosa LC
Radiogrammitis beddomeana(Alderw.) Parris
CR(PE)
(syn: Grammitis beddomeana(Alderw.) Ching)
Scleroglossum pusillum(Blume) Alderw. DD
Scleroglossum sulcatum(Kuhn) Alderw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Selliguea montana (Sledge) Hovenkamp LC
Tomophyllum epaleatum (Parris) Parris
(Syn: Ctenopteris epaleata Parris)
Tomophyllum perplexum (Parris) Parris
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Syn: Ctenopteris perplexa Parris)
Tomophyllum repandulum (Mett.) Parris
(Syn: Ctenopteris repandula (Mett.) C.Chr. & VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tardieu)
164
Present Status of Dry-zone Flora in Sri Lanka
Anoma Perera,
Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya.
A. Introduction to the ecosystem
The dry land of Sri Lanka which is classically described as the dry and intermediate zones of
the country, extends over about 66% of the total is land area, but nearly 85% of the natural
vegetation-cover of the country exists within this region (Legg and Jewell, 1995). Three major
natural terrestrial vegetation types are found in the dry land of Sri Lanka; viz, dry forests, savanna
and grasslands. Depending on the variability in their location, climate, edaphic characteristics
and biotic impacts, it appears that several sub-categories of the above vegetation types can
be identified.
Dry forest ecosystems
Sri Lankan dry forests are a part of the tropical rainforest biome. These exhibit characteristic
features of tropical semi-deciduous or tropical seasonal forests of the world vegetation types
described by Longman and Jenik (1987), in Archibold, (1995). Tropical semi-deciduous forests
grow in low moisture conditions (e.g. annual rain fall < 1200 mm) and are mainly found in
Bundala National Park (Figure 1), southern part of Yala National Park and north-eastern part
of Wilpaththu National Park. Presence of deciduous or leaf exchanging species in the forest
canopy is a salient feature of these forests.
In contrast, tropical seasonal forests (Figure 2) occur in areas where comparatively higher
rainfall (mean annual rainfall of 1200-1500 mm) is received and the major portion of the dry
forests of the country falls into this forest category. These forests grow taller than tropical semi-
deciduous forests and show a clear stratification. Moreover, some evergreen species may be
present in the canopy. However, the deviations in recorded physical features such as soil type
and elevation (Alwis and Eriyagama, 1969) as well as the slope of the terrain appear to result
in spatial heterogeneity in the soil moisture contents. This has resulted in the formation of
different forest communities which deviated from the typical Manilkara hexandra-Chloroxylon
swietenia-Drypetes sepiaria community of lowland tropical seasonal forests.
It has been reported that most of the dry forests in the lowlands had grown after the destruction
of hydraulic civilization in the area around 13th century (Brohier, 1941; de Rosayro, 1961) and
therefore, are secondary in origin. Also, these forests are heavily disturbed by human activities
such as timber logging and frequent shifting cultivation (de Jong et al., 2001; de Rosayro, 1961;
Perera et al., 1995; Perera, 2001a) resulting in secondary forests or successional forests at
different ages (de Rosayro, 1961; Perera, 1998, 2001a). Natural regeneration of Sri Lankan
dry forest species is reported to be very poor (de Rosayro, 1959; Holmes, 1957; Perera et al.,
1995; Perera, 2001a; Rutnam, 1959) which is attributed to the poor quality and quantity of the
seed rain (Perera, 1998, 2004), soil seed bank (Perera, 1998a, 2000, 2004, 2005) and the
seedling bank (Perera, 2001b, 2004). Repeated disturbances in secondary forests and lack of
regeneration of high forest species may result in scrub jungle plagioclimaxes through deflected
succession but these are not a true climax vegetation type of the dry land of Sri Lanka. Such
165
scrub jungles grow up to 3-4 m and mainly consist of deciduous or semi-deciduous species
forming a single stratum (Figure 3).
Savanna ecosystems
Savanna ecosystems of Sri Lanka are situated in the dry and intermediate zones of Sri Lanka
at elevations between 300-1000 m (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). Savanna is a vegetation type in
the tropics in which grasses form a conspicuous ground cover (Archibold, 1991). According to
Cole (1986), tropical savannas are classified into several structural formations by considering
features such as the major life form categories dominating them, the height and density of
trees, spacing between trees and the height and cover of grasses. It appears that, the savannas
found in Sri Lanka could be described as Savanna woodlands (Figures 4 & 5) as the spacing
of the trees is about or a little higher than the diameters of the tree crowns with a considerable
extent of tall mesophytic grass cover.
Tall trees (> 8 m high) of deciduous and semi-deciduous species together with tall mesophytic
grasses (> 80 cm high) are common in Sri Lankan savanna woodlands. These occur as
patches of varying sizes of about 2-1000 ha, spreading intermittently with dry forests (G.G.C.
Premalal and G.A.D. Perera, unpublished data) but depending on their floristic and some abiotic
features, these can be assigned into two major types as upland savanna and lowland savanna
woodlands. Upland savanna woodlands (Figure 5) occur at the slope of the central massif
at Balangoda while the lowland savanna woodlands (Figure 6) are found at Nilgala, Nellikele
and Bibile in Monaragala district. Careya arborea, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia bellirica
and T. chebula are prominant members of these ecosystems but towards higher elevations,
Anogeissus latifolius occur more frequently than in the lowlands (G.G.C. Premalal and G.A.D.
Perera, unpublished data). However, the two savanna ecosystem types, i.e. in lowland and
upland savanna woodlands show differences in the vegetation structure, density of individuals
and species abundance rather than the floristic composition of the woody perennials.
Grassland ecosystems
Grassland ecosystems in the dry land of Sri Lanka include both edaphic climaxes and
disclimaxes of anthropogenic origin. Of these, the edaphic climaxes are mainly governed by
the depth of the soil and the soil moisture content which is an artifact of frequent or occasional
flooding, their close proximity to water bodies, rivers, abandoned irrigation tanks, and water
holes and/or due to soil characteristics such as the presence of alluvial soil.
Four major grassland ecosystem types can be identified in the dry land of Sri Lanka namely,
dry (Damana) grasslands, occasionally flooded dry grasslands, seasonally flooded damp
grasslands and grassland disclimaxes maintained by fire and/or grazing. Natural grasslands
(edaphic climaxes) are more diverse compared to grassland disclimaxes. Moreover, the
grasslands occur at wetter conditions contain many different grass and sedge species.
Damana grasslands are reported as natural edaphic climaxes formed due to edaphic features
but prolonged periods of drought in these areas may also contribute in the formation of these
grasslands (Sezchowycz, 1954). The presence of saline soil with high osmotic pressure in
166
Figure 1. Tropical semi-deciduous forest in
Bundala National Park with a single species
(Manilkara hexandra) dominant canopy
Figure 2. Tropical seasonal forest at the west-

ern part of the Wilpattu National Park
(a) dry season (b) wet season
Figure 3. Scrubland plagioclimaxes at Bundala National Park

Figure 4. An upland savanna woodland Figure 5. A lowland savanna woodland at Nil-

at Belihuloya (Photograph by courtesy of gala (Photograph by courtesy of Mr. G.G.C.
Mr. G.G.C. Premalal) Premalal)
167
the soil solution and the insolubility of soil minerals such as iron, phosphorus and magnesium
are given as reasons for the formation of edaphic climaxes. These could be artifacts of
impenetrable ‘C’ horizon in the soil profile and subsequent water logging during wet conditions
and bad aeration (Sezchowycz, 1954). These are mainly dominated with Imperata cylindrica
and Cymbopogon nardus but the presence of scattered or clumped trees (e.g. M. hexandra,
Limonia acidissima) is a salient feature of this ecosystem.
Villus found in Wilpaththu National Park, and at the Mahaweli flood plains are a specific natural,
grass dominated, wetland ecosystem found in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Swampy areas in
villus are surrounded by seasonally flooded damp grasslands while occasionally flooded dry
grasslands are located next to these up to the forest edge.
On the other hand, grassland disclimaxes are recorded to have originated after the destruction
of forests in the past and subsequent repeated cultivation and accompanying frequent burning
and heavy grazing (de Rosayro, 1961; Pemadasa, 1990). Imperata cylindrica is a common
species in such grasslands but in some areas, such as Udawalawe National Park, these have
been replaced by Panicum maximum. Annual herbs such as Croton hirtus, Eleutheranthera
ruderalis grow with perennials such as Tephrosia purpurea, Abutilon indicum and some
Poaceae species and as a result, a clear seasonal variation in the vegetation can be observed.
However, Heteropogon contortus may dominate if the grasslands are intensively and annually
burnt over a long period of time (Perera and Wijesooriya, 2007).
B. Prominent plants (families)
In Dry forest ecosystems
Euphorbiaceae species are the most prominent in dry forest vegetations and their proportional
abundance is high in areas where more harsh environments exist (Table below). Drypetes
sepiaria is a universally distributed Euphorbiaceae member which dominates the forest
understorey. M. hexandra (Sapotaceae) is also a unique species in the dry zone which
dominate in dry areas but the species is either rare or absent in cooler and moist conditions.
In comparatively wetter areas, a mixture of Annonaceae, Ebenaceae, Melastomataceae and
Sapindaceae species tend to grow more frequently with some Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae or
Sapotaceae species.
The composition of species and plant families in secondary forests do not vary much with
the forest type, their location and the abiotic conditions. At early seral stages, individuals of
Euphorbiaceae (e.g. Flueggea leucopyrus, Figure 6c), Rubiaceae (e.g. Catunaregam spinosa,
Tarenna asiatica) and Rhamnaceae (e.g. Ziziphus oenoplia) are prominant but Rubiaceae
(e.g. Benkara malabarica, Haldina cordifolia) Tiliaceae (e.g. Diplodiscus verrucosus, Grewia
spp.), Verbenaceae (e.g. Premna spp.) and Sterculiaceae (e.g. Pterospermum suberifolium)
species are prominent in late seral forests. Scrub jungle plagioclimaxes contains many species
that are common in early seral secondary forests but Fabaceae (e.g. Cassia auriculata, Figure
6a; Dichrostachys cinerea, Figure 6b), Euphorbiaceae (e.g. Flueggea leucopyrus, Figure 6c)
and Rhamnaceae species dominate in them.
168
Prominent plant families in dry forests of Sri Lanka
Major forest type Prominent plant families
Tropical semi-deciduous forests Euphorbiaceae, Sapotaceae

Euphorbiaceae, Sapotaceae, Rutaceae, Lauraceae,
Tropical seasonal forests*
Sapindaceae, Ebenaceae, Melastomataceae,
Annonaceae, Myrtaceae
Secondary forest under progressive
succession
Fallow forests <5 yr old Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae,
Malvaceae
Early seral vegetation Euphorbiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae
Late seral vegetation Rubiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Verbenaceae,
Scrub jungles (Plagioclimaxes) Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Rhamnaceae
* prominent plant families may vary with the locality/available soil moisture content
In Savanna ecosystems
A peculiar feature of the woody flora common to all savanna woodlands is the dominance of
the members of the families Combretaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Lecythidaceae. Poaceae,
Asteraceae and Malvaceae species are prominent in the herbaceous component.
In Grassland ecosystems
As the name implies, these ecosystems are dominated with Poaceae members. For instance,
around 60% of the individuals in damana and dry land grassland disclimaxes are Poaceae
species. The rest mainly consists of Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae
species. More than 75% of the species in occasionally flooded dry land grasslands belong to
the family Poaceae but there are several Cyperaceae and Fabaceae species as well (Perera
and Wijesooriya, 2007). In contrast, Cyperaceae and Poaceae species are prominent in
seasonally flooded damp grasslands.
C. Distribution
A peculiar feature in the lowland dry land of Sri Lanka is that many natural forest plant species,
especially more light demanding species are rather common in all over the dry land of the
country but their abundance may vary from region to region or over the available soil moisture
gradients. Dry forests at comparatively high precipitation or soil moisture levels are richer in
species and harbour more endemic species than the very dry areas of the island. Thus, the
tropical seasonal forests are richer in species than the tropical semi-deciduous forests while
northern lowland is richer in species than its eastern and southern counterparts. Similarly, the
riparian and hill forest communities are rich in species with the presence of many endemic
species (Alwis and Eriyagama,1969; Fernando, 2010; Jayasuriya, 1984; Jayasingham and
Wijesundara, 2007). Presence of evergreen tropical rain forest species of the country is a
typical feature of these dry zone hill forests (Fernando, 2010; Jayasuriya, 1984; Jayasingham
and Wijesundara, 2007) while these harbour plants and animals rarely encountered in the
plains below (Gunatilleke et al., 2008).
169
(b) Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae)
(c) Flueggea leucopyrus (Euphorbiaceae)

(a) Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae),
Figure 6. Common scrubland species
Forests in drier areas of the country possess comparatively a high taxic diversity in terms of
plant genera which are mostly represented by a single species. For instance, 48 plant species
were recorded from Bundala National Park which belongs to 47 plant genera. In contrast, the
forests that grow in moist areas are rich in species but the diversity of plant genera decreases
due to the presence of congeneric species. For instance, Dimocarpus gardneri and D. longan
and Strychnos minor and S. trichocalyx grow in Kilinochchi forest which is comparatively wetter
than the forests at Bundala.
Figure 7 Derris parviflora, an endemic liana species with magnificent inflorescences
170
According to the plant records available in the Flora of Ceylon (Dassanayake and Fosberg
(1980-2004), 43 woody plants endemic to the country grow in the dry land of Sri Lanka. These
include 26 tree, 2 liana and 15 shrub species. Of these, 33 are also found from the wet zone
of the country but 10 species have been reported only in the dry land . However, 7 of the 10
species are restricted to wet localities in the lowlands or in hill forests of the intermediate zone
but the other 3 species, i.e. Canthium puberulum, Diplodiscus verrucosus and Memecylon
petiolatum are recorded only from the dry zone. Some endemic species such as Derris
parviflora (Figure 7 ) produce magnificent inflorescences and thus have a potential ornamental
value. Point endemics are not common in the dry land of the country as in the wet zone. Three
point endemic species, each known only from a single site <100 km2 are reported mostly at
comparatively wetter places in the intermediate zone of the country. Of these, Wrightia flavido-
rosea (Apocynaceae) and Hopea brevipetiolaris (Dipterocarpaceae) are found from Dolukanda
while Oplismenus thwaitesii (Poaceae) is found at Nalanda (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). Hopea
cordifolia (Dipterocarpaceae) is also a noteworthy endemic species found from the southern
part of the country, restricted to the gallery forest along the Walawe Ganga and Kirindi Oya and
their tributaries in the dry zone of the Uva Province.
D. Threats
Habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation are among the major threats in the
wilderness areas of the Sri Lankan dry land which are among the most threatened ecosystems
of the country. Conversion of natural ecosystems to other land use types is a noteworthy threat
in the dry zone at present. Thus, the extent of savanna woodlands in Nilgala Valley has been
reduced (Jayasingham and Wijesundara, 2007) while the damana grasslands of Ampara have
been fragmented due to the establishment of human settlements. Similarly, a considerable area
under natural dry forests has been destroyed for socio-economic developmental projects in
addition to clearance for shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation is proven to be an inappropriate
agricultural practice resulting in the depletion of biodiversity in dry forests (Perera 2001) but the
practice still continues illegally.
Selective logging of canopy dominants is also a major harmful anthropogenic activity in dry
forests. Extraction of canopy dominant timber species such as Diospyros ebenum and Manilkara
hexandra has led to the decrease in their population densities in the wild. Selective logging
would also change the forest microclimate so that the climax forest species are not naturally
regenerated satisfactorily in the wild. For instance, Chloroxylon swietenia, is becoming rarer in
the wild due to heavy selective logging and consequent lack of adequate parent trees for seed
production, and also due to heavy seed predation (Perera, 1998). Over-extraction of fruits of
Terminalia bellirica, T. chebula and Phyllanthus emblica in savanna ecosystems (Jayasingham
and Wijesundara, 2007) and the unsustainable harvesting of fruits of Dialium ovoideum and M.
hexandra in dry forests are severe threats as these may cause a reduction of the availability of
propagules for their perpetuity in the wild.
Repeated disturbances in any disturbed ecosystem may lead to formation of disclimaxes.

Thus, grassland disclimaxes are retained by annual fires (Figure 8a) while frequent clearance
and/or burning in degraded dry forests would lead to formation of scrub jungle plagioclimaxes
dominated with light demanding shrub species. These repeated disturbances prevent the
recolonization of climax vegetation but may facilitate alien exotics to invade the area. Several
invasive plant species are reported in different dry land ecosystems and these invaders may
171
(a) Fire in a P. maximum dominated grassland at (b) Prosopis juliflora invaded land in Bundala forest.
Mawuara, Udawalawe
Figure 8
Figure 10. Die-back of M. hexandra in

Bundala National Park (Photograph by courtesy of
Mr. Udaya Gunarathne)
Figure 9. The dreadful invader: Bambusa bambos

in Minneriaya Forest
vary from region to region. Thus, Prosopis juliflora is found in coastal dry forests at Hambanthota
and Mannar districts (Figure 8b) while Bambusa bambos is a common invader in Minneriya and
Girithale forests in Polonnaruwa district (Figure 9). In contrast, Lantana camara is universally
distributed across the whole dry land of the country.
Heavy grazing and trampling by feral cattle and buffaloes are serious threats in occasionally
flooded dry land grasslands and seasonally flooded damp grasslands. Frequent grazing and
trampling expose the soil and facilitate the seeds of invasive species to grow. These ungulates
act as the seed dispersal agents of invasive species as well. Thus, L. camara invades in
grasslands at Udawalawe National Park while P. juliflora has invaded the areas closer to
lagoons in Hambanthota District.
Forest die-back is commonly seen in tropical semi-deciduous forests where the canopy
dominant M. hexandra trees are dying back (Figure 10). As the canopy of these forests consists
of only M. hexandra, its die-back would affect the forest structure and the micro-climate and
172
is very likely to devastate this ecosystem in the near future. Change of the global climate may
exaggerate this situation but this has not been adequately examined so far.
All the above mentioned threats directly or indirectly lead to the extinction of threatened species
from the dry land of the country. More than forty locally threatened plant species are found
from the dry land of Sri Lanka. Threats in the dry land habitats pose a greater impact on
endemic and rare plant species. For instance, nearly 30% of the endemic plants that grow in
the Sri Lankan dry land are under a the threat of extinction.
E. Conservation priorities
Conservation of dry zone terrestrial ecosystems is of prime importance for conserving the
species in these habitats. Using satellite imagery analyses, Legg and Jewel (1995) stated
that closed forests of the dry land of Sri Lanka covers 524,900 ha . The majority of these are
protected by the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department of Sri Lanka.
However, the wilderness is still being converted to other land uses from time to time while
unplanned and uncontrolled human activities are playing a significant role in their degradation.
Therefore, policies should be formulated and implemented to halt the conversion of wilderness
areas to other land use types and to prevent selective logging, shifting cultivation and cattle
ranching in protected areas. Moreover, the strengthening of relevant institutions is vital for the
protection of these ecosystems.
F. Research gaps and research needs
Some ecosystems of the country, especially the savanna and grassland ecosystems, are
not adequately investigated. The exact locations and the extent of these ecosystems are not
accurately documented while the ecological data required in preparing management guidelines
of these ecosystems hardly exist. The species composition, the eco-physiological requirements
of constituent species, biotic and abiotic factors that affect species composition, distribution and
vegetation successions and disturbance responses in these ecosystems should be examined.
Compared to these, the dry forest ecosystems have been studied to a certain extent, but more
studies should be conducted to fill certain gaps in the knowledge. Thus, future research should
focus on the eco-physiological requirements of dry forest plant species, pollination biology
and diseases as well as pathogens. Moreover, it is vital to investigate the impacts of climate
change and the potential for carbon sequestration in all these major dry land ecosystems. Also,
the restoration of degraded dry land ecosystems and sustainable harvesting mechanisms for
non-timber forest products should also be investigated in depth.
G. Conclusions and recommendations
Dry forests, savanna and grasslands are the three major natural terrestrial vegetation types
found in the dry land of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity in these ecosystems are adversely affected by
various biotic and abiotic influences such as habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation,
biotic invasions, forest die-back, over-extraction of forest products and climate change. These
facts highlight the importance of conserving the remaining natural dry land ecosystems of the
country. Protection of dry zone ecosystems should be strictly followed without converting the
remaining natural dry zone ecosystems to other land use types. Human impacts especially,
the shifting cultivation, selective logging and grazing by feral cattle should be stopped by
173
implementing proper regulations. Meanwhile, the local people should be directed to establish
home gardens and to incorporate timber, medicinal, fodder and fuel wood species in their home
gardens. The institutes responsible for preventing illegal human activities in natural ecosystems
and conserving these should be further strengthened by providing basic infrastructure and
human resources. However, it is also essential to conduct further research to fill the gaps of
knowledge of Sri Lankan dry land ecosystems while rehabilitating the degraded ecosystems.
H. References
Alwis, K. A. de and Eriyagama, G.J. 1969. Some observations on soil-vegetation relationships in the lowland dry
zone of Ceylon. Ceylon Forester, Vol. ix: Nos. 1&2. pp 53-71.
Archibold, O.W. 1995. Ecology of world vegetation. Chapman and Hall, USA. pp 510.
Brohier, R.L. 1941. The history of irrigation and agricultural colonization in Ceylon: The Tamankaduwa District and
the Elahera-Minneriya canal. Tharanjee Prints, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. pp 62.
Cole, M.M. 1986. The savannas: Biogeography and Geobotany. Academic Press Inc. USA. Pp 438.
Dassanayake, M.D. and Fosberg, F.R. 1980-2004. A revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Vol. I-XV, Amerind
Publishers, New Delhi, India.
de Jong, W., Chokkalingam, U. and Perera G.A.D. 2001. The evolution of swidden fallow secondary forests in Asia.
Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 13(4): 800-815.
de Rosayro R.A. 1950. Ecological conceptions and vegetational types with special reference to Ceylon. Tropical
Agriculturist. 106: 108-121.
de Rosayro R.A. 1959. Editorial notes: The place of forestry in the dry zone. Ceylon Forester, 4: 1-3.
de Rosayro R.A. 1961. The nature and the origin of secondary vegetational communities in Ceylon. Ceylon
Forester, 5: 23-49.
Fernando, R.H.S.S. 2010. Biodiversity of ecological communities and the biogeography of their species in three
isolated hills in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. Postgraduate Institute of Science, Peradeniya.
Greller, A.M and Balasubramanium, S. 1980. A preliminary floristic-climatic classification of the forests of Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka Forester, 14 (3/4): 163-169.
Gunatilleke, Nimal., Pethiyagoda, Rohan and Gunatilleke, Savitri. 2008. Biodiversity of Sri Lanka. J.Natn.Sci.
Foundation Sri Lanka. 36 Special Issue: 25-62.
Holmes 1956. The broad pattern of climate and vegetation distribution in Ceylon. Ceylon Foester, 3 (3-4): 265-288.
Holmes CH (1957) The natural regeneration of the wet and dry evergreen forests of Ceylon. Ceylon Forester, 3:
111-127.
Jayasingham, T. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. 2007. Sustainability of medicinal plant extraction and its impacts of
savannah grassland ecology in Nilgala. Protected Area Management and Wildlife Conservation Project,
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. pp 37.
Jayasuriya, AHM. 1984. Flora of Ritigala Strict nature Reserve. The Sri Lanka Forester, 16 : 60-156
Legg, C. and Jewell, N. 1995. A 1:50,000-scale forest map of Sri Lanka: the basis for a National Forest Geographic
system. The Sri Lanka Forester, special issue. pp 3-24.
Pemadasa, M.A. 1990. Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India. Journal of Biogeography, 17: 395-400.
Perera, D., Brown N.D. and Burslem D.F. 1995. Restoring the degraded dry zone woodlands of Sri Lanka. ITTO
Tropical Forest Update, 5: 8-10.
Perera, G.A.D. 1998. Regeneration and succession following shifting cultivation of dry tropical deciduous forests of
Sri Lanka. D.Phil thesis, University of Oxford, UK.
Perera, G.A.D. 2001 a. Secondary forest situation in Sri Lanka: a review. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 13(4):
768-785.
Perera, G.A.D. 2001 b. Vegetation and the Regeneration of moist deciduous forests at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. Phyta,
Journal of the Peradeniya University Botanical Society, Sri Lanka, 5(1): 9-16.
Perera, G.A.D. 2004. Factors affecting the vegetation succession of moist-deciduous forests at Sigiriya Sanctuary,
Sri Lanka. Abstracts of the 9th Annual Forestry and Environment Symposium, University of Sri Jayawardenapura
, Sri Lanka. p 21.
Perera, G.A.D. 2005. Diversity and Dynamics of the soil seed bank of a tropical deciduous forest at Sigiriya
Sanctuary, Sri Lanka. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 46 (1):65-78.
Perera, G.A.D. and Wijesooriya, S.M. 2007. Protected Area Management and Wildlife Conservation Project,
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. pp 1-46.
Rutnam P.W. 1959. Growth of plants under the shelter of natural forests in the dry zone. Ceylon Forester, 4: 224-
226.
Sezchowycz, R. W. 1954. Some observations on climate, soil & forest climax. Ceylon Forester, (N.S.) 1(2), 58-66.
174
Present status of Lowland Wet Zone Flora of Sri Lanka
H. S. Kathriarachchi
Department of Plant Sciences, University of Colombo
Introduction
Sri Lanka has an outstanding biodiversity because of its tropical climate, soil, topographical
variations, geographical location and its striking biogeographic history. Together with the
Western Ghats in India, Sri Lanka is considered as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots in
the world because of the high degree of endemism in fauna and flora and serious amount of
habitat loss (Ashton et al., 1997; Gunatilleke et al., 2004). The diverse array of ecosystems in
Sri Lanka harbors a wealth of plant species and they provide a habitat for many other species
as yet undiscovered.
Sri Lanka also has a diversity of climatic and floristic regions showing spatial variations in rainfall,
altitude and soil. Lowland wet zone represents the area below 1,000 m in elevation, spreading
in the southwestern quarter of Sri Lanka (Figure 1), mainly in the Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara,
Galle, Matara, Kegalle districts and part of Ratnapura (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b; Ministry
of Forestry and Environment, 1999).
Flora of the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka is largely distributed in the tropical lowland rainforests
- forests below 1,000 m altitude (Figure 1). These forests have an aseasonal wet climate and
generally receive 2500 – 5000 mm of mean annual rain fall without prominent dry spells. Mean
annual temperature is about 27oC at sea level. The lowland wet zone forests are classified by
de Rosayro (1950) as wet evergreen forest climax by Koelmeyer (1957) and Holmes (1956) as
wet tropical evergreen forests . These forests are confined to 2.14% (141,506 ha) of the total
land area of Sri Lanka (Ministry of Forestry and Environment, 1999).
SRI
Figure. 1 Map showing the forests in the south-west of Sri Lanka. Blue = Fragmented lowland
rain forests remaining in Sri Lanka, Green = Montane rain forests, Brown = Intermediate zone for-
ests, Yellow = Dry zone forests (Source: Somasekaram et al., 1997).
175
Floristic richness in Sri Lanka is significantly high in the lowland regions compared to the other
parts of the country. Even within the wet zone, the distribution of indigenous floristic elements
shows remarkable localization and one quarter of the angiosperm flora of Sri Lanka is endemic
and also concentrated in the perhumid southwest of the island (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke,
1990).
Floristic elements in the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka are relic and primeval in origin. Their
origin dates back to the Deccan plate and shares Gondwana-Deccan ancestry and are, by
far, the most species-rich biome in the whole of south Asia (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987a).
Remnants of these Deccan flora are now restricted to the fragments of lowland wet zone in Sri
Lanka and the south west region of India, and important in revealing biogeographic history of
South Asia.
Prominent plant taxa
Dipterocarpus community and the Mesua-Shorea (Doona) community are the two prominent
floristic comminutes in Sri Lankan lowland wet zone forests that comprise of dominant lowland
wet zone flora. In addition to that, lowland wet zone flora also exists in Campnosperma and
other species community and Vitex-Dillenia-Chaetocarpus-Anisophylla community, especially
in the early successional secondary forests (de Rosayro, 1942; Gunatilleke and Ashton,
1987b). Dominant plant species of these floristic communities are listed in the table below.
Dominant plant species of the different floristic communities in lowland wet zone forests
in Sri Lanka (de Rosayro, 1942; Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b).
Floristic community Dominant plant species
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Dipterocarpus hispidus, Vitex pinnata,

Dipterocarpus community Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Dillenia retusa, Dillenia triquetra,
Myristica dactyloides, Semecarpus gardneri
Mesua ferrea, Mesua thwaitesii, Shorea trapezifolia, Shorea zeylanica,
Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Palaquium petiolare, Mangifera
Mesua-Shorea (Doona)
zeylanica, Myristica dactyloides, Garcinia echinocarpa, Agrostistachys
community
coriacea, Lasianthus strigosus, Aporusa lindleyana, Humboldtia
laurifolia
Campnosperma zeylanica, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Palaquium

Campnosperma and
petiolare, Myristica dactyloides, Dillenia triquetra, Gaertnera vaginans,
other species community
Schumacheria castanaefolia, Thottea siliquosa, Syzygium neesianum,
Vitex pinnata, Dillenia triquetra, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus,

Anisophyllea cinnamomoides, Dillenia retusa, Myristica dactyloides,
Vitex-Dillenia- Semecarpus gardneri, Gyrinops walla, Cullenia spp., Mangifera
Chaetocarpus- zeylanica, Ochna wightiana, Xylopia championii, Garcinia
Anisophylla community echinocarpa, Diospyros insignis, Gaertnera vaginans, Thottea
siliquosa Schumacheria castanaefolia, Humboldtia laurifolia, Syzygium
corymbosum, Symplocos spicata
Dipterocarpaceae, Clusiaceae, Myrtaceae, Bombacaceae, Dilleniaceae, Euphorbiaceae and

Sapotaceae are the dominant plant families in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka.
176
Distribution
High degree of endemism is a distinctive feature of wet zone flora in Sri Lanka. Distribution
of endemic species in different climatic zones of Sri Lanka reveal that the wet lowlands
harbour 156 endemic tree species, 82 shrub species and 88 endemic herbs having the highest
number of endemics among all the climatic zones in Sri Lanka (Peeris, 1975; Gunatilleke and
Gunatilleke, 1990).
Many of the endemic flora in the lowland wet zone shows distinctive and extraordinary localized
patterns of species distribution confined to a single forest or a single cluster of forests blocks
within a highly dissected and variable topographic landscape from lowland coastal plains to high
altitude regions (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987a; Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991). Most of
these endemic taxa have very low population densities. 17% of the wet zone lowland endemic
flora is confined to the south-western front ranges of the southern block hills (Gunatilleke and
Ashton, 1987a). Stemonoporus moonii, a species of an endemic genus, and Mesua stylosa are
only recorded in Walauwatta-Waturana fresh water swamp forest in Bulathsinghala. Most of the
endemic Dipterocarps, and Clusiaceae species also show very restricted distribution patterns.
Flora of lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka shows a great specialization and are subjected to
strong habitat-based selection, resulting in many of the species with special ecological and
environmental niches and allowed closely related species to co-exist by occupying different
ecological niches. Sympatric distributions of congeneric species are remarkable features
of most tropical rainforests, also common among the lowland wet zone flora in Sri Lanka
(Gunatilleke et al., 2006). Species of Shorea section Doona, common canopy dominants in
lowland wet zone forests in Sri Lanka are good examples for sympatric distribution.
Distribution of lowland wet zone flora shows striking variations in relation to environmental
factors; disturbance, soil and altitude (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b). De Rosyro (1942)
also identified that soils play an important role for species distribution in lowland wet zone in
Sri Lanka. Dipterocarpus consociation is best distributed in coastal plains, valleys, and lower
slopes of lowland hills and rarely occurs above 750 m. Mesua-Shorea (Doona) community is
characteristic on skeletal soils on steep slopes between 450 – 900 m.
Threats and conservation priorities
Sri Lanka also has one of the densest human populations in Asia, with the result that much of
its original forests have been cleared for settlement, cultivation and production of timber. The
forest cover has decreased from 84% in 1881 to 23.9% in 1992 (Anon., 1995). Out of this,
only about 141,506 ha (2.14%) of lowland rain forests are now remaining in the island are
fragmented, degraded and isolated throughout the lowland wet zone in Sri Lanka.
Habitat destruction, fragmentation of natural habitats, introduction of exotic or invasive species,

and over-exploitation of forest resources are some of the direct threats to the lowland wet zone
ecosystem.
The wet zone forests of Sri Lanka are still the most productive timber yielding forests. As
a result, most of them have been already reduced to isolated fragments (Gunatilleke and
177
Gunatilleke, 1991). High population density of the lowland wet zone and the development
activities associated with the rapid increase of population and extensive dependence on
subsistence agriculture have caused considerable pressure on this biologically rich ecosystem
of the country. Human encroachment by communities living in the peripheral areas is another
major threat for this ecosystem. Habitat disturbance together with the fragmentation of the
forests caused several negative impacts to the ecosystem, for instance restricted dispersal,
isolation of populations, genetic erosion etc.
Considering the floristic wealth of lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka, in situ conservation of nationally
and globally threatened endemic plant species with special emphasis on their population sizes
should have high priority. A study conducted in nine different sites of lowland wet zone revealed
that 93% of endemic plant species are either endangered, vulnerable, or rare according to the
IUCN Red List criteria (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991). To provide in situ conservation for
many of these threatened endemics, the preservation of representative samples of rain forests
in different regions is strongly recommended (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991).
In the past, natural forests were largely used for the extraction of timber. Little attention was then
paid to other useful resources, largely non-timber, that were traditionally being extracted by the
peripheral communities around forests. However, these non-timber resources contributed to
the livelihood of the local people, who depended on the forests for their food, medicine and other
domestic requirements for generations (Anon., 1995; Gunatilleke et al., 1994). Conservation of
non-timber forest products through an effective buffer zone management system around the
lowland wet zone forests would certainly reduce the pressure on the ecosystem.
Sri Lanka has a strong tradition in conservation practiced by communities in harmony with, and
partial dependence on, the natural forests. Thus, it provides an excellent setting to examine
how these tropical rain forests can be managed for multiple uses, following a system that
is socially acceptable, ecologically sustainable and economically viable (Gunatilleke et al.,
1994). The multiple use management of natural forests, aims to increase the sustainable flow
of both timber and non-timber forest products, while maintaining their value for non-product
services such as biodiversity conservation, soil and water conservation, amenity and socio-
cultural values from natural forests for the benefit of the rural people (Gunatilleke et al., 1995).
Experience and the scientific and technical expertise in multiple use forest management
systems are currently lacking in Sri Lanka. Buffer zones can be recognized as one of the most
suitable and important areas to implement multiple use forest management, while providing a
variety of goods and services.
Considerable amount of research has been carried out, especially on lowland wet zone flora,
over the last 3-4 decades. These studies have substantially increased our understanding
on of the distribution of species, ecology, forest dynamics and silvicultural and management
practices of this ecosystem. However, following research gaps could be identified;
- Systematics and inventory of lower plants in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka
- Phylogenetics and evolutionary studies on plant taxa to elucidate the phylogenetic
relationships, biogegraphic history etc.
178
- Taxonomic research on closely related and problematic plant taxa using molecular
markers
- Population studies on threaten plant species
- Phenology and reproductive biology of plants
- Research on natural compounds obtained from lowland wet zone flora
- Ethnobotanical research
Conclusions
Lowland wet zone flora of Sri Lanka are extraordinary in terms of species richness, distribution,
high degree of endemism and their biogeographic history. Dipterocarpaceae, Clusiaceae,
Myrtaceae, Bombacaceae, Dilleniaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Sapotaceae are some of
the dominant plant families in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka. They dominate the lowland
rainforests that are fragmented, degraded and isolated throughout the lowland wet zone in Sri
Lanka. Habitat destruction, fragmentation of natural habitats, introduction of exotic or invasive
species, and over exploitation of forest resources are some of the direct threats to the lowland
wet zone ecosystem.
Conservation of nationally and globally threatened endemic plant species with special emphasis
on their population sizes is an urgent need. Multiple-use forest management systems can
be successfully applied to manage these ecosystem in a sustainable manner. Research on
lowland wet zone flora has substantially increased our understanding on the value and the
importance this ecosystem. However, research has to be more strengthened and extended to
fully appreciate and implement meaningful conservation strategies for this precious ecosystem.
References
Anon. (1995). Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan. Forestry planning unit, Ministry of agriculture, land and
forestry, Colombo.
Ashton, P.M., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Zoyza, N., Dassanayake, M.D., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., & Wijesundara, S. (1997).
A field guide to the common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. WHT Publications (Pvt) Ltd., Sri Lanka.
De Rosayro, R.A. (1942). The soils and ecology of the wet evergreen forests of Ceylon. The Tropical agriculturist,
98:4–35.
De Rosayro, R.A. (1950). Ecological conceptions and vegetational types with special reference to Ceylon. The
Tropical agriculturist, 56:108–121.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S & Ashton P.S. (1987a). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I. Historical plant geography.
Journal of Biogeography, 14: 249–285.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S & Ashton P.S. (1987b). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon II. The ecological biogeography
of the lowland endemic tree flora. Journal of Biogeography, 14: 295–327.
Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1990). Distribution of floristic richness and its conservation in Sri Lanka.
Conservation Biology, 4: 21-31.
Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1991). Threatened woody endemics of the wet lowlands of Sri Lanka
and their conservation. Conservation Biology, 55: 17-36.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Abeygunawardena, P. (1994). An interdisciplinary research initiative
towards sustainable management of forest resources in lowlands rain forest of Sri Lanka. Journal of Sustainable
Forestry, 4: 95-114.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I. A.U.N. & Ashton, P.M.S. (1995). Rain forest reseach and conservation: the
Sinharaja experience in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Forester, XXII (1&2): 49-60.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Ethugala, A.U.K., & Esufali, E. (2004). Ecology of Sinharaja rain Forest
and the Forest Dynamics Plot in Sri Lanka’s natural World Heritage Site. WHT publications (Pvt) Ltd., Sri
Lanka.
179
Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Esufali, S., Harms, K.E., Ashton, P.M.S., Burslem, D. F.R.P. & Ashton,
P.S. (2006). Species–habitat associations in a Sri Lankan dipterocarp forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 22:
371–384.
Hollems, C.H. (1956). The broad pattern of climate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester,
2: 209-225.
Koelmeyer, K.O. (1957). Climatic classification and distribution of vegetation in Ceylon. The Ceylon forester, 3:
144 - 163.
Ministry of Forestry and Environment (1999). Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka – A framework of Action.
Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Sri Lanka.
Peeris, C.V.S (1975). The ecology of endemic tree species of Sri Lanka in relation to their conservation. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Aberdeen, UK.
Somasekaram, T., Perera, M. P., de Silva, M. B. G., & Godellawatta, H. (Eds.). (1997). Arjuna’s Atlas of Sri Lanka.
Arjuna Consulting Co. Ltd., Sri Lanka, 32-35.
180
Present Status of Montane Forests in Sri Lanka
Siril Wijesundara
Department of National Botanic Gardens Peradeniya.
siril.wijesundara@gmail.com
In Sri Lanka the montane forests, also known as upper montane forests, occur at elevations
beyond 1500 m above mean sea level. They share an average temperature of about 16
degrees Celsius and rainfall of above 2000 mm without any marked dry periods, and humidity
above 80%.
It is characterized by a short canopy of about 13 m, with a dense shrub layer of about 3-4
m. Gnarled and twisted trees with rounded (umbrella-shaped) crowns with tiny, leathery leaves
to accommodate the strong winds that prevail. High density of epiphytes, epiphylls, mosses,
bryophytes and lichens are commonly found. Soils are red-yellow podzols. Keena (Calophyllum
walkeri), Damba (Syzygium revolutum) and S. rotundifolium make the abundant tree species
with Wal sapu (Magnolia nilagrica), Mihiriya (Gordonia ceylanica). Gregariously flowering Nelu
(Strobilanthes spp.) form a prominent shrub layer, while Usnea (Old man’s beard) is a distinct
lichen; epiphytic orchids such as Eria bicolor, Robiquetia brevifolia, and filmy ferns are common;
Sudu Binara (Exacum walkeri) is a distinct herbaceous flower. Pigmy forests or elfin forests are
found on top of Hakgala, Totapola and Knuckles, made of stunted trees of Ilex, Eurya, Syzygium
and shrubs such as Rhodomyrtus, Osbeckia, and Hedyotes (Wijesundara, 1991)
Montane forests once formed a more or less continuous cover or cap extending over almost
the entire third peneplain of Sri Lanka, encompassing the Pedro, Totapola and Adam’s peak
ranges, and the isolated Knuckles range (de Rosayro, 1946). At present only 3000 ha of
montane forests are left in the island. In addition to their role in water retention and release
in catchment areas in this country, montane forests are also the home of about 500 endemic
plant species which constitute about 50% of all the endemics in Sri Lanka (Peeris, 1975).
Trees in the montane forests are covered with mosses and lichens enabling them to intercept
mist effectively. According to some hydrological studies done, 25% of the precipitation received
by the montane forests in Horton Plains is due to mist interception (Gunawardena et al, 1998).
Despite their biological and hydrological importance, vast areas of these montane forests have
been cleared during the latter part of the 19th century for introduction of plantation crops such
as tea. Only about 3,100 ha of montane forests are remaining at present (MENR, 2009).
Flora and origin of the montane zone
More than half the species of our montane zone are endemic to it and not found in Nilgiri or
other hills of the Indian peninsula. However, about 20 species and 44 genera are common
to the South Indian and Sri Lankan hills (Blasco, 1971). There is not a single genus endemic
to the hills of either country or both combined, and the flora of Indo-Sri Lankan high lands is
considered as a southward extension of the Himalayan flora.
Dr. J. C. Willis, a former Director of Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya (1896-1912), analyzed
the hill top floras of Sri Lanka and supposed that the high degree of endemism in the montane
zone was due to isolation (Willis, 1908). He tabulated the proportion of hill top species with
181
different dispersal methods and found 6.5% wind dispersed species, 25.0% animal dispersed
species and 68.5% species with doubtful dispersal mechanisms.
A former Assistant Conservator of Forests, Mr. C.H. Holmes suggested that the montane forest
probably originated and developed as a lowland wet evergreen forest which subsequently
became much modified; the montane region, he believed, has been lifted upward by a tectonic
upheaval (Holmes, 1948). This was in accordance with an earlier view that the highlands
were formed comparatively recently by vertical block uplift of the crust along a very large fault
(Wadia,1941). Holmes (1956) suggested that the montane forest was a post-climax of the a
lowland wet evergreen forest, and considers a) the floristic affinities of the region, b) difficulties
of natural regeneration, c) better performance of sub-tropical or temperate species in the
montane zone and d) theories on geological prehistory, in support of his theory. It is clear that
this theory recognised the third peneplain which houses the montane forest as the youngest
erosional terrace, as suggested by Wadia purely on geomorphological grounds. Subsequent
studies, based on the structural and morphological aspects of the third peneplain, strongly
suggested that differential upwarping and differential erosion could account for the major levels
of denudation rather than block uplift (Vitanage, 1970).
Threats to Montane Vegetation
At present, natural forests in the montane zone are threatened by the rapid expansion of
vegetable gardens in their vicinity encroaching upon them and the excessive extraction of
firewood from them (Wijesundara, 1991). Strict control of such destructive activities is imperative
if the remaining areas of this forest type in the country are to be preserved for the future.
Human Disturbances
Montane forests are surrounded by several villages and as a result many people enter into them
for various purposes. Gathering firewood from the forest for heating the houses and cooking is
very frequent. In addition to this, many trees are cut by the local inhabitants for various other
domestic purposes such as fencing and staking their cultivations. Illicit gem mining is another
activity destroying the montane habitats. If these activities take place in a sustainable manner
the effects to the natural vegetation will be minimal. Unfortunately, the scale of these activities
has now gone beyond the sustainable level. Although all montane forests are protected areas,
these activities are going on without much hindrance.
The Forest Department and the Department of Wild Life Conservation, which administer these
reserves, do not seem to have sufficient staff and other resources to prevent these destructive
activities. They are also struggling to protect the forests from illicit encroachers who are trying
to clear the land belonging to the reserves for vegetable cultivation. Despite many protests by
the public and the authorities, recently, large areas belonging to Hakgala SNR were cleared at
Rendapola, Ambewela, Sita Eliya and Hakgala sides.
182
Death of trees in the montane forests
The dying of trees in Totapolakande forest of the montane zone imparting an unhealthy
appearance to the forests has been observed by a former Conservator of Forests,
Mr. W.R.H. Perera (Perera, 1978). The dying of trees in montane forests has also been
reported by de Rosayro (1946). Perera (1978) reported that over 50% of the dominant Kina
(Calophyllum) and Damba (Syzygium) trees on the slopes and summit of Totapolakande
were dead or dying, but trees of Rhododendron arboreum ssp. zeylanicum, common even
in montane grasslands, a large number of Nelu (Strobilanthes.) species and other shrubs in
the lower strata of the forest were found to grow well while the forest tree species failed to
regenerate. Several studies have been conducted on the dieback of montane forests in Sri
Lanka (Werner, 1988; Adikaram et al, 1999; Ranasinghe et al., 2009)
Widespread forest decline due to die-back is now a severe problem in many parts of the world.
Some of these countries include Europe, North America, New Zealand, former Soviet Union
and Pacific Islands. In Germany, it is reported that about 52% of the forest surveyed are
affected by this phenomenon.
In some cases the tree-death is due to natural causes. Die-back stands in such areas may
represent a senescing stage in the forest life cycle. Drastic changes in the climate such as
severe drought or flood can also cause natural die-back in forests (Werner, 1988). However, in
most industrial countries the death of forest trees is mainly due to human induced environmental
changes such as the pollution of atmosphere.
A study conducted by us (Wijesundara and Samarasinghe 1993) to examine floristic

composition of forest gaps in Horton Plains revealed that Nelu (Stobilanthes) species are
found in almost all gaps created by dieback. Gaps created by fire are different from those as
they are occupied by a fern, Pteridium revolutum. It was also observed that alien invasive
species such as Ageratina riparia, Austroeupatorium inulifolium and Cestrum aurantiacum are
invading the dieback gaps. Dieback of canopy trees was also observed in the Hakgala SNR,
which is a similar montane forest in the same region. Over 50% of the species were affected
by dieback. Observations made during the past two decades in the areas affected by forest
dieback reveal that the following changes have been taken place in the dieback stands.
a) Regeneration of the montane forest

b) Formation of a pigmy forest
c) Colonization of gaps by Nelu (Strobilanthes spp.)
d) Colonization of gaps by alien invasive species
Regeneration of montane forest can be seen in certain places where the number of dead
trees is less. New shoots are formed on the defoliated trunks and at the bases of the trees.
A formation of a pigmy forest in the gaps can be observed in areas where the wind action
is severely felt. In the area where the gaps are colonized by Nelu, a lesser number of tree
seedlings were observed. The dense growth of Nelu may suppress establishment of tree
seedlings. These nelu stands, which die en mass after several years, are being invaded by
grasses in some areas (Wijesundara, 1991).
183
Although the causal factors are not fully understood, widespread die-back could seriously
damage the vegetation in these areas (Adikaram et al., 1999). Whether the die-back stands
represent a senescing stage of the forest life cycle or whether it is due to human induced
environmental changes is not known. If it is a cyclic vegetational change where the gaps formed
by die-back stands represent only a regenerative phase, it is not harmful to the vegetation.
However, if the cycle is interrupted by an outside factor diverting it into a different direction
the existing vegetation will be affected. In other words, if an aggressive species invades the
gaps the natural regeneration will not take place. Tussocks of Gawara Mana (Chrysopogon
nodulibarbis) were observed in die back stands in the Horton Plains area, (Totapolakande and
Kirigalpotte) and in Pidurutalagala. On the peak of Hakgala Strict Natural Reserve also, there
is a small patch of grassland in the middle of a die-back stand.
Since the montane forests and wet patana grasslands are present side by side, there is always
a chance for propagules from each type to cross their boundaries. The stand level die-back in
the upper altitudes of the montane forests in Sri Lanka can lead to a decrease in the biodiversity.
Floristic composition and the structure of the affected areas will also be changed as a result. More
research is needed to determine whether the edaphic factors in die-back stands are conducive
to the establishment of grassland species. In some areas in the montane zone, the origin of
grassland could have been due to the stand level forest die-back (Wijesundara, 1991).
In the montane region the boundary between forest and the grassland is sharp; this is true for
other countries as well (Richards, 1963; Blasco, 1971). The sharpness of the edge of montane
forests is sometimes attributed to anthropogenic fire. Some speculate that in Sri Lanka the
present line of demarcation of forest and grassland is not the original line but a result of human
disturbances at a later stage.
Invasive species
The other serious threat to the montane vegetation is caused by the exotic species that have
escaped mainly from the Hakgala Botanic Gardens (Wijesundara, 1999). When a gap is
formed in the forest there is always a possibility of an exotic species with higher reproductive
vigour getting established there. This is taking place along the periphery of the Hakgala SNR
and already there are populations of such species that have invaded into the reserve. In the
southern areas there are large patches of Cestrum aurantiacum which sometimes spread into
the forest interior. The flowers of this species are pollinated by the endemic bird, Sri Lanka
white eye (Zosterops ceylonensis) and the seeds are dispersed by another endemic bird,
Yellow-eared bulbul (Pycnonotus penicillatus). It will be interesting to study the effect of the
changes of food preferences of these birds on the regeneration of natural forest plant species
(Wijesundara, 1991).
Almost all the foot paths in open areas and even the streams of some motane forests are lined
with such exotic weeds as Ageratina riparia and Aristea ecklonii. Aristea ecklonii is also found
in more open areas such as hill tops and grassland. More recently several other invasive
species were observed in the montane region. These include Calliandra calothyrsus, Miconia
calvescens, Psidium litorale, Pennisetum clandestinum, and Austroeupatorium inulifolium. The
effects of these alien species on the local vegetation should be an important study.
184
Conservation of our mountain forests for future has now become a priority more than in any
other time. Since it is a rapidly dwindling natural resource, timely steps should be taken to
prevent the destruction of what is remaining. If not, this important eco-system would disappear
from earth even before the intricacies of it are fully understood.
Conservation of our montane forests for future has now become a priority more than in any
other time. Since it is a rapidly dwindling natural resource, timely steps should be taken to
prevent the destruction of what is remaining; if not, this important eco-system would disappear
from the earth even before the intricacies of it are fully understood.
References
Adikaram, N. K. B., K. B. Ranawana, and A. Weerasooriya. 1999. Forest Dieback in Horton Plains National Park,
Protected Area Management & Wildlife Conservation Project, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka.
Blasco, F. 1971. Montagnes Du Sud de L’Inde. Inst. Franc. De Pondicherry. Trav. Sect. Scient. Techn. 10, (1) 436 p
De Rosayro, R. A. 1946. The montane grassland (patanas) of Ceylon. Tropical Agriculturist, Vol. CII,
No. 1, 4-16 pp.
Gunawardena, E. R. N., I. R. Calder, P. T .W. Rosier and N. Chandrasiri. 1998. Hydrological importance of Horton
Plains. In:Proceedings of the final workshop of the University of Peradeniya-Oxford Forestry Institute Link
Project (Ed: H.P.M.Gunasena), July 1998. pp: 45-63.
Holmes, C. H. 1948. Some forestry problems in Ceylon and the search for their solution. Proceedings of the 4th
Annual Session of the Ceylon Association for the Advancement of Science 41-68 pp.
Holmes, C. H. 1956. The broad pattern of climate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester, 2,
4 (N.S.), 207-225 pp.
MENR 2009. Sri Lanka Environment Outlook. Ministry of environment and UNEP. 140 p.
Peeris, C. V. S. 1975. The ecology of endemic tree species in Sri Lanka in relation to their conservation. Ph.D.
thesis, University of Aberdeen, U.K.
Perera, W. R. H. 1978 Totapolakande: an environmental disaster. Sri Lanka Forester, 13 (3-4), (N.S.), 53-55 pp.
Ranasinghe, P.N., G. W. A. R. Fernando, M. D. N. R. Wimalasena, S. P. Ekanayake and Y. P. S. Siriwardana.
(2009). Dieback in Tropical Montane Forests of Sri Lanka: Anthopogenic or natural phenomenon? Journal of
Geological Society of Sri Lanka Vol. 13 (2009), 23-45 pp.
Richards, P. W. 1963 Ecological notes on the West African vegetation. Journal of Ecology, 51 (3), 529-554 pp.
Vitanage, P.W. 1970. A study of the geomorphology and morphotectonics of Ceylon. Proc. Second
Seminar on geochemical prospecting methods and techniques ECTFT/UNESCO GSM (2),
89-25-11. 391-405 pp.
Wadia, D.N. 1941 The making of Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica. National Museum of Ceylon Publ. Colombo. 23, 1-7 pp.
Werner, W.L., 1988. Canopy dieback in the upper Montane rin forests of Sri Lanka. Geojournal
17(2): 245-248
Wijesundara, D. S. A. 1991 Phytosociology of a Montane Forest in Sri Lanka. M.Phil Thesis, University of Peradeniya
165 p
Wijesundara D. S. A. and D. Samarasinghe. 1993. Disturbed grasslands in Horton Plains National Park. Proc
SLAAS. 49.
Wijesundara, D. S. A. 1999 Alien Invasive Species in Sri Lanka and their history of introduction. In Marambe, B (ed).
Proceedings of the First national Workshop on Alien Invasive Species. Ministry of Forestry and Environment,
Sri Lanka 25-27 pp.
Wijesundara, D. S. A. 2003. Dieback in the Montane forests of Sri Lanka. In Hitinayake, G. (Ed.). Proceedings of
the workshop on forest dieback at central highland ecosystems. Sri Lanka Association of Advancement of
Science. 4-11 pp.
Willis, J. C. 1908 The floras of Hill Tops in Ceylon. . Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 4. (4) 131-
138 pp.
185
Present Status of Fresh Water Aquatic Flora in Sri Lanka
Deepthi Yakandawala
Department of Botany, University of Perdeniya
Introduction
Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean. However, only four percent of the
country’s land area is covered by water (FAO, 2011). Those land areas that are permanently
or seasonally inundated together with its floral and faunal communities are considered as
an aquatic ecosystem. The fresh aquatic ecosystems of the country include rivers, streams,
marshes, swamp forests and villus. Apart from these natural habitats, man-made tanks,
reservoirs, and rice fields also contribute to the diversity. Based on the definition of the RAMSAR
convention (1987), all these ecosystems are broadly defined as wetlands.
Sri Lanka has an extensive network of rivers and streams, most of which arise from the south-
central massif that rises to 2500 m above sea level. In all, there are 103 distinct natural rivers
many of which are perennial, while those in the dry zone are seasonal. The Mahaweli river
basin which drains 16% of the island (Madduma Bandara, 2000), carries water from the wet
zone to the dry zone, supporting many marshes, riverine vegetation, and flood plains. A fresh
water marsh is a shallow depression receiving water from a river either directly or by surface
run-off of river floods and ground water seepage. The Muthurajawela marsh is the longest
peat bog in Sri Lanka and, together with the Negombo estuary, forms an integrated coastal
wetland ecosystem extending over 6,232 ha (CEA/Euroconsult, 1994a). Several fresh water
marshes are found within the Wilpattu National Park in the lowland dry zone. Horton Plains
represent montane grassland marshes at an altitude of 2000 m. The late succession stage of
a fresh water marsh is referred as a fresh water swamp forest. Fresh water swamps comprise
of trees that are adapted to grow in shallow stagnant water and are inundated seasonally with
river water. Fresh water swamps are considered the rarest wetland type in Sri Lanka and
the Walauwatta-Wathurana swamp forest, located in the Kalu Ganga river basin, is a typical
example that extends 12 ha in the southwestern part of the island (CEA/Euroconsult, 1994b).
Even though there are no large natural lakes in the island, a number of flood plain lakes that
are commonly referred to as villu, occur in the dry zone. These extend over a total area of
12,500 ha, the largest being the inter-connected Handapan and Pendiya villu system of the
Mahaweli villu system (CEA/Euroconsult, 1995).
Owing to its unique hydraulic civilization, Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich array of man-
made lakes and canals accounting over 10,000 countrywide, covering more than 127,070
ha (Jayasinghe, 2000), especially in the dry zone. They range from small and medium sized
tanks such as Thithawella tank (Kurunegala) to larger tanks/reservoirs such as the Parakrama
Samudraya. Associated with these are paddy fields characterized by the presence of seasonal
standing waters contributing to agronomically managed marshes that extend over 12%
(708,000 ha) of total land area. Paddy is cultivated in all the agro-ecological zones except at
very high elevations. Victoria, Randenigala, Rantambe and Kotmale are recent reservoirs that
were added into the list. Man-made wetlands are broadly categorized into three groups, which
are further divided in to nine different wetland types: Aqua-cultural (fish and shrimp ponds),
Agricultural (farm/small tanks, irrigated land, and seasonal flooded fields) and Industrial/urban
186
(saltpans, reservoirs, gravel/brick pits, sewage/treatment ponds and canals) (Kotagama and
Bambaradeniya, 2006).
Wetland ecosystems are amongst the most productive ecosystems in the world that support
many kinds of life. Wetlands always have influenced humans from the time of early civilization,
which first arose along the edges of rivers in the fertile soils of the flood plains. They provide an
array of human benefits including food and drinking water, raw material, and medicinal herbs.
Further, many waterfalls and major rivers have been utilized for generating hydro-electricity.
Wetlands are considered as the transitional zone between land and water and provide several
ecological functions such as ground water buffering and reducing pollution. They also provide
recreation sites full of wildlife; Bundala National Park, Anawilundawa Sanctuary and Wilpattu
National Park being few of them. Aquatic flora play a key role in these wetland ecosystems
providing habitats to fauna. Amongst the total inland vertebrate species in Sri Lanka, about
30% are ecologically dependent on wetlands (Kotagama and Bambaradeniya, 2006). Further,
over 50% of the migratory birds that visit Sri Lanka annually are directly dependent on wetlands
for food and shelter. Moreover, the future survival of approximately 32% of the nationally
threatened vertebrate species in Sri Lanka is dependent on wetland ecosystems of the island
(Kotagama and Bambaradeniya, 2006).
Prominent plants and Distribution
The definition of the term "aquatic" can be subject to various interpretations. Aquatic plants
or wetland plants themselves however, do not always fit rigid definitions. Aquatic plants are
also referred to as hydrophytes or aquatic macrophytes. The wetland plants do not belong to
a particular plant family, have rather derived from several terrestrial families, and are adapted
to live in aquatic environments by developing similar modifications. These include large
air spaces within their leaves, stems and roots, presence of both underwater and floating
leaves, thin and often finely dissected leaves, thick waxy leaves, and specialized pollination
mechanisms. In addition, many aquatic plants also show a great variation in growth patterns.
For instance Water-hyacinth, floating at the water surface has typical bulbous leaf petiole, but
when rooted the leaf-petiole elongates losing its bulbous form. The species composition and
the appearance of an aquatic ecosystem vary both with time and among the wetland sites.
The marshes are characterized by tall grasses, sedges and herbaceous plants while lake
vegetation is characterized by emergent plants towards the periphery and floating aquatics
dominating the water surface.
Four categories (growth forms) of aquatic plants may be recognized on the basis of their
attachment to the soil and their position in relation to the water surface:
(1) Free-floating plants: Plants that are floating at the surface or beneath the surface. They
are typically not rooted to the soil at the bottom, but in shallow water or where they are
stranded on the shore by a drop in the water level, they may become rooted. The leaves
may stand above the surface (e.g. Pistia and Eichhornia), at the surface (e.g. Wolffia), or
the whole plant may float beneath the surface (e.g. Ceratophyllum). These plants occur in
shallow or deep water.
(2) Plants rooted at the bottom, with leaves floating at the surface: These plants could be
either with short or long rhizomes at the bottom, and large leaf-blades at the ends of long
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petioles (e.g. Nymphaea), or with long stems rising through the water, bearing leaves with
relatively short petioles (e.g. Nymphoides).
(3) Submerged plants: Plants that are generally rooted at the bottom, and the vegetative parts
entirely submerged. At the time of flowering, the flowers and some leaves may emerge
from the water. These plants could be thallus-like, attached to rocks (members of the
family Podostemaceae), with long stems rising through the water bearing leaves, and
rooting at the nodes (e.g. Hydrilla), or with short stems bearing leaves in a basal rosette,
and often producing stolons (e.g. Blyxa). These plants are restricted to depths where
sufficient light reaches them through the water for photosynthesis.
(4) Emergent plants: Often with rhizomes, rooted in mud, with shoots emerging above the
water (grasses and sedges). These plants occur in relatively shallow water or towards the
periphery of a water-body.
Sri Lanka harbors over 370 aquatic or wetland plant species of which 12% are endemic to
the country. The aquatic flora include 135 Eudicots, 205 Monocots, 4 members belonging to
super-orders Nymphaeanae and Ceratophyllanae, and 28 ferns and fern allies. The island’s
aquatic flora is taxonomically placed under 64 families of which 28 are Eudicot families, 24 are
Monocot families while 14 are ferns and fern allied families. The families with entirely aquatic
members include Alismataceae, Aponogetonaceae, Cabombaceae, Ceratophyllaceae,
Hydrocharitaceae, Menyanthaceae, Najadaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Nelumbonaceae,
Podostemaceae, and Potamogetonaceae. The largest aquatic plant family, the Cyperaceae
(Sedges), has 69 species followed by the Scrophulariaceae and Poaceae (Grasses).
Hydrocharitaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Commelinaceae and Asteraceae also have
a considerable number of aquatic members. All these aquatic species are native to the country,
except for few species such as Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub., Limnocharis flava (L.)
Buchenau and Salvinia molesta D. Mitch., that are recent introductions and have spread rapidly
and become naturalized in many parts of the country. Forty one (41%) percent of the island’s
aquatic flora are now threatened and listed under different categories during the present Red
Listing. This needs to be considered seriously during the preparation and implementing of the
wetland conservation and management plan. Three percent (3%) of aquatics are considered
under the Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)) while 5.6% are considered under the Critically
Endangered (CR). Most plants under both these categories are distributed in the lowland wet
zone in and along small and large streams, and rivers, swamps, marshes and paddy fields,
especially in the Kalutara, Colombo, Ratnapura and Kegalle districts. The rocky rapids of the
Mahaweli river in the Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area in Kandy are another site that harbors many
of these plants. The Endangered category (EN) accounts for 12% of aquatic flora while the
Vulnerable and the Near Threatened categories (NT) account for 10% and 10.6% respectively.
The family Araceae harbors the highest number of endemics which include 10 species of
the genus Cryptocoryne and 7 Lagenandra species. Cryptocoryne is a very vulnerable
genus where all of its members have been recognized as threatened in the past and present
evaluations for Red Listing. The Cryptocoryne mainly occurs in the south-western lowland
ever-green rain forests, central midlands, central western lowlands in the semi-deciduous
monsoon forests having a seasonal change in precipitation and few are scattered in the
dry zone riverine forests. These species mostly thrive in slow running water or seasonally
inundated soils. They occur both submerged or emerged depending on the growth stage,
vegetative or reproductive. Five Cryptocoryne are placed under the Critically Endangered
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category (CR); three under Endangered category (EN), while the other two under Vulnerable
(VU) category. Many of these species are restricted to the Kalutara and Ratnapura districts in
the low wetlands and the banks of the Mahaweli river in Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy.
One of the six endemics in the genus Lagenandra is recognized under Critically Endangered
category (CR) while the others are under the Endangered category (EN). All these species
are restricted to the wet zone and occur mainly along the river banks. Lagenandra erosa
de Wit is listed under the Critically Endangered category (CR) with concern as its locality is
unknown. However, it evidently occurs in the wetzone of the country (http://crypts.home.xs4all.
nl/Lagenandra/Gallery/distribution.html). Lagenandra thwaitesii Engler with a silver margin on
its blade is restricted to Kalutara, Galle and Ratnapura districts, and has a high demand as an
ornamental aquatic. Woffia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimmer is a minute free-floating native plant
of the family Araceae with a thallus of about 1 mm in width and is considered to be the smallest
vascular plant on the earth. The plant produces a minute flower with a single stamen and pistil.
It often multiplies vegetatively, where the rounded part buds off into a new individual. The plant
occurs in the North Central province and is considered Endangered (EN). The genus Lemna
harbors two species of which L. gibba L., recorded from Colombo, is now considered under
Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)).
The 69 species recorded in the family Cyperaceae are distributed among 17 genera where
Cyperus records the highest number of 17 species, followed by the genus Fimbristylis (12
species). The family includes five endemics, of which Eleocharis lankana T. Koyama confined
to lowland marshes, especially Colombo district, Fimbristylis zeylanica T. Koyama confined to
the marshes of the Wilpattu National Park and Mapania immersa (Thw.) Benth ex Clarke that
confined to the Kalutara district are listed as Critically Endangered. In addition, three other
natives, Eleocharis confervoides (Poir.) T. Koyama, Rhynchospora chinensis Nees & Meyen
ex Nees and R. triflora Vahl are now considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)).
The family Scrophulariaceae bears 33 species belonging to 11 genera of which three are
endemic. Adenosma subrepens (Thw.) Benth. ex Hook. f., a very highly threatened endemic
restricted to Ratnapura district, and Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr., a native confined to
wet places, including paddy fields, in the Kalutara and Badulla districts are now listed under
the Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)).
The Grass family or the Poaceae records 30 species belonging to 20 genera with two
Endangered (EN) endemic species, Arundinaria densifolia Munro and Eulalia thwaitesii (Hack.)
Kuntze; both are confined to Nuwara Eliya district.
The family Eriocaulaceae with a capitulum-like inflorescence and wind pollinated flowers
superficially resembles the grasses, sedges, and rushes. Five endemic members are among the
sixteen aquatics in the genus Eriocaulon where one species, Eriocaulon fergusonii (Moldenke)
S.M. Phillips, was recorded from marshlands of Colombo and Galle districts and is considered
under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)). Eriocaulon trimeni Hook.f. is a very rare species
recorded from the Matale district and is listed under Critically Endangered category (CR).
The family Aponogetonaceae is represented by four members of the genus Aponogeton, with
two endemic members. Aponogeton jacobsenii Bruggen is restricted to the highlands, especially
Nuwara Eliya and the Horton plains and considered as Critically Endangered while A. rigidifolius
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Bruggen is restricted to the lowland wet zone and Endangered (EN). However, although not
endemic, A. natans (L.) Engler & Krause and A. crispus Thunb. are both considered as rare
and threatened due to over exploitation in the wild and are in the Vulnerable category (VU).
Podostemaceae is a family with plants of very unusual vegetative form. Seven members are
recorded in the country with two endemics. They are more or less thalloid, growing on rocks
in fast-flowing rivers or cataracts and could be considered a highly threatened group of plants.
The rapids of the Mahaweli river at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy provid the habitat for
six of these species including the endemics. Both endemics, Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen)
Willis ex Hook.f. and Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner) J.B.Hall are considered as Vulnerable
(VU),while Polypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B. Hallis is listed as Critically Endangered (CR).
However, Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl., recorded as confined to the river rapids of the
montane region, is now considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)).
Two aquatic carnivorous plant families are recorded in the island. The family Droseraceae
includes insectivorous herbs with leaves set with sticky glandular hairs holding down and
digesting insects. Drosera burmanni Vahl and D. indica L. show a wider distribution but are
still recognized under the Vulnerable category (VU) due to threats on its habitats, while D.
peltata Smith, restricted to the highlands, especially Nuwara Eliya and Badulla districts, is
listed under Endangered category (EN). The genus Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) harbors
fifteen carnivorous herbs with specialized organs (traps/bladders) to capture and digest small
organisms. Utricularia moniliformis P. Taylor is the only endemic member listed under the
Vulnerable category (VU) and is restricted to Kandy and Nuwara Eliya districts while the other
species show a wider distribution in lowland dry and wet zones. However, due to the habitat
disruption, many of the native species have also been affected; seven of them are now listed
under various categories during the present Red Listing.
Threats
The aquatic ecosystems have been affected throughout the history by various anthropogenic
threats, habitat deterioration/degradation, over exploitation of species and alien invasions. The
Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989) documents several threats where siltation has been
a frequently reported threat for the listed wetland sites of the island. Considering different
ecosystems, the aquatic ecosystem is unique as it is vulnerable to direct human activities as
well as many indirect human activities that are distant-based rather than on-site.
Habitat deterioration/degradation: Habitat deterioration/degradation is caused by on-site

activities as well as distant-based human activities. The aquatic ecosystems are vulnerable
mostly due to the latter. Kotagama and Bambaradeniya (2006) identified reclamation, clearing
of vegetation, water pollution (through organic pollution, other chemical effluents and sewage
disposal), regulation of water flow, unplanned irrigation structures and mining as the major
causes for wet land deterioration/degradation. Reclamation for infrastructure development,
construction of aquaculture ponds, more recently due to security reasons and further dumping
of domestic and municipal waste have affected wetlands, especially those in urban areas such
as Bellanwilla-Attidiya marsh (CEA/ Euroconsult, 1993). This site is one of the recorded sites
for Critically Endangered endemic sedge Eleocharis lankana T. Koyama, confined to lowland
marshes. Illegal reclamation for human settlement, dumping of garbage, chemical pollution
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and eutrophication (due to agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, and residues from illegal
breweries) are major threats identified for the Muthurajawela marshes (IUCN Sri Lanka and
CEA, 2006). This marsh is a habitat for threatened aquatics, Aponogeton natans (L.) Engler
& Krause, Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) G. Bruckn. and Nympoides aurantiacea (Dalz.) Krutze.
Construction of dams across major rivers, especially the Mahaweli, has affected the downstream
vegetation. Due to further diversion and impoundments in the upstream areas of the Mahaweli
river, the water flow has been reduced causing the drying up of about one third of the villus in
the Mahaweil villu system and affecting the aquatics. Further, this has facilitated the spread
of alien plants such as Eichhornia crassipes, Xanthium indicum Koenig and Salvinia molesta
affecting the natural villu vegetation (IUCN Sri Lanka and CEA, 2006). These villus also harbor
wild relatives of rice such as Oryza rufipogon Griffith and O. eichingeri Peter.
Apart from these threats, construction of mini-hydropower plants at a rapid rate during the
past few years has added to deterioration of many habitats of aquatic plants. One of the most
affected groups being the family Podostemaceae, a group of flowering plants that only grows
on stones in rapidly flowing streams and rivers with changing water levels. Due to this habitat
preference, it occurs only in few specific localities and is difficult to be conserved under in situ
conditions. The richest site for these members at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area of the Mahaweli
river is presently being disturbed by the construction of a mini-hydropower plant. Farmeria
metzgerioides (Trimen) Willis ex Hook.f. and Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner) J.B.Hall are
endemic members of the seven species of Podostemaceae recorded in Sri Lanka while six
of them, including the two endemics, are found at this location. The blasting of large rocks
in the river has directly affected the aquatic vegetation while the resulting reduction of water
flow will affect the downstream vegetation. In addition four Cryptocoryne species have been
recorded as occurring in the rapids at this location. Cryptocoryne parva de Wit grows closest
to the water where the course is rapid. Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott grows in a little further up,
but is also rather exposed, while C. beckettii Trimen and C. undulata Wendt. are found even
further up on the banks. The hybrid, C. x willisii Reitz is found in several locations, both low
and high, in the shade and the sun (Jacobsen, 1986). The construction of the Upper Kotmale
hydropower project and restriction of downstream water flow have affected many downstream
plants including Zeylanidium subulatum (Gardner) C. Cusset and Z. olivaceum (Gardner) Engl.
of the Podostemaceae.
Further, illegal constructions and dumping of soils along water courses, including the main
rivers, cause a serious threat to riverine vegetation, including species such as Lagenandra and
Hygrophila. The Mahaweli river along Peradeniya to Katugastota, on both sides of the bank,
could be identified as one of the severely affected areas due to development activities along
the river bank. This stretch once again includes the Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, one of the
richest aquatic floral habitats providing home to three Critically Endangered (two endemics and
one native), three Endangered (one endemic and two native), three Vulnerable (endemic) and
one native Endangered species. Encroachments for settlement, building of hotels bordering
the river, and utilising of the river banks for waste disposal and dumping could be witnessed
and are still continuing at an alarming rate.
Over-exploitation of species: Many aquatic plants, especially the species with an ornamental
value, are being extracted from the wild. Over-exploitation of species has led to a decline in
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populations of species such as Cryptocoryne, Aponogeton and Lagenandra. Even though
rules and regulations exist, many exporters have their own undisclosed suppliers and areas for
collection which include the Kelani Valley basin and small streams in areas such as Mawanelle,
Avissawella, Bulathkohupitiya, Ruwanwella and Yatiyantota in the Lowland and central wet zone
of Sri Lanka (Seneviratne, 2002) and dry zone rivers including Malwathu oya and Kuda oya.
Alien invasions: Many ornamental aquatic Invasive Alien Species (IAS) have been
encountered in the country’s water bodies in the past, where ‘Japan Jabara’ or Water hyacinth
(E. crassipes) is one of the best examples which has become a menace to aquatic eco-
systems. Salvinia molesta, a free floating water fern, has also established its name in the
invasive alien species list being only second to E. crassipes. Pistia stratiotes, even though it
has not set records, is another alien invasive species that has got established in local water
bodies drawing considerable attention. These plants still continue to cause a threat to the
native aquatics in many wetlands including Bellanwila-Attidiya marshes, Anaiwilundawa, and
Kalametiya & Lunama Kalpuwa wetlands, and many reservoirs. Several dry zone lakes have
been infested with E. crassipes during the restoration of tanks for agriculture in the recent
years. Further, the floods in 2011 in the dry zone have facilitated the spread of E. crassipes into
new destinations, infesting new water bodies.
Apart from these invasives, several other plants could be identified as naturalized aquatics in
local water bodies, notably Vallisnaria spirallis L., Egeria densa Planch. and Cabomba caroliniana
A.Gray. Yakandawala and Yakandawala (2007) reported three other additions Ludwigia sedioides
(Humb. & Bonpl.) H.Hara, Mayaca fluviatilis Aubl. and Echinodorus spp., found in the local water
bodies in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. All three plants are popular aquatics in aquariums
and landscaping. The most recent addition to the list is of great interest as it opened up a
new chapter in invasive alien plant research in Sri Lanka while highlighting the importance of
Plant Systematics and proper identification of organisms. The flawed identification of a violet
flowered water-lily as Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. and subsequently narrating as the national
flower of Sri Lanka (‘Nil manel’), have overlooked its threat to the local biota and invasiveness.
This exotic violet flowered water lily has been silently invading the local water bodies where it
went unnoticed due to the erroneous identification and its popularity as an ornamental plant.
Studies have further revealed hybrid populations between the native N. nouchali and the alien
violet flowered Nymphaea with intermediate characters (Yakandawala and Yakandawala, 2011).
Global researches have attributed the origin of invasiveness to hybridization, especially between a
native and invasive alien species and where the native is at a risk of extinction (Yakandawala and
Yakandawala, 2011 and references therein). The detection of hybrid populations of Nymphaea
has opened up avenues to initiate studies locally on this novel area of hybridization between
natives and invasive alien species.
Even though Sri Lanka harbors a larger number of naturally occurring aquatics, there is a high
demand for certain exotic aquatic plants in the export market. This has resulted in the private
sector importation of exotic plants into the country for propagation and exportation. According
to recent studies 386 plant species are traded as ornamental aquatic plants in the country
(Yakandawala, et al., unpublished). The plants belongs to 46 plant families that included
39 angiosperm families with 64 genera, 6 fern/fern allies with 6 genera and 1 liverwort. Of
the recorded ornamental aquatic plants, 76% were non-natives or exotics. The list included
two plants that are currently listed on the IAS list in Sri Lanka of which one is on the global
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IAS list (Eichhornia crassipes). The list also includes two exotic Salvinia sp. Further three
plant species, Ludwigia sedioides, Mayaca fluviatilis, and Echinodorus spp., are identified as
potential invasive plants in the country (Yakandawala and Yakandawala, 2007). Even a small
fragment of 2 cm in length of M. fluviatilis is capable of developing into a new plant. Therefore,
the mechanical control of these plants should be carried out with utmost care (Yakandawala
and Dissanayake, 2010). It is also noted with caution that 35 Echinodorus species, including
varieties, are currently circulated in the local market. The plants exhibit an effective mode
of reproduction by developing plantlets from florets of the submerged inflorescence in large
numbers. According to the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2012) 32% of the plants
traded in Sri Lanka as ornamental aquatic plants are recognized for their invasive behavior
elsewhere in the world.
Conservation priorities
Amidst the conservation initiatives, majority of the wetlands and other aquatic ecosystems in Sri
Lanka are under threat due to adverse anthropogenic activities. Within the context of speedy
development and population growth, conservation of wetlands together with its biodiversity is
a challenge.
At present, several government and non-government organizations are involved in wetland

conservation and management related activities in the country. The Directory of Asian Wetlands
(Scott, 1989) lists 41 wetlands as critically important due to their high biodiversity and extent
to which they are threatened by anthropogenic causes. The National Wetland Steering
Committee (NWSC), through national workshops and surveys, recognised another 45 wetland
sites to the list. Sri Lanka signed the RAMSAR Convention on Conservation of Internationally
important wetlands in 1971, but this was ratified only in 1990. At present three wetlands,
Bundala National Park, Anaiwilundawa ancient cascading tank system and the Maduganga
estuary and mangrove ecosystem have hitherto been declared as RAMSAR wetland sites.
The National Wetland Conservation Project of the Central Environmental Authority resulted in
the preparation of wetland site reports, management plans and guiding texts for a number of
wetlands. Presently, the Wetland Management Unit of the Central Environmental Authority is
in the process of updating and maintaining the wetland data base which would be the basis for
upgrading the National Wetland Directory.
As conservation priorities the following could be highlighted; (1) Based on the existing wetland
site reports and conservation management plans, identification of vulnerable wetlands with
rich biodiversity have to be made with the view of upgrading their conservation status, (2)
Preparation of wetland site reports and conservation management plans for other wetlands
that were not covered by previous surveys would facilitate the demarcation of boundaries and
construction of site maps. Demarcation of boundaries or reservation areas, especially for the
riverine vegetation, should be considered as high priority. The riverine vegetation is declining in
an alarming rate owing to habitat destruction as a consequence of development activities and
dumping, (3) Surveying wetland sites in the North and Northeast of the island should be initiated
immediately in order to address critical management issues since development activities
have already been initiated, (4) In the event of a large scale disturbance to a wetland habitat
(i.e. filling of wetlands for development, alteration in the downstream flow during construction
of dams, etc.), the aquatic vegetation must be managed in a systematic manner. This will
193
The rapids of the Mahaweli river at Gannoruwa- The rapids of the Mahaweli river at Gannoruwa-
Hallolluwa area, Kandy - a site for many threatened Hallolluwa area, Kandy – after being disturbed by the
aquatics, before being disturbed by the constructions construction of the mini-hydropower plant.
of the a mini-hydropower plant. Note the members of
the family Podostemaceae on the rock surface close
to water.
Ludwigia sedioides and Echinodorus spp., invading Native Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. – at present is
natural water bodies in the lowlands threatened by an exotic water lily
enable the conservation of vulnerable species in the habitat, (5) As a solution for the loss of
vulnerable endemic ornamental aquatic plants due to over-exploitation, mass propagation of
plants in demand must be encouraged, and (6) Monitoring of aquatic plant propagation units,
and introduction of a code of conduct for aquatic plant nurseries will reduce the risk of plant
propagules entering local water bodies.
Research gaps and research needs:
A considerable amount of research has been conducted on the wetlands of Sri Lanka over the
years, covering many aspects. However, a few areas that need focus are,
- Detailed taxonomic studies on wetland plants with their correct identification need to be
completed. This will also answer several other questions and gaps:
o Probable location of aquatic plants listed under CR(PE) and CR categories
o Descriptions of poorly known aquatic plants species
o Completion of aquatic plant species list for each wetland site in the island
o Early detection of any potential threats from alien species
o Taxonomic revision of aquatic taxa with ambiguities
194
- With the introduction of exotic aquatic species into the wetlands, studies of possible
hybridization between natives and invasive alien species must be initiated.
- Identifying native plants with potential ornamental value and, developing mass
propagation techniques to reduce the risk of over exploitation from the wild.
- Introducing molecular tools for rapid identification of aquatic plants that are exported,
especially as bulbs or plantlets at the exit points.
- Further research into wetland processes, dynamics and management.
The wetland site reports and conservation management plans under the Wetland Conservation
project - Sri Lanka (IUCN Sri Lanka and CEA, 2006 and other wetland site reports), the
National Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management (IUCN Sri Lanka, 2004) and
Van Zon (2004) have identified several conservation priorities and made recommendations for
the conservation and management of wetlands in Sri Lanka. Identification of the difficulties in
implementing these recommendations should be a priority, apart from the following:
- Conduct a policy, legal and institutional analysis related to wetland conservation and
management plans and identify short comings (capacity, infrastructure etc.). This would
strengthen inter-institutional mechanisms, legislative frameworks and law enforcement.
Inter-sectorial linkages should be established among essential authorities who are the
custodians of the wetland ecosystems in order to achieve sustainable development
associated with wet lands.
- Promote community and stakeholder participation, and private sector involvement in
conservation of wetlands.
- Regulate and manage the species exploitation for trade.
- Compile a comprehensive inventory on wetland plant species through a systematic
field survey.
- Establish a sustainable financing mechanisms through local and foreign sources for
the management and setting up of monitoring programmes.
- Initiate pathways for effective implementation of research findings by the relevant
stakeholders to address conservation and management issues of the wetland
ecosystems.
- Focus awareness programmes on all components viz., avifauna, aquatic flora and
recreational potential that constitute to the importance of a wetland, in order to change
the public’s attitude towards aquatic plants. Currently, wetlands are treasured by the
general public owing to its recreational value and avifauna.
References –
CEA/Euroconsult (1993). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Bellanwilla-Attidiya Marsh,
Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 114.
CEA/Euroconsult (1994). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Muthurajawela Marsh and
Negombo Lagoon, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands,
P. 129.
CEA/Euroconsult (1994b). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Walauwatta-Wathurana
swamp forest, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P.
54.
195
CEA/ Euroconsult (1995). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Handapan and Bendiya Villus,
Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 80.
FAO 2011, Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles Sri Lanka Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/FI-CP_LK/en (Accessed on 28th December 2011).
http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Cryptocoryne/index.html. The Crypts pages (Accessed on 23rd November 2011).
http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Lagenandra/Gallery/distribution.html. The Crypts pages. (Accessed on 23rd November
2011).
IUCN Sri Lanka (2004). Wetland Conservation in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetland
Conservation and Management, Sri Lanka. Pp.2-18.
IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority of Sri Lanka (2006). National-Wetland Directory of Sri
Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. P. 342
Jacobsen, N. (1986). Deterioration of the habitats of the Cryptocoryne species. http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/
Cryptocoryne/Botanical/lecture.html (Accessed on 28th December 2011)
Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K. (2000). Inland Aquatic Resources. In. Arudpragasam, K. (Ed.) Natural Resources of Sri Lanka.
National Science Foundation, Colombo. Pp.195-211.
Kotagama, S.W. and Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (2006). An overview of the wetlands of Sri Lanka and their conservation
significance. In: IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority (2006). National-Wetland Directory of
Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Pp.7-16.
Madduma Bandara, C.M. (2000). Water Resources of Sri Lanka. In. Arudpragasam, K. (Ed.) Natural Resources of
Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Pp.75-109.
Randall, J. M. and J. Marinelli. 1996. Invasive Plants: Weeds of the Global Garden. Brooklyn Botanic Garden,
Brooklyn, NY.
Scott, D.A. (1989) A Directory of Asian Wetlands, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Cambridge, UK.
Seneviratne, Nadeera (2002). Island Midweek Review: Selling the wild for a dime http://www.island.lk/2002/03/06/
midwee07.html (Accessed on 22nd December 2011)
Van Zon, J. C. J. (2004). Wetland conservation and Management in Sri Lanka: A status paper. In: IUCN Sri Lanka.
Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management: Sri Lanka. Pp.2-18.
Yakandawala , Deepthi and Yakandawala, Kapila (2007). Ornamental Aquatics: Potential Weeds in Aquatic
Ecosystems. In: Marambe, B., Sangakkara, U.R., De Costa, and Abeysekara, A.S.K. (Eds). 21st Asian Pacific
Weed Science Society (APWSS) Conference, 2-6th October 2007, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Pp. 522-525.
Yakandawala, K. and Dissanayake, D.M.G.S. (2010). Mayaca fluviatilis Aubl. : an ornamental aquatic with invasive
potential in Sri Lanka. Hydrobiologia. 656 (1): 199-204.
Yakandawala, Deepthi and Yakandawala, Kapila (2011). Hybridization between natives and invasive aliens: an
overlooked threat to the biodiversity of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.) 40 (1): 13-23.
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Present Status of Mangroves in Sri Lanka
L.P.Jayatissa, University of Ruhuna, Matara
Mangroves are woody shrubs and trees that are salt and flood tolerant and hence dominate
intertidal areas of lagoons, estuaries and sheltered bays along tropical and subtropical
coastlines (Ball, 2002; Tomlinson, 1986; Tuffers et al., 2001). In the past, mangrove ecosystems
were considered as a marshy wastelands; then in the 1970s, as a valuable eco-system; and
presently, as precious but threatened eco-systems (Cormier Salem 1994).
Being an island in the Indian ocean with more than hundred rivers starting from central highlands
and radiating towards the sea, Sri Lanka possess a large number of lagoons and estuaries
along its coastline of 1760km. As the coastline runs through different climatic zones and
different geomorphological settings, the diversity of mangrove habitats is remarkably higher
and hence the species diversity in mangroves is also comparatively higher. The total number
of true mangrove species reported from Sri Lanka is almost one third of the global diversity of
true mangroves in the world (Jayatissa et al., 2002). However, as the total annual range of tidal
variations is less than 1m, the mangrove coverage of the country is small. The present extent
of mangroves in Sri Lanka has variously been estimated at over 4,000 ha (Arulchelvam 1968)
to over 10,000 ha (Jayawardene 1968). Largest mangrove areas of the country are reported
from, north, north western and east coasts.
Depending on the geomorphological setting of the habitat and the composition of common
species, De Silva, (1985) has recognized five kinds of mangroves in Sri Lanka: as riverine
mangroves, fringing mangroves, basin mangroves, scrub mangroves, and over-wash
mangroves. However, the first two are the most common in Sri Lanka. Mangrove species are
commonly classified into two broad categories as follows;
1. True mangroves (species restricted to mangrove habitats)

2. Mangrove associates (not confined to the intertidal areas and occur in terrestrial veg-
etation also)
The list of true mangroves recorded from Sri Lanka is given in the Table with the abundance scale.
(However the demarcation of mangroves and mangrove associates may be on tenterhooks
because according to the literature these two categories vary and there are very suspicious
points and confusion. For this report, the categorization of species into true mangroves and
mangrove associates are adopted from Tomlinson, 1986, except the genus Acrostichum). It is
difficult to give a clear limit for the list of mangrove associates as the composition of mangrove
associates could vary depending on the edaphic and climatic factors of the habitat. However,
Acanthus ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum, Clerodendron inerme, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Premna
integrifolia, and Thespesia populnea are given as the most common mangrove associates
in Sri Lanka (Jayatissa et al., 2002). In mangrove forests, they may occur as a transitional
vegetation between true mangroves and the terrestrial vegetation. There is no any endemic
species among true mangrove species or mangrove associates in Sri Lanka.
197
The list of true mangrove species recorded from Sri Lanka
Species Family Category

Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco Myrsinaceae LC
Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. Avicenniaceae LC
Avicennia officinalis L. Avicenniaceae NT
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume Rhizophoraceae EN
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk. Rhizophoraceae VU
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. Rhizophoraceae VU
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson Rhizophoraceae NT
*Ceriops decandra(Grifith) Ding Hou Rhizophoraceae CR
Excoecaria agallocha L. Euphorbiaceae LC
Heritiera littoralis Dryand. Sterculiaceae NT
Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt Combretaceae CR
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Combretaceae NT
Nypa fruticans (Thunb.) Wurmb Arecaceae VU
Pemphis acidula Forst. Lythraceae NT
Rhizophora apiculata BL. Rhizophoraceae NT
Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Rhizophoraceae LC
Sapium indicum Willd. (Syn Excoecaria indica) Euphorbiaceae VU
Sonneratia alba J. Smith Sonneratiaceae EN
Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engler Sonneratiaceae LC
Xylocarpus granatum König Meliaceae EN
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.f. Rubiaceae VU
*Not reported in Jayatissa et al., 2002. This is a new addition by Jayatissa (pers.comm)
Mangrove forests rank among the most threatened of coastal habitats, particularly for
developing countries in tropical regions (Saenger et al., 1983). The major human impacts have
been identified as filling for land-based development, and deforestation for wood products, to
accommodate aquaculture or to established harbor facilities (Hather et al.,1989). It is reported
that mangrove areas have been reduced by 20% to 75% in many developing tropical countries
in the northern Indian Ocean, South East Asia and the Caribbean during the last century.
Hence, a figure of 1% decline per year has been given as a conservative estimate for the
Asia Pacific region (Ong 1995). Due to continued disturbance, altered soil conditions and
limited dispersal, natural recovery may be slow (Kaly 1998). Mangrove preservation has been
recognized as a high priority in local management plans for developing countries (Eong 1991).
Although studies on mangroves particularly in Sri Lanka is comparatively low, a substantial

amount of research on the mangrove forests in the world has been done over the last few
198
decades, aiming at increasing the understanding of the ecology of this important ecosystem
and providing information for sustainable management. Although much has been learned from
them, significant gaps still exist in our understanding of the ecology of these systems, and
particularly, of the likely effects of climate change.
If the impacts of climate-change will not be considered now, the efforts on mangrove protection
and conservation may just be wasted in the long-run. Hence it is recommended to continue the
studies on mangroves aiming for protection, conservation and sustainable use, with particular
emphasis on likely impacts of climate change.
References
Arulchelvam, K. (1968). In: Mangroves. Ceylon forester, VIII (3 & 4): 1-34p.
Ball, M. C. (1988). Salinity tolerance in the mangroves Aegiceras corniculatum and Avicennia marina I. Water use
in relation to growth, carbon partitioning and salt balance. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology . 461-496.
Cormier – Salem, M. C. (1994). Dynamique et usages de la mangrove dans les pays des Riviéresdu Sud (du
Sénégal á la Sierra Leone). Paris, Orstomcoll, Colloques et Séminaries 352-353pp.
Cormier – Salem, M. C. (1994). Dynamique et usages de la mangrove dans les pays des Riviéresdu Sud (du
Sénégal á la Sierra Leone). Paris, Orstomcoll, Colloques et Séminaries 352-353pp.
De Silva, K. H. G. M. and Balasubramaniam, S. (1984). Some ecological aspects of the mangroves on the west
coast of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science. (Bio-science). 17-18: 22 – 36.
Eong, O. J. and Khoon, G. W. (1991). Mangroves. In: The state of nature conservation in Malaysia. (Ed, R. Kiew).
Malayan Nature Society. IDRC-CRDI 22-28pp.
Hather, B. G., Johannes, R. E. and Robertson, A. I. (1989). Review of research relevant to the conservation of
shallow tropical marine ecosystems. Oceanography. Marine Biology Annual Review. 27: 337-414.
Jayatissa, L. P., Dahdouh – Guebas, F., Koedam, N. (2002). A review of the floral composition and distribution of
mangroves in Sri Lanka. Journal of Linnaean Society. 138: 29 – 43.
Kaly, U. L. and Jones, G. P. (1998). Mangrove restoration; a potential tool for coastal management in tropical
developing countries. Ambio. 27(8):656-661.
Ong, J. E. (1995). The ecology of mangrove conservation and management. Hydrobiologia. 295: 343-351.
Saenger, P., Hegerl, E. J. and Davie, J. D. S. (1983). Global status of mangrove ecosystem. The Environmentalists:
Supplement 3, 49pp.
Tomilson, P. B. (Ed). (1986). The Botany of mangroves. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, U. K.
199
Present Status of Family Orchidaceae in Sri Lanka
R.H.S. Suranjan Fernando
Post Graduate Institute of Sciences, Peradeniya and Center for Applied Biodiversity Re-
search and Education
Introduction
Family Orchidaceae is a one of the largest flowering plant families in the world, containing about
25,000 -30,000 species. The family has a worldwide distribution except in the Polar Regions.
The highest species diversity is recorded in the tropical areas, particularly in rainforests and
associated ecosystems.
In Sri Lanka, Orchidaceae is among the largest families in the country with 189 known species,
belonging to 78 genera, including 55 endemic species (Fernando and Ormerod, 2008; Soto
Arenas and Cribb, 2010). All these species are herbs or small shrubs, having epiphytic or
terrestrial life forms. Few species are found as Mycoheterotrophic and some as climbers.
Orchids grow in many habitat types, with the highest representation in diverse ecosystems
found in the wet zone.
History of Sri Lankan orchid research
Although Paul Hermann’s (1646-1695) collection contained two orchid species, orchid
discoveries in Sri Lanka were made largely during the British colonial period, after the
establishment of the Botanical Gardens in the country. The early Superintendents of Royal
Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Alexander Moon (1817-1825) and James Macrae (?-1830)
made many orchid collections, among other plant species, and sent them to England.
Subsequent Superintendents and Directors of Botanic Gardens, George Gardner (1812-

1849), G. H. K.Thwaites (1812-1882) and Henry Trimen (1843- 1896) collected and described
the majority of Sri Lankan orchids. Many specimens sent to Kew are included in J. D. Hooker's
(1817-1911) monumental work on the Flora of British India series in which he has described
and stated their distribution in relation to the Indian sub continent.
The most recent comprehensive taxonomic work was done by D.M.A. Jayaweera in the late
1970s (published in1981).
Taxonomy
The most recent systematic treatment of Sri Lankan orchids was conducted by Jayaweera
(1981) three decades ago. Fernando and Ormerod, in 2008, presented an updated checklist
using available literature and referringto some herbarium specimens. According to the above
checklist, the following deviations from Jayaweera's treatment were significant: i) many name
changes with reference to some global and regional generic treatments, ii) marked reduction
of a number of Sri Lankan endemic species due to many regional findings, especially from
the Indian sub-continent and iii) increased number of total species by addition to many new
species to the country's list.
200
Currently, at a global level, new knowledge in molecular taxonomy has created a vast leap in
information, leading to dramatic changes in orchid taxonomy and classification. Development
of the regional botanical surveys in neighboring countries also has led to new knowledge on
species entities and their distribution patterns. However, at present, the majority of Sri Lankan
species have not been subjected to such new revisions. Fernando and Ormerod (2008) stated
many such taxonomic discrepancies which need further studies using cross comparative
modern taxonomic revisions along with other congeners.
Along with their generic treatments, some of the Sri Lankan taxa have been recently revised,
using records and specimens deposited in other herbaria. In most of the recent global revisions,
Sri Lankan materials have been omitted due to difficulty of access to specimens. Very few
species of Sri Lankan orchids are subjected to modern taxonomic treatments.
Distribution
The distribution of family Orchidaceae has mostly correlated with the distribution pattern of the
main bioclimatic zones which is governed by the amount and intensity of rainfall and altitude.
Dry zone: The recorded lowest number of orchid species (ca15).Vanda tessellata, Vanilla
walkeriae and Habenaria plantaginea, have been recorded as the most dominant species.
There are no zonal restricted species to this zone.
Intermediate zone: This zone lies between the dry and wet zones. The recorded orchid diversity
is much higher than the dry zone (ca 28) Oberonia thwaitesii, and Luisia birchea, can be
considered as restricted to this zone. The eastern part of intermediate zone is associated with
the Savannah grassland vegetation. The species like Rhynchostylis retusa, Aerides ringens
and Habenaria roxburghii have been mainly recorded in the eastern part of the intermediate
zone among grasslands.
Low wet zone: With the aseasonally wet conditions, there is a rich variety of both epiphytes
and ground orchids found in this zone (ca 80).
Eria articulata, Bromheadia srilankensis, Phaius luridus, Cleisostoma tenuifolium and
Taeniophyllum gilimalense are restricted species to low wet zone. The diversity of saprophytic
orchids is also high in this zone.
Lower mountain zone: This zone represents an altitudinal belt of 900 -1500m between the
low wet zone and montane zone. This area contains the highest orchid diversity with numerous
endemics (ca 110) in Sri Lanka. The zonal restricted number of species is also high in this zone
Bulbophyllum petiolare, Habenaria pterocarpa and Phreatia jayaweerae are some restricted
members to this zone.
Montane zone: (ca 55) Area above 1500m has been recognized as this zone. In this zone,
orchids are very common but have a lower diversity than the lower montane zone. The cool
climate adapted species are found in this region.
Isolated Hills in dry and intermediate zones: These relatively small hills contain a rich
variety of orchid diversity (ca 60), a combination of dry zone / intermediate zone species and
wet zone species. The lower area of the hill is common with typical dry and intermediate zone
species, while the hill-top contains mostly wet zone species including many endemics Ritigala,
201
Monaragala, Kokagala and Doluwakanda are examples of such isolated hills. Phalaenopsis
mysorensis is recorded in such hill sites.
Threats
Orchids have complex and critical relationships with some other species in their habitat, such
as mycorrhizal association in their roots and flower adaptations for the attraction of a specific
pollinator. Thus, mainly habitat related threats affect orchid survival.
Habitat destruction: Spread of lowland tea cultivation to natural forest habitats significantly
affect many lowland orchid species in the South Western wet zone.
In the montane and submontane areas, forests and grasslands are cleared for vegetable
cultivation, this being the main agriculture-based threat. Forest felling for firewood is another
main issue for orchid survival. In the savannah forest of the Eastern Intermediate zone,
encroachment for chena cultivation, illegal settlements and garbage dumping are the main
habitat related threats to native orchid survival.
Direct exploitation: Many showy orchids are collected for their flowers Phaius wallichii (Star
orchid), Dendrobium maccarthiae (Vesak orchid), Rhynchostylis retusa (Fox tail), and Vanda
tessellata are commonly collected by growers and flower enthusiasts. Habenaria crinifera
(Naarilatha), Ipsea speciosa (Nagamaru ala), Anoectochilus spp. (Wanaraja), Zeuxine spp.
(Iruraja), are subjected to removal from the wild for medicinal purposes and due various
mythological beliefs connected to each species.
Impact of invasive species: The spread of invasive species has created a considerable impact
for many orchid-rich habitats. Impact of Clusia rosea has been demonstrated as a highly
effective invader threatening lower montane orchid habitats. Presently, around Ginigathhena,
Hantana and Dolosbage and part of Peak Wilderness can be considered as a high impact
areas. Similarly, in Rakwana hills, Psidium cattleianum spreading as monostands shows
similar habitat alternation. Invasion of Panicum maximum is one of the main threats facing the
grassland and savannah orchids.
Pollution: Most species of the family are highly sensitive to environmental changes. The
excessive use of agro chemicals is believed to have a considerable impact on the survival of
the orchid populations. Mainly fungicides destroy the mycorrhizal fungi, and use of insecticide
increases harmful impact on orchid pollinators.
The present National Red List summarizes how orchids are affected by all of the above
combination of threats mentioned. Four species likely to be extinct (CR (PE)) have not been
recorded for a considerable time but their possible habitats still remain to some extent. 16
species are critically endangered for future extinction (CR), 54 species are categorized as
endangered (EN) in the wild, and 60 spp. fall in the vulnerable category (VU). Most importantly,
12 species could not be assessed due to uncertainty of present taxonomic positions or lack of
knowledge about their other ecological parameters (DD).
202
Conservation priorities
In order to conserve wild orchids, there is a combination of actions needed to be taken.
The most important conservation action regarding wild orchids is to identify a Protected Area
(PA) network covering the habitats of all orchid species found in the country. At present, under
the PA system, most orchid rich PAs fall under proposed reserves (PR) or other state forests
(OSF), which have the least legal protection. By combining geographical occurrence data
collected during the present red listing process, the Ministry of Environment together with the
Departments of Wildlife and Forest Conservation can recognize new thematic PA systems
which highlight the orchid diversity among other biota. The establishment of a set of park
management criteria by prioritizing orchid conservation is also needed for such thematic PAs.
The establishmentof systematically planned ex-situ conservation centers is also of prime

importance. 90% of the indigenous orchid diversity can be protectedin this manner. Presently,
there are no ex-situ conservation centers for indigenous orchids apart from a few private ad
hoc collections. The botanic garden network distributed throughout the country is the most
viable institution for this task. Within such centers, other ecological and taxonomic researches
can also be implemented.
Presently, there is adequate legal protection for native orchids, the whole family being
protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (Amend. Act No 2 of 2009). Under
the Forest Ordinance, Extraordinary Gazette Notification No. 05.12.2005 issued by The Forest
Department, orchids are forest produce which require permission for any removal. Sri Lanka
is a ratified country under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); all species of our orchids are under Appendix II which require
permits in the case of exporting.
However, due to lack of awareness and knowledge on legal status and identification of native
orchids, a significant weakening of the protection of the target group is observable. Therefore,
the rise of awareness regarding orchids at all levels is important, primarily through law
enforcement officers.
Apart from species identification and distribution records, all other types of researches related
to orchids conducted in the country are inadequate. Among many other research areas needed,
the following are some of the important aspects which require attention:
• Comparable with current global orchid taxonomic knowledge, molecular base

systematic update of our endemic species is a prime need.
• Studies on orchid habitats and their ecological requirements have not been conducted.
Therefore, planned researches on understanding habitat and ecology conditions,
phenology patterns and interactions of pollinators and associations with mycorrhizal
species are needed.
• Studies on effects of climate change and environmental sensitivity on native orchids
are also needed.
203
Conclusions and recommendations:
The nomenclature and enrich the collection in the National Herbarium should be up-
dated.
• The National Herbarium needs to be established as a CITES registered scientific

institution facilitating loaning and exchanging of specimens to other herbaria in the
world.
• The endemic species categorized as threatened under the present National Red
Listing Assessment, are important for inclusion in the Global Red List.
References
Jayaweera, D. M. A. 1981. Apostasiaceae and Orchidaceae.In: Dassanayake M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. A Revised
handbook to the flora of Ceylon. 2:1-320.
Fernando S. S. and P. Ormerod (2008) An Annotated checklist of the Orchids of Sri Lanka.Rheedea 18 (1) 1-28.
204
Table 15: Summary of the Status of Angiosperms of Sri Lanka
(Endemics are shown in bracket)
Total
CR Total
Family EX EW CR EN VU NT DD LC Threat-
(PE) Species
ened
Acanthaceae 1 (1) 15 (10) 11 (5) 17 (12) 12 (5) 7 (4) 2 40 (4) 40 (22) 105 (41)
Achariaceae 3 (3) 0 3 (3)
Adoxaceae 2 2 2
Aizoaceae 2 2 0 4
Alismataceae 1 1 1 2
Amaranthaceae 2 (1) 2 2 (1) 2 10 9 6 (1) 27 (2)
Amaryllidaceae 1 1 2 3 4 7
Anacardiaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 6 (5) 1 (1) 8 (6) 9 (7) 19 (15)
Ancistrocladaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)
Anisophyllaceae 1 0 1
Annonaceae 1 (1) 3 (1) 5 (3) 11 (7) 7 (3) 13 (4) 17 (11) 40 (19)
Apiaceae 2 (1) 1 1 (1) 2 1 2 4 (1) 9 (2)
Apocynaceae 6 (2) 6 (3) 15 (2) 13 (4) 4 (1) 2 22 (2) 33 (9) 68 (14)
Aponogetonaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 4 (2) 4 (2)
Aquifoliaceae 2 (1) 1 1 2 (1) 4 (1)
Araceae 1 11 (7) 12 (9) 5 (4) 3 2 10 (1) 28 (20) 44 (21)
Araliaceae 1 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 2 3 (2) 8 (3)
Arecaceae 5 (5) 8 (5) 1 2 13 (10) 16 (10)
Aristolochiaceae 1 2 0 3
Asclepiadaceae 5 5 12 4 1 1 11 21 39
Asparagaceae 4 2 (1) 2 3 3 8 (1) 14 (1)
Asteraceae 1 (1) 4 (3) 1 (1) 12 (5) 21 (10) 13 (5) 3 31 (4) 34 (16) 86 (29)
Balanophoraceae 1 1 1
Balsaminaceae 2 (2) 3 (2) 5 (4) 8 (4) 3 (2) 3 (1) 16 (10) 24 (15)
Basellaceae 1 1 1
Begoniaceae 1 2 (1) 1 1 4 (1) 5 (1)
Berberidaceae 3 (1) 3 3 (1)
Bignoniaceae 1 3 0 4
Boraginaceae 3 (1) 1 2 4 1 1 9 7 21 (1)
Burmanniaceae 2 (1) 1 1 1 4 (1) 5 (1)
Burseraceae 1 1 1 (1) 2 2 (1) 5 (1)
Buxaceae 2 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1)
Cactaceae 1 1 1
Calophyllaceae 2 (2) 3 (2) 5 (5) 2 (1) 4 (2) 10 (9) 16 (12)
Campanulaceae 2 1 1 5 1 9
Cannabaceae 1 4 1 5
Capparaceae 1 4 1 3 6 6 15
Caprifoliaceae 2 (1) 2 4 (1) 4 (1)
Caryophyllaceae 2 2 1 1 2 4 3 12
205
Total
CR Total
(PE) Species
ened
Celastraceae 1 (1) 9 (3) 3 (2) 3 (2) 7 (3) 12 (5) 23 (11)

Centroplacaceae 1 2 (2) 0 3 (2)
Ceratophyllaceae 1 0 1
Chloranthaceae 1 0 1
Cleomaceae 1 5 1 6
Clusiaceae 3 (3) 2 (1) 2 1 (1) 5 (4) 8 (5)
Colchicaceae 2 0 2
Combretaceae 1 1 3 5 1 10
Commelinaceae 2 2 (1) 11 (1) 8 5 (1) 11 21 (2) 39 (3)
Connaraceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 2 1 (1) 5 (2)
Convolvulaceae 2 1 (1) 5 (1) 8 2 3 20 (2) 14 (2) 41 (4)
Cornaceae 2 (2) 2 (1) 1 1 4 (3) 6 (3)
Costaceae 1 0 1
Crassulaceae 1 1 1 2
Crypteroniaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)
Cucurbitaceae 3 (1) 3 8 1 9 11 24 (1)
Cymodoceaceae 3 0 3
Cyperaceae 16 (1) 7 (5) 27 (5) 28 14 3 73 62 (10) 168 (11)
Daphniphyllaceae 1 1 1
Dichapetalaceae 1 (1) 1 0 2 (1)
Dilleniaceae 3 (3) 4 (4) 3 (2) 5 (1) 10 (9) 15 (10)
Dioscoreacea 2 (2) 2 1 1 3 4 (2) 9 (2)
Dipterocarpaceae 1 (1) 14 (14) 24 (24) 18 (18) 1 (1) 56 (56) 58 (58)
Droseraceae 1 2 3 3
Ebenaceae 1 (1) 15 (12) 7 (4) 3 1 5 (1) 23 (17) 32 (18)
Elaeagnaceae 1 0 1
Elaeocarpaceae 5 (5) 2 (2) 1 (1) 1 7 (7) 9 (8)
Elatinaceae 1 1 0 2
Ericaceae 1 2 (1) 3 (1) 3 (1)
Eriocaulaceae 2 (2) 4 (3) 2 (2) 6 (3) 1 6 12 (8) 21 (10)
Erythroxylaceae 1 2 2 (1) 1 5 (1)
Euphobiaceae 5 (2) 1 4 (2) 10 (4) 4 (1) 5 40 (7) 15 (6) 69 (16)
Fabaceae 1 (1) 14 (1) 18 (2) 23 (3) 31 (1) 27 (3) 22 85 (2) 72 (6) 221 (13)
Flacourtiaceae 2 (2) 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (3) 4 (4)
Flagellariaceae 1 0 1
Gentianaceae 1 (1) 1 7 (4) 4 (1) 3 (1) 2 12 (5) 18 (7)
Geraniaceae 1 1 1
Gesneriaceae 1 (1) 3 (3) 8 (5) 1 12 (9) 13 (9)
Gisekiaseae 1 0 1
Goodeniaceae 1 1 0 2
Haloragaceae 1 (1) 1 1 1 2 4 (1)
Hernandiaceae 1 1 1 2
Hydrocharitaceae 1 2 3 1 6 3 13
206
Total
CR Total
(PE) Species
ened
Hydroleaceae 1 0 1
Hypericaceae 1 1 1 2
Hypoxidaceae 1 1 1 2
Icacinaceae 2 1 2 3
Juncaceae 2 1 2 3
Lamiaceae 6 (2) 2 (2) 4 8 (3) 10 (3) 6 34 (5) 14 (5) 70 (15)
Lauraceae 2 1 9 (7) 17 (15) 5 (4) 6 (3) 27 (22) 40 (29)
Lecythidaceae 1 4 0 5
Lentibulariaceae 1 2 4 (1) 2 1 5 7 (1) 15 (1)
Linaceae 1 1 1 2
Lindernaceae 1 2 (2) 2 (1) 4 7 5 (3) 16 (3)
Loganiacea 1 (1) 4 (2) 3 (1) 1 4 (2) 9 (4)
Loranthaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (3) 7 (4) 4 (2) 5 11 (8) 21 (11)
Lythraceae 1 2 1 5 1 6 4 16
Magnoliaceae 1 1 1
Malpighiaceae 1 1 1 2
Malvaceae 3 3 (1) 8 (3) 7 (2) 8 42 (3) 19 (6) 71 (9)
Marantaceae 2 (1) 1 1 3 (1)
Melastomataceae 2 (2) 11 (10) 38 (31) 10 (7) 5 (4) 5 (3) 59 (48) 71 (57)
Meliaceae 2 (1) 2 3 (1) 2 4 7 (2) 13 (2)
Menispermaceae 3 5 1 4 8 13
Menyanthaceae 2 2 2 4
Molluginaceae 1 5 1 6
Monimiaceae 1(1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (2) 3 (3)
Moraceae 2 6 (1) 4 21 (3) 8 (1) 33 (4)
Musaceae 2 2 2
Myristicaceae 2 (1) 2 2 (1) 4 (1)
Myrtaceae 4 (4) 11 (10) 4 (4) 12 (10) 5 (4) 1 (1) 19 (13) 26 (24) 56 (46)
Nelumbonaceae 1 0 1
Nepenthaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)
Nyctaginaceae 1 3 0 4
Nymphaeaceae 1 1 1 2
Ochnaceae 4 (1) 0 4 (1)
Olacaceae 2 (1) 1 1 2 2 (1) 6 (1)
Oleaceae 1 1 2 (1) 6 3 (1) 10 (1)
Onagraceae 1 4 0 5
Opiliaceae 2 0 2
Orchidaceae 4 (1) 16 (6) 54 (24) 60 (12) 26 (4) 12 (3) 12 130 (42) 184 (50)
Orobanchaceae 2 (1) 2 7 (2) 2 3 2 11 (2) 18 (3)
Oxalidaceae 1 1 1 2 2 5
Pandanaceae 1 2 (2) 2 (1) 2 3 (2) 7 (3)
Papaveraceae 1 0 1
Passifloraceae 1 1 1 2
207
Total
CR Total
(PE) Species
ened
Pedaliaceae 1 2 1 3
Pentaphylaceae 5 (2) 1 (1) 1 6 (3) 7 (3)
Phrymaceae 1 1 1
Phyllanthaceae 3 (2) 2 5 (5) 9 (4) 6 (3) 2 (1) 42 (12) 16 (9) 69 (27)
Picrodendraceae 1 0 1
Piperaceae 1 (1) 3 (1) 4 2 (1) 2 (1) 7 (1) 12 (4)
Pittosporaceae 1 1 1 2
Plantaginaceae 3 (1) 3 2 (1) 3 12 3 23 (2)
Plumbaginaceae 1 0 1
Poaceae 10 (5) 10 (4) 27 (5) 44 (4) 20 (1) 31 (2) 120 (1) 81 (13) 262 (22)
Podestemaceae 1 1 2 3 (2) 6 (2) 7 (2)
Polygalaceae 4 (3) 2 2 2 5 (1) 6 (3) 15 (4)
Polygonaceae 5 7 0 12
Pontederiaceae 1 1 0 2
Portulacaceae 1 4 1 5
Potamogetonaceae 3 0 3
Primulaceae 2 (1) 5 (1) 4 (2) 4 (1) 9 (4) 11 (4) 24 (9)
Proteaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)
Putranjivaceae 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (1) 2 (1) 6 (3)
Ranunculaceae 2 1 3 (1) 1 4 (1) 7 (1)
Rhamnaceae 1 (1) 1 2 (1) 4 6 (1) 4 (2) 14 (3)
Rhizophoraceae 1 2 (1) 2 3 2 5 (1) 10 (1)
Rosaceae 1 (1) 1 4 5 1 5 (1) 5 17 (2)
Rubiaceae 15 (12) 8 (5) 27 (21) 39 (25) 24 (17) 8 (3) 58 (19) 74 (51) 179 (102)
Ruppiaceae 1 0 1
Rutaceae 5 3 2 (1) 19 (1) 7 29 (2)
Sabiaceae 2 2 2
Salicaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 1 6 (2) 3 (2) 10 (4)
Salvadoraceae 1 1 0 2
Sapindaceae 2 3 (1) 1 (1) 2 3 (2) 6 (2) 11 (4)
Sapotaceae (1) 1 (7) 4 (8) 1 12 5 (16) 18 (16)
Schizandraceae 1 9 11 3 1 21 25
Scrophulariaceae 1 1 1
Sentalaceae 2 (1) 1 2 (1) 3 (1)
Simaroubaceae 1 1 1 2 3
Smilacaceae 1 2 1 3
Solanaceae 2 5 4 2 11
Sphenocleaceae 1 0 1
Staphyleaceae 1 0 1
Stemonaceae 1 0 1
Stemonuraceae 1 2 (1) 1 3 (1)
Stylidiaceae 1 0 1
Surianaceae 1 0 1
208
Total
CR Total
(PE) Species
ened
Symplocaceae 3 (1) 7 (6) 2 (2) 1 12 (9) 13 (9)

Tamaricaceae 1 1 0 2
Tetramelaceae 1 0 1
Theaceae 4 (4) 1 4 (4) 5 (4)
Thymelaeaceae 1 1 2 1 4
Triuridaceae 1 1 1 2 3
Typhaceae 1 0 1
Ulmaceae 1 0 1
Urticaceae 6 (1) 2 4 7 2 1 5 (1) 13 27 (2)
Vahliaceae 1 1 1
Verbanaceae 1 1 0 2
Violaceae 2 (1) 1 1 (1) 2 2 3 (1) 8 (2)
Vitaceae 2 4 (1) 11 (2) 2 17 (3)
Xanthorrhoeaceae 1 0 1
Xyridaceae 1 1 1 1 2 4
Zingiberaceae 5 (4) 6 (4) 6 (4) 2 (1) 1 1 12 (8) 21 (13)
Zygophyllaceae 1 0 1
177 218 552 615 350 143 1,091 1,385 3,154
Total 5 (4) 2 (2)
(72) (102) (272) (220) (83) (10) (130) (594) (894)
209
Table 16: List of Gymnosperms in Sri Lanka
Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria

Family : Cycadaceae
Cycas zeylanica (J.Schust.)
CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) VU A2bc
A.Lindstr. & K.D.Hill Maha Madu
Cycas nathorstii J.Schust. Madu VU A2cd+ B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU A2cd; C1
Table 17: List of Angiosperms in Sri Lanka

(Endemic species are marked in Bold letters and global categories older than 3.1 are marked as i)
Family : Acanthaceae
Acanthus ilicifolius L. S: Ikili, Katu-Ikili LC LC
Andrographis alata (Vahl) Nees LC
Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees S: Hakan LC
Andrographis macrobotrys Nees CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. S: Heen-Bin-Kohomba;

CR(PE)
ex Nees T: Nilavempu
Asystasia chelonoides Nees LC
S: Puruk;
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders. LC
T: Peypatchotti
Asystasia variabilis (Nees) Trimen LC
T: Kannamaram, Kanna,
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Vendanda, Venkandal, LC LC
Kanamaram
E: White Mangrove;
Avicennia officinalis L. NT LC
T: Kanna, Upatha
Barleria arnottiana Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Barleria involucrata Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Barleria lanceata (Forssk.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Katu-Nelu;
Barleria mysorensis Roth LC
T: Ikkiri, Kikkiri, Kiri-Mulla
B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
Barleria nitida Nees CR
2ab(i,ii,iii)
Barleria nutans Nees CR(PE)
S: Katu-Karanda, Katu-
Barleria prionitis L. LC
Karandu
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Barleria strigosa Willd. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Barleria tomentosa Roth EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
210
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Barleria vestita T.Anders. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Blepharis integrifolia (L.f.) E. Meyer ex
LC
Krauss
Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Roth LC
Brillantaisia thwaitesii (T. Anders.)

CR(PE)
Cramer
Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees LC
Dicliptera neesii (Trimen) Cramer NT
Dicliptera zeylanica Nees VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.) Nees LC
Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees S:Nil-Puruk LC
Dyschoriste depressa Nees T: Paduvan, Padvan LC
Dyschoriste madurensis (Brum.f.) Kuntze T: Paraddai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ecbolium ligustrinum (Vahl) Vollesen LC
Elytraria acaulis (L.f.) Lindau LC
Eranthemum capense L. LC
Gymnostachyum ceylanicum Arn. & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Nees +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gymnostachyum hirsutum T.Anders. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Gymnostachyum paniculatum T.
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anders.
Gymnostachyum sanguinolentum
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Vahl) T. Anders.
Gymnostachyum thwaitesii T. Anders. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hemiadelphis polysperma (Roxb.) Nees EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hemigraphis latebrosa (Roth) Nees DD
Hygrophila balsamica (L.f.) Raf. LC
Hygrophila helodes Heine DD
Hygrophila ringens (L.) R. Br. ex Steud. S:Nil-Puruk LC
Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. &

S: Katu-Ikiriya; T:Nirmulli LC LC
S. N. Almeida
E: Malabar Nut; S: Agal-
Justicia adhathoda L. Adara, Wenepala; LC
T: Adhatodai, Pavettai
211
Justicia betonica L. S: Sudu Puruk LC
Justicia capitata (T.Anders. ex Hook.f.)

CR(PE)
Cramer
Justicia ceylanica (Nees) T. Anders. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Justicia diffusa Willd. LC
Justicia glabra Koenig ex Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Justicia hookeriana (Nees) T.Anders. NT
Justicia procumbens L. S: Mayani LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Justicia prostrata (Clarke) Gamble EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Justicia royeniana (Nees) Clarke NT
Justicia tranquebariensis L. f. LC
Lepidagathis ceylanica Nees CR(PE)
Lepidagathis fasciculata (Retz.) Nees LC
Lepidagathis hyalina Nees CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lepidagathis walkeriana Nees EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Monothecium aristatum (Wall. ex Nees)
EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T.Anders.
Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pseuderanthemum angustifolium Ridley CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pseuderanthemum latifolium (Vahl)
NT
Hansen
Ptyssiglottis sanguinolenta (Vahl)
CR(PE)
B.Hansen
Rhinacanthus flavovirens Amarasinghe
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
& Wijesundara
S: Anitta;
Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz LC
T: Nagamulli
Rhinacanthus polonnaruwensis
LC
Cramer
Rungia apiculata Beddome CR(PE)
Rungia longifolia Nees S: Gada-Puruk VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees LC
Rungia repens (L.) Nees S: Sulu-Nayi LC
212
Staurogyne zeylanica (Nees) Kuntze CR(PE)
Stenosiphonium cordifolium (Vahl) Alston S:Bu-Nelu, Nelu; T: Nelu LC
Strobilanthes adenophora Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes anceps Nees LC
Strobilanthes arnottiana Nees CR(PE)
Strobilanthes calycina Nees LC
Strobilanthes caudata T.Anders. EX
Strobilanthes deflexa T.Anders. CR(PE)
Strobilanthes diandra (Nees) Alston NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes exserta C.B.Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes gardneriana (Nees)
CR(PE)
T.Anders.
Strobilanthes habracanthoides B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
J.R.I.Wood +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes helicoides (Nees) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
T.Anders. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes hookeri Nees LC
Strobilanthes hypericoides J.R.I.Wood CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes laxa T.Anders. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes lupulina Nees LC
Strobilanthes nigrescens T.Anders. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes nockii Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes pentandra J.R.I.Wood CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes pulcherrima T.Anders. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes punctata Nees EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes rhamnifolia (Nees) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
CR
T.Anders. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes rhytisperma C.B.Clarke CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes sexennis (Nees) T.Anders. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes stenodon Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
213
Strobilanthes thwaitesii T.Anders. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes vestita Nees EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes viscosa (Arn. ex Nees)
LC
T.Anders.
Strobilanthes walkeri Arn. ex Nees NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes willsii Canine CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strobilanthes zeylanica T.Anders. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thunbergia laevis Wall. ex Nees S: Saban-Pichcha EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Achariaceae
Hydnocarpus octandra Thw. S: Wal-Divul, Wal-Dul LC VUi A1c
Hydnocarpus venenata Gaertn. S: Makulu; T: Makul LC
S: Keti-Kesali, Hal-Milla,Tetti-
Trichadenia zeylanica Thw. LC VUi A1c
Gas,Titta-Eta,Titta,Tolol
Family : Adoxaceae
Viburnum cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
D.Don +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Viburnum erubescens Wall. ex DC. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Aizoaceae
S: Maha-Sarana;
Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. NT
T: Vankiruvilai
S: Maha-Sarana;
Trianthema decandra L. NT
T: Charania
Trianthema portulacastrum L. S: Heen-Sarana LC
Trianthema triquetra Rottler ex Willd. LC
Family : Alismataceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Caldesia oligococca (F. Muell.) Buchenau CR LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Limnophyton obtusifolium (L.) Miq. LC LC
Family : Amaranthaceae
S: Gas-Karal-Heba, Wel-
Karal-Sebo, Gaskaralheba,
Achyranthes aspera L. LC
Karalsebo, Wal-Karal-Heba;
T: Nayururi
214
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Achyranthes bidentata Blume EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Achyranthes diandra Roxb. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Pol-Kudu-Pala, Pol-Pala;
Aerva javanica (Burm f.) Juss. ex Schult. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Sirm-Pulai
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. S: Pol-Kudu-Pala, Pol- Pala LC
Allmania nodiflora (L.) R.Br. ex Wight S: Wenni-Wella, Kumatiya LC
S: Mukunu-wenna,
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. Mugunuwenna; LC LC
T: Ponankani
S: Katu-Tampala, Thampala,
Amaranthus spinosus L. Katukera, Kura-Tampala; T: LC
Mudkirai
S: Kuru-Tampala, Kura-
Amaranthus viridis L. Tampala, Sulukura; LC
T: Araikkirai
Atriplex repens Roth T: Elichchevi NT
Celosia argentea L. S: Kiri-Henda LC
Celosia polygonoides Retz. LC
Celosia pulchella Moq. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Centrostachys aquatica (R. Br.) Wall. ex

CR(PE)
Moq.
Cyathula ceylanica Hook. f. CR(PE)
S: Bin- Karal-Heba, Bin-

Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Karalsebo
Digera muricata (L.) Mart. T: Toggil NT
Halosarcia indica (Willd.) P.G.Wilson T: Kotanai NT
Nothosaerva brachiata (L.) Wight S: Tampala; T: Chirupilai NT
Psilotrichum elliotii Baker NT
Psilotrichum scleranthum Thw. NT
S: Wel-Karal-Heba;
Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. LC
T: Kummidil, Pichu Kodiya
Salicornia brachiata Roxb. NT
Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. T: Umiri, Umuddi, Umunddi NT
Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex J.F.Gmelin NT
215
Suaeda vermiculata Forssk. ex J.F.Gmelin T: Umiri, Umuddi, Umunddi NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Trichurus monsoniae (L. f.) C.C. Towns. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Amaryllidaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Allium hookeri Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crinum asiaticum L. S: Tolabo; T: Vichamunkil LC
Crinum defixum Ker-Gawl. S: Heen-Tolabo LC
Crinum latifolium L. S: Goda-Manel VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crinum zeylanicum (L.) L. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pancratium biflorum Roxb. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pancratium zeylanicum L. S: Wal-Lunu LC
Family : Anacardiaceae
Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramamoorthy S: Kiri-Palu; T: Kolamau EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Campnosperma zeylanicum Thw. S: Aridda LC
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. S: Hik; T: Odi LC
Mangifera pseudoindica Kosterm. CR(PE)
S: Et-Amba, Wal- Amba;

Mangifera zeylanica (Blume) Hook.f. LC VUi A1c
T: Kaddu-Ma
Nothopegia beddomei Gamble S: Andum Telageddi, Bala LC
Semecarpus acuminata Thw. S: Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2c
Semecarpus coriacea Thw. S: Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2c
Semecarpus gardneri Thw. S: Badulla LC VUi A1c
Semecarpus marginata Thw. NT VUi A1c
Semecarpus moonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c
Semecarpus nigro-viridis Thw. LC VUi A1c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Semecarpus obovata Moon S: Kalu-Badulla EN VUi A1c, B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Semecarpus parvifolia Thw. LC VUi A1c
Semecarpus pseudo-emarginata
CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c
Kosterm.
216
Semecarpus pubescens Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Semecarpus subpeltata Thw. S: Maha-Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Semecarpus walkeri Hook.f. LC VUi A1c
E: Hog Plum; S: Wal-

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Amberella; T:Ampallai
Family : Ancistrocladaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ancistrocladus hamatus (Vahl) Gilg S: Gona-Wel, Yakada-Wel EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family :Anisophyllaceae
Anisophyllea cinnamomoides
S: Weli-Piyana NT
(Gardner & Champ.) Alston
Family : Annonaceae
Alphonsea hortensis H. Huber EW
Alphonsea sclerocarpa Thw. NT
Alphonsea zeylanica Hook .f. & Thoms. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray CR(PE)
Artabotrys hexapetalus (L.f.) Bhandari S: Yakada-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kalu-Bambara-Wel,
Artabotrys zeylanicus Hook.f. & Thoms. LC
Patika-Wel, Yakada-Wel
Cyathocalyx zeylanica Champ. ex Hook.
S: i-Petta, Kekala, Kotala LC
f. & Thoms.
S: Kudu-mirissa, Kukurmana
Desmos elegans (Thw.) Safford VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Kukuruman)
Desmos zeylanica (Hook.f. & Thoms.)
NT
Safford
Enicosanthum acuminata (Thw.) Airy S: Ini-Pettu, I-Pettu, Mal-
LC
Shaw Lawulu, Malolu
Goniothalamus gardneri Hook.f. &
S: Kalu-Kera VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Thoms.
Goniothalamus hookeri Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c
Goniothalamus salicina Hook.f. &

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thoms.
Goniothalamus thomsonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Goniothalamus thwaitesii Hook.f. &

S: Kalu-Kera NT
Thoms.
Miliusa indica Leschen. ex A. DC. S: Kekili-Messa LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
217
Miliusa zeylanica Gardner ex Hook.f. &
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Thoms.
Mitrephora heyneana (Hook.f. & Thoms.)
NT
Thw.
Orophea zeylanica Hook.f. & Thoms. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phoenicanthus coriacea (Thw.) H.Huber EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Phoenicanthus obliqua (Hook.f. &
NT
Thoms.) Alston
Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Beddome S: Patta-Ul-Kenda LC
Polyalthia coffeoides (Thw. ex Hook.f. & S: Omara;

LC
Thoms.) Thw. T: Katilla, Nedunari
S: Mi-Wenna, Ul-Kenda;
Polyalthia korinti (Dunal) Thw. LC
T: Uluvintai
S: Devadara, I-Petta, O-lila,
Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw. O-wila; T: Assathi, Marai- LC
Illipa, Mara-Iluppai
Polyalthia moonii Thw. CR(PE)
Polyalthia persicaefolia (Hook.f. & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Thoms.) Thw. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thw. S: Kalati; T: Kalatti EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sageraea thwaitesii Hook.f. & Thoms. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1+2c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sageraea zeylanica Heusden EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Uvaria macropoda Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Attu-Muddah NT
Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. S: Pangan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Uvaria semecarpifolia Hook. f. & Thoms. S: Kara-Bambara LC
Uvaria sphenocarpa Hook. f. & Thoms. LC
S: Palanga, Palu-Kan;
Uvaria zeylanica L. T: Kalu- Veppal, Karu LC
-Veppal
Xylopia championii Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Dat-Ketiya LC
S: Heen-Kenda;
Xylopia nigricans Hook.f. & Thoms. NT
T: See-Vindai
Xylopia parvifolia (Wight) Hook. f. & S: Atu-Ketiya, Netawu;
LC
Thoms. T: Chiddavintai
Family : Apiaceae
Bupleurum ramosissimum Wight & Arn. S: Wal-Enduru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
218
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Bupleurum hakgalense Klack. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Gotukola, Heen-Gotukola;
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban LC
T: Vallarai
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Heracleum ceylanicum Gardner ex Clarke CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Peucedanum ceylanicum Gardner CR(PE)
Pimpinella heyneana Wall. S: Wal-Asamodagam LC
Pimpinella leschenaultii DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sanicula elata Ham. ex D.Don CR(PE)
Trachyspermum stictocarpum (Clarke) H.

DD
Wolff
Family : Apocynaceae
Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G.Don S: Muwa-Kiri-Wel LC
S: Ruk- Attana , Eth-mada;

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. T:Elilaipattai, Elilaippalai, LC LCi
Mukanpelai
Anodendron paniculatum A.DC. S: As-Wel, Dul, Girandi-Ul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anodendron rhinosporum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c
Brachystelma lankana Dassanayake & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Jayasuriya +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Ela-Wara, Hela-
Wara,Wara, Mudu-Wara;
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. LC
T: Errukalai, Manakkovil,
Urukkovil
Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. T: Mankalli CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Caralluma umbellata Haw. S: Weluk EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Maha-Karamba; T:Kalaka,
Carissa carandas L. DD
Perunkila
Carissa Inermis Vahl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Heen-Karamba;
Carissa spinarum L. LC
T: Chirukila, Chirukula, Kilatti
Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G.Don VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Gon-Kaduru;
Cerbera odollam Gaertn. LC
T: Nangi-Ma
Ceropegia candelabrum L. S: Muttu-Pala,Wel-Mottu LC
A2; B1(i,ii,iii)
Ceropegia elegans Wall. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ceropegia juncea Roxb. DD
219
Ceropegia parviflora Trimen CR(PE)
Ceropegia taprobanica Huber CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ceropegia thwaitesii Hook. CR(PE)
S: Bu-Kiri-Wel, Eulu-Wel-
Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anguna, Bu-Wal-Anguna
Cleghornia acuminata Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cosmotigma racemosum (Roxb.) Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptolepis buchananii Roem.& Schult. S: Wel-Rukattana, Kiri-Vel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cynanchum alatum Wight & Arn. ex Wight CR(PE)
A2;
Cynanchum tunicatum (Retz.) Alston S: Kan-Kumbala EN
B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dischidia nummularia R. Br. CR(PE)
Gymnema lactiferum (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. T: Kurinnan LC
Gymnema pergularioides (Thw.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gymnema rotundatum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex S: Mas-Bedde, Mas-Bedda,

VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schult. Muva-Kiri-Vel
S: Iramusu, Heen-Iramusu;
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. LC
T: Nannari
Heterostemma tanjorense Wight & Arn.
VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
ex Wight
S: Kalinda, Kiri-Mawara,
Holarrhena mitis (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Kiri-Walla
Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hoya ovalifolia Wight & Arn. ex Wight S : Gonu-Ke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
Hoya pauciflora Wight S: Heen -Aramessa EN
2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hunteria zeylanica ( Retz.) Gardner ex S: Wal-Waraka, Mediya,Wal-
NT
Thw. Mediya
S: Gerandi-Dul, Gerandi-
Ichnocarpus frutescens ( L.) R. Br. Wel, Gopi, Priyawarna, LC
Kiri-Wel
Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wight & Arn.
T: Pala, Palai LC
ex Wight
Marsdenia brunoniana Wight & Arn. ex
S: Et-Anguna EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Wight
Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon T: Muruva, Muruwa-Dul EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(I,ii,iii,v)
Ochrosia oppositifolia (Lam.) Schum. S: Gonna, Mudu-Kaduru VU
+2ab(I,ii,iii,v)
220
Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.) R.Br. ex
S: Usepale; T:Kulappalai LC
Schult.
E: Eve's Apple, Forbidden
Pagiantha dichotoma (Roxb.) Markgraf Fruit; S: Divi Kaduru; T LC
: Nanthia-Vattai
Parsonsia alboflavescens (Dennst.)
S: Kiri-Anguna, Val-anguna LC
Mabb.
Pentatropis capensis (L.f.) Bullock LC
S:Langali, Maha-
Medahangu, Meda-Hangu,
Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. LC
Wissani;
T: Uttamakam,Veliparatii
S: Kukul-Kaduru, Vasa-
Petchia ceylanica (Wight) Livera NT
Kaduru, Wal-Kaduru
Rauvolfia densiflora (Wall.) Benth. ex
LC
Hook. f.
S: Ekaweriya, Nakula, Rath-
Ekaweriya; B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz EN
T: Chivan-Ampelpodi, Co- +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vannamilpori
Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. S:Muwakeeriya, Mudu-
NT
ex Wight Kanda
Secamone emetica (Retz.) R. Br. ex
S: Mudu-Kiriya LC
Schult.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Toxocarpus kleinii Wight & Arn. ex Wight EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tylophora cordifolia Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tylophora fasciculata Buch. -Ham. ex
CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Wight
Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Mudu Bin-Nuga, Apa-Sith LC
Tylophora multiflora (Wight & Arn. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Wight) Alston +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tylophora pauciflora Wight & Arn. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Wight +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tylophora tenuissima (Roxb.) Wight &
LC
Arn. ex Wight
Tylophora zeylanica Decne. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vallaris solanacea (Roth) Kuntze EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Sudu-Idda, Idda, Kelidha,
Walidda antidysenterica (L.) M. Pichon LC
Wal-idda
S: Kirianguna, Anguna,
Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf Thitha-Anguna, Anukkola; LC
T:Kodi-Palai, Kurincha
Willughbeia cirrhifera Abeywick. S: Kiri-Gedi, Kiri-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Wrightia angustifolia Thw. LC
221
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Wrightia flavido-rosea Trimen CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Wrightia puberula (Thw.) Ngan CR(PE)
Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. T: Pal-Madankai NT
Family : Aponogetonaceae
Aponogeton crispus Thunb. S: Kekatiya VU A2d LC
Aponogeton jacobsenii Bruggen S: Kekatiya CR B1ab(I,ii,iii)
Aponogeton natans (L.) Engler & Krause VU A2d LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Aponogeton rigidifolius Bruggen S: Kekatiya, Kokati EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Aquifoliaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ilex denticulata Wall. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
IIex knucklesensis Philcox EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ilex walkeri Wight & Gardner ex Thw. LC
Ilex zeylanica (Hook. f.) Maxim. S: Andunwenna NT
Family : Araceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Alocasia fornicata (Roxb.) Schott CR LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.)

B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Nicolson var. campanulatus (Decne) CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sivadasan
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius var.

S: Kidaran; T: Karunai DD
paeoniifolius
Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arisaema constrictum Barnes CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Arisaema leschenaultii Blume S: Wal-Kidaran VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott S: Wal-Kidaran EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott E: Taro; S: Gahala LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne alba de Wit CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne beckettii Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne bogneri Rataj CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne nevillii Trimen ex Hook.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
222
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne parva de Wit EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne thwaitesii Schott EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne undulata Wendt. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne waseri Kettner DD
Cryptocoryne wendtii de Wit VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptocoryne x willisii Reitz CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lagenandra bogneri de Wit S: Wana-Ketella EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lagenandra erosa de Wit CR A2d
A2d;
Lagenandra jacobsenii de Wit EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
A2d;
Lagenandra Koenigii (Schott) Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
A2d;
Lagenandra lancifolia (Schott) Thw. S: Ati-Udayan EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lagenandra ovata (L.) Thw. S: Kethala LC LC
Lagenandra praetermissa de Wit S: Kethala LC
A2d;
Lagenandra thwaitesii Engl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Angili Kohila, Kohila,
Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw. LC LC
Maha-Kohila
Lemna gibba L. CR(PE) LC
Lemna perpusilla Torrey S: Diya-Panshi LC LC
E: Water Lettuce;
Pistia stratiotes L. LC
S: Diya-Paradel
Pothos hookeri Schott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pothos parvispadix Nicolson EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pothos remotiflorus Hook. VU
Pothos scandens L. S: Pota-Wel LC
Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
223
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott S: Dada-Kehel, Wel-Kohila CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott S: Nil-Walla, Nil-wella EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Spirodela polyrrhiza (L.) Schleid. LC LC
Theriophonum minutum (Willd.) Baill. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume S: Panu-Ala CR LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Typhonium roxburghii Schott S: Polong-Ala NT
Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott S: Panu-Ala LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Wolffia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimm. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Araliaceae
Aralia leschenaultii (DC.) J. Wen DD
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. S: Maha-Gotukola NT
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polyscias acuminata (Wight) Seemann CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schefflera emarginata (Moon) Harms VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Schefflera exaltata (Thw.) Frodin EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schefflera hererobotrya Frodin S: Itha NT
S: Itha, Itta, Itta-Wel, Maha-

Schefflera stellata (Gaertn.) Baill. LC
Itta-Waela
Family : Arecaceae
S: Lenatheriya, Lenteri, B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Areca concinna Thw. EN
Lenteri-Puwak +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Calamus delicatulus Thw. S: Nara-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Calamus digitatus Becc. S: Kukulu-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Sudu-Wewel, Tambutu- B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Calamus ovoideus Thw. ex Trimen EN
Wel,Thudarena +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Calamus pachystemonus Thw. S: Kukulu-Wel EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kola-Hangala, Heen-
Calamus pseudotenuis Becc. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Wewel
Calamus radiatus Thw. S: Kukulu-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Ela-Wel, Ela-Wewel,
Calamus rivalis Thw. ex Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Kaha-Wewel
224
S: Heen-Wewel, Polonnaru
Calamus rotang L. NT
-Wewel, Wewel; T: Pirambu
S: Kath-Wel, Ma-Wewel,
A2d;
Calamus thwaitesii Becc. Puwak-Wel; VU
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Periya Pirambu
Calamus zeylanicus Becc. S: Thambotu-Wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Fish Tail Palm; S: Kitul; T:

Caryota urens L. LC
Kitul Tippilipana
Loxococcus rupicola (Thw.) H. Wendl. S:Dothalu, Dotalu-Gas, Ran- B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
& Drude Dotalu +2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Water Coconut;
Nypa fruticans Wurmb VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S:Gin-Pol
Oncosperma fasciculatum Thw. S: Katu-Kitul, Rata-Kitul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. S: Indi; T: Inchu LC
Family : Aristolochiaceae
S: Sapsanda;
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. T: Aduthinnapalai, NT
Adutintappalai
E: Indian Birthworth;
S: Sapsanda; T: Isuru, Neya,
Perumarrrindu, Adagam,
Isadesatti, Isuruver, Isurumli,
Aristolochia indica L. LC
Iyavari, Karudakkodi,
Kirttikodi, Perumarindu,
Perumaruntu, Perunkiarge,
Sasugade
Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou S: Thapasara Bulath LC
Family : Asparagaceae
Asparagus falcatus L. S: Hatawariya LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Asparagus gonoclados Baker EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Hathawariya;
Asparagus racemosus Willd. LC
T: Chattavari
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Chlorophytum heynei Rottler ex Baker CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Chlorophytum laxum R. Br. VU B2 ab (I,ii,iii
Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker CR B2 ab (I,ii,iii
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dipcadi montanum (Dalz.) Barker CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
225
Dracaena thwaitesii Regel NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Drimia rupicola (Trimen) Dassanayake EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophiopogon intermedius D.Don LC
E: Bow-String Hemp;
Sansevieria zeylanica (L.) Willd. NT
S: Niyanda; T: Maral
Scilla hyacinthina (Routh) Macbridge NT
Family : Asteraceae
Adenostemma angustifolium Arn. DD
Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze S: Laveniya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Adenostemma macrophyllum (Blume) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
DC. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Adenostemma parviflorum (Blume) DC. DD
Anaphalis brevifolia DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anaphalis fruticosa Hook. f. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anaphalis marcescens (Wight) C.B.Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anaphalis pelliculata Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Anaphalis pseudocinnamomea
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Grierson
Anaphalis subdecurrens (DC.) Gamble NT
Anaphalis sulphurea (Trimen) Grierson NT
Anaphalis thwaitesii C.B. Clarke NT
Anaphalis zeylanica C.B. Clarke NT
Anaphalis "species X" Grierson DD
Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess. E: Mugwort; S: Wal-Kolondu LC
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff LC
Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson S: Agada,Tumba LC
Blepharispermum petiolare DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Blumea angustifolia Thw. EX
226
Blumea axillaris (Lam.) DC. S: Kukula LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Blumea barbata DC. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Blumea bifoliata (L.) DC. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Blumea crinita Arn. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Blumea hieracifolia var. flexuosa (D.Don)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
DC.
Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. LC
Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Blumea membranacea Wall. ex DC. NT
S: Muda-Mahana;
Blumea obliqua (L.) Druce LC
T: Nara-Karamba
Blumea virens Wall. ex DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Blumea zeylanica (Hook.f.) Grierson CR(PE)
S: Kikirindi, Sindu-Kirindi;
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. T: Kaikechi, Kaivichillai, LC
Karichalankanni, Karippan
Elephantopus scaber L. S: Et-Adi; T: Anichovadi LC
Emilia alstonii Fosberg LC
Emilia baldwinii Fosberg NT
S: Hulan-Tala, Kadupara;
T: Elunthani, Ilaip Patti,
Emilia exserta Fosberg LC
Inumpatti-Pillu, Musalkal-
Pillu
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. S: Kadu Pahara LC
Emilia speeseae Fosberg VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Emilia zeylanica C.B.Clarke LC
Epaltes divaricata (L.) Cass. S: Heen-Mudu-Mahana LC
Epaltes pygmea DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Erigeron sublyratus DC. T: Nara-Karamba VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Glossogyne bidens (Retz.) Alston CR(PE)
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. NT
227
T: Mookuthi, Pangi Pillu,

Gynura hispida Thw. Singula Tunda,Thandu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cheddi, Pattu-Nal
S: Hulan-Tala,Wal-
Tampala; T:Mookuthi,Pangi
Gynura lycopersicifolia DC. LC
Pillu,Singula Tunda,Thandu
cheddi,Pattu-Nal
Gynura zeylanica Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Helichrysum buddleioide DC. var.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
hookerianum (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f.
Kleinia grandiflora (Wall. ex DC.) N.Rani LC
Lagenophora gracilis Steetz VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Laggera alata (D.Don) Sch. Bip. ex Oliver NT
Launaea intybacea (Jacq.) Beauv. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Launaea sarmentosa (Willd.) Sch. Bip. ex

LC
Kuntze
Moonia heterophylla Arn. NT
Myriactis wightii DC. Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Notonia walkeri (Wight) C.B.Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pseudoconyza viscosa (Miller) D'Arcy EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Psiadia ceylanica (Arn.) Grierson S: Pupula LC
Senecio corymbosus Wall. ex DC. LC
Senecio gardneri (Thw.) C.B. Clarke CR(PE)
Senecio ludens C. B. Clarke LC
Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Senecio zeylanicus DC. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sphaeranthus africanus L. S:Vel-Mudda LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sphaeranthus amaranthoides Burm.f. T: Chiva-Charantai EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Aet-Maha-Mahana, Mudu
Sphaeranthus indicus L. LC
Mahana
E:Toothache Plant; S:Maha-
Spilanthes calva DC. LC
Akmella
Spilanthes iabadicensis A. H. Moore LC
Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. LC
228
Vernonia anceps C. B. Clarke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kobo-Mella, Mal-
Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gedumba
S: Mangul-Kumburu-
Venna, Monara-
Kudumbiya, Vatu-Pala;
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. LC
T: Chitiviyarchenkalainir,
Neichatti-Kirai, Neichatti
Pillu, Neisudi-Kirai
Vernonia gardneri Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vernonia hookeriana Arn. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vernonia lankana Grierson EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vernonia nemoralis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vernonia pectiniformis DC. subsp. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
puncticulata (DC.) Grierson +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vernonia setigera Arn. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vernonia thwaitesii C. B. Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vernonia wightiana Arn. S: Konde VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Henn-Botiya, Papula,
Vernonia zeylanica (L.) Less LC
Pupula; T: Kappilay, Kuppilay
Vicoa indica (L.) DC. S: Ran-Hiriya LC
Wedelia biflora (L.) DC. S:Moodu-Gam-Palu LC
Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. S: Ranwan Kikirindi LC
S: Wal-Rambutang, Uru-
Xanthium indicum Koenig LC
Kossa
Youngia fuscipappa Thw. NT
Family : Balanophoraceae
Balanophora fungosa J. R. & G. Forst. CR A2cd
Family : Balsaminaceae
Hydrocera triflora (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Diya Kudalu, Wal-kudalu LC
A2;
Impatiens acaulis Arn. E:Balsam VU
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens appendiculata Arn. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens arnottii Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
229
Impatiens ciliifolia Grey- Wilson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens cornigera Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens cuspidata Wight & Arn. subsp.

LC
bipartita
Impatiens elongata Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens flaccida Arn. S: Kudalu Mal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens grandis Heyne ex Wall. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens henslowiana Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens janthina Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens leptopoda Arn. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens leucantha Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens linearis Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens macrophylla Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens oppositifolia L. NT
A2c;
Impatiens repens Moon S: Gal-Demata CR
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens subcordata Arn. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens taprobanica Hiern EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Impatiens thwaitesii Hook.f. ex Grey-
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Wilson
Impatiens truncata Thw. NT
Impatiens walkeri Hook. CR(PE)
Family : Basellaceae
Basella alba L. S: Niviti; T: Pasalai EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Begoniaceae
Begonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw. S: Gal-Ambala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
Begonia dipetala R.Graham EN
2ab(i,ii,iii,v)
S: Hak-Ambala, Maha-hak-
Begonia malabarica Lam. NT
Ambala
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Begonia subpeltata Wight CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
230
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Begonia tenera Dryander EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii,v)
Family : Berberidaceae
Berberis ceylanica Schneider E: Barberry NT
Berberis tinctoria Leschen. E: Barberry DD
Berberis wightiana Schneider E: Barberry DD
Family : Bignoniaceae
S: Diya-Danga;
Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f) K.Schum NT LC
T: Vil- Padri
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. S: Totila LC
S: Dunu-madala, Lunu
Stereospermum colais (Dillwyn) Mabb. LC
Madala; T: Padri
Stereospermum suaveolens DC. S: Ela-Palol, Palol DD
Family : Boraginaceae
S: Heen-Thambala;
Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune LC
T: pakkuvetti
Coldenia procumbens L. T: Chirupaddi LC
Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. S: Lolu; T: Naruvilli, Vidi LC
Cordia monoica Roxb. T: Naruvili, Ponnaruvili LC
Cordia nevillii Alston CR(PE)
Cordia oblongifolia Thw. NT
Cordia sinensis Lam. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cordia subcordata Lam. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LCi
E: Forget-Me-Not;
Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Bu-Katu-Henda
Cynoglossum zeylanicum Thunb. ex
S: Bu-Katu-Henda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lehm.
Ehretia laevis Roxb. T: Addula, Chiru-Pulichchul LC
Heliotropium curassavicum L. LC
S: Et-Honda, Et-Setiya,
Heliotropium indicum L. LC
Dimi-biya; T: Tedkodukku
Heliotropium scabrum Retz. LC
Heliotropium supinum L. CR(PE)
231
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Heliotropium zeylanicum (Burm. f.) Lam. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rotula aquatica Lour. DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tournefortia argentea L. f. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tournefortia walkerae Clarke CR(PE)
Trichodesma indicum (L.) Smith T: Kavil-Tumpai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm. f.) R. Br. LC
Family : Burmanniaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Burmannia championii Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
C2a;
Burmannia coelestis D. Don CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Burmannia disticha L. S: Mediya-Jawala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Burmannia pusilla (Wall. ex Miers) Thw. NT LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thismia gardneriana Hook. f. ex Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Burseraceae
Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. CR(PE)
S: Dik-Kakuna, Kekuna;
Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vui A1c
T: Pakkilipal
Commiphora berryi (Arn.) Engl. T: Mulkiluvai LC
Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. T: Kilivai LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii) LR/
Scutinanthe brunnea Thw. S: Maha-Bulu- Mora EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii) LCi
Family : Buxaceae
Sarcococca brevifolia (Muell.Arg.) Stapf

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
ex Gamble
Sarcococca zeylanica Baill. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Cactaceae
Rhipsalis baccifera (J.S.Mueller ) Stearn S: Wal-Nawahandi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Calophyllaceae
Calophyllum acidus Kostem. S: Dehi-Kina, Batu-Kina NT
Calophyllum bracteatum Thw. S: Walu-Keena NT
232
S: Guru-Keena, Heen
Calophyllum calaba L. LC
Keena; T: Chirupunnai
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Calophyllum cordato-oblongum Thw. S: Kalu-Keena EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Calophyllum cuneifolium Thw. S: Keena CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Alexandrian Laurel;
S: Domba,Tel-Domba;
Calophyllum inophyllum L. LC
T: Dommakottai, Punnai,
Punnaigam
Calophyllum lankaensis Kosterm. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S:Domba-Keena, Mapal-
Calophyllum moonii Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Keena
Calophyllum thwaitesii Planch. & Triana S: Batu-Keena VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Keena, Tel-Keena;
Calophyllum tomentosum Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Pongu
Calophyllum trapezifolium Thw. S: Keena VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Keena, Tel-Keena;
Calophyllum walkeri Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Pongu
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Calophyllum zeylanicum Kosterm. S: Keena EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Mesua ferrea L. S: Na; T: Naka LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mesua stylosa (Thw.) Kosterm. S: Suwanda CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Mesua thwaitesii Planch. & Triana S: Diya-Na LC
Family : Campanulaceae
Asyneuma fulgens (Wall.) Briq. CR(PE)
Campanula benthamii Wall. ex Kitam. CR(PE)
Lobelia alsinoides Lam. LC
Lobelia chinensis Lour. NT
Lobelia heyneana Roem. & Schult. LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lobelia leschenaultiana (Presl) Skottsb. VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Roem. &
S: Rasni LC
Schult.
Lobelia zeylanica L. LC LC
Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC. E: Hare-Bell LC
Family: Cannabaceae
Aphananthe cuspidata (Blume) Planch. S: Wal-Muna Mal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
233
S: Meditella;
Celtis philippensis Blanco LC
T: Vellathorasay
Celtis timorensis Span. S: Gurenda; T: Pinari LC
Gironniera parvifolia Planch. S: Akmediya LC
E: Charcoal Tree ;
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume LC
S: Gadumba
Family : Capparaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce T: Vili EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Maya Adikkuruntu, Oothi
Cadaba trifoliata (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Perali
Capparis brevispina DC. S: Wal-Dehi NT
Capparis divaritica Lam. S: Torikei LC
Capparis floribunda Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Capparis grandis L.f. T: Mudkondai NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Capparis heyneana Wall. S: Wal-Dehi, Leeniya Dehi EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Capparis moonii Wight S: Rudanti EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Balal-Katu;
Capparis rotundifolia Rottler LC
T: Karunchurai, Pichchuvilatti
S: Kalu-Illan-Gedi;
Capparis roxburghii DC. LC
T: Punai-Virandi, Velungiriya
S: Rila-Katu;
Capparis sepiaria L. LC
T: Karunchurai
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Capparis tenera Dalz. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Sudu-Welangiriya,
Capparis zeylanica L. Welangiriya; T: Kattoddi, LC
Vennachchi
S: Lunu-Warana;
Crateva adansonii DC. LC
T: Navala, Navilankai
Maerua arenaria Hook.f. & Thoms. NT
Family : Caprifoliaceae
Dipsacus walkeri Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Valeriana moonii Arn. ex Clarke CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)

234
Family : Caryophyllaceae
Cerastium fontanum Baumg. subsp. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
vulgare (Hartm.) Greuter & Burdet +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. LC
Cerastium indicum Wight & Arn. NT
Drymaria cordata (L.) Roem. & Schult.

S: Kukulu-Pala LC
subsp. diandra (Blume) Duke
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polycarpaea aurea Wight & Arn. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam. LC
Polycarpaea spicata Wight & Arn. CR(PE) LC
Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. &

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Schweinf.
Polycarpon tetraphyllum subsp
LC
tetraphyllum (L.) L.
Sagina saginoides (L.) Karsten DD
Stellaria pauciflora Zoll. & Moritzi CR(PE)
Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert DD
Family : Celastraceae
S: Nareloo, Neraloo;
Cassine balae Kosterm. LC
T: Perun, Piyaree
Cassine congylos Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Neralu; T:Piyari,
Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze LC
Perunpiyari
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Celastrus paniculatus Willd. S: Duhundu EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Euonymus revolutus Wight NT
Euonymus thwaitesii Lawson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Euonymus walkeri Wight LC VUi A1c
Glyptopetalum zeylanicum Thw. var.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
zeylanicum
A2 acd,
Kokoona zeylanica Thw. S: Kokun, Wana-Potu EN
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Loeseneriella africana (Willd.) Wilczek EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Loeseneriella arnottiana (Wight) A. C.
S: Sudu-Nawu-Wel EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Smith
Loeseneriella macrantha (Korth.) A. C.
S: Diya-Kirindi-Wel EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Smith
235
Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou LC
Maytenus fruticosa (Thw.) Loes CR(PE)
Microtropis wallichiana Wight ex Thw. LC
Microtropis zeylanica Merr. & Freem. NT
S: Panakka, Piyari; T:Chiru,

Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.) Alston LC
Piyari
Reissantia indica (Willd.) Halle LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Salacia acuminatissima Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Salacia chinensis L. S: Heen-Himbutu Wel NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Salacia diandra Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Salacia oblonga Wall. ex Wight & Arn. S: Himbutu, Gal-Himbutu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Himbutu, Himbutu-Wel,
Salacia reticulata Wight EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Kotala-Himbutu
Family: Centroplacaceae
S: Et-Heraliya, Palen,
Bhesa ceylanica (Arn. ex Thw.) Ding
Pelang, Uru-Honda; LC VUi A1c
Hou
T:Konnai
Bhesa montana DD
Bhesa nitidissima Kosterm. LC CRi B1+2c
Family : Ceratophyllaceae
Ceratophyllum demersum L. LC LC
Family : Chloranthaceae
Sarcandra chloranthoides Gardner LC
Family : Cleomaceae
Cleome aspera Koenig ex DC. LC
Cleome chelidonii L. f. S: Wal-Aba LC
Cleome gynandra L. S: Wela; T: Tayirvalai LC
Cleome monophylla L. LC
Cleome tenella L. f. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cleome viscosa L. S: Wal-Aba, Ran-Manissa LC
236
Family : Clusiaceae
Garcinia echinocarpa Thw. S: Madol VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Garcinia hermonii Kosterm. S: Madol, Kana-Goraka VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Gamboge; S: Kana-
Garcinia morella (Gaertn.) Desr. NT
Gorake, Kokatiya, Gokatu
S: Goraka, Rat-Goraka;
Garcinia quaesita Pierre LC
T: Korakkaipuli
S: Ela-Gokatu, Gonapana;
Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. NT
T: Kokottai
Garcinia terpnophylla (Thw.) Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Garcinia thwaitessii Pierre EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Garcinia zeylanica Roxb. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Colchicaceae
S: Niyangala; T: Kartikai
Gloriosa superba L. LC
Kilanku, Ventonti
Iphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth LC
Family : Combretaceae
S: Dawu,T: Vekkali, Velai-

Anogeissus latifolius (Roxb.) Beddome LC
Naga
Combretum acuminatum Roxb. CR(PE)
Combretum albidum G.Don S: Kaduru-Ketiya-Wel NT
Combretum latifolium Blume S: Geta-kaha NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. S: Beriya; T: Tipparuthin NT
S: Kumbulu, Kumbuk;
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. LC
T: Marutu
E: Myrabalans; S: Bulu;
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. LC
T: Ahdan-Koddai,Tanti
E: Gall-Nut, Ink Nut,

Terminalia chebula Retz. Myrabalans; S: Aralu; LC
T: Kadukkay
Terminalia zeylanica van Heurck & Muell. S: Hampalanda,

LC
Arg. Hanpalanda
Family : Commelinaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Commelina appendiculata Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Commelina attenuata Vahl LC
237
Commelina benghalensis L. S: Diya-Meneriya LC LC
Commelina clavata Clarke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Commelina diffusa Burm.f. S: Gira Pala LC LC
Commelina ensifolia R.Br. LC
Commelina indehiscens E.Barnes S: Gira Pala NT
Commelina kurzii Clarke LC
Commelina paludosa Blume CR(PE)
Commelina petersii Hassk. LC
Cyanotis adscendens Dalz. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyanotis axillaris (L.) Sweet LC LC
Cyanotis burmanniana Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyanotis ceylanica Hassk. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyanotis cristata (L.) D.Don S: Bol-Hinda LC LC
Cyanotis obtusa (Trimen)Trimen EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyanotis pilosa Schult.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyanotis racemosa Heyne ex Hassk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyanotis thwaitesii Hassk. NT
Cyanotis villosa (Spreng.) Schult.f. NT
Dictyospermum montanum Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dictyospermum ovalifolium Wight EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Floscopa scandens Lour. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia audreyae Faden EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia blumei (Hassk.) Brenan EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia dimorphoides Faden NT
Murdannia esculenta (Wall. ex Clarke)

NT LC
R.S.Rao & Kammathy
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) G.Brückn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
238
Murdannia glauca (Thw. ex Clarke)
CR(PE)
G.Brückn.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia lanceolata (Wight) Kammathy EN VU D2
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) R.S.Rao &
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Kammathy
Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia simplex (Vahl) Brenan CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia spirata (L.) G.Brückn. LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia striatipetala Faden EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Murdannia vaginata (L.) G.Brückn. LC LC
Murdannia zeylanica (Clarke) G.Brückn VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pollia secundiflora (Blume.) Bakh.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhopalephora scaberrima (Blume) Faden EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Connaraceae
Connarus championii Thw. S: Wel-Radaliya, Radaliya NT
S: Radaliya; T:
Connarus monocarpus L. LC
Chettupulukodi
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ellipanthus unifoliatus (Thw.) Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston S: Kirindi-Wel, Goda-Kirindi LC
Family : Convolvulaceae
Argyreia choisyana Wight ex Clarke DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Argyreia elliptica Choisy EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Argyreia hancorniaefolia Gardner EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Argyreia hirsuta Arn. LC
Argyreia osyrensis (Roth) Choisy LC
Argyreia pomacea Choisy T: Unam-Kodhy LC
Argyreia populifolia Choisy S: Giri-Tilla LC
Argyreia splendens (Roxb.) Sweet CR(PE)
Argyreia thwaitesii (Clarke) D.Austin S: Ma-Banda, Ginitilla LC
239
Bonamia semidigyna (Roxb.) Hall. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cressa cretica L. LC
E: Dodder
Cuscuta chinensis Lam. LC
S: Aga-Mula-Neti-Wel;
E: Golden Dodder, Field
Cuscuta campestris Yunck. Dodder DD
E: Dodder
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Atamberiya, Etamberiya,
Erycibe paniculata Roxb. LC
Eta-Miriya
S: Visnu-Kranti; T: Vichnu
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. LC
Kiranti
Hewittia sublobata (L.f.) O. Ktze. S: Wal-Trasta-Walu LC
Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. S: Kan-Kun LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea campanulata L. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea coptica (L.) Roem. & Schult. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea deccana D.Austin DD
Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea jucunda Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea littoralis Blume S: Tel-kola NT
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. S: Waha-Tel,Tel-Vel,Tel-Kola LC
S: Mudu-bin-tamburu,
Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. Muhudu Bim Thamburu, Bin- LC
Tamburu
Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. S: Divi-Adiya, Divi-Pahura LC
Ipomoea pileatea Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc.

S: Rasa-Tel-Kola LC
(Syn. Ipomoea sepiaria Roxb.)
Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Schult. S: Tel-Kola CR(PE)
Ipomoea stolonifera (Cyrill.) Gmelin VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea tuberculata Ker-Gawl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea violacea L. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
240
Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hall. f. NT
Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. S: Kaha-Tel-Kola LC
S: Hawari-Madu, Heen-
Merremia tridentata (L.) Hall. f. LC
Madu; T: Mudiyakuntal
Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f. S: Kiri Madu, Mahamadu LC
Operculina turpethum (L.) S. Manso S: Trastawalu LC
Rivea ornata Choisy T: Muchuddai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Stictocardia tiliifolia (Desr.) Hall.f. S: Ma-Banda, Maha-Banda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Cornaceae
Alangium salviifolium (L. f.) Wangerin NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mastixia congylos Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Mastixia macrophylla (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c
Mastixia montana Kosterm. S: Diya-Taleya, Diya-Taliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mastixia nimalii Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Mastixia tetrandra (Wight ex Thw.) Clarke S: Diyataliya, Maha-Tawara LC VUi A1c
Family : Costaceae
Costus speciosus (Koenig) Smith S: Koltan,Tebu LC
Family : Crassulaceae
Kalanchoe floribunda Wight & Arn. var. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
glabra +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) Pers. DD
Family : Crypteroniaceae
Axinandra zeylanica Thw. S: Kekiri-Wara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Cucurbitaceae
E: Colocynth; S: Yak-
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Komadu; T: Peykkomadi, VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Peykkomakki, Peykummatti
E: Ivy Gourd; S: Kowakka;
Coccinia grandis (L.) J.Voigt LC
T: Kovvai
Corallocarpus epigaeus (Arn.) Hook.f. S: Gopalanga VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Mochu-Mochukkai,
Ctenolepis garcinii (Burm.f.) Naud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mossumossuke
241
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C.Jeffrey S: Pasengilla LC
Gymnopetalum integrifolium (Roxb.) Kurz VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gymnopetalum tubiflorum (Wight & Arn.)

S: Vel Kekiri LC
Cogn.
Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Makino +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Kedrostis courtallensis (Arn.) C.Jeffrey S: Kawudu-Kekiri VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Batu-Karavila, Karavila; T:
Momordica charantia L. LC
Pakal, Nuti-Pakal
Momordica denudata (Thw.) Clarke LC
S: Mal-Tumba, Tumb-
Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. Karawila; T: Paluppakal, LC
Tumpai
Mukia leiosperma (Wight & Arn.) Wight CR(PE)
S: Gon-Kekiri, Heen-Kekiri,
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roemer Lene-Kekiri, Kekiri; NT
T: Mochumochukkai
S: Kawudu-Kekeiri, Tela
Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi LC
Beriya; T: Peyppudal
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Trichosanthes anaimalaiensis Beddome EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Dum-Mella, Kunu-Mella;
Trichosanthes cucumerina L. LC
T: Pudal
Trichosanthes integrifolia Thw. CR(PE)
Trichosanthes nervifolia L. CR(PE)
S: Titta-hondala;
Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. LC
T: Anakoruthi
Zanonia indica L. S: Wal-Rasakinda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zehneria maysorensis
EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
(Wight & Arn.) Arn.
Zehneria thwaitesii (Schweinf.) C.Jeffrey VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Cymodoceaceae
Cymodocea serrulata (R.Br.) Asch. &

NT LC
Magnus
Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Asch. NT LC
Syringodium isoetifolium (Asch.) Dandy NT LC
Family : Cyperaceae
Actinoscirpus grossus (L.f.) Goetgn. &

LC LC
D.A.Simpson
242
Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Kunth ex
S: Uru-Hiri LC
Clarke
Bulbostylis densa (Wall.ex Roxb.) Hand.-
NT
Mazz.
Bulbostylis puberula (Poir.) Kunth ex
LC
Clarke
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex arnottiana Nees ex Drejer EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex baccans Nees ex Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex breviscapa Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex filicina Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Carex indica L. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex jackiana Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex lateralis Kukenth. CR(PE)
Carex lenta D. Don CR(PE)
Carex leucantha Arn. ex Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex ligulata Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex lindleyana Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex lobulirostris Drejer EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex longicruris Nees NT
Carex longipes D.Don DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex maculata Boott EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex nubigena D.Don EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex phacota Spreng. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Carex rara Boott subsp patanicola B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
T.Koyama +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex spicigera Nees EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex taprobanensis T.Koyama CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Carex walkeri Arn. ex Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. NT
Cyperus arenarius Retz. S: Mudu-Kalanduru LC LC
Cyperus articulatus L. DD
243
Cyperus bifax Clarke LC
Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. LC
Cyperus bulbosus Vahl T: Chilanti Arichi LC
Cyperus castaneus Willd. LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus cephalotes Vahl EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus clarkei Cook EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus compactus Retz. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus compressus L. LC
Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. subsp.

CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
pachyrrhizus (Nees) T. Koyama
Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. S: Gal-Ehi NT
Cyperus cuspidatus Kunth LC
Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl LC
Cyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Cyperus difformis L. LC LC
Cyperus diffusus Vahl EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus digitatus Roxb. LC LC
Cyperus disruptus C.B. Clarke LC
Cyperus distans L.f. LC LC
Cyperus dubius Rottb. LC LC
Cyperus exaltatus Retz. LC
Cyperus haspan L. S: Hal-Pan LC
Cyperus iria L. S: Wel-Hiri LC
Cyperus javanicus Houtt. S: Ramba; T: Irampai LC
Cyperus kyllingia Endl. S: Mottu-Tana LC
Cyperus melanospermus ( Nees) Valken LC
Cyperus mitis Steud. LC LC
244
Cyperus nutans Vahl LC LC
Cyperus pangorei Rottb. S: Hewan-Pan LC LC
Cyperus paniceus (Rottb.) Boeckler LC LC
Cyperus pilosus Vahl LC LC
Cyperus platyphyllus Roem. & Schult. NT LC
Cyperus platystylis R.Br. NT
Cyperus procerus Rottb. LC LC
Cyperus pulcherrimus Willd. ex Kunth NT
Cyperus pygmaeus Rottb. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus radians Nees & Meyen ex Kunth CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus rotundus L. S: Kalanduru; T: Korai LC LC
Cyperus sesquiflorus (Torr.) Mattfeld &

NT
Kükenth.
Cyperus squarrosus L. LC LC
Cyperus stoloniferus Retz. LC LC
Cyperus tenuiculmis Boeckeler LC LC
Cyperus tenuispica Steud. LC LC
Cyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl. LC
Cyperus umbellatus Clarke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyperus zollingeri Steud. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diplacrum caricinum R.Br. NT LC
Eleocharis actangula (Roxb. ) Schult. LC
Eleocharis confervoides (Poir.) T. Koyama CR(PE)
Eleocharis congesta D.Don NT
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.)Trin. ex

S: Boru-Pan LC
Hensch.
Eleocharis geniculata (L.) Roem. & Schult. LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eleocharis lankana T.Koyama CR LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
245
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eleocharis ochrostachys Steud. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eleocharis retroflexa (Poir.) Urban VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Eleocharis spiralis (Rottb.) Roem. &

LC LC
Schult.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eleocharis tetraquetra Nees EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz) Vahl EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis argentea (Rottb.) Vahl LC LC
Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Frossk.) Bubani VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Fimbristylis cinnamometorum (Vahl)

LC
Kunth
Fimbristylis complanata (Retz.) Link VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis consanguinea Kunth EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br. LC
Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl LC
Fimbristylis dipsacea (Rottb.) Clarke CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis dura (Zoll.& Moritzi) Merr. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis eragrostis (Nees & Meyen)
LC
Hance
Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth LC
Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis fusca (Nees) Clark EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis insignis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis leptoclada Benth. CR(PE)
Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl S: Muduhal-Pan LC
Fimbristylis monticola Hochst. ex Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis nutans (Retz.) Vahl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Fimbristylis ovata (Burm.f.) Kern LC LC
Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) Vahl LC LC
246
Fimbristylis pubisquama Kern LC
Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth LC
Fimbristylis salbundia (Nees) Kunth subsp

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
pentapetra (Nees) T.Koyama
Fimbristylis schoenoides (Retz.) Vahl LC LC
Fimbristylis tenera Schult. DD
Fimbristylis tetragona R.Br. LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis thouarsii (Kunth) Merr. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis triflora (L.) Schum. ex Engl. LC
Fimbristylis umbellaris (Lam.) Vahl S: Hal-Pan LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fimbristylis zeylanica T.Koyama CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fuirena capitata (Burm.f.) T.Koyama LC
Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. LC LC
Fuirena umbellata Rottb. LC LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hypolytrum longirostre Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hypolytrum scirpoides (Presl) Merr. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hypolytrum turgidum Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Isolepis fluitans (L.) R.Br. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lepironia articulata (Retz.) Domin. S: Eta-Pan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Lipocarpha chinensis (Osbeck) Kern LC LC
Lipocarpha sphacelata (Vahl) Kunth LC
Machaerina rubiginosa (Spreng.) T.

CR(PE)
Koyama subsp. crassa (Thw.) T.Koyama
Mapania immersa (Thw.) Benth. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Clarke +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mapania zeylanica (Thw.) Benth.ex Clarke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pycreus flavidus (Retz.) T.Koyama LC
Pycreus polystachyos (Rottb.) Beauv. LC
247
Pycreus pumilus (L.) Nees S: Go-Hiri LC
Pycreus puncticulatus (Vahl) Nees. LC LC
Pycreus sanguinolentus (Vahl) Nees ex

NT
Clarke
Pycreus stramineus (Nees) Clarke CR(PE) LC
Queenslandiella hyalina (Vahl) Ballard VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Remirea maritima Aublet VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchospora chinensis Nees & Meyen

CR(PE)
ex Nees
Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britt. LC LC
Rhynchospora gracillima Thw. CR(PE)
Rhynchospora rubra (Lour.) Makino NT
Rhynchospora rugosa (Vahl) Gale subsp. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
brownii (Roem. & Schult.) T. Koyama +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchospora triflora Vahl CR(PE)
Rikliella squarrosa (L.) Raynal LC
Schoenoplectus articulatus (L.) Palla S: Maha Geta-Pan LC
Schoenoplectus juncoides (Roxb.) Palla LC
Schoenoplectus littoralis (Schrad.) Palla LC
Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Schoenoplectus supinus (L.) Palla LC
Scirpodendron ghaeri (Gaertn.) Merr. CR(PE)
Scleria biflora Roxb. CR(PE)
Scleria corymbosa Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scleria levis Retz. S: Goda Karawu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. LC
Scleria mikawana Makino VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Scleria multilacunosa T.Koyama CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scleria neesii Kunth S: Bakamunu Tana EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
248
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scleria oblata S.T.Blake EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Scleria parvula Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scleria pergracilis (Nees) Kunth S: Mehi-Wal CR(PE)
Scleria pilosa Boeckeler CR(PE)
Scleria poaeformis Retz. LC
Scleria rugosa R.Br. NT
Scleria sumatrensis Retz. NT
Scleria terrestris (L.) Fassett LC
Scleria thwaitesiana Boeckeler VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Trichophorum subcapitatum (Thw. &

CR(PE) LC
Hook.) D.A.Simpson
Tricostularia undulata (Thw.) Kern CR(PE)
Family : Daphniphyllaceae
Daphniphyllum glaucescens Blume CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Dichapetalaceae
Dichapetalum gelonioides (Roxb.) Engl. S: Balal-Hula LC
Dichapetalum zeylanicum Kosterm. NT
Family : Dilleniaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Acrotrema dissectum Thw. ex Hook. f. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Acrotrema intermedium Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Acrotrema lanceolatum Hook. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Acrotrema lyratum Thw. ex Hook. f. S: Bin-Beru CR B2 ab (i,ii,iii)
Acrotrema thwaitesii Hook.f. & Thoms. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
ex Hook.f. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Passana, Ettadi,
Acrotrema uniflorum Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gondiwa, Bim- Beru
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Acrotrema walkeri Wight ex Thw. S: Ulwerreni, Bim-Beru VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Hondapara, Wam-Para;
Dillenia indica L. LC
Tamil: Akku
Dillenia retusa Thunb. S: Godapara LC
Dillenia triquetra (Rottb.) Gilg S: Diyapara LC CRi B1+2cd
249
Schumacheria alnifolia Hook.f. & B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kekiri-Wara EN
Thoms. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schumacheria angustifolia Hook.f. & S: Kikeriwera, Heen- B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Thoms. kekiriwara +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kekiri-Wara, Heen-Kekiri-
Schumacheria castaneifolia Vahl LC
Wara
Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr. S: Eth-Korassa-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Korossa-Wal, Korasa,
Tetracera sarmentosa (L.) Vahl LC
Korass-Wel
Family : Dioscoreacea
E: Aerial Yam, Potato Yam;

S: Bakamuna-Wel, Panu-
Dioscorea bulbifera L. Kondol, Udala; T: Mothaka LC
Valli(Wild), Rasa Valli
(Cultivars)
S: Gonala, Kahata-Gonala, B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Dioscorea koyamae Jayasuriya EN
Kiri-Gonala +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Gonala, Hiritala, Kitala,
Dioscorea oppositifolia L. NT
Viala
S: Katu-Ala, Katuwala-Ala;
Dioscorea pentaphylla L. LC
T: Allai
Dioscorea spicata Roth S: Gonala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dioscorea tomentosa Koenig ex Spreng. S: Uyala LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dioscorea trimenii Prain & Burkill S: Dahiya-Ala EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze S: Garandi-Kidaran DD
Trichopus zeylanicus Gaertn. S: Bim-Pol VU A2 d
Family : Dipterocarpaceae
Balanocarpus brevipetiolaris (Thw.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Alston +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Balanocarpus kitulgallensis Kosterm. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dipterocarpus glandulosus Thw. S: Dorana EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd, B1+2c
Dipterocarpus hispidus Thw. S: Bu-hora VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd
Dipterocarpus insignis Thw. S: Weli-Dorana EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1bcd, B1+2c
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus Thw. S: Hora NT ENi A1cd
S: Pathuru Yakahalu,
Doona affinis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) ENi A1cd
Beraliya-Dun, Miris-Dun
S: Tiniya, Thinniya,Tiniya-
Doona congestifolora Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)
Dun
E: Red Doon; S: Ratu-Dun;
Doona gardneri Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CRi A1cd
T: Konge-Koongili
250
S: Honda-Beraliya, Kana-
Doona macrophylla Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CRi A1cd
Beraliya, Maha-Beraliya
E: Red Doon; S: Hal
Doona nervosa Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CRi A1cd
Beraliya, Kotikan-Beraliya
Doona oblonga Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) ENi A1cd
Doona ovalifolia Thw. S: Pini-Beraliya EW CRi A1cd, C2a
Doona trapezifolia Thw. S: Yakahalu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd
Doona venulosa Thw. S: Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1cd
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Doona zeylanica Thw. S: Dun; T: Koongili EN CRi A1cd, C2a
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii) A1cd, B1+2c,
Hopea cordifolia (Thw.) Trimen S: Mendora, Uva-Mendora EN ENi
+2ab(i,ii,iii) D
B1ab(i,ii,iii) A1bcd,
Hopea discolor Thw. S: Peely-Dun, Ratu-Dun EN ENi
+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1+2c, C1, D
Hopea jucunda Thw. S: Rat-Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hopea modesta (A.DC.) Kosterm. S: Pini-Beraliya EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Nawara-Dun, Yakahalu-
Shorea dyeri Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dun, Yakahalu
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Shorea hulanidda Kosterm. S: Hulan-Idda, Nawa-Dun EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Shorea lissophylla Thw. S: Gal-Pana Mora, Mal-Mora VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd, C2a
S: Pana-Mora, Panadora,
Shorea oblongifolia Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd
Pathuru-Yakkahalu
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Shorea pallescens Ashton S: Ratu-Dun EN CRi A1cd, C2a
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Hulan-Idda, Nawa-Dun,
Shorea stipularis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd
Nawada
Stemonoporus acuminatus (Thw.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN ENi A1c
Beddome +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus affinis Thw. CR CRi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus angustisepalum B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN ENi A1c
Kosterm. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus bullatus Kosterm. CR ENi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus canaliculatus Thw. EN CR A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus cordifolius (Thw.) Alston S: Iri Dorala EN ENi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus elegans (Thw.) Alston VU CRi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Hal, Ugudu-Hal, Hal- B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus gardneri Thw. VU ENi A1ci
Mandora +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus gilimalensis Kosterm. CR CRi A1c, C2a
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus gracilis Kosterm. CR CRi A1c, D
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
251
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus kanneliyensis Kosterm. EN ENi A1c, C2a
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus laevifolius Kosterm. CR ENi A1c, B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus lanceolatus Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c, D
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus lancifolius (Thw.) Ashton EN CRi A1c, D
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus latisepalum Kosterm. CR CRi B1+2c, D
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus marginalis Kosterm. CR CRi B1+2c, D
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus moonii Thw. S: Hora-Wel CR CRi C2a, D
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus nitidus Thw. CR CRi A1c, D
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus oblongifolius Thw. EN ENi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus petiolaris Thw. EN CRi A1c+2c, C2a
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus reticulatus Thw. S: Hal-Mandora EN ENi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus revolutus Trimen ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)
CR ENi A1c
Hook.f. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus rigidus Thw. EN ENi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus scalarinervis Kosterm. S: Ugadu-Hal EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus scaphifolius Kosterm. CR ENi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemonoporus wightii Thw. S: Hal-Mendora EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sunaptea scabriuscula (Thw.) Trimen S: Na-Mendora EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vateria copallifera (Retz.) Alston S: Hal; T: Kungiliyam Pinai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1cd, C2a
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vatica affinis Thw. S: Hal-Mendora EN CRi A1c, C2a
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vatica lewisiana (Trimen ex Hook.f.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
CR
Livera +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vatica obscura Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1cd
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vatica paludosa Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Droseraceae
Drosera burmannii Vahl E: Sundew; S: Wata-Essa VU C1 LC
Drosera indica L. E: Sundew; S: Kandulessa VU C1 LC
E: Sundew; S: Ada-Handa- B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Drosera peltata Smith EN LC
Essa +2ab(i,ii,iii)
252
Family : Ebenaceae
Diospyros acuminata (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros acuta Thw. EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Eta-Thimbiri, Kalu-Wella,
Diospyros affinis Thw. Kalu-Welle ; NT
T: Semelpanachai
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros albiflora Alston EN VUi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros atrata Alston EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros attenuata Thw. S: Kadumberiya EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros chaetocarpa Kosterm. S: Kalu-Mediriya EN VUi A1c, B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros crumenata Thw. EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kalu-Habaraliya; A2 ad,B2ab
Diospyros ebenoides Kosterm. EN ENi B1+2c
T: Irumpalai, Juwarai (i,ii,iii)
E: Ebony; S: Kaluwara ;
Diospyros ebenum Koenig EN A2 ad DDi
T: Karunkali
Diospyros hirsuta L.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
S: Gona, Porawa-Mara, Wal-

Diospyros insignis Thw. LC B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mediriya
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros koenigii Kosterm. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E : Gaub Persimmon;
Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. LC
S: Timbiri; T :Panichchai
A2 ad,B1
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. S: Kadumberiya EN
B2 ab(i,ii,iii,v)
T: Katukanni, Mulkarunkali,
Diospyros montana Roxb. NT
Vakkana, Vakkani
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros moonii Thw. S: Kadumberiya, Kaluwella EN CRi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros nummulariifolia Kosterm. LC
Diospyros oblongifolia (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Diospyros okkesii Kosterm. DD
S: Ela-Thimbiri, Kalu-
Diospyros oocarpa Thw. Kudumberiya; T: Velli- NT
Karunkkali
S: Kalu-Mediriya, B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros oppositifolia Thw. EN ENi B1+2c
Kudumberiya +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Habara, Kunumella;
Diospyros ovalifolia Wight LC
T: Vedukkanari, Vedukunari
253
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros pemadasai Jayasuriya S: Kola-Pellan EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Calamander; S: Kalu-
Diospyros quaesita Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1cd
Mediriya
S: kahakala, Kaluwella;
Diospyros racemosa Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Vellai Thoverii
Diospyros rheophytica Kosterm. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c
S: Hompilla, Sudu-
Diospyros sylvatica Roxb. Kudumberiya; T: Kurruppu- VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thoveria
Diospyros thwaitesii Beddome S: Boromala, Kadumberiya, VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diospyros trichophylla Alston EN VUi A1c, B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Bastard Ebony;
Diospyros walkeri (Wight) Guerke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
S: Porowa Mala, Kaluwelle
Maba buxifolia (Rottb.) Juss LC
Family : Elaeagnaceae
Elaegnus latifolia L. S: Katu-Embilla, Wel-Embilla LC
Family : Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpus amoenus Thw. S: Titta-Weralu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaeocarpus coriaceus Hook. S: Gal-Weralu EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaeocarpus glandulifer (Hook.) Masters S: Gal-Weralu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaeocarpus hedyosmus Zmarzty EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaeocarpus montanus Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaeocarpus serratus L. E: Wild Olive; S: Weralu LC
Elaeocarpus subvillosus Arn. S: Gal-Weralu NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaeocarpus taprobanicus Zmarzty EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Elaeocarpus zeylanicus (Arn.) Masters EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Elatinaceae
Bergia ammanioides Roxb. ex Roth NT
Bergia capensis L. S: Geta - Purukwila LC
Family : Ericaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gultheria leschenaultii DC. S: Wel-Kapuru EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
254
Rhododendron arboreum Smith subsp.
S: Ma-Ratmal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
zeylanicum (Booth) Tagg
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vaccinium leschenaultii Wight S: Boralu VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Eriocaulaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon atratum Kornicke VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon brownianum Mart. VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon catopsioides S.M. Phillips CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon ceylanicum Kornicke EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon cinereum R. Br. LC
Eriocaulon fergusonii (Moldenke) S.M.

CR(PE)
Phillips
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon fluviatile Trimen CR LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon longicuspe Hook.f. VU LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon odoratum Dalz. LC LC
Eriocaulon philippo-coburgi Szyszyl. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)

VU
Wawra +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon psammophilum S.M. Phillips EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon quinquangulare L. S: Heen-Kokmota LC
Eriocaulon setaceum L. S: Penda LC
Eriocaulon sexangulare L. S: Kokmota LC
Eriocaulon subglaucum Ruhland CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon thwaitesii Kornicke VU LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon thysanocephalum S.M. B1ab(i,ii,iii)
CR
Phillips +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon trimeni Hook.f. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon truncatum Mart. LC
Eriocaulon walkeri Hook.f. VU BI ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriocaulon willdenovianum Moldenke NT
Family : Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum lanceolatum (Wight) Walp. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Devadaram;
Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. NT
T: Chemanatti
255
S: Bata-Kirilla;
Erythroxylum moonii Hochr. NT
T: Chiru-Chemannatti
Erythroxylum obtusifolium (Wight) Hook.f. LC
Erythroxylum zeylanicum O. Schulz LC
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. LC
S: Kuppameniya;
Acalypha indica L. LC
T: Kuppameni, Punairananki
Acalypha lanceolata Willd. LC
Acalypha racemosa Wall. ex Baill. LC
Acalypha supera Forssk. DD
Adenochlaena zeylanica (Baill.) Thw. CR(PE)
Agrostistachys coriacea Alston S: Beru LC VUi A1c
S: Diya-Beru, Kunu-Beru,
Agrostistachys hookeri (Thw.) Benth. LC CRi B1+2c
Maha-Beru
Agrostistachys indica Dalz. LC
Agrostistachys intramarginalis Philcox LC
Chaetocarpus castanocarpus (Roxb.)

S: Hedawaka, Hedoka LC
Thw.
S: Gal-Hadoka, Hedawaka,
Chaetocarpus coriaceus Thw. LC VUi A1c
Hedoka
Chaetocarpus ferrugineus Philcox VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Chaetocarpus pubescens (Thw.) Hook.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
f.
Chrozophora plicata (Vahl) A. Juss ex
DD
Spreng.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cleidion nitidum (Muell. Arg.) Thw. ex Kurz EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cleidion spiciflorum (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Okuru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Wel-Keppetiya;
Croton aromaticus L. LC
T: Teppaddi
Croton caudatus Geisel S: Vel-Keppetiya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Gas- Keppetiya,
Croton laccifer L. LC
Keppetiya; T: Teppaddi
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Croton moonii Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Croton nigroviridis Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
256
Croton officinalis (Klotzsch) Alston LC
Croton persimilis Muell.Arg. S: Akurella; T: Milla Kunari VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Croton zeylanicus Muell.Arg. CR(PE)
Dalechampia indica Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Weli-Wenna;
Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw. LC
T: Tentuikki, Tentukki
Euphorbia antiquorum L. S: Daluk; T: Chatura Kalli LC
Euphorbia atoto Forst. CR(PE)
Euphorbia cristata Heyne ex Roth DD
Euphorbia granulata Frossk. DD
Euphorbia hirta L. S: Bu-Dada-Kiriya; T: Palavi LC
Euphorbia indica Lam. S: Ela-Dada-Kiriya LC
Euphorbia rosea Retz. S: Mudu-Dada-Kiriya LC
Euphorbia rothiana Spreng. LC
S:Bin-Dada-
Euphorbia thymifolia L. LC
Kiriya,T:Chittirapalavi
Euphorbia tortilis Rottler ex Ainslie S: Sinuk CR(PE)
Euphorbia trigona Haw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Tala-Kiriya,Tela Kiriya,Tel
Excoecaria agallocha L. LC LC
Kiriya; T: Tilai
Excoecaria oppositifolia Griffith var.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
crenulata (Wight) Chakrab. & M.G.Ganop
Fahrenheitia minor (Thw.) Airy Shaw S: Olu-Petta, Wal-Kekuna LC
Fahrenheitia zeylanica (Thw.) Muell.Arg. S: Mawata, Olu-Petta LC
Givotia moluccana (L.) Sreem. T: Puttalai LC
S:Gini-kanda, Kanda;
Homalanthus populifolius Graham LC
T: Pramaram
Homonoia riparia Lour. NT
Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. T: Atalai NT
Macaranga digyna (Wight) Muell.Arg. S: Gal-Ota, Ota NT
257
Macaranga indica Wight S: Kenda; T: Vattakanni LC
S: Kenda, Pat-kenda;
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.Arg LC
T: Vattakanni
Mallotus distans Muell.Arg. DD
S: Bulu-Petta, Vel-Keppetiya;
Mallotus eriocarpus (Thw.) Muell.Arg. LC
T: Maratini
Mallotus fuscescens (Thw.) Muell.Arg. LC
S: Hamparila, Hamparilla; T:
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell. Arg. LC
Kapila
Mallotus repandus (Willd.) Muell. Arg. LC
Mallotus resinosus (Blanco) Merr. S: Ma-Endaru LC
S: Molabe; T: Marai-Tinni,
Mallotus rhamnifolius (Willd.) Muell. Arg. LC
Maraitium
S: Bu-Kenda;
Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz LC
T: Mullupolavu
Micrococca mercurialis (L.). Benth. LC
Micrococca oligandra (Muell. Arg.) Prain VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ptychopyxis thwaitesii (Baill.) Croizat S: Wal-Rambutan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sapium indicum Willd. S: Kiri-Makulu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. S: Kaduru,Tel-Kaduru LC
Sebastiania chamaelea (L.) Muell. Arg. S: Rat Pita Wakka LC
Suregada angustifolia (Muell. Arg.) Airy

LC
Shaw
Suregada lanceolata (Willd.) Kuntze T: Kakkaipalai, Potpattai LC
Tragia hispida Willd. S: Wel-Kahabiliya LC
Tragia involucrata L. S: Wel-Kahabiliya LC
Tragia muelleriana Pax & Hoffm. CR(PE)
Tragia plukenetii Radcliffe-Smith S: Wel-Kahabiliya NT
E: Fever Tree; S: Opinna;

Trewia nudiflora L. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T:Karachal-Maran,Tidimbi
Trigonostemon diplopetalus Thw. CR(PE)
Trigonostemon nemoralis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Fabaceae
258
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Abarema abeywickramae Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Abarema bigemina (L.) Kosterm. S: Kalatiya LC
Abarema subcoriacea (Thw.) Kosterm. S: Mimini-Mara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Abrus melanospermus Hassk. S: Ella-Olinda LC
E: Crab's Eyes, Indian

Liquorice; S: Olinda, Olinda-
Abrus precatorius L. LC
Wel; T: Kundu-Mani, Kuntu-
Mani
Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. S: Hinguru-Vel LC
S: Rat-Kihiriya; E: Red-
Acacia chundra Willd. cutch; T: karangali, LC
kodalimurukai
E: Cockspur Thorn;
Acacia eburnea (L. f.) Willd. LC
S: Kaludai, Udai-Vel
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Acacia lankaensis Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Katu-Andara, Maha
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Andara; T: Velvalayam, LC
Velve
Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. S: Goda Hinguru, Hinguru LC
E: Jungle Nail, Umbrella

Acacia planifrons Wight & Arn. LC
Tree; T: Odai, Udai
E: Elephant Thorn, Jungle
Acacia tomentosa Willd. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Nail; T: Anaimulli
Adenanthera bicolor Moon S: Mas-Mora NT
S: Madatiya;
Adenanthera pavonina L. T: Anaikuntumani, LC
Anikundumani
E: Pith Plant, Shola,
Aeschynomene aspera L. Shola-Pith; S: Maha-Diya- LC
Siyambala; T: Attuneddi
S: Diya-Siyambala, Heen-
Aeschynomene indica L. LC
Diya-Siyambala
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Aganope heptaphylla (L.) Polhill CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Thuringi, Usil Ujil, Uyil,
Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin. NT
Wienja
S: Kabal-Mara, Hulan-Mara;
Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Pili Vagai
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Albizia lankaensis Kosterm. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Mara, Suriya-Mara;
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. NT
T: Kona, Vakai, Vagei
S: Huriyi, Suriya-Mara;
Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth. LC
T: Ponnaimurankai
259
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. T: Kutiraival DD
Alysicarpus heyneanus Wight & Arn. DD
Alysicarpus longifolius (Rottler ex Spreng.)

DD
Wight & Arn.
Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) DC. DD
Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. DD
Alysicarpus scariosus (Rottler ex Spreng.)

DD
Graham ex Thw.
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. S: Aswenna LC
Aphyllodium biarticulatum (L.) Gagnep. LC
Atylosia albicans (Wight & Arn.) Benth. S: Wal-Kollu NT
Atylosia rugosa Wight & Arn. S: Wal-Kollu LC
S: Wal-Kollu, Wa- Undu,

Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. LC
Wal-Undu-Wel
Atylosia trinervia (DC.) Gamble S: Atta-tora, Et-tora LC
Bauhinia racemosa Lam. E: Atti; S: Maila, Mayila LC
S: Kaha-Petan, Petan;
Bauhinia tomentosa L. LC
T: Tiruvathi, Tiruvatti
E: Bengal Kino; S: Gas-Kela;
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Parasu, Murrakan
E: Grey Nicker; S: Kalu-
Vavuletiya, Kumburu-Wel,
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. LC
Wael-Kumburu;
T: Punaikkalaichchi
Caesalpinia crista L. S: Diya-Wavuletiya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Caesalpinia digyna Rottler E: Tari Pods; S: Hinguru CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Goda-Wawuletiya, Rat-
Caesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink NT
Kalabatu-Wel
Caesalpinia major (Medikus) Dandy &
E: Yellow Nicker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Excell
E: Sappan Wood;
Caesalpinia sappan L. DD
S: Patangi
Canavalia cathartica Thouars E: Wild Bean LC
Canavalia mollis Wall. ex Wight & Arn. DD
Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC. S: Mudu-Awara LC
260
Canavalia virosa (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. S: Mudu-Awara, Wal-Awara LC
Cassia absus L. S: Bu-Tora LC
Cassia aeschinomene DC. ex Collad. LC
Cassia auricoma Graham ex Steyaert VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Ranawara; E: Matara Tea;

Cassia auriculata L. LC
T: Avarai
Cassia hirsuta L. LC
E: Italian senna;
Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng. DD
T: Nilavakai
Cassia kleinii Wight & Arn. S; Bin-siyambala LC
Cassia mimosoides L. S: Bin-Siyambala LC
E: Cofee-Senna, Cofee-
Cassia occidentalis L. Weed; S: Peni Tora, Hiwal LC
Thora; T:Ponnantakarai
Cassia roxburghii DC. S: Ratu-Wa; T: Vakai LC
Cassia senna L. E: True senna DD
S: Aramana,Wa; E; Kassod
Cassia siamea Lam. LC
tree; T: manga konnei, vakai
Cassia sophera L. S:Uru-Kona; T:Munjal-Kona LC
Cassia tora L. S: Peti-Tora, Tora LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cathormion umbellatum (Vahl) Kosterm. T: Ichchavalai, Iyamalai VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Katarodu-Wal, Nil-
Clitoria ternatea L. LC
Katarodu; T: Karuttappu
Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth LC
Crotalaria angulata Mill. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Crotalaria berteroana DC. DD
Crotalaria bidiei Gamble VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Crotalaria calycina Schrank S: Gorandiya LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Crotalaria clavata Wight & Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crotalaria evolvuloides Wight ex Wight &
NT
Arn.
Crotalaria ferruginea Graham ex Benth. LC
261
Crotalaria hebecarpa (DC.) Rudd S: Bu-Gota-Kota LC
S:Hana; E: Hemp, Sunn-

Crotalaria juncea L. DD
Hemp
Crotalaria laburnifolia L. S: Yak-Beriya LC
Crotalaria linifolia L. f. DD
Crotalaria lunulata Heyne ex Wight & Arn. LC
Crotalaria medicaginea Lam. NT
Crotalaria montana Roth DD
Crotalaria multiflora (Arn.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Crotalaria mysorensis Roth CR(PE)
Crotalaria nana Burm. f. LC
Crotalaria pallida Ait. LC
Crotalaria prostrata Rottler ex Willd. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crotalaria quinquefolia L. LC
S: Kaha-Andana-Hiriya;
Crotalaria retusa L. LC
T:Kilukiluppai
Crotalaria scabrella Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E:Blue-Andana; S: Nil-
Crotalaria verrucosa L. Andana-Hiriya, Silibili; LC
T:Kilukiluppai
Crotalaria walkeri Arn. LC
Crotalaria wightiana Graham ex Wight & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Arn. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crudia zeylanica (Thw.) Benth. EX
S: Bodi; T: Karporgam,
Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medikus EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Kavothi, Kavoti
E: Cluster Bean, Guar;
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. DD
T: Koth-Averay
S: Opulu; T: Attukaddupuli,
Cynometra iripa Kostel. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Kadumpuli
Cynometra zeylanica Kosterm. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Bol-Mara, Kala, Huri
Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mara; T: Velaruvai
E: Hornet Creeper;
Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo Miq. LC
S: Bambara-Wel
262
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrolobium triangulare (Retz.) Schindl. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrolobium umbellatum (L.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Han-Kala-Wel; T: Karapu-
Derris benthamii (Thw.) Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tekel
S: Diya-Kala-Wel, Kalu-Kala-
Derris canarensis (Dalz.) Baker NT
Wel
Derris parviflora Benth. S: Kala-Vel, Sudu-Kala-Wel LC
S: Ala-Vel, Bo-Kala-Wel,
Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Kala-Wel; T: Kalungu LC
Kodi,Telil, Welan-Tekal
S: Kala-Wel;
Derris trifoliata Lour. T: Tekil,Tilankoddi, Uppu LC
Thailan-Kodi
Desmodium caudatum (Thunb.) DC. CR(PE)
Desmodium ferrugineum Wall. ex Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. S: Et-Undupiyali LC
Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. S: Maha-Undupiyaliaya LC
Desmodium jucundum Thw. CR(PE)
Desmodium laxum DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.) DC. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium pryonii DC. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium styracifolium (Osbeck) Merr. DD
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. S: Heen-Undupiyali LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Desmodium zonatum Miq. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Velvel Tamarind; S: Gal-
Dialium ovoideum Thw. VU A1 d
Siyambala; T: Kaddupuli
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Andara; T: Vindattai LC
Dioclea javanica Benth. CR(PE)
Dolichos trilobus L. S: Wal Dambala NT
263
Dumasia villosa DC. var. leiocarpa B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
(Benth.) Baker +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dunbaria ferruginea Wight & Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dunbaria heynei Wight & Arn. CR(PE)
Eleiotis monophyllos (Burm.f.) DC. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Entada pusaetha DC. S : Pus-Wel LC
Entada zeylanica Kosterm VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Erythrina fusca Lour. S: Yak-Erabadu NT
E: Coral Tree, Indian

Coral Tree,Thorny Dadap;
S: Erabadu, Eramudu,
Erythrina variegata L. Katu-Eramudu,Weta- LC
Erabodu,Yak-Erabodu;
T: Mulu-Murukku, Murukku,
Murungu
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Flemingia lineata (L.) Roxb. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. S: Wal-Undu CR(PE)
Flemingia strobilifera (L.) Roxb S: Hampilla, Hampinna LC
Flemingia wightiana Graham ex Wight &

DD
Arn.
Galactia striata (Jacq.) Urban DD
S: Gal-Karanda, Ruan-
Humboldtia laurifolia (Vahl) Vahl LC
Karanda
S: Rat Kohomba;
Indigofera aspalathoides Vahl ex DC. T: Chivanarvempu, NT
Sivanarvum
Indigofera barberi Gamble DD
Indigofera colutea (Burm.f.) Merr. NT
Indigofera constricta (Thw.) Trimen CR(PE)
Indigofera galegoides DC. S: Veliveriya NT
Indigofera glabra L. LC
Indigofera hirsuta L. S: Boo-Awari LC
Indigofera karnatakana Sanjappa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
264
S: Bin-Avari, Binavari;
Indigofera linnaei Ali LC
T: Cheppunerenchi
Indigofera nummulariifolia (L.) Livera ex
LC
Alston
Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk. T: Kuttukarasmatti, Nante VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Indigofera parviflora Heyne ex Wight &

DD
Arn.
E: Indigo; S: Nil-Awari;
Indigofera tinctoria L. LC
T: Nilam
Indigofera trita L. f. S: Wal-Awari LC
Indigofera wightii Graham ex Wight & Arn. CR(PE)
E: Bonavist Bean, Hyacinth

Bean, Lablab Bean, Wild
Bean; S: Ho-Dhambala, Kiri-
Dambala, Kos-Ata-Dambala,
Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet LC
Ratu-Peti-Dambala, Sudu-
Peti Dambala;
T: Minni,Motchai,Tatta-
Payaru
Macrotyloma axillare (E. Meyer) Verdc. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Macrotyloma ciliatum (Willd.) Verdc. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Horse Gram, Madras
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gram; S: Kollu; T: Kollu
S: Buchariwa, Ginipus Eta,

Bu-Chariya, Gini-Pus-Wel,
Mucuna atropurpurea (Roxb.) DC. ex Ginipus Wel, Buchariwa,
NT
Wight & Arn. Mudu- Evara; T: Pandatullai,
P
unnakalichi
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. S: Kana-Pus-Waela CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Mucuna monosperma (Roxb.) DC. CR(PE)
E: Cowage, Cowhage,
Cowitch; S: Achariya,
Achariya-Pala, Wanduru-Me,
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. LC
Wel-Damiya; T: Chunao-
Avarai, Poonayakali,
Punnaikkaali
S: Gal-Buruta, Kang-Bandi-
Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chevalier Gas, Wal-Buruta, Gal- NT
Burutu; T: Pilavaiam
Neonotonia wightii (Graham ex Wight & B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Goradiya EN
Arn.) Lackey +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Neptunia oleracea Lour. S: Diya-Nidikumba LC
265
Ormocarpum sennoides (Willd.) DC. S: Sudu Avariya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Painteria nitida (Vahl) Kosterm. S: Diya-Mara VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. Ex D.

E: Hamrock Pea EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Don
Pericopsis mooniana (Thw.) Thw. E: Nadun Wood; S: Nadun VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. S: Hampilla NT
E: Indian Beech, Mullikulam

Tree; S: Gal-Karanda,
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre LC
Karanda, Magul-Karanda; T:
Poona, Punka, Punku
Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Gas Gonika LC
S: Gammalu; T: Utera-
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Venkai, Venkai
Pycnospora lutescens (Poir.) Schindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia acutissima Thw. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia aurea (Willd.) DC. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia cana (Willd.) DC. S: Gas-Kollu NT
Rhynchosia capitata (Roth) DC. DD
Rhynchosia densiflora (Roth) DC. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia hirta (Andr.) Meikle & Verdc. S: Heen-Garadiya CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. S: Maha-Wal-Kollu LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia nummularia (L.) DC. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia rufescens (Willd.) DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia suaveolens (L.f.) DC. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia velutina Wight & Arn. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchosia viscosa (Roth) DC. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rothia indica (L.) Druce LC
S: Ashoka, Asoka, Diya-

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wild. Rathambala, Diya-Ratmal; VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Asogam
Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W.F. Wight LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sesbania sericea (Willd.) Link CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
266
Shuteria vestita Wight & Arn. NT
Smithia conferta Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Smithia racemosa Heyne ex Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sophora tomentosa L. S; Mudu-Murunga LC
Sophora violacea Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sophora zeylanica Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Strongylodon siderospermus Cordemoy CR(PE)
Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston S; Wal-Nanu LC
Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) Ohashi S: Baloliya LC
Tephrosia maxima (L.) Pers. LC
Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) pers. LC
S: Pila, Gam-Pila; T: Kavilai,

Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. LC
Kawati, Kolinchi
Tephrosia senticosa (L.) Pers. S:Alu-Pila NT
Tephrosia spinosa (L. f.) Pers. T: Mukavaliver CR(PE)
Tephrosia tinctoria (L.) Pers. S: Alu-Pila LC
Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. S: Bu-Pila LC
Teramnus labialis (L. f.) Spreng. S: Wal-Kollu LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Teramnus mollis Benth. S: Wal-Kollu EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Uraria picta (Jacq.) DC. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vigna aridicola N. Tomooka & Maxted EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vigna dalzelliana (Kuntz) Verdcourt EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vigna marina (Burm.) Merr. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Vigna radiata var. sublobata (Roxb.)

NT
Verdc.,
Vigna stipulacea (Lam.) Kuntze NT
Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. S: Bin-Me, Munwenna NT
267
Vigna trinervia (Heyne ex Wight & Arnott)
EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tetaishi
Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. NT
Zornia gibbosa Span. LC
Zornia walkeri Arn. NT
Family : Flacourtiaceae
Chlorocarpa pentaschista Alston S: Makulla, Gomma, Patma VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Ketambilla; E: Ceylon
Dovyalis hebecarpa (Gardner) Warb. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Gooseberry
Erythrospermum zeylanicum (Gaertn.)
S: Dodan-Wenna LC
Alston
Osmelia gardneri Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Flagellariaceae
Flagellaria indica L. S: Goyi-Wel LC
Family : Gentianaceae
Canscora decussata (Roxb.) Roem. &

VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schult.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Canscora heteroclita (L.) Gilg VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Canscora roxburghii Arn. ex Miq. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Crawfurdia championii (Gardner)
CR(PE)
Trimen
Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum axillare Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum macranthum Arn. ex. Griseb. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum pallidum (Trimen) Klack. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum pedunculatum L. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum petiolare Griseb. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum sessile L. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum trinervium (Trimen) Cramer NT
268
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Exacum walkeri Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. S: Etamburu NT
Gentiana quadrifaria var. zeylanica Blume NT
Hoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) Clarke VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Swertia zeylanica (Griseb.) Walker ex

EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Clarke
Family : Geraniaceae
Geranium nepalense Sweet CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Gesneriaceae
Aeschynanthus ceylanica Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Championia reticulata Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Chirita angusta (Clarke) Theobald &

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Grupe
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Chirita moonii Gardner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Chirita walkeri Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Chirita zeylanica Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Didymocarpus floccosus Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Didymocarpus humboldtianus Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Didymocarpus zeylanicus R.Br. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Epithema carnosum (G.Don) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchoglossum gardneri Theobald & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Grupe +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) Burtt S: Diya Nilla NT
Rhynchotechum permolle (Nees) Burtt VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Gisekiaceae
S: Atthiripala; T: Manlkirai,
Gisekia pharnaceoides L. LC
Manali
Family : Goodeniaceae
Scaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl S: Heen-Takkada NT
Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. S: Takkada LC
269
Family : Haloragaceae
Laurembergia coccinea (Blume) Kanitz VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Laurembergia minor (Clarke) Philcox CR(PE)
Laurembergia zeylanica (Clarke) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Schindler +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Myriophyllum indicum Willd. LC LC
Family : Hernandiaceae
Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. S: Wal-Papol, Diya-labu-gas LC
Hernandia nymphaeifolia (Presl) Kubitzki S; Palatu, Paluta VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Hydrocharitaceae
Blyxa auberti Rich. S: Diya-Hawari LC
Blyxa octandra (Roxb.) Planch. ex Thw. LC
Enhalus acoroides (L. f.) Royle NT LC
B2ab(iii)
Halophila beccarii Asch. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU
c(ii,iii)
Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld NT LC
Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) Hook. f. LC LC
Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle S: Halpenni LC LC
Najas graminea Del. LC
Najas marina L. DD
Najas minor All. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
ex Thw.
Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. LC LC
Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Asch. NT
Family : Hydroleaceae
Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl S: Diya-Kirilla NT LC
Family : Hypericaceae
Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray NT
270
Hypericum mysurense Wight & Arn. E: St.John's Wort EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Hypoxidaceae
S: Bim-Thal, Heen-Bin-Tal; T:
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. LC
Wolappanai
S: Bu-Bim Thal, Ma-Bim
Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thal, Maha Bin Thal
Family : Icacinaceae
Apodytes dimidiata E. Meyer ex Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham)

NT
Mabb.
Pyrenacantha volubilis Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Juncaceae
Juncus effusus L. LC
Juncus leschenaultii J.Gay ex Laharpe VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Juncus wallichianus Laharpe VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Lamiaceae
Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. ex Benth. S: Gal Kapuru Walliya LC
Anisochilus paniculatus Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anisochilus velutinus Trimen S: Bolila, Bolvila VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze S: Yak Wanassa LC
Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R. Br. ex Sims T: Pey Maruddi LC
Basilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench LC
S: Eela-Gas, Illa; T: Koat-

Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr. LC
Komal
S: Wal Gurenda, Boerende,
Gulinda;
Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. LC
T: Sangam, Dangamkuppi,
Pinari, Koika
S: Gas Pinna, Pinna, Pinna

Kole, Pine-Ette;
Clerodendrum infortunatum L. LC
T: Perugilai, Perumkila, Vata
Madakki
S: Gas-Pinna; T: Vata
Clerodendrum phlomidis L. NT
Madakkai, Talu Dala
271
S: Kan Henda; T: Chiru

Dekku, Chiru Tekku, Siri
Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon LC
Tekku, Vatamadakki, Rata-
Madakki, Kandu-Parangi
Clinopodium umbrosum (Bieb.) Koch VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Glossocarya scandens (L.f.) Trimen NT
E: Kashmir Tree, Candahar

Tree, Comb Tree,
Snapdragon Tree, Malay
Gmelina arborea Roxb. NT
Beachwood; S: At Demata;
T: Gumadi, Kumil, Kainadi,
Gumudu-Takku, Umi
E: Asiatic Beechberry;
S: Demata, Gatta Demmata;
Gmelina asiatica L. T: Kumil, Kainadi, Gumadi, LC
Nela-Kumi, Nilacumal, Nil-
Kumi
Isodon capillipes (Benth.) H.Hara CR(PE)
Isodon coetsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don.)

NT
Kudo
Isodon hians (Benth.) H.W.Li. CR(PE)
Isodon nigrescens (Benth.) H.Hara LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Isodon walkeri (Arn.) H. Hara EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Leucas angularis Benth. DD
S: Geta-Tumba; T: Peyt-
Leucas biflora (Vahl) Benth. LC
Tumpai
Leucas longifolia Benth. CR(PE)
Leucas marrubioides Desf. S: Sudu Tumba LC
Leucas mollissima Wall. ex Benth. DD
S: Geta Tumba; T: Mudi-

Leucas zeylanica (L.) R. Br. LC
Tumpai
Mentha arvensis L. var. javanica (Blume)
S: Odu-Talan DD
Hook. f.
E: Heen-Tala; S: Suwandu
Ocimum americanum L. LC
Tala
Ocimum filamentosum Forssk. LC
Ocimum gratissimum L. S: Gas-Tala,O-Tala LC
E: Sacred basil, S: Maduru-

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. LC
Tala
Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. DD
272
Orthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleesen NT
Platostoma elongatum (Benth.) A. J.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Paton
Platostoma menthoides (L.) A. J. Paton LC
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. S: Wal-Kapuru-Walliya NT
Plectranthus crameri Willemse. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Plectranthus elongatus (Trimen ) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Willemse +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Plectranthus gardneri Thw. LC
Plectranthus glabratus ( Benth.) Alston CR(PE)
Plectranthus inflatus ( Benth.) Willemse LC
Plectranthus kanneliyensis (Cramer &

LC
Balasubramaniam) Willemse
Plectranthus malabaricus ( Benth.)

LC
Willemse
Plectranthus subincisus Benth. CR(PE)
Plectranthus zatarhendi (Forssk.) E. A. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

S: Iriweriya EN
Bruce var. tomentosa (Benth.) Codd +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pogostemon auricularius (L.) Hassk. S: Hemanilla LC
S: Gan-kollan-Kola, Gas-
Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. LC
Kolan-Kola
Pogostemon hirsutus Benth. LC
Pogostemon lythroides (Diels) Press DD
Pogostemon reflexus Benth. NT
Pogostemon rupestris Benth. NT
Pogostemon verticillatus (Benth.) Bhatti &

LC
Ingrouille
Premna alstoni Moldenke S: Mulla, Gal Kera LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Premna divaricata Wall. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Maha Midi;
Premna latifolia Roxb. LC
T: Pachumullai
E: Headache Tree;
Premna obtusifolia R.Br S: Middee Gas, Maha Midi; LC
T: Erumaimulla
273
S: Le-Kola-Pala; T: Mullai,
Premna procumbens Moon LC
Mulla
Premna purpurascens Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Premna thwaitesii Clarke S: Mulla CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Boo-Seru, Noo-Sairou,
Boo Sera, Boo-Sairoo-Gas,
Premna tomentosa Willd. Bu-Seru; T: Koluk-Kutti, LC
Loluto-Kutti, Kollay-
Cottaynellay, Kolkutti
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Scutellaria oblonga Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scutellaria robusta Benth. CR(PE)
Scutellaria violacea Heyne ex Benth. LC
Symphorema involucratum Roxb. DD
Teucrium tomentosum Heyne ex Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kaha-Milla, Mililla-Gas,
Millla, Miyan- Milla, Sapu-
Milla ; T: Kaaddmanakku,
Vitex altissima L.f. NT
Kadamanakku,
Kadamananakku, Maila,
Mayila
S: Nabudda, Nabada,
Nebedda ; T: Kaddu-
Vitex leucoxylon L.f. LC
Nochchi, Kardu-Nochi, Nir,
Kardu-Noch
S: Nika, Nikka, Nike,

Helarika, Nil-Nika, Nirgundi,
Vitex negundo L. Sudu Nika; LC
T: Nir-Nichchi, Nochchi,
Vallai-Nochchi, Vennochchi
E: Beach Vitex, Polinalina,

Vitex trifolia L. Oval Leaved Chest Tree; S: NT
Nieke, Nikki, Nochchi
Family : Lauraceae
Actinodaphne albifrons Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Actinodaphne ambigua (Meissner)

LC
Hook.f.
Actinodaphne candolleana (Thw.)
NT
Meissner
Actinodaphne elegans Thw. LC
274
Actinodaphne glauca Nees var.
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
subtriplinervis (Meissner) Kosterm.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Actinodaphne molochina Nees EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Actinodaphne moonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Actinodaphne speciosa Nees. E: Elephants' Ears EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Actinodaphne stenophylla Thw. S: Nika-Daula VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Wewaranai;
Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees VU A2 (d)
T: Yavaranai, Ranai
Beilschmiedia zeylanica (Thw.) Trimen S: Kanu NT
Cassytha capillaries Meissner CR(PE)
Cassytha filiformis L. LC
E: Camphor Cinnamon;
Cinnamomum capparu-coronde Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c
S: Kappuru- Kurundu
Cinnamomum citriodorum Thw. S: Pengiri- Kurundu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
S: Sewel- Kurundu, Wal-

Cinnamomum dubium Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Kurundu
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cinnamomum litseaefolium Thw. S: Kudu-Kurundu EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cinnamomum ovalifolium Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cinnamomum rivulorum Kosterm. EN CRi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cinnamomum sinharajaense Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Cinnamon;
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume S: Kurundu;T: Kuruva, VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Kuruwa
Cryptocarya membranacea Thw. S: Gal-Mora,Tawenna VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Cryptocarya wightiana Thw. S: Gal-mora, Golu-mora NT VUi A1c
Litsea fosbergii Kosterm. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Litsea gardneri (Thw.) Meissner S:Talan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Litsea glaberrima (Thw.) Trimen NT ENi B1+2c
S: Bombee, Bomee;
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Robinson LC
T: Elumpurukki, Maida-Lakti
Litsea iteodaphne (Nees) Hook.f. S: Kalu-Nika VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Litsea ligustrina (Nees) Kosterm. EN VUi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
275
Litsea longifolia (Nees) Trimen S:Rat-Keliya LC VUi A1c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Litsea nemoralis (Thw.) Trimen EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Litsea ovalifolia (Wight) Trimen NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Litsea quinqueflora (Dennst.) C.R.Suresh S: Kosbsda, Landittan EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Litsea walkeri (Meissner) Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Wild Cinnamon;
Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm. LC
S: Dawul-Kurundu
Neolitsea foliosa (Nees) Gamble CR(PE)
Neolitsea fuscata (Thw.) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Neolitsea lancifolia (Thw.) Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. S: Ululu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Lecythidaceae
S: Ela Midella, Era Midella;

Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. LC
T: Adampu
Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz S: Mudilla LC LCi
S: Goda-Midella, Diya-
Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. LC
Midella, Midella
Barringtonia waasii P.Chantaranothai DD
E: Patana Oak; S: Kahata; T:

Careya arborea Roxb. LC
Kachaddai
Family : Lentibulariaceae
Utricularia aurea Lour. S: Diya Pasi LC LC
Utricularia australis R.Br. DD LC
Utricularia bifida L. NT LC
Utricularia caerulea L. S: Nil-Monerassa LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Utricularia gibba L. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Utricularia graminifolia Vahl NT LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Utricularia hirta Klein ex Link CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Utricularia minutissima Vahl EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
276
Utricularia moniliformis P.Taylor VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Utricularia polygaloides Edgew. LC
Utricularia reticulata Sm. S: Nil-Monerassa LC LC
Utricularia scandens Benj. S: Nil Monerassa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Utricularia stellaris L.f. LC
Utricularia striatula Sm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Utricularia uliginosa Vahl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Linaceae
Hugonia ferruginea Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Bu-Getiya, Maha-Getiya,
Hugonia mystax L. Watti-Weti; LC
T: Motirakanni
Family: Lindernaceae
Artanema longifolium (L.) Vatke S: Gas Kotala LC
Lindernia anagallis (Burm.f.) Pennell LC
Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. NT
Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston S: Wila LC
Lindernia ciliata (Colsmann) Pennel NT
Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell. LC
Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines LC
Lindernia nummularifolia (Don) Wettst. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh LC
Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindernia srilankana Cramer & Philcox EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lindernia tenuifolia (Colsmann) Alston NT
Lindernia viscosa (Hornem.) Boldingh CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Torenia aerinea Alston EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Torenia cyanea Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
277
Torenia travancorica Gamble S: Kotala NT
Family : Loganiaceae
Mitrasacme indica Wight NT
Strychnos benthamii C.B.Clarke NT
Strychnos coriacea Thw. CR(PE)
S: Kaduru, Kaduru Ketiya-

Strychnos minor Dennst. LC
Wel; T: Kachchalkodi
E: Nux-Vomica; S:
Strychnos nux-vomica L. Godakaduru; T: Eddi, VU A2 (d)
Kanchurai
Strychnos potatorum L. f. S: Ingini; T: Tetta VU A2 (d)
Strychnos tetragona A.W. Hill VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Thelatiya, Gona-Karaba,
Strychnos trichocalyx A.W. Hill VU A2 (d)
Kaduru
Strychnos wallichiana Steud. ex DC. S: Wel-Beli, Eta-Kirindi-Wel NT
Family : Loranthaceae
Barathranthus mabaeoides (Trimen) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Danser +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Barathranthus nodiflorus (Thw.)
EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Tieghem
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ethingsh. LC
Dendrophthoe ligulata (Thw.) Tieghem VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrophthoe lonchiphyllus (Thw.)

CR A2c
Denser.
Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis (Wight &
LC
Arn.) Tieghem
Dendrophthoe suborbicularis (Thw.)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Denser
Helixanthera ensifolia (Thw.) Danser CR(PE)
Helixanthera hookeriana (Wight & Arn.)

NT
Danser
Macrosolen albicaulis Wiens VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Macrosolen barlowii Wiens EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Macrosolen capitellatus (Wight & Arn.)
NT
Danser
Macrosolen parasiticus (L.) Danser VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scurrula cordifolia (Wall.) G.Don NT
278
Scurrula parasitica L. LC
Taxillus courtallensis (Gamble) Danser VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Taxillus cuneatus (Roth) Danser LC
Taxillus incanus (Trimen) Wiens NT
Taxillus sclerophyllus (Thw.) Danser VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Taxillus tomentosus (Roth) Tieghem LC
Tolypanthus gardneri (Thw.) Tieghem VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Lythraceae
Ammannia baccifera L. LC LC
Ammannia octandra L. f. LC LC
E: Pride of India, Queen's

Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. flower; S: Murutu, Murutha- NT
gaha; T: Kadali, Pu-Maruthu
E: Camphire,Henna,Tree-
Lawsonia inermis L. Mignonette; S: Marutondi; T: LC
Marathondi, Marutonti,
Nesaea brevipes Koehne NT LC
Nesaea lanceolata (Heyne ex Clarke)

EN B2ad(I,ii,iii)
Koehne
Pemphis acidula J.R. & G.Forst T: Kiri-Maram NT LC
Rotala densiflora (Roth ex. Roem. &

LC LC
Schult.) Koehne
Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne DD LC
Rotala rosea (Poir.) Cook LC LC
Rotala verticillaris L. NT LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonneratia alba J. Sm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. S: Kirilla LC
Trapa bispinosa Roxb. E: Water Chestnut; S: Ikiliya NT
A2 d,
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz S: Malitta VU LCi
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Magnoliaceae
279
Michelia nilagirica Zenker S: Wal-Sapu VU B1ad(I,ii,iii)
Family : Malpighiaceae
Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz S: Puwak-Gediya-Wel LC
Hiptage parvifolia Wight & Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Malvaceae
Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight

S: Kapu-Kinissa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
& Arn.
Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.) Wight & Arn. B1ab(i,ii,iii)
VU
ex Wight +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kapu Kinissa;
Abelmoschus moschatus Medikus NT
T: Katukkasturi
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Abutilon crispum (L.) Medikus EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet T: Vaddattutti LC
S: Wal Anoda, Panagedi,

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Anoda; T: Peruntulli, LC
Peruntutti, Vaddattutti
Abutilon pannosum (Forster f.) Schldl. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Abutilon subumbellatum Philcox EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Trincomalee Wood;
Berrya cordifolia (Willd.) Burret S: Hal-Milla; LC
T: Chavandalai
E: Cotton Tree; S: Katu

Bombax ceiba L. Imbul; T: Parutti, Kaddu- LC
Olaga, Illavu
Ceiba pentandra var pentandra (L.) E: Kapok Tree; S: Pulun-
LC
Gaertn. Imbul, Imbul
Corchorus fascicularis Lam. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Corchorus olitorius L. E: Jute VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Corchorus trilocularis L. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Corchorus urticifolius Wight & Arn. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cullenia ceylanica (Gardner) K. Schum. S: Katu-Boda, Kata-Boda LC VUi A1c
S: Katu-Boda, Kata-Boda; T:
Cullenia rosayroana Kosterm. LC LCi
Mullu-Pilaka
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dicellostyles axillaris (Thw.) Benth. CR CR D
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Dik Andhe, Dik Wenna; T:
Diplodiscus verrucosus (Thw.) Kosterm. LC
Vid Pani, Yakada Maram
280
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriolaena hookeriana Wight & Arn. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Bonfire tree; S:Bataliya,
Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br. Pataliya-Gas; NT
T: Malaiparutti, Mulaipurathi
Grewia bracteata Heyne ex Roth VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Grewia carpinifolia Juss. LC
S: Daminiya; T: Cadachi,
Grewia damine Gaertn. LC
Chadachchi
S: Bora Daminiya, Boru-
Grewia helicterifolia Wall. ex G.Don LC
Daminiya; T: Taviddai
Grewia hirsuta Vahl CR(PE)
S: Wel Keliya, Wel-Mediya;

Grewia orientalis L. LC
T: Kodi Taviddai,Taviddai
Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori T: Achu, Katu Peratti, Achchu NT
E: Screw tree;
S: Lihiniya, Liniya;
Helicteres isora L. NT
T: Kawa,Vallampanai,
Vallampuri, Vellampidi
E: Boat-Shaped Mangrove;
Heritiera littoralis Dryander S: Attona, Etuna, Ho- NT
mediriya; T: Chonmuntiri
Hibiscus eriocarpus DC. S: Kapu-Kinissa; T:paritti LC
Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. S: Na Pirittha LC
Hibiscus lobatus (Murray) Kuntze LC
Hibiscus lunariifolius Willd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hibiscus micranthus L. f. S: Bebila; T:Perumaddi LC
Hibiscus panduriformis Burm. f. CR(PE)
Hibiscus surattensis L. S: Hin-Napiritta LC
S: Beli-Patta; T: Aritia, Nir-

Hibiscus tiliaceus L. LC
Paratthi
Hibiscus vitifolius L. S: Maha-Epala; T:Vaddattutti LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Julostylis angustifolia (Arn.) Thw. S: Kirella EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke LC
Melochia corchorifolia L. S: Gal Kura, Maha-Galkura LC
S: Keliya, Kohu-Kirilla;
Microcos paniculata L. LC
T: Kapila
281
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavonia fryxelliana Fosberg & Sachet EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavonia odorata Willd. LC
Pavonia procumbens (Wight & Arn.) Walp. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav. NT
Pentapetes phoenicea L. S: Bandu-Wada LC
Pterospermum suberifolium (L.) Willd. S: Welang LC
Pterygota thwaitesii (Masters) Alston S: Etaritiva, Galnawa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sida acuta Burm. f. S: Gas-Bebila LC
Sida alnifolia L. LC
S: Bevila; T: Palampadu,
Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borssum Waalkes LC
Palampasi
S: Wal-Bevila ,Heen Anoda;
Sida cordifolia L. LC
T: Cheevakanpudu
S: Giriwadi-Bevila, Siriwedi-
Sida mysorensis Wight & Arn. LC
Bevila
S: Kotikan-Bevila, Bebila; T:
Sida rhombifolia L. LC
Chittamaddi
Sida spinosa L. LC
Sterculia balanghas L. S: Nawa LC
S: Telambu,Telembu;
Sterculia foetida L. T: Kadutenga, Kaduteynga, LC
Pinari
S: Dadiya, Kawali,
Sterculia urens Roxb. NT
Alaheraliya
Sterculia zeylanica Kosterm. S: Kavali, Kavili,Tondi EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibson S: Wal-Kapu EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Suriya, Gan Suriya,Tulip

Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa tree; T: Kavarachu, LC
Puvarachu
Triumfetta glabra Rottler VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Triumfetta pentandra A.Rich. S: Epala, Kapu Kinissa LC
Triumfetta pilosa Roth LC
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. S: Epala LC
282
Urena lobata L. S: Patta-Epala, Epala LC
Urena sinuata L. S: Patta-Epala, Heen- Epala LC
Waltheria indica L. LC
Wissadula periplocifolia (L.) Presl ex Thw. S: Kiri-kaju NT
Family : Marantaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phrynium rheedii Suresh & Nicolson S: Et-Bemi-Kiriya EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schumannianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Rolfe S: Geta-Oluwa CR(PE)
Stachyphrynium zeylanicum (Benth.)
S: Hulan-Kiriya CR(PE)
K.Schum.
Family : Melastomataceae
Kendrickia walkeri (Wight ex Gardner)

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Triana
Lijndenia capitellata (Arn.) Bremer S:Pini-Baru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lijndenia gardneri (Thw.) Bremer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Medinilla cuneata (Thw.) Bremer & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Lundin +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Medinilla fuchsioides Gardner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Medinilla maculata Gardner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Bovitiya, Katakaloowa,
Melastoma malabathricum L. LC
Maha-Bovitiya
Memecylon angustifolium Wight E: Blue Mist; S: Kora Kaha EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Dedi-Kaha, Dodan- Kaha,

Wel-Kaha, Weli- Kaha; T:
Memecylon capitellatum L. LC
Katti-Kaya, Pavaddai-Kaya,
Venkali-Kaya
Memecylon clarkeanum Cong. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon cuneatum Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon discolor Cogn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon ellipticum Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon fuscescens Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon giganteum Alston EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon gracillimum Alston CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
283
Memecylon grande Retz. S:Dedi-kaha, Dodan-Wenna EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon hookeri Thw. S: Kevitiya-Kera VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon leucanthemum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon macrocarpum Thw. S; Mahakuratiya EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon macrophyllum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon orbiculare Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon ovoideum Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon parvifolium Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon petiolatum Trimen ex Alston NT
Memecylon phyllanthifolium Thw. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Memecylon procerum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon revolutum Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon rhinophyllum Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon rivulare Bremer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Hen-Kuetiya, Kin-Kuritiya,
Memecylon rostratum Thw. NT
Kuritiya
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon rotundatum (Thw.) Cogn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Dedi-Kaha, Weli-Kaha; T:
Memecylon royenii Blume LC
Kashamaram
Memecylon sessile Benth. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon sylvaticum Thw. NT
E: Blue Mist; S: Kora-

Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. Kaha; T: Kaya, Kurre- LC
Kaya,Pandikaya
Memecylon urceolatum Cogn. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon varians Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Memecylon wightii Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia aspera (L.) Blume S: Bowitiya NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia buxifolia Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
284
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia lanata Alston. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia moonii Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia octandra (L.) DC. S: Bowitiya, Heen Bowitiya LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia parvifolia Arn. S: Bowitiya EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia rheedii Gardner ex Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia rubicunda Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia walkeri Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Osbeckia zeylanica L. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila affinis Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila arnottiana Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila cordifolia Cogn. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila crassicaulis Lundin EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila firma (Thw. ex Clarke in Hook.f.)
CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lundin
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila gardneri Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila glaberrima Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila glabricaulis (Thw. ex Clarke in B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Hook.f.) Lundin +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila guneratnei Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila harveyi Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila hirsutula Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila hookeriana Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila lanceolata Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila pedunculosa Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila pilosula Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila pumila Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila rhombifolia Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila robusta Arn. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
285
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila silvatica Lundin EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila tomentella Thw. CR(PE)
Sonerila wightiana Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sonerila zeylanica Wight & Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Meliaceae
Aglaia apiocarpa (Thw.) Hiern. LC VUi A1c
Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A.Juss.) Benth. T: Kannakampu LC LCi
Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.

S: Ela-Hirilla, Hingul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCi
Parker
E: Chittagong Wood;
Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss. S: Hiri-Kita, Hulan-Hik; NT LCi
T: Aglai, Kaloti
S: Hal-Bebiya; T: Pulippan-
Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. LC
Cheddi
Dysoxylum championii Hook. f. &
S: Gona-Pana VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thoms. ex Thw.
Dysoxylum excelsum Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dysoxylum ficiforme (Wight) Gamble NT VUi B1+2c
A2 d,
Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Theob. S: Bin-Kohomba EN
B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Walsura gardneri Thw. CR CRi B1+2c
S: Kirikon, Mal-Petta;
Walsura trifoliolata (A.Juss.) Harms T: Chadavakku, Chokala, LC
Kanjimaran, Malaivirali
S: Mutti-Kadol; T: Kandal
Xylocarpus granatum Koenig EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Anga, Kontalai, Somuntheri
Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb. S: Mudu-Delun CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Menispermaceae
Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Titta-Wel LC
Cissampelos pareira L. S: Diya-Mitta; T: Appatta, LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cocculus hirsutus L. (Theob.) T: Kattukkodi, Sirunkattukodi EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: False Calumba; S:
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. Veni-Val-Gata, Weni-Wel, LC
Bang-Wela
S: Kehi-Pittan, Kessi-Pissan;
Cyclea peltata (Burm.f.) Hook.f. & Thoms. LC
T: Vouthuvullykodi
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels T: Kottaiyachachi EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
286
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hypserpa nitida Miers S: Niri-Wel. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pachygone ovata (Poir.) Hook.f. & Thoms. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Stephania japonica (Thumb.) Miers S: Lunu-Ketiya-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.) Miers T: Manchone, Kocha-Kodi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. &

S: Rasakinda; T: Chintil VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Thoms.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Titta-Kinda VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Bu-Kinda, Wal-Kinda,
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. DD
Rasa-Kinda
Family : Menyanthaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Nympoides aurantiacea (Dalz.) Kuntze EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Nympoides hydrophylla (Lour.) Kuntze S: Heen-Ambala, Heen-Olu LC
Nympoides indica (L.) Kuntze S: Maha-Ambala, Olu LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Nympoides parviflora (Griseb.) Kuntze S: Bin Olu EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Molluginaceae
Glinus lotoides L. LC
S: Heen-Ala;
Glinus oppositifolia (L.) A. DC. LC
T: Kachchantirai
S: Udetta; T: Kachchantirai,
Mollugo cerviana (L.) Seringe LC
Pat-padakam
Mollugo disticha (L.) Seringe S: Manal-Thishni LC
Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mollugo pentaphylla L. LC
Family : Monimiaceae
Hortonia angustifolia (Thw.) Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hortonia floribunda Wight ex Arn. S: Wawiya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hortonia ovalifolia Wight CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Moraceae
E: Upas Tree; S: Riti;

Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. var. toxicaria NT
T: Netavili
Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. ex Trecul S: Kana-Gona; T: Monkey
NT
subsp. zeylanicus Jarrett Ja, Arsini-Pala
287
S: Bedi-Del, Del, Hingala-
Artocarpus nobilis Thw. LC
Del, T: Arsini-pla
Broussonetia zeylanica (Thw.) Corner S: Alandu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dorstenia indica Wight NT
Ficus amplissima Smith S: Ela-Nuga; T: Kalatti LC
E: Banyan; S: Kaudu-Bo,
Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. LC
Patana-Bo
E: Krishna Bo, Krishna'S
Ficus benghalensis L. Cup; S: Maha-Nuga; LC
T: Al, Arla
Ficus callosa Willd. S: Wal-Gona LC
Ficus caulocarpa Miq. LC
Ficus costata Ait. NT
Ficus diversiformis Miq. LC
Ficus drupacea Thunb. var. pubescens

S: Bu-Nuga LC
(Roth) Corner
E: Furniture Leaf; S: Bu-
Ficus exasperata Vahl LC
Thediya, Sewan-Mediya
S: Kos-Gona, Nuga;
Ficus fergusoni (King) Worthington LC
T: Al, Arla
Ficus heterophylla L.f. S: Wal-Ehetu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ficus hispida L.f. S: Kota-Dimbula LC
Ficus laevis Blume LC
Ficus microcarpa L.f. LC
Ficus mollis Vahl S: Wal-Aralu LC
Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth S: Kalu-Maduwa LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ficus pubilimba Merr. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ficus racemosa L. S: Attikka; T: Atti LC
Ficus talboti King VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ficus tinctoria Forst.f. subsp. parasitica S: Gas-Anguna, Gas-Netul,

LC
(Willd.) Corner Wal-Ehetu
Ficus trimenii King VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ficus tsjahela Brum.f. S: Kiri-Pela, Kiripella LC
Ficus virens Ait. LC
288
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Plecospermum spinosum Trecul S: Katu-Timbol VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Crooked Rough-Bush; S:
Streblus asper Lour. LC
Geta-Netul; T: Papirai, Pirasu
Streblus taxoides (Heyne) Kurz S: Gon-Gotu; E: Fig-Lime LC
Streblus zeylanicus (Thw.) Kurz VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Musaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Musa acuminata L.A. Colla S: Gal Kehel, Unel EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Musa balbisiana L.A. Colla S: Eti Kehel EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Myristicaceae
Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb. S: Iriya LC LCi
S: Ruk, Malabodde,
Horsfieldia iryaghedhi (Gaertn.) Warb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c
Malaboda, Ruk-Gedhi,Talan
Myristica ceylanica A. DC. S: Maloboda, Malabodde VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c
S: Malaboda, Perimavara; T:
Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. LC LCi
Palmanikam
Family : Myrtaceae
Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. S: Bata Damba, Kobo Mal,

LC
& Perry Diya-Damba
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia amoena Thw. EN VUi A1c+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia floccifera Thw. CR(PE)
Eugenia fulva Thw. CR(PE) VUi A1c, B1+2c
Eugenia glabra Alston CR(PE) ENi B1+2c
Eugenia haeckeliana Trimen CR(PE)
Eugenia haputalense Kosterm. DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia hypoleuca Thw. ex Kosterm. CR ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia insignis Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1+2c
Eugenia mabaeoides Wight LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia madugodaense Kosterm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia pedunculata Trimen CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
289
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia phillyraeoides Trimen CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia pseudomabaeoides Kosterm. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia rheophytica Kosterm. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia rivulorum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Eugenia rotundata Trimen NT VUi A1c, B1+2c
Eugenia rufo-fulva Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia sripadaense Kosterm. CR ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eugenia terpnophylla Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Eugenia thwaitesii Duthie LC
Eugenia willdenowii DC. LC
Eugenia xanthocarpa Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk. E: Wild Guava NT
Syzygium alubo Kosterm. S: Alu-Bo NT
Syzygium amphoraecarpus Kostermans S: Wal-Jambu NT
Syzygium assimile Thw. S: Damba LC
Syzygium batadamba Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston S: Heen-Dan, Rin-Dan, Dan LC ENi B1+2c
Syzygium cordifolium (Wight) Walp. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Madan, Maha Dan;

Syzygium cumini Skeels LC
T: Naval, Perunaval
Syzygium cyclophyllum (Thw. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN CRi B1+2c
Duthie) Alston +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium cylindricum (Wight) Alston LC
Syzygium fergusonii (Trimen) Gamble VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Syzygium firmum Thw. S: Wal Jambu LC VUi A1c
Syzygium gardneri Thw. LC
Syzygium hemisphericum (Walp.) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium kanneliyensis Kosterm. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
290
Syzygium lewisii Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium lissophyllum Thw. NT
Syzygium micranthum Thw. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium montis-adam Kosterm CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium neesianum Thw. S: Panu Kera LC VUi A1c
Syzygium oliganthum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium potamicum Kosterm. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium revolutum Walp. LC
Syzygium rotundifolium Arn. LC VUi A1c, B1+2c
Syzygium sclerophyllum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium spathulatum Thw. LC
Syzygium spissum Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c
Syzygium turbinatum Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
S: Heen Damba, Vali-

Syzygium umbrosum Thw. LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Damba; T: Naval
Syzygium wightianum Wall. ex W. &
LC
Arn.
Syzygium zeylanicum ( L. ) DC. LC
Syzygium zeylanicum var. lineare DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Syzygium zeylanicum var. zeylanicum

S: Yakul Maran LC
DC.
Family : Nelumbonaceae
E: Lotus, Sacred Beam;

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. LC
S: Nelum; T:Tamarai
Family : Nepenthaceae
E: Pitcher Plant;
Nepenthes distillatoria L. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2d
S: Bandura Wel
Family : Nyctaginaceae
S: Pita-Sudu-Pala, Pita
Boerhavia diffusa L. Sudda; T: Karichcharanai, LC
Mukkaraichchi
Boerhavia erecta L. LC
E: Lettuse Tree, Moluccan

Pisonia aculeata L. NT
Cabbage; S: Vavul-Lairitiya
291
E: Lettuce Tree, Moluccan

cabbage; S: Lechchakotta,
Pisonia grandis R.Br. LC
Wathabanga; T: Chandi,
Lechchai Kedda,

Family : Nymphaeaceae
Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. E: Water Lily; S: Manel VU A2ae LC
E: Egyptian Lotus, Water

Nymphaea pubescens Willd. LC LC
Lilly; S: Et-Olu, Olu
Family : Ochnaceae
S: Bo-Kera, Kera, Go-kera;

Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.) Kanis LC
T:Katharai, Ramanchi
S: Bo-Kera, Mal-Kera;
Ochna Jabotapita L. LC
T:Chilanti
S: Gal Kena, Bo-Kera, Ge-
Ochna lanceolata Spreng. Karal, Mal-kera; LC
T: Katharai, Katkarai
S: Mal-kera; T: Chilanti,
Ochna obtusata DC. LC
Sellindi
Family : Olacaceae
Olax imbricata Roxb. S: Telatiya NT
Olax scandens Roxb. T: Kadalranchi LC
Olax zeylanica L. S: Malla, Maila, Mella LC
Strombosia ceylanica Gardner S: Pub-Beriya, Pathu-Bari VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Strombosia nana Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Hog-Plum, Monkey
Ximenia americana L. Plum,Tallow Nut; T: Chiru- DD
Illantai
Family : Oleaceae
S: Embul-Korakaha, Gal-
Chionanthus albidiflora Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Metta,Taccada-Gas
S: Dambu, Geratiya, Geriata;
Chionanthus zeylanica L. LC
T: Kattimuruchan
E: Wild Jasmine; S: We-
Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. Kanda, Wal-Pichcha, Wal- LC
Saman Pichcha
Jasminum auriculatum Vahl LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Jasminum bignoniaceum Wall. ex G.Don EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Jasminum flexile Vahl LC
292
Jasminum rottlerianum Wall. ex DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ligustrum robustum (Roxb.) Blume S: Bora LC
Olea paniculata R.Br. CR(PE)
Olea polygama Wight LC
Family : Onagraceae
S: Beru-Diyanilla, Beru-Diya-
Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara LC
Milla
Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell LC LC
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven LC
Ludwigia perennis L. S: Piduruwella LC LC
Ludwigia prostrata Roxb. DD
Family : Opiliaceae
Cansjera rheedii J.Gmelin S: Eta-Mura LC
Opilia amentacea Roxb. LC
Family : Orchidaceae
Acampe ochracea (Lindley) Hochr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatter & Mc

LC
Cann
Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham.ex J.E. Smith)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
P.F. Hunt
Acanthephippium bicolor Lindley EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Adrorhizon purpurascens (Thw.)

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hook.f.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Aerangis hologlottis (Schltr.) Schltr. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Aerides ringens (Lindley) C.E.C Fischer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Agrostophyllum zeylanicum Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Angraecum zeylanicum Lindl. NT
Anoectochilus elatus Lindl. DD
A2cd;
Anoectochilus regalis Blume S.Wana-Raja EN
B2ab(i,ii,iii)
293
Aphyllorchis montana Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Apostasia wallichii R.Br. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundina minor Lindl. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bromheadia srilankensis Kruizinga & B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
de Vogel. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum crassifolium Thw. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Trimen. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum elegans Gardner ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum elliae Reichb.f. NT
Bulbophyllum jayaweerae Fernando et

DD
Ormerod
Bulbophyllum macraei Reichb. f. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum maskeliyense Livera EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum petiolare Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum purpureum Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum thwaitesii Reichb.f. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum tricarinatum Petch CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bulbophyllum trimenii (Hook.f.) J. J.
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sm.
Bulbophyllum wightii Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Calanthe triplicata (Willemet) Ames NT
Cheirostylis flabellata Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cheirostylis parvifolia Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Chiloschista fasciata (F.v. Mull.) Seidenf.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
& Ormerod.
Chrysoglossum ornatum Blume. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay. NT
Coelogyne breviscapa Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Coelogyne odoratissima Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Coelogyne zeylanica Hook.f. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
294
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Conchidium articulatum (Lindl.) Rauschert CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger NT
Conchidium muscicola (Lindl.) Rauschert LC
Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cottonia peduncularis (Lindl.) Rchb.f. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Crepidium purpureum (Lindl.)Szlach. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cryptostylis arachnites (Blume) Hassk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. LC
Cymbidium bicolor Lindley LC
Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyrtosia javanica Blume CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrobium maccarthiae Thw. S: Wesak-Mal EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrobium panduratum Lindley NT
Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C.

LC
Fisher.
Dendrobium diodon Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrobium heterocarpum Wall. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)

E: Primrose Orchid EN
Lindley +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrobium nutantiflorum A.D. Hawkes &
NT
A.H. Heller.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrobium salaccense (Blume) Lindley EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Didymoplexis pallens Griff. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Didymoplexis seidenfadenii Sathish &

DD
Ormerod.
Dienia ophrydis (J.Konig) Ormerod &
EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Seidenf.
Diplocentrum recurvum Lindl. DD
Diploprora championi Hook.f. NT
Disperis neilgherrensis Wight. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Epipogium roseum (D.Don) Lindl. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eria bicolor Lindl. NT
295
Eria lindleyi Thw. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eria thwaitesii Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eria tricolor Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Erythrodes latiloba Ormerod VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eulophia epidendraea (J. Köenig ex

LC
Retz.) C. E. C. Fischer
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eulophia graminea Lindl. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eulophia pulchra (Thouars) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eulophia zollingeri (Rchb.f.) J.J.Sm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Flickingeria macraei (Lindl.) Seidenf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gastrochilus acaulis (Lindl.) Kuntze NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gastrodia zeylanica Schltr. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Goodyera fumata Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Goodyera procera (Ker-Gawl.) Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Goodyera stelidifera Ormerod. DD
Habenaria acuminata (Thw.) Trimen. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria barbata Wight ex Hook.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria crinifera Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria dichopetala Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria dolichostachya Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria macrostachya Lindl. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)
Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. E: Pigeon Orchid NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria pterocarpa Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria rhynchocarpa (Thw.) Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
296
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria roxburghii Nicolson. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Habenaria viridiflora (Sw.) Spreng. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hetaeria oblongifolia Blume. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
A2d;
Ipsea speciosa Lindley E: Daffodil Orchid EN
B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis caespitosa (Lam.) Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis atropurpurea Lindley EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis barbata Lindley CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis brachyglottis Reichb.f. ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Trimen. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis cespitosa (Lam.) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis elliptica Wight DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindley VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis thwaitesii Hook.f. DD
Liparis viridiflora Lindley NT
Liparis walkeriae R. Graham. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Liparis wightiana Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Luisia birchea Blume Rumhia. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Luisia zeylanica Lindl. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Malaxis densiflora (A.Rich.) Kuntze EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Malaxis discolor (Lindley) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Malaxis thwaitesii Bennet. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Malaxis versicolor (Lindley) Abeywick. LC
Nervilia juliana (Roxb.) Schlechter DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia claviloba Jayaweera EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia dolabrata Jayaweera CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia forcipata Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia fornicata Jayaweera CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
297
Oberonia longibracteata Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia quadrilatera Jayaweera EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia recurva Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia scyllae Lindley EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia tenuis Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia thwaitesii Hook.f. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia truncata Lindley EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia wallie-silvae Jayaweera CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia weragamaensis Jayaweera EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oberonia wightiana Lindley NT
Oberonia zeylanica Hook.f. NT
Octarrhena parvula Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Papilionanthe cylindrica (Lindl.) Seidenf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peristylus aristatus Lindley EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Peristylus brevilobus Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peristylus cubitalis (L.) Kraenzlin VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peristylus densus (Lindl.) DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peristylus gardneri (Hook.f.) Kraenzlin EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Peristylus plantagineus (Lindley) Lindley CR(PE)
Peristylus spiralis A. Rich. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peristylus trimenii (Hook.f.) Abeywick. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phaius luridus Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phaius wallichii Lindl. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Phalaenopsis deliciosa Rchb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phalaenopsis mysorensis C.J Sadanha. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pholidota imbricata Lindl. S: Nari Ala LC
298
Phreatia elegans Lindley CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phreatia jayaweerae Ormerod. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Podochilus saxatile Lindley NT
Podochilus falcatum Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Podochilus malabaricum Wight. NT
Polystachya concreta (Jacq.) Garay &

LC
Sweet
Pomatocalpa maculosum (Lindley) J. J.
NT
Sm.
Pomatocalpa spicatum Breda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pteroceras viridiflorum (Thw.) Holttum CR(PE)
E: Batticaloa Orchid, Fox-Tail

Rhynchostylis retusa Blume EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Orchid
Robiquetia virescens (Gard. ex Lindley)
NT
Jayaweera
Robiquetia brevifolia (Lindley) Garay VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)
Robiquetia gracilis (Lindley) Garay EN B2ab(I,ii,iii)
Robiquetia rosea (Lindley) Garay VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)
Satyrium nepalense D.Don E: Hyacinth Orchid NT
Schoenorchis nivea (Lindley) Schltr. NT
Schoenorchis tortifolia (Jayaweera) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Garay. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Seidenfadeniella filiformis (Rechb. f.) E.A. B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Christenson & Ormerod +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sirhookera latifolia (Wight) Kuntze CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sirhookera lanceolata (Wight) Kuntze NT
Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames. NT
Stichorkis disticha (Thouars) Pfitzer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Taeniophyllum alwisii Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Taeniophyllum gilimalense Jayaweera EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tainia bicornis (Lindley) Reichb. f. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Taprobanea spathulata (L.) Christenson. VU A2d
299
Thrixspermum pugionifolium (Hook.f.)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Schlechter
Thrixspermum pulchellum (Thw.)
LC
Schlechter
Thrixspermum walkeri Seidenf. &
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ormerod.
Trichoglottis tenera (Lindley) Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tropidia bambusifolia (Thw.) Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tropidia thwaitesii Hook. f. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Lodd. ex G. Don VU A2d
Vanda testacea (Lindley) Reichb. f. LC
Vanda thwaitesii Hook. f. CR(PE)
Vanda wightii Rchb.f. DD
Vanilla moonii Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vanilla walkerae Wight VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Vanilla wightii Lindl. ex White DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeuxine blatteri C.E.C. Fischer. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeuxine longilabris (Lindley) Trimen CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeuxine regia (Lindley) Trimen S: Iru Raja EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeuxine reginasilvae Ormerod. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schlecht. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Orobanchaceae
Aeginetia indica L. S: Kolikarmal CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Aeginetia pedunculata Wall. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Campbellia cytinoides (Reuter) Wight CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Centranthera indica (L.) Gamble S: Dutu-Satutu LC
Centranthera tranquebarica (Spreng.)

NT LC
Merr.
Christisonia albida Thw. ex. Benth. CR(PE)
Christisonia bicolor Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
300
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Christisonia lawii Wight EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Christisonia subacaulis (Benth.) Gardner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Christisonia thwaitesii Trimen EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Christisonia tricolor Gardner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Legocia aurantiaca (Wight) Livera CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pedicularis zeylanica Benth. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sopubia delphinifolia (L.) G. Don LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sopubia trifida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Striga angustifolia (Don) Saldanha NT
Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Striga lutea Lour. NT
Family : Oxalidaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Biophytum intermedium Wight EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Biophytum nervifolium Thw. NT
Biophytum nudum (Arn.) Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Biophytum proliferum (Arn.) Wight LC
S: Gas-Nidikumba; S: Bin-
Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch LC
Nelli
Family : Pandanaceae
Freycinetia pycnophylla Solms S: Kolla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Freycinetia walkeri Solms NT
S: Watta-Keyiya, Dunu-
Pandanus ceylanicus Solms VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Keyya, O-Keyiya
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pandanus furcatus Roxb. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Watta-Keyiya, Arulu,
Pandanus kaida Kurz. Watta-Keyiya-Aralu, Weta- LC
Keyiya
E: Screw-pine; S: Wetta-
Pandanus odoratissimus L. f. LC
Keyiya; T:Talai
S: Duna-Keyiya, Dunu-
Pandanus thwaitesii Martelli NT
Keyiya
Family: Papaveraceae
301
Dicentra scandens (D.Don) Walp DD
Family : Passifloraceae
Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) de Wilde S: Hondala LC
Adenia wightiana (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.)

VU A2 d
Engl.
Family : Pedaliaceae
S: Eth-Nerenchi;
Pedalium murex L. T: Anai-nerinchi, Periru-Ar LC
Nerenchi, Peru-Nerinchi
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sesamum prostratum Retz. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sesamum radiatum Schum LC
Family : Pentaphylaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Adinandra lasiopetala (Wight) Choisy S: Ratu -Mihiriya EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eurya acuminata DC. E: Wild Tea; S: Wana-Halu NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eurya ceylanica Wight VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eurya chinensis R. Br. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eurya nitida Korth EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ternstroemia emarginata (Gardner) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Rathatiya EN
Choisy +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ternstroemia gymnanthera (White & Arn.) S: Rattota, Rattiya, Pena- B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Beddome Mihiriya, Mihiriya +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Phrymaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peplidium maritimum (L. f.) Asch. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Phyllanthaceae
Actephila excelsa (Dalz.) Muell. Arg. S: Et-Pitawakka LC
Antidesma alexiteria L. S: Heen-Embiliya LC
Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. S: Karawala- Kebella LC
Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. S: Bu-Embilla LC
Antidesma pyrifolium Muell. Arg. LC VUi A1c
Antidesma thwaitesianum Mulell. Arg. S: Karawala- Kebella VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Antidesma walkeri (Tul.) Pax & Hoffm. S: Thimbiliya LC
302
Aporusa acuminata Thw. LC
S: Mapat-Kabella, Kampotta,
Aporusa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. LC VUi A1c
Pepiliya
Aporusa fusiformis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Heen Kebella, Veli-

Aporusa lanceolata (Tul.) Thw. LC VUi A1c
Mediya
Aporusa lindleyana (Wight) Baill. S: Barawa-Embilla, Kebella LC
Bischofia javanica Blume. LC
Blachia umbellata (Willd.) Baill. S: Goda-Ratmale, Kosatta LC
Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston S: Wa, Wal-Murunga LC
Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C. S: Gas-Kayila;

LC
Fischer T: Mmanipunati
Bridelia moonii Thw. S: Patkela LC VUi A1c
Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss. S: Ketakala; T: Mul-Venkai LC
Bridelia stipularis (L.) Blume CR(PE)
Cleistanthus acuminatus (Thw.) Muell. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Arg. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cleistanthus ferrugineus (Thw.) Muell.
LC VUi A1c
Arg.
Cleistanthus pallidus (Thw.) Muell. Arg. T: Visa LC
Cleistanthus patulus (Roxb.) Muell. Arg. S: Wa LC
Cleistanthus robustus Muell. Arg. S: Pala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c
S: Heen-Katu-Pila;
Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. LC
T: Mudpulanthi
Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt DD
Glochidion acutifolium Alston NT
Glochidion coriaceum Thw. LC
Glochidion gardneri Thw. DD
Glochidion montanum Thw. LC
Glochidion mooni Thw. LC
Glochidion nemorale Thw. LC
Glochidion pachycarpum Alston LC
303
Glochidion pycnocarpum (Muell.Arg.)
S: Hunu Kirilla LC
Beddome
Glochidion stellatum (Retz.) Beddome S: Kirilla LC
Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A.Juss. S: Hunu Kirilla LC
Margaritaria cyanospermus (Gaertn.)

S: Karawu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Airy Shaw
Margaritaria indicus (Dalz.) Airy Shaw VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Meineckia parvifolia (Wight) G.L. Webster NT
S: Pita-Wakka;
Phyllanthus amarus Schum. LC
T: Kilkaunelli
Phyllanthus baillonianus Mulell. Arg. S: Kela-Karapincha VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus cinereus Mulell. Arg. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus dealbatus Alston EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Bim-Nelli, Pitawakka;
Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. LC
T: Kulhainelli
Phyllanthus emblica L. S: Nelli; T: Topu-Nelli VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus gardnerianus (Wight) Baillon NT
Phyllanthus hakgalensis Thw. ex

CR(PE)
Trimen
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus heyneanus Muell.Arg. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. LC
Phyllanthus myrtifolius (Wight) Muell.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arg.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus oreophilus Muell. Arg. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus pinnatus (Wight) Webster LC
Phyllanthus polyphyllus Willd. LC
S: Gas-Dummella, Kaila,
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Wel-Kayila; T: Mipullanti, LC
Pula, Pullanti
Phyllanthus rheedii Wight NT
Phyllanthus rotundifolius Klein ex Willd. LC
Phyllanthus simplex Retz. LC
S: Rat Pita Wakka;

Phyllanthus urinaria L. LC
T: Kilkaynelli
Phyllanthus wheeleri G. L. Webster NT
304
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phyllanthus zeylanicus Muell. Arg. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Mella Dum Kola, Japan
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. LC
Batu
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sauropus assimilis Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sauropus bacciformis (L.) Airy Shaw S: Bin-Delung, Et Pitawakka LC
Sauropus quadrangularis (Willd.) Muell. B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Arg. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sauropus retroversus Wight CR(PE)
Sauropus rigidus Thw. S: Ginihiriya NT
Family : Picrodendraceae
S: Tammanna, Tammanua;
Mischodon zeylanicus Thw. LC
T: Tampanai
Family : Piperaceae
Lepianthes umbellatum (L.) Raf. S: Mala-Labu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth NT
Peperomia candolleana Miq. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peperomia heyneana Miq. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Peperomia pseudo-rhombea C. DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Peperomia species 6 CR(PE)
Peperomia tetraphylla (Forst.) Hook. &

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arn.
Piper hymenophyllum Miq. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Mala Miris, Mala-Miris-

Piper sylvestre Lam. LC
Wel, Wal-Gam-Miris-Wel
Piper trineuron Miq. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Piper walkeri Miq. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Piper zeylanicum Miq. LC
Family : Pittosporaceae
Pittosporum ceylanicum Wight S: Ketiya NT
Pittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Plantaginaceae
Adenosma camphoratum (Vahl) Hook. f. S: Kaha-Gona-Kola NT
305
Adenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr. LC LC
Adenosma subrepens (Thw.) Benth. CR(PE)
Bacopa floribunda (R. Br.) Wettst. DD LC
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell S: Lunuwila LC LC
Callitriche stagnalis Scop. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham.

S:Bimsavan LC LC
ex Benth.
Dopatrium lobelioides (Retz.) Benth. LC
Dopatrium nudicaule (Willd.) Benth. LC LC
Limnophila aquatica (Roxb.) Alston S: Reewul-Puruk-Wila LC
Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. LC LC
Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. CR(PE) LC
Limnophila heterophylla (Roxb.) Benth. T: Vanetchi NT LC
Limnophila indica (L.) Druce T: Thirai LC LC
Limnophila laxa Benth. DD LC
Limnophila polystachya Benth. DD LC
Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. S; Amba-Wila LC LC
Limnophila rugosa (Roth) Merr CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Limnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Blume LC LC
Microcarpaea minima (Koenig ex Retz.)

LC LC
Merr.
Plantago erosa Wall. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Stemodia viscosa Roxb. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Veronica javanica Blume CR(PE)
Family : Plumbaginaceae
E: Ceylon Leadwort; S: Ela-

Plumbago zeylanica L. LC
Netul
Family : Poaceae
Acrachne racemosa (Heyne ex Roem. & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Schult.) Ohwi +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Acroceras munroanum (Bal.) Henrard DD
306
Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Agrostis pilosula Trin. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Alloteropsis cimicina (L.)Stapf S: Budeni-Tana; T: Unni Pul LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Alloteropsis semialata (R. Br.) A. Hitchc. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Andropogon lividus Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Andropogon polyptychos Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kuru-Kuda-Ana;
Apluda mutica L. LC
T: Mungil-Pul
Apocopis mangalorensis (Hochst.)
LC
Henrard
Aristida adscensionis L. S: Teli-Tana VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Aristida hystrix L.f. DD
Aristida setacea Retz. S: Et-Tuttiri LC
Arthraxon castratus (Griffith)

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Narayanaswami ex Bor
Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinaria debilis Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinaria densifolia Munro EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinaria floribunda Thw. S: Mal-Bata EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinaria scandens Soderstrom & B1ab(i,ii,iii)
CR
Ellis +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinaria walkeriana Munro EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinella blephariphylla (Trimen) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
CR
Hook.f. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinella laxiflora Hook. f. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinella leptochloa (Steud.) Hook. f EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinella metzii Hochst. ex Miq. DD
Arundinella pumila (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Steud. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Arundinella setosa Trin. DD
Arundinella thwaitesii Hook.f. DD
Arundinella villosa Arn. ex Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
307
E: Spiny Bamboo; S: Katu-
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss ex Vilmorin LC
Una; T: Mungil
Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake LC
Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A.Camus LC
Bothriochloa pseudischaemum (Nees ex

DD
Steud.) Henrard
Brachiaria distachya (L.) Stapf LC
Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb. DD
Brachiaria kurzii (Hk.f.) A.Camus DD
Brachiaria paspaloides (Presl) C.E.Hubb. DD
Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf LC
Brachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines LC
Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A. Gardner &

LC
C.E. Hubb.
Brachiaria semiundulata (Hochst. ex A. B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Rich.) Stapf +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Brachiaria semiverticillata (Rottler ex
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Steud.) Alston
Brachiaria subquadripara (Trin.) A.Hitchc. LC
Brachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
P.Beauv. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Calamagrostis srilankensis Davidse CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. NT
Chionachne koenigii (Spreng.)Thw. LC
Chloris montana Roxb. LC
E:Love Grass; S:Tuttiri,

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. LC
T: Ottu-pul
Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. S: Karu-vi LC
Chrysopogon nodulibarbis (Steud.)

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Henrard
Chrysopogon orientalis (Desv.) A.Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Coelachne perpusilla (Steud.)Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Coelachne simpliciuscula (Steud.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
308
Coelachyropsis lagopoides (Burm. f.)
LC
Senaratne
Coix gigantea Roxb. S: Heen-Kirindi NT
Coix lacryma-jobi L. S: Kirindi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cymbopogn caesius (Hook. & Arn.) Stapf NT
E: New Citronella Grass;

S: Heen-Pangiri, Lena Batu,
Cymbopogn nardus (L.) Rendle LC
Lena- Batu-Pengiri, Pegiri,
Mana
Cymbopogn polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf DD
Cynodon arcuatus J.S.Presl ex C.Presl LC
Cynodon barberi Rang. & Tad. NT
E: Bermuda Grass, Doob

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Grass; S: Ruha; T: Arugam- LC
Pillu, Arugam-Pul
Cyrtococcum deccanense Bor VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Hochst. ex

NT
Steud.) Stapf
Cyrtococcum patens (L.) A.Camus DD
Cyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.) A.Camus LC
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. S: Putu-Tana LC
Davidsea attenuata (Thw.) Soderstrom

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
& Ellis
Dendrocalamus cinctus R.B.Majumder
CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
ex Soderstrom & Ellis
Dichaetaria wightii Nees ex Stude. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dichanthium caricosum (L.) A.Camus S: Geta Mana EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dichanthium foveolatum (Del.) Roberty CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Digitaria abyssinica (A.Rich.) Stapf EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Digitaria cliaris (Retz.) Koeler DD
Digitaria bicornis (Lam.) Loud. LC
S: Guru- Tana; T: Akki-Pul,

Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler LC
Arisi-Pul
Digitaria cruciata (Nees ex Steud.) A.
DD
Camus
Digitaria fuscescens (J.S. Presl in K.B. B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Presl) Henrard +2ab(i,ii,iii)
309
Digitaria griffithii (Hook.f.) Henrard DD
Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. LC
Digitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. & Schult. DD
Digitaria thwaitesii (Hack) Henrard DD
Digitaria tomentosa (Koenig ex Willd.)

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Henrard
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Digitaria violascens Link CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Digitaria wallichiana (Steud.) Stapf VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria aristata (Hack.) Senaratna DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria avenacea (Retz.) C.E.C.Fischer EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria ballardii Bor EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria fuscescens Trin. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria gracilis Steud. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria lehmannii (Steud.) Hack. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria leptorhachis Hack. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria pubescens Hack. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Dimeria thwaitesii Hack. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link S: Gira Tana; T: Adipul LC
Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) P.Beauv. LC
Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P.Beauv. LC
S: Bela-Tana, Wal-Mal-
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. LC
Kurakkan, Wal-Kurkkan
Elytrophorus spicatus (Willd.) A. Camus DD
Enteropogon dolichostachyus (Lagasca)

LC
Keng ex Lazarides
Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
K.Schum. ex Engl.
Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf) Bor EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Hook. & Arn. LC
Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.)Trin. ex

LC
Steud.
310
Eragrostis cilianensis (Allioni) Janchen DD
Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. LC
Eragrostis ciliata (Roxb.) Nees DD
Eragrostis curvula (Schrad) Nees DD
Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud. S: Ela-Kuru-Tana LC
Eragrostis japonica (Thumb.) Trin. LC
Eragrostis minor Host DD
Eragrostis nigra Nees ex Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. LC
Eragrostis pilosa (L.) P.Beauv. LC
Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees LC
Eragrostis subsecunda (Lam.) E. Fourn. DD
Eragrostis tenuifolia (A.Rich) Hochst. ex

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Steud.
Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex
LC
Steud.
Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin. LC
Eragrostis zeylanica Nees et Meyer. DD
Eremochloa muricata (Retz.) Hack. NT
Eremochloa zeylanica (Trimen) Hack. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eriachne triseta Nees ex Steud. S: Pini Tuttiri DD
Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. LC
Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) Kuntze NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Eulalia thwaitesii (Hack.) Kuntze EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henrard LC
Garnotia courtallensis (Arn. & Nees) Thw. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Garnotia exaristata Gould VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Garnotia fergusonii Trimen NT
Garnotia fuscata Thw. CR(PE)
311
Garnotia micrantha Thw. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Garnotia panicoides Trimen CR(PE)
Garnotia scoparia Thw. NT
Hackelochloa granularis (L.) Kuntze LC
Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Helictotrichon virescens (Nees ex Steud.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Henarard +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hemarthria compressa (L.f.) R.Br. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hemisorghum venustum (Thw.) W.D.

VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Clayton
Heteropholis nigrescens (Thw.)
VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
C.E.Hubb.
Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. &
S: I-Tana LC
Schult.
Heteropogon triticeus (R.Br.) Stapf NT
Holcolemma canaliculatum (Steud.) Stapf

LC
& C.E.Hubb.
Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees S: Go-Jabba NT
Hymenachne amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hyparrhenia filipendula (Hochst.) Stapf VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ichnanthus pallens (Sw.) Munro ex Benth. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Rausch. S: Illuk LC
Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze S: Bata-Della LC
Isachne kunthiana (Wight & Arn. ex

LC
Steud.) Miq.
Isachne multiflora (Thw.) Ferguson CR(PE)
Isachne walkeri (Arn. ex Steud.) Wight &

NT
Arn. ex Thw.
Ischaemum barbatum Retz. LC
Ischaemum ciliare Retz. S: Rat-Tana LC
Ischaemum commutatum Hack. LC
Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor DD
Ischaemum muticum L. S: Bada-Mal-Tana LC
312
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ischaemum polystachyum J. & C.Presl CR(PE)
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. S: Kudu Kedu LC
Ischaemum timorense Kunth S: Rila-Rat-Tana LC
Iseilema laxum Hack. LC
Iseilema prostratum (L.) Andersson LC
Jansenella griffithiana (C.Mueller) Bor LC
Leersia hexandra Sw. S: Layu, Lev LC
Leptaspis urceolata (Roxb.) R.Br. NT
Leptaspis zeylanica Nees ex steud. NT
Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees LC
Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth LC
Leptochloa neesii (Thw.) Benth. LC
Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Leptochloa srilankensis N. Snow CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Leptochloa uniflora Hochst. ex A.Rich LC
Lepturus repens (G.Forst.) R.Br. NT
Lophatherum gracile Brongn. LC
Lopholepis ornithocephala (Hook.) Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Melanocenchris monoica (Koenig ex B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Rottler) C. Fischer +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Microstegium nudum (Trin.) A. Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth LC
Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex Steud.)

CR(PE)
Hook.f.
Ochlandra stridula Moon ex Thw. S: Bata-Li, Bata LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophiuros exaltatus (L.) Kuntze EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. LC
313
Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. LC
Oplismenus thwaitesii Hook. f. CR(PE)
Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) Roem. &

DD
Schult.
Oropetium thomaeum (L.f.) Trin. LC
Oryza eichingeri A. Peter LC
Oryza granulata Nees & Arn. ex G. Watt EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oryza nivara Sharma & Shastry NT
Oryza rhizomatis Vaughan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oryza rufipogon W. Griffith EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Wal-Meneri, Meneri;
Panicum curviflorum Hornem. LC
T: Shamai-Karunai
Panicum brevifolium L. LC
Panicum gardneri Thw. LC
Panicum humile Trin. LC
Panicum luzonense J. & C. Presl CR(PE)
Panicum notatum Retz. LC
Panicum paludosum Roxb. LC
Panicum phoiniclados Naik & Patunkar NT
Panicum repens L. S: Etora; T: Injii-Pul LC
Panicum sparsicomum Nees ex Steud. LC
Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A.Camus E: Arisi-Pul; S: Ha-Thana LC
Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf LC
Paspalidium punctatum (Brum.f.) A.

LC
Camus
Paspalum distichum L. LC
Paspalum longifolium Roxb. LC
Paspalum scrobiculatum L. S: Amu; T: Varagu, Waragu LC
314
Paspalum vaginatum Sw. LC
Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze. LC
Perotis junceum (Roxb.) Ham DD
Pharagmites karka (Retz.) Steud. S: Nala-Gas LC
Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth LC
Pommereulla cornucopiae L.f. CR(PE)
Pseudanthistiria umbellata (Hack.) Hook.f. LC
Pseudechinolaena polystachya (HBK)

DD
Stapf
Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.) Vick. LC
Pseudoxytenanthera monadelpha (Thw.)

VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Soderstrom & Ellis
Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W.D.
LC
Clayton
S: Rambuk; T: Pey-
Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. CR(PE)
Karunmu, Pi-Karumbu
Saccharum spontaneum L. S: Wal-Uk LC
Sacciolepis curvata (L.) Chase LC
Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase LC
Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf LC
Sacciolepis myosuroides (R.Br.) A.Camus NT
Sehima nervosum (Rottler) Stapf LC
Setaria gracillima Hook.f. CR(PE)
Setaria intermedia Roth ex Roem. &

LC
Schult.
Setaria palmifolia (Koenig) Stapf S: Reli-Tana LC
Setaria parviflora (Poir.) M.Kerguelen S: Kavalu, Kawalu LC
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. LC
Setaria verticillata (L.) P.Beauv. S: Hiwal Tana LC
Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sorghum propinquum (Kunth) A.Hitchc. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
315
Sphaerocaryum malaccense (Trin.) Pilger VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Maha-Ravana-Ravula; T:
Spinifex littoreus (Burm.f.) Merr. LC
Ravana-Meesai
Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns &
LC
Tournay
Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.)
LC
Kunth
Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv. LC
Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton LC
Sporobolus maderaspatanus Bor VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth LC
Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth S: Mudu-Etora LC
Sporobolus wallichii Munro ex Trimen VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (L.) Brongn. LC
Streptogyna crinita P.Beauv. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Themeda cymbaria Hack. S: Kara-Wata-Mana LC
Themeda forskalii Hackel DD
Themeda tremula (Steud.) Hack. S: Pini-Bara-Tana LC
Themeda triandra Forssk. LC
Thuarea involuta (G.Forst.) R.Br. ex

DD
Roem. & Schult.
Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.)
NT
Honda
Trachys muricata (L.) Trin. LC
Tragus roxburghii Panigrahi LC
Tripogon bromoides Roth ex Roem. &

VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schult
Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Urochloa setigera (Retz.) Stapf LC
E: Khas-Khas; S:
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Sawandara, Sevendara; LC
T: Vettiver
Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr. LC
316
Family : Podostemaceae
Dalzellia ceylanica (Gardner) Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen) Willis

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
ex Hook.f.
Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
J.B.Hall
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B.Hall CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeylanidium olivaceum (Gardner) Engl. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Zeylanidium subulatum (Gardner) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
C.Cusset +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Polygalaceae
Polygala arillata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don LC
Polygala chinensis L. LC
Polygala elongata Klein ex Willd. DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polygala glaucoides L. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polygala glomerata Lour. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polygala hirsutula Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polygala jacobii Chandrab. DD
Polygala javana DC. S: Tilo Guru LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polygala longifolia Poir EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Polygala macrolophos Hassk. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Polygala rosmarinifolia Wight & Arn. NT
Polygala telephioides Willd. LC
Polygala triflora L. NT
Salomonia ciliata (L.) DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Xanthophyllum zeylanicum Meijden S: Palala LC
Family : Polygonaceae
Persicaria attenuata (R. Br.) Sojak S: Sudu-Kimbul-Wenna LC LC
Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara S: Ratu-Kimbul-Wenna LC
317
Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. in D.Don)
LC
H.Gross
Persicaria decipiens (R.Br.) K.L.Wilson DD
Persicaria glabra (Willd.) Gomez de la

LC
Maza
Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach DD
Persicaria minor (Hudson) Opiz DD
Persicaria nepalensis (Meissner) H.Gross DD
Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach LC
Persicaria praetermissa (Hook.f.) H.Hara DD
Persicaria strigosa (R.Br.) Nakai LC
Polygonum plebeium R.Br. LC LC
Family : Pontederiaceae
Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms-Laub S: Diya-Habarala, Jabara NT LC
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl S: Diya habarala, Jabara LC LC
Family : Portulacaceae
S: Genda-kola;
Portulaca oleracea L. LC
T: Pulikkirai, Pulichchankirai
Portulaca quadrifida L. S: Heen-Genda-Kola LC
Portulaca suffruticosa Wall. ex Wight &

LC
Arn.
Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. S: Uru-Genda LC
Portulaca wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Potamogetonaceae
Potamogeton nodosus Poir. LC LC
Potamogeton pectinatus L. LC
Potamogeton perfoliatus L. LC
Family : Primulaceae
S: Heen Kadol;
Aegiceras corniculata (L.) Blanco LC
T: Vitlikanna
Ardisia colorata Roxb. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
318
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ardisia crenata Sims EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ardisia elliptica Thunb. S: Balu-Dan LC
Ardisia gardneri Clarke LC
Ardisia lankaensis Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ardisia missionis Wall.ex A.DC. LC
Ardisia moonii Clarke LC
Ardisia pauciflora Heyne NT
Ardisia polylepis Mez EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ardisia solanacea Roxb. S: Balu-Dan EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ardisia wightiana (Wall. ex A.DC.) Mez CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ardisia willisii Mez S: Lunu-Dan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ardisia zeylanica Clarke LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Embelia aurantiaca (Wall.) Wadhwa EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Embelia ribes Burm. f. S: Wel-Embilla LC
Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. &

NT
Schult.) A.DC.
Lysimachia laxa Baudo VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lysimachia procumbens Baudo EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Maesa indica (Roxb.) A. DC. LC
Myrsine ceylanica (Mez) Wadhwa NT
Myrsine robusta (Mez) Wadhwa LC
Myrsine thwaitesii (Mez) Wadhwa NT
Myrsine wightiana Wall. ex A.DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Proteaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Helicia ceylanica Gardner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Putranjivaceae
Drypetes gardneri (Thw.) Pax & Hoffm. S: Eta-Wira, Gal-Wira NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Drypetes lanceolata (Thw.) Pax & Hoffm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
319
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Drypetes longifolia (Blume) Pax & Hoffm. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax &
LC
Hoffm.
Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. T: Karippalai, Vitchurunai LC
Putranjiva zeylanica (Thw.) Muell. Arg. S: Pelan LC
Family : Ranunculaceae
Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Clematis smilacifolia Wall. S: Nara-Wel CR(PE)
Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC S: Nara-Wel NT
Ranunculus sagittifolius Hook. E: Buttercup VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ranunculus wallichianus Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Thalictrum javanicum Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Rhamnaceae
S: Tel-Hiriya;
Colubrina asiatica (L.) Brongn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Mayirmanikkam
Gouania microcarpa DC. NT
Rhamnus arnottianus Gardner ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rhamnus wightii Wight & Arn. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sageretia hamosa (Wall.) Brongn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz T: Tudari, Tuvadi LC
Ventilago gamblei Susseng. LC
Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn. var. S: Yakada-Wel;

LC
.madraspatana T: Vempadam
Ziziphus lucida Moon ex Thw. S: Eraminiya CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Dabara, Maha-Debara,
Ziziphus mauritiana var mauritiana Lam. LC
Masan; T: Ilantai, Allantai
Ziziphus napeca (L.) Willd. S: Yak-Eraminiya LC
S: Heen Eraminiya;
Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Miller LC
T: Churai, Perilantai
S: Maha Eraminiya;
Ziziphus rugosa Lam. NT
T: Churai
320
Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. S: Kakuru; T: Nari-Ilantai NT
Family : Rhizophoraceae
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny E: Mangrove; S:Mal-Kadol VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. S: Dawata NT
Carallia calycina Benth. S: Ubberiya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1ci
S: Pana, Kos Daththa, Gal

Cassipourea ceylanica (Gardner) Alston LC
Guliya; T:Kannu
Ceriops decandra (Griffith) Ding Hou CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) NT
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. T: Chiru-Kandal NT LC
S: Kadol, Rana Kadol;

Rhizophora apiculata Blume NT LC
T: Kandal
E: Mangrove; S:Kadol,
Rhizophora mucronata Poir. LC LC
Kandal
Family : Rosaceae
Agrimonia zeylanica Moon ex Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Alchemilla indica Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Lunu-Warala;
Photinia integrifolia Lindley LC
T: Anreepawlaycody-Maram
Potentilla polyphylla Wall. ex Lehman EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Potentilla sundaica (Blume) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Golu-Mora, Kankumbal-
Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq. NT ENi B1+2c
Ketiya
S: Golu-Mora, Kankumbal-
Prunus walkeri (Wight) Kalkman LC VUi A1c
Ketiya
E: False Blackberry, Ovel-

Rubus ellipticus Smith Leaved Bramble; LC
S: Nara-Bute
Rubus fairholmianus Gardner NT
Rubus gardnerianus Kuntz NT
Rubus indicus Thunb. S: Vel-Batu LC
Rubus leucocarpus Arn. NT
Rubus micropetalus Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
321
E: Woody-Berried Bramble;
Rubus niveus Thunb. NT
S: Rodu-Ketambila
Rubus rugosus Smith LC
Rubus sorbifolius Maxim. DD
Sanguisorba indicum (Gardner)Tirv. CR(PE)
Family : Rubiaceae
Acranthera ceylanica Arn. ex Meissner LC
Aidia gardneri (Thw.) Tirv. S: Seru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich. S: Nawatha, Ambul Bakmi,

NT
ex Walp. Ela Bakmi, Kalamba
Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirv. S: Pudan LC
S: Kalu Diyapara, Kalu

Byrsophyllum ellipticum (Thw.) Hook. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Godapara
Canthium campanulatum Thw. NT
Canthium coromandelicum (Burm. f.)

S: Kara; T: Karai LC
Alston
Canthium macrocarpum Thw. CR(PE)
Canthium puberulum Thw. ex Hook. f. NT
Canthium rheedii DC. NT
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. S: Kukuruman; T: Karai LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ceriscoides turgida (Roxb.) Tirv. S: Pita Madu EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thw. LC
Dentella repens J.R. & G. Forst. LC LC
Dichilanthe zeylanica Thw. S: Emberella VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi
Diplospora erythrospora (Thw.) Hook. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Discospermum sphaerocarpum Dalz. ex

T: Vella LC
Hook. f.
Diyaminauclea zeylanica (Hook. f.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
S: Diya-Mi EN
Ridsd. 2ab(i,ii,iii)
Exallage auricularia (L.) Bremek. S: Geta-Kola VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Fergusonia tetracocca (Thw.) Baill. CR(PE)
Gaertnera divaricata (Thw.)Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
322
Gaertnera gardneri Thw. CR(PE)
Gaertnera rosea Thw. ex Benth. LC VUi A1c
Gaertnera ternifolia Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Gaertnera vaginans (DC.) Merr. LC
Gaertnera walkeri (Arn.) Blume NT VUi A1c, B1+2c
Galium asperifolium Wall. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gardenia crameri Tirv. S: Galis VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gardenia fosbergii Tirv. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Geophila repens var asiatica (Cham. &

S: Agu Karni VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Schlecht.) Fosberg
Guettarda speciosa L. S: Nil Pichcha; T:Panir VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kolon; T:manchal
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. LC
Kadampa, Raja Murunkai
Hedyotis cinereoviridis Thw. CR(PE)
Hedyotis coprosmoides Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis cyanantha Kurz NT
Hedyotis cyanescens Thw. CR(PE)
Hedyotis dendroides Alston NT
Hedyotis evenia Thw. CR(PE)
Hedyotis flavescens Thw. NT
Hedyotis fruticosa L. S: Veraniya LC
Hedyotis fumata Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis gardneri Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis gartmorensis Ridsd. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis inamoena Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis lessertiana Arn. LC
Hedyotis macraei Hook. f. DD
Hedyotis marginata (Thw. ex Trimen) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
323
Hedyotis membranacea Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis neesiana Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis neolessertiana Ridsd. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis nodulosa Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis obscura Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis quinquinervia Thw. CR(PE)
Hedyotis rhinophylla Thw. ex Trimen EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis srilankensis Deb & Dutta EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis subverticillata Alston EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis thwaitesii Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis trichoneura Alston EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis tridentata Ridsd. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hedyotis trimenii var. trimenii Deb &

LC
Dutta
Hydrophylax maritima L. f. S: Mudu-Geta-Kola LC
Ixora calycina Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
S: Ratambala, Rat-Mal; T:
Ixora coccinea L. LC
Vedchi
S: Goda-Rathambala, Gora-
Ixora jucunda Thw. LC VUi A1c
Ratambela, Wal-Rathmal
S: Maharatambala; T:
Ixora pavetta Andr. Kanmuttankirai, Karankutti, LC
Painkuray
Ixora thwaitesii Hook. f. NT
Knoxia hirsuta Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Knoxia platycarpa Arn. LC
Knoxia spicata (Thw. ex Trimen) Ridsd. NT
Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. NT
Knoxia zeylanica L. NT B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lasianthus chrysocaulis Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
324
Lasianthus foetulentus Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lasianthus gardneri (Thw.) Hook.f. EN VUi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lasianthus moonii Wight LC
Lasianthus neolanceolatus Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lasianthus obliquus (Thw.) Thw. LC
Lasianthus oliganthus (Thw.) Thw. LC
Lasianthus protractus (Thw.) Thw. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lasianthus rhizophyllus (Thw.) Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lasianthus strigosus Wight LC
Lasianthus thwaitesii Hook.f. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lasianthus varians (Thw.) Thw. EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Leucocodon reticulatum Gardner EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Metabolus decipiens (Thw.) Ridsd. LC
Mitragyna parvifolia var parvifolia (Roxb.)

T: Nir-Kadampa, Chelampi LC
Korth.
Mitragyna tubulosa (Arn.) Havil. S: Helamba EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Morinda citrifolia L. S: Ahu LC
Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. S: Ahu; T: Manchavanna LC
Morinda umbellata L. S: Kiri-Wel, Maha-Kiri-Wel LC
S: Mus-Wenna, Wal-But-
Mussaenda frondosa L. LC
Sarana, Mussenda
Mussaenda samana Jayaweera LC
Nargedia macrocarpa (Thw.) Boddome LC
S: Bakmi, Rata-Bakmi;
Nauclea orientalis (L.) L. LC
T: Vammi, Atuvangi
Neanotis monosperma (Wight & Arn.)
LC
W.H. Lewis
Neanotis nummularia (Arn.) W.H. Lewis LC
Neanotis nummulariformis (Arn.) W.H.

VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lewis
Neanotis quadrilocularis (Thw.) W.H.
CR(PE)
Lewis
325
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Neanotis richardiana (Arn.) W.H. Lewis CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Neurocalyx calycinus (R. Br. ex Benn.)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Robinson
Neurocalyx championii Benth. ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Neurocalyx gardneri Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Neurocalyx zeylanicus Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oldenlandia biflora L. LC
Oldenlandia brachypoda DC. LC
Oldenlandia corymbosa L. S: Wal-Path-Padagam LC
Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. LC
Oldenlandia erecta (Mani. & Sivarajan)

DD
Ridsd.
Oldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oldenlandia ovatifolia (Cav.) DC. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Oldenlandia pumila (L. f.) DC. DD
Oldenlandia stricta L. NT
Oldenlandia trinervia Retz. NT
E: Chay Root; S: Saya;

Oldenlandia umbellata L. LC
T: Chaya
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophiorrhiza glechomifolia Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophiorrhiza mungos L. S: Dathketiya LC
Ophiorrhiza nemorosa Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophiorrhiza pallida Thw. CR(PE)
Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. LC
Ophiorrhiza radicans Gardner ex Thw. S: Kiri Makulu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. angustifolia

LC
(Thw.) Ridsd.
Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. argentea
CR(PE)
(Hook.f.) Deb & Mondal
Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. decumbens B1ab(i,ii,iii)
CR
(Gardner & Thw.) Deb & Mondall +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oxyceros rugulosus (Thw.) Tirv. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
326
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavetta agrostiphylla Bremek. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavetta badullensis Ridsd. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavetta blanda Bremek. S: Pavatta; T: Pavaddai LC
Pavetta gardneri Bremek. DD
S: Gal Hambella, Ela Terana;

Pavetta gleniei Thw. ex Hook. f. NT
T:vetpavaddai
Pavetta glomerata Bremek. NT
Pavetta indica L. S: Pavatta; T:Pavaddai LC
Pavetta involucrata Thw. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavetta macraei Bremek. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pavetta zeylanica (Hook. f.) Gamble S: Es-Rudha NT
Pleiocraterium plantaginifolium (Arn.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Bremek. +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Prismatomeris albidiflora Thw. VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.)
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Schumann
Pseudaidia speciosa (Beddome) Tirv. DD
Psilanthus travancorensis (Wight & Arn.)

S: Gas-Pitchcha VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Leroy
Psilanthus wightianus (Wight & Arn.)
T: Kaddumallikai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Leroy
Psychotria dubia (Wight) Alston NT VUi A1c
Psychotria gardneri (Thw.) Hook. f. S: Kalu-Kuratiya NT ENi B1+2c
Psychotria glandulifera Thw. ex Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Psychotria longipetiolata Thw. EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Psychotria meeboldii Deb & M.G.
DD
Gangop.
Psychotria moonii (Thw.) Hook.f. CR(PE)
Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.) Alston LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Psychotria plurivenia Thw. EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Psychotria sarmentosa Blume S: Wal-Gonika NT
Psychotria sohmeri Kiehn VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
327
Psychotria sordida Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Psychotria stenophylla (Thw.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
Psychotria waasii Sohmer NT VUi A1c, B1+2c
Psychotria zeylanica Sohmer LC
E: Ceylon Boxwood;
S: Gal Karanda,
Psydrax dicoccos Gaertn. LC
Panakarawa, Panduru; T:
Vatchikuran, Yerkoli
Psydrax grandifolius (Thw.) Ridsd. CR(PE)
Psydrax montanus (Thw.) Ridsd. NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Psydrax pergracilis (Bourd.) Ridsd. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Manda Madini-Wel, B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Rubia cordifolia L. EN
Yogama-Wel +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Saprosma foetens (Wight) Schumann

LC
subsp. ceylanicum (Gardner) Gang.
Saprosma glomeratum var. gardneri

NT
(Thw.) Gang.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Saprosma scabridum (Thw.) Beddome EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Schizostigma hirsutum Arn. LC LC
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Scyphostachys coffaeoides Thw. E: Wild Coffee; S: Wal-kopi EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Scyphostachys pedunculatus Thw. CR(PE)
Spermacoce articularis L.f. LC
S: Hin Geta Kola;

Spermacoce hispida L. LC
T: Nattaichchuri, Yar
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Spermacoce prostrata Aublet EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Spermacoce pusilla Wall. DD
Spermacoce ramanii Sivarajan & Nair DD
Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirv. & Sastre S: Et-Kukuruman, Wadiga VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex

S: Tarana; T: Karanai LC
Schumann
Tarenna flava Alston LC
Timonius flavescens (Jack) Baker S: Peddimella, Ngana LC
328
Uncaria elliptica R.Br. ex G.Don LC
Urophyllum ceylanicum (Wight) Thw. LC
Urophyllum ellipticum (Wight) Thw. LC
Wendlandia bicuspidata Wight & Arn. S: Rawan Idala LC
Family : Ruppiaceae
Ruppia maritima L. LC LC
Family : Rutaceae
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. S: Ankenda LC
S: Wal-Dehi, Yakinaran;
Atalantia ceylanica (Arn.) Oliver LC
S: Yak-Dehi; T: Pey kuruntu
Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC. S: Dodan Pana LC
Atalantia racemosa Wight ex Hook. NT
Atalantia rotundifolia (Thw.) Tanaka S: Yaki-Naran VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Satin Wood; S: Buruta;

Chloroxylon swietenia DC. T:Moodudad Marum, Muritai, VU A2 cd
Mutirai
S: Ganda-Pana, Et Kara,
Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. LC
Bembiya, Weda-Pana
S: Migon Karapincha;
Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver LC
T: Pannai, Purankainari
Glycosmis angustifolia Lindley in Wall. ex
S: Bol-Pana LC
Wight & Arn.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Glycosmis cyanocarpa (Blume) Spreng EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka LC
S: Dodan-Pana;
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A.DC. LC
T: Kulapannai
E: Elephant-Apple, Wood
Apple; S: Divul;
Limonia acidissima L. LC
T: Mayaladikkuruntu, Vila,
Vilatti
Luvunga angustifolia (Oliver) Tanaka LC
Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.

S: Lunu-Ankenda LC
Hartley
Micromelum minutum (Forst.f.) Wight & S: Wal-Karapincha;
LC
Arn. var. ceylanicum T: Kakaipalai
Murraya gleniei Thw. ex Oliver NT
E: Curry Leaf; S: Karapinch;

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. LC
T: Karivempu
329
E: Orange Jessamine;
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack LC
S: Etteriya
Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson S: Wal-Beli VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Pamburu; T: Kurantu,
Pamburus missionis (Wight) Swingle LC
Kuruntu, Perum Kuruntu
Paramignya armata (Thw.) Beddome ex
LC
Oliver
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Paramignya beddomei Tanaka EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Paramignya monophylla Wight S: Wellangiriya LC
Pleiospermium alatum (Wight & Arn.) S: Tumpat Kurundu, Tunpat

LC
Swingle Kurundu
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. S:Kudu Miris; T: Kandai LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zanthoxylum caudatum Alston EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. S: Katu-Keena EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zanthoxylum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Sabiaceae
S: Nika Daula, Wal-Bilin;

Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
T: Kusavi
Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. S: El-Badda, El-Bedda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Salicaceae
Casearia thwaitesii Briq. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Casearia tomentosa Roxb. S: Kiri Makulu NT
S: Wal-Waraka;
Casearia zeylanica (Gaertn.) Thw. T: Kakapalai, Kakapelar, LC
Kakkaipalai,Tey Pala
E: Ceylon Gooseberry; B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
Dovyalis hebecarpa (Gardner) Warb. EN
S: Ketambila 2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Uguressa, Dik-Patana,
Katukurundu, Wal-Divul,
Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Ukkuressa, Katukutundu; LC
T:Katukali, Kurumurukki,
Mulanninchil
S: Liyang, Eta-Heraliya,
Homalium ceylanicum (Gardner) Benth. LC
Liyan, Walu
Homalium dewitii Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)

+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Katu-Kenda, Katu-
Scolopia acuminata Clos LC
Kurundu
Scolopia crassipes Clos LC
S: Damhi, Katte Kurundu,

Scolopia pusilla (Gaertn.) Willd. LC
Katu-Kenda, Katu-Keeree-
330
Family : Salvadoraceae
S: Katuniyanda; T: Ichanku,
Azima tetracantha Lam. LC
Iyanku
S: Maliththan, Peelu; T:
Salvadora persica L. NT
Uvay, Viyay
Family : Santalaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Ginalloa spathulifolia (Thw.) Oliver EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Korthalsella japonica (Thunb.) Engl. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Notothixos floccosus (Thw.) Oliver EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Osyris wightian Wall ex Wight NT
Scleropyrum wallichianum (Wight & Arn.)

EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Arn.
Viscum articulatum Burm.f. LC
Viscum capitellatum Smith NT
Viscum heyneanum DC. LC
Viscum monoicum Roxb. ex DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Viscum orientale Willd. LC
Viscum ramosissimum Roxb. ex DC. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Sapindaceae
S: Kobbe, Bukobbe, Kobo,

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Räusch. LC
Moodu- Kobe, Wal-Kobbe
Allophylus zeylanicus L. S: Wal-Kobbe LC
Cardiospermum canescens Wall. S: Loco Penela VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. S: Wel-Penela, Penela-Wel LC
Dimocarpus gardneri (Thw.) Leenh. T: Nurai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Penni-More, Mora, Mora -

Dimocarpus longan Lour. LC
Mora, Rasa-Mora
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. S: Eta-Werella; T: Virali LC
S: Pehimbiya; T: Chittirai
Filicium decipiens (Wight & Arn.) Thw. LC
Vempu
Glenniea unijuga (Thw.) Radlk. S: Wal-Mora; T: Kuma LC
Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. S: Na-Imbul, Pundalu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
331
Lepisanthes erecta (Thw.) Leenh. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lepisanthes senegalensis (Juss.ex Poir.)

S: Gal-Kuma; T: Kal-Kuma LC
Leenh.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Lepisanthes simplocifolia (Thw.) Leenh. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. LC
S: Gal-Mora, Na - Imbul,
Pometia pinnata J.R. & G. Forst. LC
Bulu-Mora
E: Soap Nut Tree;

Sapindus emarginata Vahl S: Kaha-Penela, Matambala, LC
Embilla, Gas-Penela, Penela
S: Kaha Penela, Kon, Kone;

Sapindus trifoliata L. NT
T: Puva, Kula
E: Ceylon Oak; S : Kon;
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken LC
T: Kula, Puvu
Family : Sapotaceae
S: Rata Lawulu, Lawulu;

Chrysophyllum roxburghii G.Don. NT
T: Kat Illupai
Isonandra compta (Thw. ex Clarke) B1ab(i,ii,iii)
EN
Dubard +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Weliwarana, Kirihembiliya,
Isonandra lanceolata Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Molpedda
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Isonandra montana (Thw.) Gamble EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Isonandra zeylanica Jeuken VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Clavate Mi; S:Ritigala Mi, B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Madhuca clavata Jayasuriya EN
Wanami +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Madhuca fulva (Thw.) Macbride S: Wana-Mi, Kiripede VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
E: Indian Butter Tree;

Madhuca indica Gmelin S: Urulu Mi; T: Kaattu Illuppai DD
Mohwa, Mahwa
E: Mousey Mi; S: Mi, Mi,
Madhuca longifolia (L.) Macbride Gam Mi, Gula Pushpa; NT
T: Illupai ;
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Madhuca microphylla (Hook.) Alston S: Wana-Mi EN ENi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Madhuca moonii ( Thw.) H.J. Lam. EN VUi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Madhuca neriifolia ( Thw.) H.J. Lam. S: Gan-Mi VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c
Manilkara hexandra ( Roxb.) Dubard S: Palu; T: Palai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Mimusops andamanensis King & B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Gramble +2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Munamal, Sinha- Kesara;
Mimusops elengi L. NT
T:Makil, Mukalai
332
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Palaquium canaliculatum (Thw.) Engl. S: Elakirihembiliya VU ENi B1+2cd
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Kirihambiliya, Kiripedda,
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Palaquium grande (Thw.) Engl. Rathatiya, Kiriheriya, VU VUi A1c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Mihiriya, Molpedda
S: Hinmolpedda, Miriya, Kiri-
Palaquium hinmolpedda van Royen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Meeriya
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Palaquium laevifolium (Thw.) Engl. S: Wana-Mi, Molpedda EN CR B1+2cd
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Palaquium pauciflorum (Thw.) Engl. S: Kirihambiliya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
S: Golabodu, Kiri-Hambiliya,
Palaquium petiolare (Thw.) Engler VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lci
Kiri-Nuga
S: Kiriwavula, Tawenna,
Palaquium rubuginosum (Thw.) Engl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c
Kiri-Pedda
Palaquium thwaitesii Trimen S: Rathatiya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Palaquium zeylanicum Verdc. CR VUi D2
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Xantolis tomentosa ( Roxb.) Raf. T: Mulmakil EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Schizandraceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Kadsura heteroclita (Roxb.) Craib EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Scrophulariaceae
Glosssostigma diandra (L.) Kuntze DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Verbascum chinense (L.) Satapau CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Simaroubaceae
E: White Siris; S: Wal-Bilin; B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston CR
T:Peru +2ab(i,ii,iii)
E: Macassar kernel;
Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. LC
S: Thiththa Kohomba
Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Noot. S: Samadara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Smilacaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Smilax aspera L. VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
S: Maha-Kabarassa,
Smilax perfoliata Lour. LC
Kabarassa
S: Heen-Kabaressa,
Smilax zeylanica L. LC
Kabarassa
Family : Solanaceae
Lycianthes bigeminta (Nees) Bitter VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
333
S: Mottu, Nalal Batu, Lin
Physalis micrantha Link DD
-Mottu, Heen-Mottu
Solanum erianthum D.Don S: Hekarilla DD
Solanum giganteum Jacq. DD
Solanum lasiocarpum Dunal S: Mala-Batu DD
Solanum mauritianum Scop. S: Hakarilla DD
Solanum pubescens Willd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Solanum torvum Sw. S: Tibbatu, Gona-Batu LC
S: Wel-Tibbatu;
Solanum trilobatum L. LC
T: Tuttuvalai
Solanum violaceum Ortega LC
S: Kara- Batu, Katuwel-Batu;

Solanum virginianum L. LC
T: Kandan-Kattari
Family : Sphenocleaceae
Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. LC
Family : Staphyleaceae
S: Kankumbala Eta-Hirilla,
Turpinia malabarica Gamble LC
Garandi-Kidaran
Family : Stemonaceae
Stemona curtisii Hook. f. CR(PE)
Family : Stemonuraceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Gomphandra coriacea Wight VU
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Gomphandra tetranda (Wall.) Sleumer NT
Stemonurus apicalis (Thw.) Miers S: Urul-Honda, Uru-Kanu NT
Family : Stylidiaceae
Stylidium uliginosum Sw. ex Willd. CR(PE)
Family : Surianaceae
Suriana maritima L. CR(PE)
Family : Symplocaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos bractealis Thw. S: Bombu EN VUi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S: Wal-Bombu, Bobu,
LC
S.Moore Bombu
334
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos cordifolia Thw. EN VUi B1+2c
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos coronata Thw. S: Galparre, Guduhal EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos cuneata Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos diversifolia Brand Thw. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos elegans Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos elegans var. angustata CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos kurgensis Clarke CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex DC. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos obtusa Wall. ex G.Don VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos obtusa var obtusa Wall. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos obtusa var. cucullata Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos obtusa var. pedicellata
VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
(Clarke) Noot.
Symplocos pendula Wight EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Symplocos pulchra Wight EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Tamaricaceae
Tamarix ericoides Rottler & Willd. DD
Tamarix indica Willd. LC
Family : Tetramelaceae
LR/
Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br. S: Muguna, Niguna LC
LCi
Family : Theaceae
Camellia kissi Wall. DD
Gordonia ceylanica Wight S: Rathatiya, Mihiriya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Gordonia dassanayakei Wadhwa et B1ab(i,ii,iii)

EN
Weerasooriya +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
Gordonia elliptica Gardner EN
2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
Gordonia speciosa (Gardner) Choisy S: Ashoka EN
2ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Thymelaeaceae
Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg S: Naha NT
335
S: Wal-Aha, Walla, Walla-
Gyrinops walla Gaertn. VU A3bd
Patta, Patta-Walla
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Phaleria capitata Jack CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Wikstroemia canescens Meissner LC
Family : Triuridaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Hyalisma janthina Champ. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Sciaphila secundiflora Thw. ex Benth. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Sciaphila tenella Blume DD
Family : Typhaceae
E: Bull-Rush, Cat Tail; S:

Typha angustifolia L. LC LC
Hambu-Pan
Family : Ulmaceae
E: Indian Elm; S: Goda

Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Kirilla; T: Ayil, Kauchia, NT
Velaylii
Family : Urticaceae
Boehmeria glomerulifera Miq. S: Maha-Diya-Dul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Boehmeria rugosissima (Blume) Wedd. CR(PE)
Chamabainia cuspidata Wight CR(PE)
Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. E: Wild Rhea; S: Gas-Dul LC
Debregeasia wallichiana (Wedd.) Wedd. S: Muda-Kenda NT
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Elatostema acuminatum (Poir.) Brongn. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Elatostema lineolatum Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Elatostema surculosum Wight CR(PE)
Elatostema walkerae Hook.f. CR(PE)
E:Nilgiri Nettle; S: Gas- B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis EN
Kahambilia +2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Laportea bulbifera (Sieb. & Zucc.) Wedd. CR
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew S:Wal-Kahambilia LC
336
Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall. ex Royle)
CR(PE)
Wedd.
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Oreocnide integrifolia (Gaudich.) Miq. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pellionia heyneana Wedd. CR(PE)
Pilea angulata (Blume) Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pilea melastomoides (Poir.) Wedd. NT
Pilea wightii Wedd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pouzolzia auriculata Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pouzolzia bennettiana Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pouzolzia cymosa Wight DD
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Pouzolzia triandra (Blume) Blume EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Pouzolzia walkeriana Wight LC
Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. LC
Procris crenata C.Robinson LC
Family: Vahliaceae
Vahlia dichotoma (Murr.) Kuntze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Family : Verbanaceae
Chascanum hyderobadense (Walp.)

CR(PE)
Moldenke
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene LC
Family : Violaceae
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. T: Oritad-Tamarai LC
Hybanthus ramosissimus (Thw.) B1ab(i,ii,iii)

CR
Melchior +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Rinorea bengalensis (Wall.) Kuntze EX
Rinorea decora (Trimen) Melchior EX
Rinorea virgata (Thw.) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Viola betonicifolia Sm. E: Violet VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Viola hamiltoniana D.Don E: Violet CR(PE)
Viola pilosa Blume E: Violet LC
337
Family : Vitaceae
S: Towel, Rata-Bulat-Wel; T:
Ampelocissus indica (L.) Planch NT
Sambaravali
Ampelocissus pheoenicantha Alston NT
S: Geranda-Dul-Wel, Media-
Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Gagnep. Wel; T:Kattuppirandaa, LC
Naralai
Cayratia reticulata (Lawson) Mabb. LC
Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin S: Wal-Rat-Diya-Labu LC
Cissus adnata Roxb. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cissus gardneri Thw. LC
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cissus glyptocarpa Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Cissus heyneana Steud. S: Wal-Muddarappalam LC
Cissus latifolia Lam. S: Wal-Diya-Labu LC
Cissus lonchiphylla Thw. NT
S: Hirassa, Sirassa;
T: Arugni, Indirvalli, Kiritti,
Cissus quadrangularis L. Pirandai, Puraindai, LC
Uchiradam, Uttansanjivi,
Vachiravalli
Cissus trilobata Lam. LC
S: Wal-Nivithi;
Cissus vitiginea L. LC
T: Kaddumuntiri
Cyphostemma setosum (Roxb.) Alston T: Anaitta Dichchai NT
S: Burulla, Gurulla;
Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. LC
T: Nyckki, Otta-Nali
Tetrastigma nilagiricum (Miq) Shetty LC
Family : Xanthorrhoeaceae
Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC S: Monara-Pretan LC
Family : Xyridaceae
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Xyris capensis Thunb. EN LC
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Xyris complanata R.Br. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC
Xyris indica L. NT LC
338
Xyris pauciflora Willd. LC LC
Family : Zingiberaceae
Alpinia abundiflora Burtt & Smith LC
Alpinia fax Burtt & Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Alpinia rufescens (Thw.) Schum. CR(PE)
Amomum acuminatum Thw. CR(PE)
Amomum benthamianum Trimen CR(PE)
Amomum echinocarpum Alston S: Bu-Kiriya, Niya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Amomum fulviceps Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Amomum graminifolium Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Amomum hypoleucum Thw. CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Amomum masticatorium Thw. EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Amomum nemorale (Thw.) Trimen CR(PE)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)+
Amomum pterocarpum Thw. EN
2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Amomum trichostachyum Alston EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Curcuma albiflora Thw. S: Haran-Kaha EN
+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Curcuma aromatica Salisb. S: Dada-Kaha, Wal-Kaha DD
Curcuma oligantha Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Cyphostigma pulchellum (Thw.) Benth. NT
E: Cardamomum; S: Ensal ,
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Rata-Ensal, Cardamungu; T: VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Alaka, Ellakai, Cardumunga
S: Hinguru-Piyali, Naharai; T: B1ab(i,ii,iii)

Globba marantina L. EN
Kechulu Kalanga +2ab(i,ii,iii)
Zingiber cylindricum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)
Zingiber wightianum Thw. NT
Family : Zygophyllaceae
S: Sembu-Nerinchi, Gokatu;
Tribulus terrestris L. LC
T:Chiru Nerinchi
339
Analysis of Seed Plants of Sri Lanka
Siril Wijesundara1, H. S. Kathriarachchi2, S. W. Ranasinghe1, G. Hapuarachchi2
1
Department of National Botanic Gardens
2
University of Colombo
Seed-bearing plants or seed plants are perhaps the most obvious group of plants on earth.
They include gymnosperms and angiosperms.
In gymnosperms the seeds are not enclosed in a fruit. Gymnosperms can be further classified
into gnetophytes, cycads, ginkgo, and conifers. In Sri Lanka there are no native conifers,
gnetophytes or ginkgo. There are only two gymnosperm species In Sri Lanka belonging
to genus Cycas in the family Cycadaceae. They are Cycas nathorstii (madu) and Cycas
zeylanica (Lindstrom & Hill, 2007). Of these two species, Cycas zeylanica (maha madu) is a
highly threatened species. The habitat of this species was damaged by tsunami in 2005 and
it is believed that the population of this species was seriously affected (Lindstrom & Hill, 2007).
Angiosperms are flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed in a fruit. They are the most
diverse group of plants with an estimated number of 200,000 to 400,000 species (Thorne,
2002). These species are classified into 415 families (APG, 2009)
Sri Lanka’s angiosperm flora has been explored, studied and documented by many botanists
since the colonial times (Jayasuriya, 2007). Trimen’s Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon (Trimen,
1893-1900), was considered as one of the most comprehensive floras of that time. Based
on Trimen’s Flora, Abeywickrama (1945) reported 1,065 genera and 2,855 species in 171
families. Out of those 853 species were considered to be endemic to Sri Lanka.
The revision of the Trimen’s Flora (Dassanayake et al., 1980-2000) described 3,771 species
in 1,363 genera and that included many naturalized species. The total number of endemic
species (including varieties and subspecies) was about 1,000 according to that revision.
Compared to the other countries in South Asia, angiosperm diversity in Sri Lanka is remarkably
higher due to multitudes of factors. Origin, affinities and biogeography of our flowering plants
have been discussed by several authors in the past (Trimen, 1885; Abeywickrama, 1945;
Ashton and Gunatilleke, 1987).
One of the striking features of our angiosperm flora is the high percentage of endemic species.
Analyses done during the preparation of this Red List revealed that there are 894 endemic
angiosperm species in Sri Lanka. These species are distributed mainly in the central and
south west region of the island (The map preceding page). However, there may be more
endemic species in the north east and eastern areas of the country which were not botanized
as extensively as the south western regions.
340
Distribution of Endemic Angiosperm species in Sri Lanka
There are no endemic families in Sri Lanka. But there are about 14 endemic genera.
Taxonomy of angiosperms was revolutionized recently by the application of molecular

techniques in plant systematics (Yakandawala, 2006). Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, an
informal international group of systematic botanists, published angiosperm classifications in
1998 (APG I), 2003 (APG II) and 2009 (APG III) to address deficiencies in earlier angiosperm
classification systems (APG III, 2009). This list uses the classification proposed in APG III and
the changes made to the family names widely used in the past are given in Table 1.
341
Table 1: Changes of families and genera according to Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the flowering plants: APG III (2009)
Previous Family (Genera) Family according to APG III in the Angiosperm list
Agavaceae Asparagaceae
Alliaceae Amaryllidaceae
Alangiaceae (Alangium) Cornaceae
Anthericaceae Asparagaceae
Apiaceae (Hydrocotyle) Araliaceae
Apostasiaceae Orchidaceae
Asclepiadaceae Apocynaceae
Avicenniaceae Acanthaceae
Bombacaceae Malvaceae
Callitrichaceae Plantaginaceae
Capparaceae (Cleome) Cleomaceae
Caprifoliaceae (Viburnum ) Adoxaceae
Celastraceae ( Bhesa) Centroplacaceae
Chenopodiaceae Amaranthaceae
Clusiaceae (Calophyllum, Mesua) Calophyllaceae
Cochlospermaceae Bixaceae
Convallariaceae Asparagaceae
Cuscutaceae Convolvulaceae
Datiscaceae (Tetrameles) Tetramelaceae
Dipsacaceae Caprifoliaceae
Dracaenaceae Asparagaceae
Euphorbiaceae (Putranjiva, Drypetes) Putranjivaceae
Euphorbiaceae (Mischodon) Picrodendraceae
Euphorbiaceae (Actephila, Antidesma, Aporusa, Bischofia, Phyllanthaceae
Breynia, Bridelia, Cleistanthus, Fluggea, Glochidion,
Margaritaria, Meineckia, Phyllanthus, Sauropus)
Flacourtiaceae (Hydnocarpus,Trichadenia) Achariaceae
Flacourtiaceae (Casearia, Dovyalis, Flacourtia, Salicaceae
Homalium, Scolopia)
Hippocrateaceae Celastraceae
Hyacinthaceae Asparagaceae
Hydrophyllaceae Hydroleaceae
Icacinaceae (Stemonurus,Gomphandra) Stemonuraceae
Lamiaceae (Priva, Stachytarpheta) Verbenaceae
Leeaceae Vitaceae
Lemnaceae Araceae
Limnocharitaceae Alismataceae
Lobeliaceae Campanulaceae
Loganiaceae (Fagraea) Gentianaceae
Melastomataceae (Axinandra) Crypteroniaceae
Memecylaceae Melastomataceae
Molluginaceae (Gisekia) Gisekiaceae
Myrsinaceae Primulaceae
Najadaceae Hydrocharitaceae
Nyctanthaceae Oleaceae
Periplocaceae Apocynaceae
Phormiaceae Xanthorrhoeaceae
342
Portulacaceae Cactaceae
Potamogetonaceae (Ruppia) Ruppiaceae
Rhizophoraceae (Anisophyllea) Anisophylleaceae
Scrophulariaceae (Adenosma, Bacopa, Dopatrium, Plantaginaceae
Limnophila, Microcarpaea, Scoparia, Stemodia)
Scrophulariaceae (Artanema,Lindernia ,Torenia) Linderniaceae
Scrophulariaceae (Calceolaria) Calceolariaceae
Scrophulariaceae (Centranthera, Pedicularis, Sopubia, Orobanchaceae
Striga)
Scrophulariaceae (Peplidium) Phrymaceae
Sonneratiaceae Lythraceae
Sterculiaceae Malvaceae
Symphoremaceae Lamiaceae
Taccaceae Dioscoreaceae
Theaceae (Adinandra,Eurya,Ternstroemia) Pentaphylacaceae
Tiliaceae Malvaceae
Trapaceae Lythraceae
Trichopodaceae Dioscoreaceae
Turneraceae (Turnera) Passifloraceae
Ulmaceae (Aphananthe , Celtis, Gironniera,Trema) Cannabaceae
Valerianaceae (Valeriana) Caprifoliaceae
Verbenaceae (Aegiphila, Clerodendrum, Glossocarya, Lamiaceae
Gmelina, Premna , Vitex )
Viscaceae Santalaceae
Zingiberaceae (Costus) Costaceae
Senaratne (2001) listed 4,143 flowering plant species in 1,522 genera belonging to 214
families. According to her 25% of these are exotics and out of the exotics 32% are naturalized.
During the preparation of this Red List the distribution data of each species were carefully
analyzed by an expert panel and only those species which were undoubtedly native were used
for evaluation. Thus, the total number of angiosperm species evaluated was 3,154. These
species are in 186 families. Of these the Poaceae (grass family) has the largest number of
species (262 species). The ten largest angiosperm families in Sri Lanka are given in Table 2.
Nearly 45% of all angiosperm species in the country are in those 10 families.
Table 2. The 10 largest angiosperm families in Sri Lanka.
Family Number of Species

Poaceae 262
Fabaceae 221
Orchidaceae 184
Rubiaceae 179
Cyperaceae 170
Acanthaceae 105
Asteraceae 86
Malvaceae 72
Melastomataceae 71
Lamiaceae 70
343
Out of 3,154 species evaluated 1,386 are threatened (critically endangered, endangered
or vulnerable). This is about 44% of the total angiosperm flora in Sri Lanka. Five species
are believed to be extinct (Table 17). These extinct species are Strobilanthes caudata
(Acanthaceae), Blumea angustifolia (Asteraceae), Crudia zeylanica (Fabaceae), Rinorea
bengalensis and Rinorea decora (Violaceae). It is alarming to note that 177 species are in the
IUCN Red List category of CR(PE) meaning that those species are possibly extinct.
Alphonsea hortensis (Annonaceae) and Doona ovalifolia (Dipterocarpaceae) are believed to

be found only in cultivation at Botanic Gardens (extinct in the wild).
Out of the 186 families evaluated, 81 families have 50% or more threatened species and in
24 families all species are threatened. These 24 families are each represented by less than
5 species and more than half of these families are represented by a single species. Only 45
families have no threatened species.
The distribution of the threatened species shows that the highest number of threatened species
are found in the wet zone districts such as Kandy, Ratnapura, Nuwara Eliya, Badulla, Galle
and Kalutara. These districts also house the largest diversity of angiosperm species (Table 3).
Data show that in Ratnapura, Kandy, Kilinochchi, Galle, Nuwara Eliya Kalutara, Kegalle, and
Matara districts over 60% of the endemic species are threatened.
Table 3. Distribution of threatened plants in different Districts in Sri Lanka.

Number of
Number of Threatened
District Total species endemic
threatened species endemic species
species
Ampara 477 94 39 17
Anuradhapura 956 236 100 47
Badulla 1129 421 246 145
Batticaloa 474 85 24 12
Colombo 652 174 111 53
Galle 1050 411 385 252
Gampaha 418 81 48 24
Hambantota 885 178 65 24
Jaffna 546 97 21 7
Kalutara 902 361 338 213
Kandy 1952 868 567 388
Kegalle 699 281 275 167
Kilinochchi 43 11 3 2
Kurunegala 825 215 128 55
Mannar 365 77 13 5
Matale 1125 344 212 111
Matara 667 261 276 165
Monaragala 766 217 108 48
Mullaitivu 86 22 7 3
Nuwara Eliya 1261 596 400 260
Polonnaruwa 645 127 52 21
Puttalam 694 117 47 13
Ratnapura 1539 739 570 397
Trincomalee 594 101 29 8
Vavuniya 218 41 9 5
344
Threats to angiosperms may range from direct causes such as habitat loss to indirect factors
such as unavailability of pollinators or dispersal agents. Whatever the causal factors there may
be, the proportion of threatened plants is exceedingly high. Therefore, the findings of the Red
List need to be paid serious attention, without delay, by all concerned.
References
Abeywickrama, B. A. 1945 The origin and affinities of the Flora of Ceylon Proc. Ann. See. Ceylon A.A.S. Part 2.
99-121 pp.
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2009. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classiﬁcation for the orders
and families of ﬂowering plants: APG III. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol 161. 105-121 pp
Gunatilleke, C. V. S. & P. S. Ashton, 1987. New light on the plant geography of Ceylon II. The ecological biogeography
of the lowland endemic tree flora. Journal of Biogeography, 14: 295–327 pp.
Dassanayake, M. D., Fosberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. (eds). 1980-2000. A Revised Handbook To The Flora of
Ceylon . Vol 1-14
Jayasuriya, A.H.M. 2007. Flora. in National Atlas of Sri Lanka, Survey Department of Sri Lanka
Lindstrom, A.J. and K.D. Hill. 2007. The genus Cycas (Cycadaceae) in India. Telopea 11(4) 463–488 pp.
Senaratne, L.K. 2001 A checklist of flowering plants of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation, Colombo. 440 p.
Thorne R. F. 2002. How many species of seed plants are there? Taxon, Vol.
51, Number 3, 1, 511-512(2)
Trimen, H. 1893-1900. The Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon., Vol. 1-5. Dalau, London
Trimen H. 1885 Remarks on the composition, geographical affinities and origin of the Ceylon flora Journal of Royal
Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch) 9.
Yakandawala, Deepthi 2006. Recent developments in angiosperm phylogeny and classification in the light of
molecular data and cladistics. J. Natn. Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka 34(4): 177-187 pp.
345
Potential Applications of the National Red List and the Way Forward
The National Red List provides the conservation status of the assessed species in a given
country at that particular time. It is also a tool that guides conservation planning in a country as it;
• provides baseline information necessary for the preparation of species profiles of

threatened species, a basis for prioritising conservation efforts and information neces-
sary for the preparation and implementation of recovery plans;
• indicates information gaps regarding specific taxa and geographic areas;
• Provides a scientific basis for the development of a country’s research agenda on
biodiversity;
• allows for objective prioritisation of funding for conservation-oriented research;
• provides a basis to analyse biodiversity hotspots that will help identify priority areas for
conservation of species and ecosystems;
• provides a scientific basis for the formulation and revision of legislation related to bio-
diversity conservation;
• provides a scientific framework for new policies and regulations related to biodiversity
conservation;
• provides information for the creation of awareness and conservation education among
different stakeholders;
• provides a sound decision-making platform for regional and local administrative bod-
ies (i.e., at provincial and town level planning ) for formulation of local development
plans; and
• provides a framework for monitoring spatial and temporal changes in biodiversity
Therefore, identifying species at risk is only the first step in species conservation. This should
be followed with a programme of activities aimed at recovering species at risk. The aim of this
chapter is to propose a set of actions that are needed along with detailed action plans in order
to achieve effective biodiversity conservation in Sri Lanka. Further, these actions are aimed
at ensuring the future sustenance of the Redlisting process, and facilitate its use towards the
conservation of threatened species in Sri Lanka.
1. Ensuring sustainability of the Redlisting process
All species are subjected to dynamic changes driven by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors.
Therefore, the conservation status of a species changes with time. Thus, it is essential that
the assessment of the conservation status of species is a continuing process. The Redlisting
of Sri Lankan biodiversity has been carried out at least five times over the past two decades.
The responsibility of the Redlisting process should lie with a government institute to ensure
transparency and reliability of the final outcome. Therefore, a Species Conservation Unit
(SCU) dedicated for constant monitoring and regular updating of the conservation status of
species and coordinate all activities related to conservation of threatened species, has been
established at the Biodiversity Secretariat (BDS) of the Ministry of Environment. The SCU
should be strengthened through relevant training and other logistic support to continue their
functions efficiently in order to ensure sustainability of the Redlisting programme of Sri Lanka.
346
Further, evaluation of the conservation status of species is based on an objective process that
requires great deal of information on species. In order to facilitate collection and analysis of such
data, a National Species Database (NSD) has been established in the BDS. The database needs
to be expanded in order to accommodate as many taxonomic groups as possible. Further, the
information on species has to be updated regularly as new information becomes available. Thus,
the NSD should be maintained and updated on a regular basis by the SCU, with inputs from
individual researchers and other institutions. In order to ensure wider use of NSD, it should be
made available to researchers and students through the Internet. However, this should be made
possible only after ensuring data safety and integrity as well as a detailed set of guidelines for
users. Researchers should be encouraged to use the database for non-commercial purposes,
analyse it to identify trends and also update the NSD with their own research findings. Such a
process could be facilitated through a formal agreement between the Ministry of Environment and
the individual researcher and/or research institute. A MOU should be developed to facilitate such
information exchange. Further, the NSD should be integrated with other relevant databases (i.e.
the national wetland database) after formulation of necessary guidelines for data sharing. Also,
an incentive/ a rewarding mechanism should be established to encourage individual researchers
to deposit publications (research papers, articles, books, monographs, thesis etc.) in the SCU
library. As a part of this exercise, a virtual library containing all published information on Sri
Lankan biodiversity should be established in the BDS. As a part of their terms of reference, the
SCU should prepare quarterly catalogues on new research outputs related to biodiversity, and
forward it to researchers. Further, the national Redlist should be updated at least every two years
based on new data that becomes available on species.
Responsible Technical
Area of focus Time Frame
Institution/s support
Expansion of the database to include taxa NASCAG, Expert
BDS (SCU) Ongoing process
that are not currently available groups
Collection of new information on taxa that are INASCAG, Expert
already listed in the database groups
Evaluation or reevaluation of species based NASCAG, Expert
on new information groups
Updating and publication of the National NASCAG, Expert
BDS (SCU) January 2015
Redlist groups
IUCN, Expert
Propose revisions to the IUCN global Redlist BDS (SCU) Ongoing process
groups
NASCAG, Expert
Ensure data safety and integrity BDS (SCU) Ongoing process
groups, NEC-Bd
Prepare guidelines to use the database BDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd June 2013
Host the database in the Worldwide Web BDS (SCU) NASCAG December 2013
Establish a network of researchers that can

BDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd December 2013
contribute to the Redlist
Publish a quarterly catalogue on research
SCU NASCAG Ongoing process
outputs related to Biodiversity of Sri Lanka
347
Establish a virtual library on Sri Lankan
BDS (SCU) NASCAG Ongoing process
Biodiversity at the Biodiversity Secretariat
Formulate guidelines for sharing and
integrating the NSD with other relevant BDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd June 2013
databases
Integrate NSD with other relevant databases BDS (SCU) NASCAG December 2013
BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, NEC-Bd - National
Experts Committee on Biodiversity
2. Linking the Red list with ongoing cross-sectoral initiatives
Although four National Red lists were published during the last two decades, these lists have
not been adequately integrated to National Policy nor have they been included into other
ongoing national conservation actions. Because of this, previous Red Lists have failed to make
a significant impact on overall conservation of species in Sri Lanka. This may be because
there was a lack of awareness among relevant line agencies about the different purposes,
significance and relevance of the National Red List and the need to integrate it into their
planning processes. It could also be a result of lack of ownership of the Red List as being a truly
national tool for conservation. Therefore, as a follow up action it is essential that awareness
is created among relevant line agencies in order to develop a framework in each of the line
agencies so that they integrate the results of the Red List into their ongoing activities. Some of
the key conservation-related activities that should be considered and the corresponding line
agencies are listed below. It is proposed that a two day residential workshop be held with the
participation of at least one high-ranking representative from each of these line agencies with
the specific aim of drafting a document including the activities to be undertaken by each of the
line agencies to implement various facets of the Red List and to develop mechanisms through
which these outcomes are achieved. This activity should to be completed by July 2013.
Area of focus Responsible Institution/s

Protected area gap analysis MOE, DWC, and FD
Habitat mapping and biodiversity baseline surveys in se-
DWC
lected protected areas of DWC
National Species Conservation Strategy MOE
Protected area management plan preparation DWC, FD, CEA
Revision of fauna and flora protection ordinance DWC
Revision of other conservation-related legislation DWC, FD, CCD, DF., DC, CEA, ID etc.
Regulation of species subjected to export trade DWC, FD, DC, DF
Conservation of crop wild relatives DA
NSF, Universities, Research Institutes Non
Funding and conducting biodiversity related research
Governmental Organizations
Conservation of medicinal species Ministry of indigenous medicine
Ex situ conservation of species with special emphasis of
establishing a captive breeding programme for threatened DBG, DZG, etc.,
species
National policy and planning Department of physical planning
348
MOE: Ministry of Environment, DWC: Department of Wildlife Conservation, FD: Forest Department, CEA: Central
Environmental Authority, CCD: Coast Conservation Department, DC: Department of Customs, DF: Department
of Fisheries, ID: Irrigation Department, DA: Department of Agriculture, NSF: National Science Foundation,
DBG: Department of Botanical Gardens, DZG: Department of Zoological Gardens
3. Update local level biodiversity profiles
The NSD contains a wealth of information that has been used to prepare the regional biodiversity
profiles to assist decision-making at a regional level. These profiles needs to be updated with
the new information that has become available during the preparation of current Red List.
Further, awareness about the Red List and its implications to local developmental planning
should also be created among local government bodies. A series of district level workshops
should be held with the participation of representatives from local government bodies with
the aim of formulating a set of local level actions to implement various facets of the Red
List results. The Biodiversity Secretariat (BDS) of the Ministry of Environment (MOE) should
organise these workshops, between the period of June to December 2013.
4. Implement programmes to recover populations of threatened species
The primary aim of assessing the conservation status of species to identify conservation actions
needed to protect these species so that natural populations can recover to a point where they
can be down-listed or de-listed after a period of time. However, a simple comparison of the
Red Lists published to date indicates that the status of most threatened species has remained
unchanged or has worsened with time and this is therefore a very serious issue. This may
be because necessary conservation measures have not been taken despite Red List data.
Therefore, it is proposed that the proposed species conservation strategy be completed as an
essential and immediate follow-up action of the Red List. As a part of the species conservation
strategy, a set of single or multi species recovery plans should be identified and developed,
and a mechanism should be devised to implement these plans, in order that as many of
the species that are listed are recovered. Thus far a single recovery programme for Puntius
bandula (Bandula pethiya) has been carried out with financial support from BDS under the
overall supervision of NASCAG. The lessons learned from this project should be documented
and incorporated in conducting future recovery programmes.
Responsible
Area of focus (links) Technical support Time Frame
Institution/s
Complete the species conservation NASCAG, NEC-Bd,
BDS (SCU) June 2013
strategy Expert groups
Identify a set of single and multi NASCAG, NEC-Bd,
BDS (SCU) June 2013
species recovery plans Expert groups
Teams identified by
Prepare recovery plans NASCAG December 2013
the BDS
Seek funds for the implementation BDS, NSF, Other
NASCAG June 2014
of recovery plans funding agencies
Relevant line Teams that prepared
Implement recovery plans June 2014
agencies the recovery plans
BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, NEC-Bd - National Experts Committee
on Biodiversity
349
5. Initiatives to conserve point endemics occurring outside PA’s
According to the NSD, a number of endemic species in Sri Lanka have highly restricted
distribution patterns, where they are known to exist only in one or a few locations. The NSD also
reveals that many such point endemics exist outside the protected area network. Therefore,
these species are at a high risk of extinction if appropriate conservation measures are not
taken. In many of these cases simply integrating these locations into the existing protected
area network may not be possible. Therefore, it will be desirable to develop other conservation
models such as community-based conservation actions where local communities and civil
society can play a major role in conserving these species. The NSD provides a platform to
identify such point endemics. Therefore, it is proposed that such point endemics that needs
immediate conservation action should be identified and management plans prepared for their
conservation.
Responsible
Area of focus (links) Technical support Time Frame
Institution/s
Identify point endemics that
BDS NASCAG June 2013
occur outside the PA network
Prepare management plans to
DWC, FD, CEA NASCAG, December 2013
conserve these point endemics
Implementation of these DWC, FD, CEA,
NASCAG January 2014
management plans NGO’s
BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, DWC - Department of Wildlife
Conservation, FD - Forest Department, CEA - Central Environment Agency, NGO - Non Governmental Agencies
6. Develop a research agenda for threatened species and initiate island-wide surveys
on biodiversity
One of the major constraints during the Redlisting process was lack of data, except for their
distribution, on most of the evaluated taxa. Even baseline data, particularly for invertebrates,
is not available for several key ecosystems in Sri Lanka. The BDS over the past few years
has provided seed grants to researchers to conduct investigations on threatened species as
well as critical ecosystems that have lead to a wealth of new information. However, BDS does
not have the capacity to sustain such research at a large scale due to limited amount of funds
available at its disposal. Therefore, a sustainable funding mechanism to support such research
initiatives should be established in collaboration with funding agencies such as National Science
Foundation and National Research Council. Therefore, it is essential that a research agenda is
developed to fill these gaps. Further, national expertise on many invertebrate and lower plant
taxa is inadequate due to lack of trained personnel. Therefore, investment in capacity building
in areas where expertise is lacking or weak is also a timely need. BDA have held a series of
workshops on such lower taxa as well as produced communication tools to popularize study
of such taxa. These activities needs to be continued and expanded to other areas of Sri Lanka
with the aim of establishing regional groups using the university network as hubs. Another
constraint faced during redlisting is the inability to assess temporal changes for most species
as data has not been gathered using standard procedures. The following set of activities is
proposed to overcome these limitations.
350
Responsible
Area of focus Technical support Time Frame
Institution/s
Develop a research agenda for

BDS, NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG June 2013
biodiversity related work
Award research contracts to
NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG December 2013
implement the research agenda
Develop guidelines for a
standard, methodological
NSF, BDS NASCAG June 2013
approach for conducting
biodiversity-related research
Conduct a series of workshops to
create awareness about research
NSF, BDS NASCAG August 2013
gaps as well as use of standard
methods for data collection
Conduct a series of workshops to
develop capacity for research on BDS and NSF NASCAG December 2013
lower taxa
Initiate baseline biodiversity

NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG January 2014
surveys in selected sites
BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, DWC - Department of
Wildlife Conservation, FD - Forest Department, CEA - Central Environment Agency, NGO - Non Governmental
Agencies
7. Assess status of infra-species variations for useful species
Even though the species is considered as the unit of conservation, there are number of taxa
that show much infra species variation. In such cases, it may be prudent to plan conservation
action at an infra species level in order to ensure conservation of genetic diversity. Therefore,
an attempt should be made to document the diversity below the species level, especially for
agro-biodiversity, given that that several indigenous crops and livestock varieties and their wild
relatives have lost their genetic variability in the recent past.
Responsible
Area of focus Technical support Time Frame
Institution/s
Prepare checklists of crop

Department of
varieties and their wild relatives Crop Wild Relatives Project June 2013
Agriculture
that should be conserved
Prepare checklists of livestock
varieties and their wild relatives Department of Livestock Indigenous Livestock Project June 2013
that should be conserved
Identify indigenous species that
Individual experts on such
show appreciable infra species BDS December 2013
taxa
variability
Identify a set of actions needed
Individual experts on such
to conserve such infra species BDS December 2013
taxa
variation
BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat
351
These actions are necessary to ensure long term conservation of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity. The
SCU based at the biodiversity secretariat will act as the coordinating body to initiate these
actions. However, as can be seen, successful completion of these tasks will require great deal
of inter-agency cooperation without which conservation of the biodiversity of Sri Lanka will
indubitably fail.
The future of the species diversity of Sri Lanka lies in gathering solid scientific baseline data,
analysing these data using the best possible methods, identifying gaps and priorities based
on these scientific foundations and developing conservation action plans from the information
gathered. It is essential that these efforts are buttressed by conservation education that
creates awareness not only about the threats facing species and their current status, but also
about the role each stakeholder can play in the conservation of Sri Lanka’s flora and fauna. It
is only when such a holistic and scientifically-based effort is made that engages and involves
all stakeholders that conservation will move from being rhetoric to effective action. In such an
effort, Redlisting is pivotal as a scientific tool that facilitates conservation.
352
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369
Provisional Checklist of Sea Urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri Lanka
Sevvanadi Jayakody
University of Wayaba
Introduction
One of the most important groups of phylum Echinodermata is commonly known as Sea
urchins which belong to the class Echinoidea. They are exclusively marine and occupy
habitats from the intertidal zones to depths of more than 5000m and also from the equator
to southern and northern poles. All extant Sea urchins are divided into two major groups, the
regular echinoides (globose test and pentameral symmetry commonly known as sea urchins)
and irregular echinoides (heart urchins and sand dollars).
The echinoderms of the Indian Ocean are known since ancient times. This is mainly due to
various expeditions such as Challenger expedition (1873-1874), Deutchen Tiefsee expedition
(1902-1903), Percy Sladen Trust expedition (1904), John Murray expedition (1933-1934),
Swedish Deep Sea expedition (1947-1948) and the Danish Deep Sea expedition (1961-1965).
But some of the literature available relates to the “Indian Ocean” or in connection with the Gulf
of Mannar making it difficult to work out the exact Sri Lankan echinoderm diversity.
The echinoderm fauna of island of Sri Lanka was first recorded by Bell (1887) and several
other studies conducted during the early part of the 20th century, notably by Herdman et al.,
(1904), Clark (1915) and the monographs compiled by Mortensen (1928, 1935, 1940, 1943).
Herdmen (1904) in his report to then Government of Ceylon on the pearl oyster fisheries, has
recorded 109 echinoids including 30 species of Holothuroidea, 13 species of Crinoidea, 28
species of Echinoidea, 24 species of Asteroiedea and 14 species of Ophiuroidea. Clark (1915)
has also recorded 14 regular sea urchins.
Since then little work has been done on sea urchins for several decades. In recent years,
work done by Malik Fernando, Prassana Weerakkody, S. Jayakody and R.M.G.N. Thilakaratne
has resulted in addition of few new species to the list of sea urchins in Sri Lanka as well as
re-establishing presence of some species listed in the checklist of Clark and Rowe (1971).
Currently, 28 species of sea urchins are recognized from the coast of Sri Lanka. Identification
now relies on Echinoid Directory, an online key adopted by British Natural History Museum, UK
and a monograph by Clark and Rowe (1971).
Out of the 28 recognised species in Sri Lanka, only a single species, Heterocentrotus
mammillatus (Slate Pencil urchin) is listed as protected in the Flora and Fauna Protection
Ordinance (2007). The species is commercially exploited and are exported for ornamental
trade. The lack of population data and also scanty information available for regulatory bodies
to identify them has allowed the unregulated exploitation of sea urchins.
As in the case of other marine species, a vast amount of work is pending with regard to Sea
Urchins. Therefore, to encourage future research into echinoides the following recommendations
are made:
370
1. Establishment of a national echinoide collection and relevant literature
2. Studies to determine the role played by echinoides in the coastal ecosystems
3. Training young researchers and institutions on species collection and identification
4. Strengthening the capacity of relevant institutions working on marine research
5. Development of a species identification guide to popularize the study of sea urchins as
well as for the use of regulatory bodies
6. Development and implementation of detailed studies that would furnish information
necessary to conduct conservation status assessment of the sea urchins in the future
References
Alvarado, J. J. & Cortes, J., (2009). “Echinoderms.” Monographiae Biologicae, 86, pp.421-433.
Clark, H. C., (1915). The Echinoderms of Ceylon other than Holothurians. Spolia Zeylanica, X, pp.83-102.
Clark, A. M. & Rowe, F. W. E., (1971). Monograph of shallow-water Indo-West Pacific echinoderms, i-vii. London:
Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History).
Herdman, W. A., Herdman, J. B. & Bell, F. J., (1904). Report by the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster
fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. Supplementary Reports No X on the Echinodermes.
Jayakody, S., Thilakaratne, R. M. G. N. & Amerasinghe, M. D., (in press). A study on diversity and population status
of sea urchins in relation to their habitat characteristics and anthropogenic disturbance. (RG/2006/MS/03)
Mortensen, T., (1928). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Voloum I. Cidaroidea. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel,.
Mortensen, T., (1935). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Volume ii, Bothriocidaroida, Melonechinoida, Lepidocentroida
and Stirodonta. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel.
Mortensen, T., (1940). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Volume iii. 1, Aulodonta. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel,.
Mortensen, T., (1943). A monograph of the Echinoidea iii2. Camarodonta 1. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel.
Smith, A. B., (1984). Classification of the Echinodermata. Paleontollogy, 2(3), pp.431-439.
Thilakaratne, R. M. G. N., Jayakody, S., (2008). A study on identification and distribution of sea urchins (Phylum:
Echinodermata, Class; Echinoidea) in coastal zone of Sri Lanka. In: The Student Conference on Conservation
Science (SCCS). 9th Student conference on conservation science. University of Cambridge, UK, March 25 - 27,
2008, UK: University of Cambridge, (Proceedings) pp.57.
Thilakarathna, R.M.G.N., Jayakody, S. and Amarasinghe M.D. (2010) Fluctuations of sea urchins (Class: Echnoidea)
in Hikkaduwa (protected but highly disturbed) and Ahangama (unprotected and less disturbed) in Sri Lanka with
macro algae cover. In: The Student Conference on Conservation Science (SCCS). 11th Student conference on
conservation science. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, 14-16 September 2011, UK: University of
Cambridge, (Proceedings).
Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. ed., (2006). The fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation.
Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka.
In addition following documents were also used
Recent records by Malik Fernando *, Prasanna Weerakkody** and Gayani Thilakaratne and Sevvandi
Jayakody ***, MA Gayashan and Sevvandi Jayakody****
NR = new record
$ = exported ornamental species
P = protected
Summarized from A.M. Clark & F.W.E. Rowe (1971) Monograph of shallow-water
Indo-west Pacific Echinoderms with recent additions to this list and observations.
** Recent records by Malik Fernando * Recent records by Prasanna Weerakkody
(Ophiuroidea) , ***Recent records by S. Jayakody & RMGN Thilakaratne. NR = new record;
$ = exported ornamental species; P = protected
371
Provisional checklist of regular and irregular echinoids of Sri Lankan shallow coastal areas
The checklist given below has been compiled using the documented literature of listed publications.
Where appropriate information on current density calculations have also been given with the location.
Class Echinoidea Family Echinoneidae

Echinoneus cyclostomus **
Family Cidaridae
Echinoneus abnormalis **NR
Eucidaris metularia
Phyllacanthus imperialis Family Clypeasteridae
Prionocidaris baculosa ?**5 Clypeaster fervens
Prionocidaris bispinosa Clypeaster humilis **
Clypeaster rarispinus **
Family Echinothuriidae Clypeaster reticulatus **
Asthenosoma varium
Asthenosoma intermedium ?**NR$6 Family Fibulariidae
Fibularia cribellum (?)
Family Diadematidae Fibularia oblonga (?)
Astropyga radiata **$ Fibularia volva (?)
Diadema savignyi **
Diadema setosum ** Family Laganidae
Echinothrix diadema ** Laganum depressum **
Echinothrix calamaris*** Peronella lesueuri
Peronella macroproctes **
Family Stomopneustidae Peronella oblonga
Stomopneustes variolaris **$
Family Scutellidae
Family Temnopleuridae Echinodiscus auritus **
Echinodiscus bisperforatus **
Microcyphus ceylanicus **
Salmaciella dussumieri*** Family Echinolampadidae
Salmacis bicolor **$ Echinolampas alexandri
Salmacis virgulata **$**** Echinolampas ovata **
Salmacis belli ***
Salmacis toreumaticus Family Spatangidae
Temnotrema siamense Maretia planulata
Pseudomaretia alta
Family Toxopneustidae
Gymnechinus robillardi Family Loveniidae
Pseudoboletia indiana Lovenia elongata **
Pseudoboletia maculata **$
Family Schizasteridae
Toxopneustes pileolus **$***
Paraster gibberulus **
Tripneustes gratilla **
Prymnaster ? investigatoris **NR
Family Echinometridae
Family Brissidae
Colobocentrotus atratus
Brissus latecarinatus **
Echinometra mathaei **$ (both brown and ash colour
Metalia latissima
morphs)
Metalia sternalis **
Echinostrephus molaris **
Metalia dicrana **NR
Heterocentrotus mammillatus **P
Rhynobrissus pyramidalis
372
Provisional Checklist of Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea & Holothuroidea
Malik Fernando
NR= New Record Class: Ophiuroidea
Class: Crinoidea Family Ophiomixidae
Family Comasteridae 1. Ophiomyxa australis
2. Ophiomyxa compactaNR
1. Capillaster macrobrachiusNR
2. Capillaster multiradiatus Family Gorgonocephalidae
3. Capillaster sentosus 3. Astroboa clavata

4. Comanthina schlegeli
Family Ophiacanthidae
5. Comanthus parvicirrus 4. Ophiacantha indica
6. Comanthus samoanus
7. Comatella maculata Family Amphiuridae
5. Amphioplus depressus
8. Comatella stelligera
6. Amphiura luetkeni
9. Comatula pectinata (?)
Family Ophiactidae
Family Zygometridae 7. Ophiactis savignyi

10. Zygometra andromeda(?)
Family Ophiotrichidae
8. Gymnolophus obscura
Family Himerometridae 9. Macrophiothrix aspidota
11. Amphimetra ensifera 10. Macrophiothrix hirsuta(?)
11. Macrophiothrix longipeda
12. Amphimetra tessellataNR 12. Macrophiothrix variabilis
13. Heterometra amboninae 13. Ophiocnemis marmorata
14. Heterometra bengalensis 14. Ophiogymna elegans
15. Heterometra reynaudi 15. Ophiomaza cacaotica
16. Ophiopteron elegans
16. Himerometra persicaNR 17. Ophiothrix exigua
17. Himerometra robustipinna 18. Ophiothrix foveolata
19. Ophiothrix trilineata
20. Ophiothrix proteus
Family Mariametridae
21. Ophiothrix purpurea
18. Dichrometra sp. NR 22. Ophiothrix nereidina
19. Lamprometra palmata
20. Oxymetra finschi Family Ophiocomidae
23. Ophiarthrum elegans
21. Stephanometra echinus (?)
24. Ophiocoma brevipes
22. Stephanometra indica (?) 25. Ophiocoma dentataNR
23. Stephanometra spicata 26. Ophiocoma erinaceus
24. Stephanometra tenuipinna 27. Ophiocoma pica
28. Ophiocoma scolopendrina

29. Ophiocomella sexradia
Family Colobometridae 30. Ophiomastix annulosa
25. Cenometra herdmani
26. Decametra modica Family Ophionereidae
31. Ophionereis dubia
27. Decametra taprobanes
32. Ophionereis porrecta
28. Oligometra serripinna
Family Ophiodermatidae
Family Tropiometridae 33. Cryptopelta grannulifera
34. Ophiarachna incrassata
29. Tropiometra carinata 35. Ophiarachnella gorgonia
36. Ophiarachnella macranthaNR
Family Antedonidae 37. Ophiarachnella septemspinosa
38. Ophiarachnella sphenisci
30. Mastigometra micropoda
39. Ophiochaeta hoeschmaiNR
40. Ophiopeza fallax
41. Ophiopeza spinosaNR
373
Family Ophiuridae 31. Stichopus naso
42. Ophiolepis cincta 32. Stichopus variegatus
43. Ophiolepis rugosa 33. Thelenota ananas
44. Ophiolepis superba 34. Thelenota anax
45. Ophioplocus imbricatus
46. Ophiura kinbergi Family Psolidae
35. Psolus complanatus
Class : Holothuroidea
Family Cucumariidae
Family Holothuriidae 36. Havelockia herdmani
1. Actinopyga echinites 37. Havelockia versicolor
2. Actinopyga lecanora 38. Hemithyone semperi
3. Actinopyga maunliana 39. Pentacta armatus
4. Actinopyga miliaris 40. Pentacta quadrangularis
5. Actinopyga serratidens 41. Pseudocolochirus tricolor
6. Bohadschia argus 42. Pseudocolochirus violaceus
7. Bohadschia marmorata 43. Staurothyone rosacea
8. Bohadschia tenuissima 44. Stolus buccalis
9. Bohadschia vitiensis 45. Stolus conjugens
10 Colochirus robustus 46. Thyone papuensis
11. Holothuria (Halodeima) atra 47. Trachythyone imbricata
12. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis 48. Trachythyone typica
13. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) glandifera
14. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea Family Phyllophoridae
15. Holothuria fuscogilva 49. Actinocucumis typicus
16. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota 50. Ohshimella ehrenbergi
17. Holothuria pardalis 51. Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) parvipedes
18. Holothuria (Mertensiothuna) pervicax 52. Phyllophorus (Phyllothuria) cebuensis
19. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) scabra 53. Phyllophorus (Urodemella) brocki
20. Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis
21. Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis Family Caudinidae
22. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus 54. Acaudina molpadiodes
23. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii
24. Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens Family Synaptidae
25. Holothuria (Semperothuria) imitans 55. Opheodesoma grisea
26. Holothuna (Theelothuria) kurti 56. Synapta maculata
27. Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera 57. Synaptula recta
28. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla 58. Synaptula striata
29. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens
Family Chirotidae
Family Stichopodidae 59. Polycheira rufescens
30. Stichopus chioronotus
Clark, A.M. & F.W.E. Rowe. 1971. Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific Echinoderms. British Museum
(Natural History). 3-26.
Fernando, Malik. 2006. Coral Associated Invertebrates: An Overview of the Current Taxonomic Status. In
Bambaradeniya, Channa N. B. Ed. The Fauna of Sri Lanka, Section 3: Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka
(2006), IUCN – The World Conservation Union. 259-273.
Weerakkody, Prasanna. 1998. Observations on some shallow-water Brittlestars (Ophiuroidea) from the south and
south-western coasts; with notes on field identification of the observed species. Sri Lanka Naturalist II(3): 22-
30.
Perera, E. N. R. & P. Weerakkody. 2004. A Biodiversity Status Profile of subtidal and intertidal habitats of the
Rekawa, Ussangoda and Kalametiya area. Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No. 5, March 2004. IUCN -
The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka Country Office, Colombo.
Blue Zoo Aquatics. 2011.
Dissanayake, D.C.T. and Wijayaratne M.J.S. 2007. Studies on the sea cucumber fishery in the North Western
coastal region of Sri Lanka.
Elanganayagam, Padmini. 1983. Study on ecology and some aspects on biology of Sri Lankan holothurians.
Fernando, Malik. 2006. Coral Associated Invertebrates: An Overview of the Current Taxonomic Status. In
Bambaradeniya, Channa N. B. Ed. The Fauna of Sri Lanka, Section 3: Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka
(2006), IUCN – The World Conservation Union. 259-273.
374
Provisional checklist of soft corals recorded in Sri Lanka
S. Krishnaraja
The Open University of Sri Lanka
Species Lobophytum crebriplicatum Von Marenzeller, 1886

Lobophytum critigalli Von Marenzeller, 1886
Family: Alcyoniidae Lobophytum delectum Tixier-Durivault, 1966
Sinularia brassica May, 1898 Lobophytum michaelae Tixier-Durivault, 1966
Sinularia dura (Pratt, 1903) Lobophytum ransoni Tixier-Durivault, 1959
Sinularia erecta Tixier-Durivault, 1945 Lobophytum packeli Tixier-Durivault, 1956
Sinularia firma Tixier-Durivault, 1970 Sarcophyton acutangulam Tixier-Durivault, 1966
Sinularia grandilobata Verseveldt, 19 Sarcophyton crassoc Moser, 1919
Sinularia granosa Tixier-Durivault, 1970 Sarcophyton crassum Tixier-Durivault, 1946
Sinularia leptoclados(Ehrenberg, 1834 ) Sarcophyton ehrenbergi Von Marenzeller, 1886
Sinularia lochmodos kolonko, 1926 Sarcophyton latum(Dana, 1846)
Sinularia macropodia Hickson & Hites, 1900 Sarcophyton trocheliophorum Von Marenzeller,
Sinularia microspiculata Tixier-Durivault, 1970 1886
Sinularia minima Verseveldt, 1971
Sinularia polydactyla Ehrenberg, 1834 Family: Nephtheidae
Sinularia imbrilobata Verseveldt, 1974 Dendronephthya gigantia(Verrill, 1864)
Cladiella humsi Verseveldt, 1974 Sterionephthya costatocyania Burchardt, 1898
Cladiella spp. Tortus pacilloporaformis
Cladiella subtilis Tixier-Durivault, 1970
Lobophytum altum Tixier-Durivault, 1956
Family: Xeriidae
Lobophytum compactum Tixier-Durivault, 1956
Xenia spp.
Lobophytum crassum Von Marenzeller, 1886
Reference
K. D. Arudpragasam & S. Krishnaraja. 1983. Taxonomy and Distribution of Soft Corals in Sri Lanka, NSF Report.
375
Provisional Checklist of Corals in Sri Lanka
Arjan Rajasuriya
National Aquatic Resources & Research Development Agency
Historical background
The descriptions of hard corals from Sri Lanka dates back to the 19th century (Dana, 1846;
Edwards & Haime. 1860; Ridley. 1883; Ortmann 1889; Rehberg. 1892; Brook, 1892). Bourne
(1905) described corals collected by Herdmann from Pearl Banks in the Gulf of Mannar.
Thereafter, Pillai (1972) recorded 90 species of hard corals belonging to 39 genera. The
physiographic zonation and ecological aspects of reefs at Hikkaduwa and Negombo was
described by Mergner and Scheer (1974) and Arudpragasam (1984) respectively. Based
on previous records and collections from Hikkaduwa, Scheer (1984) recorded 40 species
of hermatypic (zooxanthellate) corals. De Silva and Rajasuriya (1985, 1986 and 1987) and
Rajasuriya & De Silva (1988) identified 64 species of hermatypic corals in 15 genera that
had not been previously recorded for Sri Lanka and from specimens collected during surveys
carried out by the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Thereafter
Rajasuriya (1987, 1994, 2007a and 2007b) has listed 15 new species from Sri Lanka. Veron
(2000) described three species of hermatypic corals occurring in the southern coast of Sri
Lanka of which two are new to science. The current checklist of hard coral species for Sri
Lanka contains 208 species in 71 genera divided among 19 families.
Taxonomy
The taxonomic status of some hard coral species recorded for Sri Lanka has changed since
the checklist of hard corals for Sri Lanka was published by Rajasuriya & De Silva (1988). Three
genera; Euphyllia, Catalaphyllia and Plerogyra previously included in the family Caryophyllidae
has been placed in a new Family, Euphyllidae by Veron (2000). Fungiacyathus stephana that
was previously included in the family Fungiidae is now listed under the family Fungiacyathidae.
In a revision of the ‘Staghorn Corals of the World’, Wallace (1999) renamed Acropora formosa
as Acropora muricata citing the original description of the species. However, Veron (2000)
in ‘Corals of the World’ has retained Acropora formosa as the valid name for this species.
However, this species is listed as Acropora muricata in the present checklist of stony corals
for Sri Lanka.
Distribution of Corals and reef habitats in Sri Lanka
Most Hard Corals exhibit a wide distribution within the Asian region. However, Veron (2000)
has described two new species of hard coral from Sri Lanka; Podabacea lankaensis (Family:
Fungiidae) and Echinopora robusta (Family: Faviidae) that have not been reported from
elsewhere to date. However, further investigations in the region are necessary to confirm
whether these two species are endemic to Sri Lanka. Reef surveys carried out by the National
Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency indicate that the rarest species
recorded to date is Blastomussa merleti which was collected at Unawatuna in late 1980s. This
species has not been reported from any other location in Sri Lanka.
376
Extensive coral growth is limited to a depth of about 12 meters in Sri Lanka due to the turbidity
that exist in coastal waters. The Gulf of Mannar has the most extensive shallow coral reefs
in Sri Lanka (Swan 1983; Rajasuriya & De Silva, 1988). Fringing coral reefs are common in
the northern, eastern and southern coastal waters. A few offshore patch reefs are found in
the western coast between Chilaw and Colombo that are located ca. 10 to 20 kilometers from
the shore line and at an average depth of 20 meters. Sandstone and rock reef habitats are
widespread on the continental shelf. Generally, the hard coral cover is low on these substrates
compared to extensive coral habitats (Rajasuriya & De Silva, 1988; Rajasuriya, Ohman &
Johnstone, 1998; Rajasuriya, Ohman & Svensson, 1998). However, in some areas the diversity
of hard corals is higher on sandstone reef habitats than on extensive coral habitats. Extensive
hard coral reefs tend to be dominated by a few species belonging to branching and tabulate
Acropora species, Echinopora lamellosa or foliose Montipora species and massive corals of
the families, Faviidae and Poritidae.
Threats
The major widespread threat to corals is from climate change. In 1998 large extents of shallow
water corals became bleached and many reefs were damaged extensively. Their recovery
is variable and even within a single reef area such as the Bar Reef individual patch reefs
has shown different levels of recovery (Rajasuriya 2005, 2008). Coral bleaching with some
regularity has been observed recently, especially on reefs in the east and north. In 2010 there
was severe bleaching of the coral reefs in the Pigeon Island National Park and Dutch Bay in
Trincomalee. These reefs are heavily degraded and have not shown good signs of recovery.
However such bleaching events appear to be localized as some fringing reefs at Kutchchaveli
located north of Trincomalee was not bleached during the same period. Crown of Thorns
starfish populations dwindled after the 1998 large scale coral bleaching, but an increase in
their numbers has been observed recently in Trincomalee.
The 2004 Tsunami caused serious damage to some coral reefs mainly in the eastern and
southern region. This physical damage still remains and combined with other forms of impacts
including coral bleaching and human induced damage continue to degrade the quality of
coral reefs. The use of destructive fishing methods including blast fishing is still widespread,
especially in the eastern and northwestern coastal waters. Over harvesting of species such
as herbivorous reef fish, the Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) that feed on juvenile
Crown of Thorns starfish and many other species that are important for the maintenance of the
ecological balance of coral reefs continue to take place. Pollution from coastal development
and industries has affected all near shore reefs in Colombo and reefs in the vicinity of major
cities in the southern coast. Unplanned development of tourist facilities along the coast has
caused beach pollution and contributed to the damage of near shore reefs due to expansion
of tourism related activities beyond the carrying capacity of an area and through direct impacts
such as trampling of corals by visitors. Most of the damage is caused by Sri Lankan visitors
who disregard the advice given to them by local authorities.
377
Conservation
All species of hard corals are protected in Sri Lanka through the Fauna and Flora Protection Act
by the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Corals and reef habitats are also protected under
the Coast Conservation Act, but are limited to the coastal zone, which is a two kilometer wide
strip of coastal water around the country. Four marine protected areas have been established
to date under the Department of Wildlife Conservation, namely Hikkaduwa Marine National
Park, Pigeon Island Marine National Park, Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary and Rumassala Marine
Sanctuary. Due to inadequate implementation of wildlife and fisheries regulations there is little
protection given to reef habitats, even within the marine protected areas.
The creation of special management areas under the Coastal Zone Management Plan has
led to the development of management plans for the Hikkaduwa Marine National Park and the
Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary. However, most of the recommendations for the protection of coral
reefs in these two areas have not been implemented.
Recommendations
Individual species of hard corals can best be protected by protecting entire reef habitats.
Species based conservation will only be successful in localities where a rare species is found.
Corals release gametes into the water and coral larvae travel widely in ocean currents and
settle on suitable substrates. Therefore, protection of entire reef habitats is the only method to
ensure the protection of corals in Sri Lanka.
Although there are several management plans for coral reef areas and despite the fact that
corals have been given legal protection under the Fauna and Flora Protection Act, both coral
reefs and corals receive little protection in the natural environment.
References
Arudpragasam, K. D. 1984. Ecology of Rocky Shores and Estuaries of Sri Lanka. In Ecology and Biogeography in
Sri Lanka (ed C. H. Fernando): Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague.
Bourne C. G. 1905. Report on solitary corals collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rept. Govt. Ceylon
Pearl Oyster Fish. Gulf of Mannar (Suppl.) 29: 187 - 242.
De Silva M. W. R. N., & Rajasuriya A. 1985. Checklist of stony corals for Sri Lanka with ecological notes on new
records. 41st Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Colombo.
De Silva M. W. R. N., & Rajasuriya A. 1986. Geographical extension of the range of the Fungid coral genus
Zoopilus Dana, 1846 to the Indian Ocean. 42nd Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the
Advancement of Science. Colombo.
Mergner, H. & Scheer, G. 1974. The physiographic zonation and the ecological conditions of some South Indian and
Ceylon reefs. pp. 3 - 30 Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane, Australia.
NARA, CORDIO/IUCN/GCRMN, & SLSAC. 2005. Rapid assessment of tsunami damage to coral reefs in Sri Lanka.
Interim report No. 1.: NARA/CORDIO/IUCN. 9.
Ortmann A. 1889. Beobachtungen an Steinkorallen von der Sudkuste Ceylons. Zool. Jahrb. (Syst.) 4: 493 - 590.
Pillai C. S. G. 1972. Stony corals of the seas around India. Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs, 191 - 216.
Rajasuriya A. & De Silva, M. W. R. N. 1987. Two Genera and five Species of Hermatypic Corals New to Sri Lanka.
43rd Scientific Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science,. Colombo: Sri Lanka
Association for the Advancement of Science.
Rajasuriya, A. & De Silva, M. W. R. N. 1988. Stony Corals of the Fringing Reefs of the Western, Southwestern and
Southern Coasts of Sri Lanka. In Proc 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, pp. 287-296. Australia.
378
Rajasuriya A. 1994. Three genera and twelve species of stony corals new to Sri Lanka. Second Annual Scientific
Sessions of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Rajasuriya A. 2005. Status of coral reefs in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the 1998 coral bleaching event and 2004
tsunami. In: Souter D and Linden O, eds. Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean: Status Report 2005.
University of Kalmar, Sweden: CORDIO, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of
Kalmar, Sweden. 83 - 96.
Rajasuriya A. 2007. Coral reefs in the Palk Strait and Palk Bay in 2005. J. Nat. Aquat. Resour. Res. Dev. Agency
38 (2007): 77 - 86.
Rajasuriya A. 2007a. Leptoseris gardineri (Agariciidae) and Merulina ampliata (Merulinidae): two species of
hermatypic corals, new records for Sri Lanka. (Abs.) Scientific Sessions at the 25th Anniversary of the National
Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Colombo.
Rajasuriya A. 2007b. A revised and updated checklist of stony corals which includes eight species new to Sri Lanka.
(Abs.) 13th Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
Colombo: Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
Rajasuriya A. 2008. Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern, Western and Southern Coastal Waters of Sri Lanka. In:
Obura D, Tamelander J and Linden O, eds. Ten Years after bleaching - facing the consequences of climate
change in the Indian Ocean. CORDIO Status Report 2008. Mombasa: CORDIO/Sida - SAREC. 11 - 22.
Rajasuriya A, and De Silva M. W. R. N. 1988. Stony Corals of the Fringing Reefs of the Western, Southwestern and
Southern Coasts of Sri Lanka. Proc 6th International Coral Reef Symposium. Australia, 287-296.
Rajasuriya A, Ohman M. C., and Johnstone R. 1998. Coral and sandstone reef habitats in northwestern Sri Lanka:
patterns in the distribution of coral communities. Hydrobiologia 362: 31-43.
Rajasuriya A, Ohman M. C, and Svensson S. 1998. Coral and Rock Reef Habitats in Southern Sri Lanka: Patterns
in the Distribution of Coral Communities. AMBIO 27: 8: 723-728.
Ridley S. O. 1883. The coral faunas of Ceylon with descriptions of new species. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 11: 250-262.
Scheer G. 1984. The distribution of reef corals in the Indian Ocean with a historical review of its investigation. Deep
Sea Research 31: 885 - 900.
Swan B. 1983. An introduction to the Coastal Geomorphology of Sri Lanka. National Museums of Sri Lanka,
Colombo.
Veron, J. E. N. 2000. Corals of the World. Townsville, QLD. Australia.: Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Wallace, C. 1999. Staghorn Corals of the World: a revision of the coral genus Acropora. Collingwood, Australia:
CSIRO
379
Checklist of corals recorded for Sri Lanka
Species Montipora millepora Crossland, 1952

Montipora monasteriata (Forskal, 1775)
Family: Acroporidae Montipora undata Bernard, 1897
Acropora aculeus (Dana, 1846) Montipora verrucosa (Lamarck, 1816)
Acropora anthocercis (Brook, 1893) Astreopora gracilis Bernard, 1896
Acropora ceylonica (Ortmann, 1889) Anacropora forbesi Ridley, 1884
Acropora clathrata (Brook, 1891) Family: Astrocoeniidae
Acropora cytherea (Dana, 1846) Stylocoeniella guentheri Basset-Smith, 1890
Acropora danai (Edwards & Haime, 1860) Family: Agariciidae
Acropora divaricata (Dana, 1846) Gardineroseris planulata (Dana, 1846)
Acropora elegantula (Ortmann, 1889) Pavona clavus (Dana, 1846)
Acropora hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834) Pavona decussata (Dana, 1846)
Acropora humilis (Dana, 1846) Pavona divaricata (Lamarck, 1816)
Acropora hyacinthus (Dana, 1846) Pavona duerdeni Vaughan, 1907
Acropora lamarcki Veron, 2000 Pavona explanulata (Lamarck, 1816)
Acropora lianae Nemenzo, 1967 Pavona minuta Wells, 1954
Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834) Pavona varians Verrill, 1864
Acropora microphthalma (Verrill, 1869) Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg, 1834)
Acropora multiformis (Ortmann, 1889) Pavona maldivensis (Gardiner, 1905)
Acropora muricata (Dana, 1846) Leptoseris explanata Yabe & Sugiyama, 1941
Acropora natalensis Riegl, 1995 Leptoseris gardineri Horst, 1921
Acropora nasuta (Dana, 1846) Leptoseris hawaiiensis Vaughan, 1907
Acropora nobilis (Dana, 1846) Leptoseris papyracea (Dana, 1846)
Acropora orbicularis Brook, 1892 Leptoseris mycetoseroides Wells, 1954
Acropora pinguis Wells, 1950 Leptoseris scabra Vaughan, 1907
Acropora robusta (Dana, 1846) Pachyseris rugosa (Lamarck, 1801)
Acropora rudis (Rehberg, 1892) Pachyseris speciosa (Dana, 1846)
Acropora russelli Wallace, 1994 Family: Caryophyllidae
Acropora samoensis (Brook, 1891) Deltocyathus rotulus (Alcock, 1898)
Acropora scherzeriana (Bruggemann, 1877) Paracyathus stokesi (Milne Edwards and Haime,
Acropora secale (Studer, 1878) 1848)
Acropora selago (Studer, 1878) Paracyathus striatus (Philippi, 1842)
Acropora seriata (Ehrenberg, 1834) Heterocyathus aequicostatus Milne Edwards &
Acropora solitaryensis Veron & Wallace, 1984 Haime,
1848
Acropora tenuis (Dana, 1846)
Tropidocyathus herdmani (Bourne, 1905)
Acropora valenciennesi (Milne, Edwards & Haime,
1860) Family: Dendrophylliidae
Acropora verweyi Veron & Wallace, 1984 Balanophyllia imperialis (Kent, 1871)
Acropora yongei Veron & Wallace, 1984 Balanophyllia affinis (Semper, 1872)
Montipora aequituberculata Bernard, 1897 Balanophyllia parallela (Semper, 1872)
Montipora danae (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1851) Balanophyllia taprobanae (Bourne, 1905)
Montipora digitata (Dana, 1846) Balanophyllia cumingii (Milne, Edwards & Haime,
1848)
Montipora exserta (Quelch, 1886)
Psammoseris sulcata (Verrill, 1866)
Montipora effusa Dana, 1846
Heteropsammia cochlea (Spengler, 1781)
Montipora foliosa (Pallas, 1766)
Tubastrea aurea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
Montipora friabilis Bernard, 1897
380
Tubastrea micrantha Ehrenberg, 1834 Cyphastrea chalcidicum (Forskal, 1775)
Dendrophyllia gracilis (Milne, Edwards & Haime, Cyphastrea serailia (Forskal, 1775)
1848)
Echinopora lamellosa (Esper, 1795)
Dendrophyllia minuscula (Bourne, 1905)
Echinopora robusta Veron, 2000
Dendrophyllia robusta (Bourne, 1905)
Oulophyllia crispa (Lamarck, 1816)
Turbinaria peltata (Esper, 1794)
Family: Flabellidae
Turbinaria mesenterina Lamarck, 1816
Flabellum stokesi Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848
Turbinaria quincuncialis (Ortmann, 1889)
Placotrochus laevis Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848
Family: Euphyllidae
Family: Fungiidae
Euphyllia glabrescens (Chamisso & Eysenhardt,
1821) Cycloseris costulata (Ortmann, 1889)
Euphyllia divisa Veron & Pichon, 1980 Cycloseris cyclolites (Lamarck, 1801)
Euphyllia ancora Veron & Pichon, 1980 Cycloseris hexagonalis (Milne Edwards & Haime,
1848)
Catalaphyllia jardinei (Saville - Kent, 1893)
Cycloseris patelliformis (Boschma, 1923)
Plerogyra sinuosa (Dana, 1846)
Diaseris distorta (Michelin, 1843)
Family: Faviidae
Diaseris fragilis Alcock, 1893
Favia danae Verrill, 1872
Ctenactis echinata (Pallas, 1766)
Favia favus (Forskal, 1775)
Fungia danai Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851
Favia matthaii Vaughan, 1918
Fungia fungites (Linnaeus, 1758)
Favia maxima Veron & Pichon,1977
Fungia repanda Dana, 1846
Favia pallida (Dana, 1846)
Fungia moluccensis Horst, 1919
Favia speciosa Dana, 1846
Fungia paumotensis Stutchbury, 1833
Favia veroni Moll & Borel Best,1984
Fungia scutaria Lamarck, 1801
Favia rotundata (Veron & Pichon, 1977)
Herpolitha limax (Houttuyn, 1772)
Favites abdita (Ellis & Solander, 1786)
Podabacia crustacea (Pallas, 1766)
Favites chinensis (Verrill, 1866)
Podabacia lankaensis Veron, 2000
Favites pentagona (Esper, 1794)
Polyphyllia talpina (Lamarck, 1801)
Favites halicora (Ehrenberg, 1834)
Sandalolitha robusta Quelch, 1886
Favites melicerum (Ehrenberg, 1834)
Zoopilus echinatus Dana, 1846
Favites spinosa (Klunzinger, 1879)
Family: Fungiacyathidae
Favites flexuosa (Dana, 1846)
Fungiacyathus stephanus (Alcock, 1893)
Montastrea valenciennesi (Milne, Edwards & Haime,
1848) Family: Merulinidae
Montastrea curta (Dana, 1846) Hydnophora exesa (Pallas, 1766)
Diploastrea heliopora (Lamarck, 1816) Hydnophora microconos (Lamarck, 1816)
Plesiastrea versipora (Lamarck, 1816) Merulina ampliata (Ellis and Solander, 1786)
Goniastrea edwardsi Chevalier, 1971 Merulina species
Goniastrea pectinata (Ehrenberg, 1834) Family: Mussidae
Goniastrea retiformis (Lamarck, 1816) Acanthastrea echinata (Dana, 1846)
Goniastrea aspera Verrill, 1865 Acanthastrea species
Platygyra carnosus Veron, 2000 Australomussa rowleyensis Veron, 1985
Platygyra lamellina (Ehrenberg, 1834) Blastomussa merleti Wells, 1961
Platygyra sinensis (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1849) Cynarina lacrymalis (Milne Edwards and Haime,
1848)
Platygyra daedalea (Ellis & Solander, 1786)
Lobophyllia corymbosa (Forskal, 1775)
Platygyra pini Chevalier, 1975
Lobophyllia hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834)
Leptoria phrygia (Ellis & Solander, 1786)
Micromussa diminuta Veron, 2000
Leptastrea purpurea (Dana, 1846)
Micromussa minuta (Moll and Borel-Best, 1984)
Leptastrea transversa Klunzinger, 1879
381
Symphyllia agaricia Milne, Edwards and Haime, Family: Siderastreidae
1849 Coscinaraea columna (Dana, 1846)
Symphyllia radians Milne Edwards and Haime, 1849 Pseudosiderastrea tayamai Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935
Symphyllia recta (Dana, 1846) Psammacora contigua (Esper, 1797)
Symphyllia valenciennesi Milne Edwards & Haime, Psammacora digitata Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851
1849
Family: Stylasteridae
Family: Milleporidae
Distichopora violacea (Pallas, 1766)
Millepora exesa (Forskal, 1775)
Millepora platyphyllia (Hemprich and Ehrenberg,
1834)
Millepora tenella (Ortmann, 1892)
Family: Oculinidae
Galaxea astreata (Lamarck, 1816)
Galaxea fascicularis (Linnaeus, 1767)
Family: Pectiniidae
Pectinia species
Mycedium elephantosus (Pallas, 1766)
Echinophyllia aspera Ellis & Solander, 1788
Echinophyllia echinata Saville - Kent, 1871
Family: Pocilloporidae
Pocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pocillopora elegans Dana, 1846
Pocillopora eydouxi Milne Edwards and Haime, 1860
Pocillopora cf. informis Dana
Pocillopora molokensis Vaughan, 1907
Pocillopora verrucosa (Ellis and Solander, 1786)
Stylophora pistillata Esper, 1797
Family: Poritidae
Porites annae Crossland, 1952
Porites cribripora Dana, 1846
Porites desilveri Veron 2000
Porites echinulata Klunzinger, 1879
Porites fragosa Dana, 1846
Porites gaimardi Milne Edwards and Haime
Porites lutea Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851
Porites lobata Dana, 1846
Porites rus (Forskal, 1775)
Porites solida (Forskal, 1775)
Porites sp 1 as recorded by Mergner & Scheer, 1974
Porites sp 2 as recorded by Mergner & Scheer, 1974
Poritipora paliformis Veron 2000
Stylaraea punctata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Goniopora bernardi Faustino, 1927
Goniopora fruticosa Saville-Kent, 1893
Goniopora stokesi Edwards & Haime, 1851
Alveopora viridis Quoy & Gaimard, 1833
Alveopora verrilliana Dana, 1872
Alveopora fenestrata (Lamarck, 1816)
382
References For Corals Recorded For Sri Lanka
Bourne, C.G. 1905. Report on solitary corals collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rept. Govt. Ceylon
Pearl Oyster Fish. Gulf of Mannar (Suppl.) 29: 187 - 242 pp.
De Silva, M.W.R.N. and A. Rajasuriya. 1985. Checklist of Stony Corals for Sri Lanka with Ecological Notes on
New Records. 41st Scientific Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, Sri Lanka
Association for the Advancement of Science. Colombo.
De Silva, M.W.R.N. and A. Rajasuriya. 1986. Geographical extension of the range of the Fungid coral genus
Zoopilus Dana, 1846 to the Indian Ocean. 42nd Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the
Advancement of Science. Colombo.
Mergner, H. and G. Scheer. 1974. The physiographic zonation and the ecological conditions of some South Indian
and Ceylon reefs. pp. 3 - 30 Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane, Australia.
Pillai, C.S.G. 1972. Stony corals of the seas around India. pp. 191 - 216 Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs.
Rajasuriya, A. and De Silva, M.W.R.N. 1987. Two genera and five species of Hermatypic Corals New to Sri Lanka.
43rd Scientific Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science,, Sri Lanka Association
for the Advancement of Science., Colombo.
Rajasuriya, A. 1994. Three genera and twelve species of stony corals new to Sri Lanka. Second Annual Scientific
Sessions of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Rajasuriya, A. 2007. Leptoseris gardineri (Agariciidae) and Merulina ampliata (Merulinidae): two species of
hermatypic corals, new records for Sri Lanka. Scientific Sessions at the 25th Anniversary of the National
Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Colombo.
Rajasuriya, A. 2007. A revised and updated checklist of stony corals which includes eight species new to Sri Lanka.
(Abs.) proceedings of the 13th Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources., Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources., Colombo.
Veron, J.E.N. 2000. Corals of the World (Vol 1, 2, &3). Australian Institute of Marine Science, Qld. 490 pp.
383
Provisional Checklist of Marine Aquatic Shelled Molluscs Of Sri Lanka
Excluding Freshwater Gastropods
Malik Fernando
Part 1: Provisional Checklist of Species of Gastropods in Sri Lanka
Part 2: Provisional Checklist of Species of Bivalves in Sri Lanka
The Phylum MOLLUSCA Cuvier, 1795 contains numerous classes that include animals of
numerous forms, both terrestrial and aquatic. This checklist deals only with aquatic forms,
carrying external shells consisting of one or two pieces, in the classes Gastropoda and Bivalvia
inhabiting marine and brackish waters (see box 01).
Box 01
Phylum Mollusca Cuvier, 1793 Box 02

Class: Aplacophora von Hering, 1876 – Spiny, shell-less
molluscs GAS-
BIVAL-
Class: Polyplacophora Blainville, 1816 – chitons; with 8-shell CLASS TROPO-
VIA
DA
plates
Class: Monoplacophora Odhner, 1940 – cap-shell molluscs; ORDER 6 10
deep sea
SUPERFAM-
Class: Gastropoda Cuvier, 1795 – snails; includes shell-less ILY
30 28
slugs
Class: Bivalvia Linnaeus, 1758 – bivalves; clams, mussels, FAMILY 60 42
oysters GENERA 173 113
Class: Scaphopoda Keferstein in Bronn, 1862 – tusk shells
Class: Cephalopoda Cuvier, 1797 – octopuses, squids, SPECIES 469 287
cuttlefishes and nautiluses
After de Bruyne, 2003
Terrestrial forms are found only among the Gastropoda (some species in Orders
Architaenioglossa & Pulmonata) and consist of terrestrial and arboreal species; these are
excluded from this checklist. The great majority of species in this class are wholly marine; a
minority occurs in brackish water, some ranging into water that may be fresh in tidal rivers.
Others are entirely freshwater inhabitants (some species in Orders Neritopsina, Sorbeoconcha
& Pulmonata) and are excluded from this checklist. The Order Opisthobranchia contains mostly
species with no shells or greatly reduced shells that are internal; however, a few families of
species with external shells are included here.
The Bivalvia are wholly aquatic and essentially marine with very few freshwater species. As all
three undoubted species of freshwater bivalves (Family Unionidae) have been collected and
photographed they have been included in the checklist. One record reported by Hadl (1974)
from a single specimen is excluded; it was probably a misidentification referring to a brackish
water species (Family Corbiculidae) that is included here.
The species in this list have been arranged in natural orders according to de Bruyne (2003)
pages 309 to 316. The list is simplified to some extent, the species being listed under Class,
Sub-class, Order, Superfamily and Family; the divisions Superorder, Suborder and Subfamily
are not employed except in three instances where the subfamily category has been used.
384
Subgenera have generally not been used except where it was considered useful and such a
division was found in the literature. Lack of uniformity in this regard is a shortcoming that needs
to be addressed in future versions. This is not going to be an easy task. Box 02 summarises
the taxa listed.
The principal difficulty in compiling this checklist was the non-availability of sufficient primary
literature of a monographic nature with extensive synonymies to enable harmonisation between
the lists of different authors and the lack of access to named collections for confirmation of
identities by comparison. Reliance on a variety of literature, mostly not recent, has led to
nomenclature that may not be uniform. The same species may therefore be represented under
more than one name.
The checklist was compiled primarily based on the personal collections of the compiler, mostly
collected by diving. Many specimens were obtained cast ashore on beaches or snagged on
fishing nets, presumably in Sri Lankan waters. Some were purchased from itinerant vendors
or from shell shops. The provenance of some of these items not collected personally may
be in doubt. All these specimens have been identified personally using a variety of literature
and two web-based databases; the complete Bibliography is attached to this checklist. All the
specimens have been photographed and these will be available on a DVD in due course. All
the named specimens are preserved and are available for reference.
The checklist contains incompletely identified species, not all specimens having been identified
down to specific rank; in some even the genus is unknown. There are a number of collected
specimens still awaiting identification – and many, no doubt, still awaiting collection – so the
checklist will keep growing. All species have been photographed and most include descriptions
as identification often requires examination of shell features not obvious in a photograph. In
addition to the personal collection, reference has been made to published lists by Parakrama
Kirtisinghe1 (1978), Darshani de Silva2 (2006) and D. H. Fernando3 (1977). Misidentifications
and identified synonyms in these publications have been excluded and the remainder included.
It has not been possible to examine the Kirtisinghe collection; the other two publications are
not backed by specimens.
Future work towards a complete checklist includes physical verification of the Kirtisinghe
collection and inclusion of specimens in the Rodney Jonklaas and Kalika Perera collections
in the Colombo National Museum and the Cedric Martenstyn collection. All three are known
to be named. But, however many specimens are examined unless there is access to recent
literature including monographs and facilities of comparing specimens with those in major
collections, doubts will remain.
1 Kirtisinghe, Parakrama. 1978. Sea shells of Sri Lanka. Tuttle, Tokyo.

2 de Silva, Darshani. Current Status of Taxonomy and Ecology of Marine Molluscs in Sri
Lanka. In: Bambaradeniya, Channa (Ed), The Fauna of Sri Lanka (2006), IUCN, 274-287.
3 Fernando, D. H. Lamellibranchiate Fauna of the Estuarine and Coastal Areas in Sri
Lanka. Bull. Fish. Res. Stn., Sri Lanka, Vol. 27, 1977, 20-54.
385
Part 1: Provisional Checklist of Species of Gastropods in Sri Lanka
Family: Patellidae
Turbo intercostalis Menke, 1843*
Cellana eucosmia Turbo marmoratus
Cellana luchuana Turbo petholatus Linnaeus, 1758*
Cellana rota (Gmelin, 1791) * Turbo stenogyrus
Patella flexuosa Quoy and Gaimard, 1834 *
Family: Neritidae
Family: Acmaeidae
Clithon oualaniensis Lesson, 1831
Acmaea saccharina (Linnaeus, 1758) * Naticarius rufilabris
Patelloida striata Quoy and Gaimard, 1834 * Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758
Nerita articulata Gould, 1847
Family: Haliotidae Nerita chamaeleon Linnaeus, 1758
Haliotis varia Linnaeus, 1758 * Nerita costata Gmelin, 1791
Haliotis cf. pustulata Nerita insculpta
Notohaliotis sieboldi Nerita plicata Linnaeus, 1758
Sunhaliotis planata Nerita polita Linnaeus, 1758
Neritopsis radula
Family: Fissurellidae Nerita (Theliostyla) textilis Gmelin, 1791
Ritena maura
Clypidina notata (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Neritina (Dostia) siquijorensis (Recluz, 1843)
Diodora lima
Diodora mus (Reeve, 1850) *
Family: Cerithiidae
Diodora sp. *
Emarginula fissurata Holten, 1802 * Cerithium citrinum Sowerby, 1855 *
Macroschisma sp. Cerithium echinatum
Scutus unguis (Linnaeus, 1758) * Cerithium obeliscus Bruguiere *
Cerithium sowerbyi
Family: Trochidae Clypeomorus batillariaeformis (Habe and Kosuge,
1966) *
Calliostoma sp. *
Clypeomorus chemnitzianus
Clanculus cf. atropurpureus (Gould, 1849) *
Clypeomorus sp. 1 *
Euchelus asper
Clypeomorus sp. 2 *
Euchelus cf. atratus (Gmelin) *
Clypeomorus sp. 3 *
Euchelus quadricarinatus (Holten, 1802) *
Clypeomorus sp. 4 *
Euchelus sp.1 *
Ochetoclava sp.
Monilea callifera
Rhinoclavis aspera
Tectus pyramis Born, 1778 *
Rhinoclavis sinensis
Trochus callicoccus Reeve *
Trochus gibberulus
Family: Modulidae
Trochus maculatus
Trochus radiatus Gmelin * Modulus tectum Gmelin, 1791
Trochus sacellum
Trochus tentorium Gmelin * Family: Planaxidae
Trochus sp.1 * Planaxis niger Quoy & Gaimard, 1834 *
Umbonium vestiarum Linnaeus, 1758 * Planaxis sulcatus (Born, 1778)*
Family: Turbinidae Family: Potamididae

Angaria delphinus Linnaeus, 1758* Cerithidea cingulata (Gmelin, 1791) *
Astralium costatum Cerithidea quadrata
Astralium heimburgi (Dunker)* Cerithidea sp. 1 *
Astralium rhodostoma Telescopium telecopium (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Astralium semicostata (Kiener, 1850) * Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) *
Astralium sp. 1 *
Liotinaria cidaris
386
Family: Siliquariidae Family: Xenophoridae
Tenagodus anguina (Linnaeus, 1758) * Xenophora helvacea
Tenagodus cumingii Mörch, 1861 * Xenophora cf. exuta *?
Xenophora pallidula Reeve, 1843 *
Family: Turritellidae Xenophora tenuis
Turritella columnaris Kiener, 1840 *
Turritella duplicata (Linnaeus, 1758) * Family: Vermetidae
Turritella terebra Serpulorbis cf. sipho Lamarck,1818 *
Vermetus sp.1 *
Family: Littorinidae Vermetus sp.2 *
Echinolittorina millegrana (Philippi, 1848) *
Littoraria intermedia (Philippi) * Family: Cypraeidae
Littoraria scabra (Linnaeus, 1758) * Cypraea errones
Littoraria undulata (Gray, 1839) * Cypraea scurra
Nodilittorina quadricincta (von Mühlfeldt, 1824) * Cypraea (Bistolida) hirundo Linnaeus, 1758 *
Nodilittorina trochoides (Gray, 1839) * Cypraea (Blasicura) interrupta Gray, 1824 *
Cypraea (Cribraria) cribraria Linnaeus, 1758 *
Family: Rostellariidae Cypraea (Cypraea) tigris Linnaeus *
Rostellariella delicatula Cypraea (Erosaria) erosa Linnaeus, 1758 *
Tibia insulaechorab Roding, 1798 Cypraea (Erosaria) helvola Linnaeus, 1758 *
Cypraea (Erosaria) ocellata Linnaeus *
Family: Seraphidae Cypraea (Erronea) caurica Linnaeus
Cypraea (Erronea) caurica dracaena *
Terebellum terebellum (Linnaeus, 1758) Cypraea (Erronea) felina listeri (Gray, 1825) *
Cypraea (Leporicypraea) mappa Linnaeus, 1758 *
Family: Strombidae Cypraea (Luria) isabella Linnaeus, 1758 *
Gibberulus gibberulus Cypraea (Luria) pulchra Gray, 1824 *
Lambis chiragra Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Lyncina) argus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Lambis crocata Link, 1807 * Cypraea (Lyncina) carneola Linnaeus, 1758 *
Lambis lambis (Linnaeus, 1758) * Cypraea (Lyncina) lynx Linnaeus, 1758 *
Lambis scorpius (Linnaeus, 1758) * Cypraea (Lyncina) vitellus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Lambis truncata Humphrey, 1786 * Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica Linnaeus, 1758 *
Strombus aurisdianae Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Mauritia) histrio Gmelin, 1791 *
Strombus canarium Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Mauritia) mauritiana Linnaeus, 1758 *
Strombus decorus (Roding, 1798) * Cypraea (Monetaria) moneta Linnaeus, 1758 *
Strombus dentatus Cypraea (Nuclearia) nucleus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Strombus klineorum Abbott * Cypraea (Ornamentaria) annulus Linnaeus, 1758
Strombus listeri T. Gray, 1852 * Cypraea (Palmadusta) asellus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Strombus luhuanus Cypraea (Palmadusta) clandestina Linnaeus, 1767 *
Strombus marginatus Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Purpuradusta) gracilis Gaskoin, 1849 *
Strombus mutabilis Swainson, 1821 * Cypraea (Pustularia) cicercula Linnaeus, 1758 *
Strombus plicatus sibbaldi Sowerby, 1842 * Cypraea (Ravitrona) caputserpentes Linnaeus,
Strombus vittatus Linnaeus, 1758 * 1758*
Strombus sp. 1 * Cypraea (Staphylaea) staphylaea Linnaeus, 1758 *
Cypraea (Talparia) talpa Linnaeus, 1758 *
Family: Hipponicidae Adusta onyx
Hipponix conicus (Schumacher, 1817) * Derstolida stolida
Hipponix pilosus Erosaria nebrites ceylonensis
Erosaria poraria
Family: Calyptraeidae Mystaponda nivosa
Cheilea tectumsinense Ovatipsa coloba gregori
Crucibulum extinctorum Lamarck, 1822 * Palmadusta punctata
Crucibulum violaceum Peribolus depressus
Crucibulum sp. 1 * Pustularia globulus
Syphopatella walshi (Hermannsen in Reeve, 1859) * Ravitrona gangrenosa
Talostolida teres
387
Family: Ovulidae Cymatium kleineri
Calpurnus lacteus Cymatium lotorium
Calpurnus verrucosus Linnaeus, 1758 * Cymatium muricinum
Ovula ovum Linnaeus, 1758 * Cymatium perryi Emmerson & Old, 1963 *
Volva brevirostris Cymatium rubeculum
Volva volva Cymatium spengleri
Volva sp. 1 Cymatium (Cymatriton) nicobaricum Roding, 1798 *
Cymatium (Gelagna) clandestina
Family: Triviidae Cymatium (Ranularia) pyrum
Cymatium (Ranularia) retusum Lamarck, 1822 *
Trivia edgari Shaw * Cymatium (Septa) aquatile Reeve, 1844 *
Cymatium (Septa) pileare Linnaeus, 1758 *
Family: Naticidae Distorsio anus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Mamilla kurodai Distorsio reticulata Roding, 1798 *
Natica euzona
Natica tigrina (Roding, 1798) * Family: Tonnidae
Natica traillii Reeve, 1855 * Malea pomum
Natica vitellus Linnaeus, 1758 * Tonna canaliculata (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Natica (Naticarius) alapapilionis (Röding, 1798) * Tonna dolium (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Naticarius lineata Tonna galea Linnaeus, 1758
Naticarius rufilabris *? Tonna perdix
Polinices mamilla (Linnaeus, 1758) * Tonna sulcosa
Polinices powisianus Tonna tessalata
Polinices (Neverita) albumen (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Polinices (Neverita) didyma (Roding, 1798) * Family: Ficidae
Sinum javanicum (Griffith & Pidgeon, 1834) *
Sinum planulatus Ficus ficus
Ficus subintermedius (d’Orbigny, 1852) *
Family: Bursidae Ficus variegatus Röding, 1798 *
Bufonaria crumena (Lamarck, 1816) * Family: Epitoniidae

Bufonaria echinata (Link, 1807) *
Bufonaria nobilis Epitonium (Gyroscala) perplexum Deshayes *
Bursa bufonia (Gmelin, 1791) *
Bursa granularis (Röding, 1798) * Family: Janthinidae
Bursa granularis (Röding, 1798) [tuberculated Janthina globosa Swainson, 1822 *
form]* Janthina janthina Linnaeus, 1758 *
Bursa rana (Linnaeus)
Bursa spinosa Family: Eulimidae
Tutufa bubo Linnaeus, 1758 * Eulima sp. 1 *
Tutufa bufo (Röding, 1798) * Thyca crystallina (Gould, 1846) *
Tutufa rubeta (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Family: Coralliophilidae
Family: Cassidae
Coralliophila neritoidea Lamarck, 1816 *
Cassis cornuta Linnaeus, 1758 * Coralliophila pyriformis Kira *
Casmaria erinacea Magilus sp.
Casmaria ponderosa Rapa bulbiformis
Cypraecassis rufa (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Phalium areola Family: Muricidae
Phalium canaliculatum
Phalium fimbria (Gmelin, 1791) * Chicoreus brunneus Link, 1807 *
Phalium glaucum Linnaeus, 1758 * Chicoreus palmarosae Lamarck, 1822 *
Chicoreus ramosus (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Family: Ranellidae Chicoreus saulii Soweby, 1841 *
Apollon gyrinum (Linnaeus, 1758) * Chicoreus torrefactus (Sowerby, 1841) *
Charonia tritonis Linnaeus, 1758 * Chicoreus virgineus Röding *
Cymatium cingulatum
388
Haustellum haustellum (Linnaeus, 1758) * Latirus polygonus Gmelin, 1791 *
Haustellum kiiensis (Kuroda in Kira, 1959 * Latirolagena smaragdula
Murex pecten Lightfoot, 1786 * Peristernia nassatula
Murex racemosa Pleuroploca filamentosa Röding, 1798 *
Murex ternispina Lamarck, 1822 * Pleuroploca persica (Reeve, 1847) *
Murex tribulus Linnaeus, 1758 * Pleuroploca trapezium Linnaeus, 1758 *
Turrilatirus craticulatus (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Subfamily: Rapaninae Turrilatirus turritus (Gmelin, 1791) *
Cymia lacera (Born, 1778) *
Drupa morum Family: Melongenidae
Drupa ricina Linnaeus, 1758 * Pugilina cochlidium Linnaeus, 1758 *
Drupella fusconigra
Drupella ochrostoma var. spectrum (Blainville) / Family: Nassariidae
(Reeve) *
Alectrion suturalis
Drupella rugosa (Born, 1778) *
Bullia vittata Linnaeus *
Mancinella mancinella (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Bullia sp. 1 *
Morula granulata (Duclos, 1832) *
Nassa francolinus
Morula serrialis (Laborde?) *
Nassarius albescens (Dunker, 1846) *
Morula (Cronia) margariticola Broderip, 1832 *
Nassarius bicolor Dunker *
Morula sp. 1 *
Nassarius gaudiosus (Hinds, 1844) *
Morula sp. 2 *
Nassarius hepaticus (Montagu) *
Purpurea persica (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Nassarius cf. livescens Philippi *
Rapana rapiformis (Born, 1778) *
Nassarius pallidulus (Adams) *
Thais tissoti Petit, 1852 *
Nassarius pullus (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Thais (Mancinella) bufo (Lamarck, 1822) *
Nassarius sp. 1 *
Thais mutabilis *
Nassarius (Zeuxis) dorsatus (Röding, 1798) *
Zeuxis olivaceus
Family: Buccinidae
Zeuxis (Telasco) reeveanus f. velatus (Gould) *
Babylonia spirata Linnaeus, 1758 * Zeuxis sp. 1 *
Babylonia zeylanica Bruguiere, 1789 * Zeuxis sp. 2 *
Cantharus (Pollia) fumosus Dillwyn, 1817 *
Cantharus tranquebaricus Family: Harpidae
Cantharus (Pollia) undosus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Harpa armouretta
Cantharus sp. 1 *
Harpa davidis Röding, 1798 *
Engina melanozona Tomlin *
Harpa harpa (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Engina pulchra
Harpa major Röding, 1798 *
Engina zonata
Engina sp. 1 *
Family: Marginellidae
Engina sp. 2 *
Phos senticosus (Linnaeus, 1758) Marginella angustata
Phos textum * Marginella strigata
Marginella sp. 1
Family: Columbellidae Volvarina angustata Sowerby, 1846 *
Pyrene flava Bruguiere, 1789 *

Family: Mitridae
Pyrene flavida
Pyrene terpsichore Lamarck* Chrysame anbigua
Pyrene testudinaria (Link, 1807) * Chrysame chrysalis
Pyrene turturina Chrysame eremitarum
Pyrene versicolor (Sowerby, 1832) * Chrysame ferruginea
Mitra (Strigatella) litterata Lamarck, 1811 *
Family: Fasciolariidae Mitra mitra
Mitra (Mitra) papalis Linnaeus, 1758 *
Fusinus longicaudatus (Lamarck, 1822) *
Mitra cf. pellisserpentes Reeve, 1844 *
Fusinus nicobaricus Röding, 1798 *
Mitra sp. *
Hemipolygona amaliae (Kuster & Kobelt, 1874) *
Mitropifex crebrillirata
Latirus gibbulus (Gmelin, 1791) *
389
Tiara floccata Conus (Cylinder) natalis Sowerby
Tiara isabella Conus (Cylinder) textile Linnaeus, 1758 *
Tiara morchi Conus (Darioconus) episcopus Hwass, 1793
Conus (Darioconus) omaria Hwass, 1792 *
Family: Olividae Conus (Darioconus) pennaceus Born, 1758
Conus (Dauciconus) augur Lightfoot, 1786 *
Agaronia cinnamomea
Conus (Dauciconus) litoglyphus Hwass, 1792 *
Agaronia nebulosa (Lamarck, 1811) *
Conus (Dauciconus) vitulinus Hwass, 1792 *
Agaronia (?) sp. 1 *
Conus (Gastridium) geographus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Ancilla (?) sp. 1 *
Conus (Gastridium) obscurus Sowerby, 1833
Oliva annulata Gmelin, 1791 *
Conus (Hermes) nussatella Linnaeus, 1758 *
Oliva bulbosa Röding, 1798 *
Conus (Hermes) terebra Born, 1780 *
Oliva erythrostoma
Conus (Leptoconus) amadis Gmelin 1791 *
Oliva miniacea
Conus (Leptoconus) generalis Linnaeus, 1767 *
Oliva oliva Linnaeus, 1758 *
Conus (Leptoconus) monile Hwass, 1792
Oliva ornata
Conus (Lithoconus) eburneus Hwass, 1792
Oliva paxillus Reeve, 1850 *
Conus (Lithoconus) leopardus Roding, 1798 *
Oliva reticulata Röding, 1798 *
Conus (Lithoconus) litteratus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Oliva sericea
Conus (Lithoconus) tessulatus Born, 1778 *
Oliva sidelia Duclos, 1835 *
Conus (Pionoconus) pertusus Hwass, 1792
Oliva textilina Lamarck, 1811 *
Conus (Puncticulis) arenatus Hwass, 1792 *
Oliva tremulina Lamarck, 1811 *
Conus (Puncticulis) pulicarius Hwass, 1792
Oliva vidua Röding, 1798 *
Conus (Puncticulis) zeylanicus Gmelin, 1791 *
Olivancillaria gibbosa Born *
Conus (Regiconus) aulicus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Olivancillaria hiatula
Conus (Rhizoconus) capitaneus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Olivancillaria steeriae
Conus (Rhizoconus) miles Linnaeus, 1758 *
Conus (Rhizoconus) mustelinus Hwass, 1792
Family: Turbinellidae
Conus (Rhizoconus) rattus Hwass, 1792 *
Turbinella pyrum (Linnaeus, 1758) * Conus (Rhizoconus) vexillum Gmelin, 1791
Turbinella pyrum f. napus Lamarck,1822 * Conus (Rhombus) zonatus Hwass, 1782
Conus (Stephanoconus) varius Linnaeus, 1758
Family: Volutidae Conus (Strioconus) striatus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Melo melo Lightfoot, 1786 * Conus (Textilia) nimbus Hwass, 1792 *
Voluta (Harpulina) arausiaca Lightfoot, 1876 * Conus (Virgiconus) flavidus Lamarck, 1810
Voluta (Harpulina) lapponica (Linnaeus, 1767) * Conus (Virgiconus) virgo Linnaeus, 1758 *
Voluta (Lyria) cloveriana Weaver, 1963 * Conus (Virroconus) ceylanensis Bruguiere, 1792 *
Voluta magnifica Conus (Virroconus) coronatus Gmelin 1791 *
Conus (Virroconus) chaldaeus Röding, 1798
Family: Cancellariidae Conus (Virroconus) distans Hwass, 1792
Conus (Virroconus) ebraeus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Cancellaria scalarina
Conus (Virroconus) lividus Hwass, 1792 *
Trigonostoma trigonostoma
Conus (Virroconus) musicus Hwass, 1792 *
Conus (Virroconus) piperatus Dilwyn, 1817
Family: Conidae
Conus (?) sp. 1 * Family: Terebridae
Conus (?) sp. 2 *
Abretiella cerithina
Conus (Asprella?) sp. 3 *
Cinguloterebra serotina
Conus (Chelyconus) achatinus Gmelin, 1791
Impages hectica Linnaeus, 1758 *
Conus (Chelyconus) catus Hwass, 1792
Myurella pretiosa
Conus (Conusprella) sowerbyi
Terebra commaculata
Conus (Cleobula)betulinus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Terebra crenulata Linnaeus, 1758 *
Conus (Cleobula) figulinus Linnaeus, 1758 *
Terebra dimidiata Linnaeus, 1758 *
Conus (Cleobula) figulinus loroisii Kiener *
Terebra (Duplicaria) duplicata Linnaeus *
Conus (Cleobula) suratensis Hwass, 1792 *
Terebra guttata Roding, 1798 *
Conus (Conus) nicobaricus Hwass, 1792 *
Terebra maculata Linnaeus, 1758 *
Conus (Cylinder) abbas Hwass, 1792 *
Terebra stylata Hinds, 1844 *
390
Terebra subulata Linnaeus, 1767 * Family: Acteonidae
Terebra sp. 1
Maxacteon fabreanus (Crosse, 1874) *
Triplostephanus lima
Solidula solidula Linnaeus, 1758 *
Family: Turridae
Family: Hydatinidae
Brachytoma crenularis
Hydatina physis Linnaeus, 1758 *
Lophiotoma acuta Perry, 1811 *
Hydatina velum
Lophiotoma indica Röding, 1798 *
Turris undosa
Family: Bullidae
Turricula javana (Linnaeus, 1767) *
Unedogemmula unedo Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758 *
Xenoturris cingulifera (Lamarck, 1822) *
Family: Haminoeidae
Family: Architectonicidae Haminoea crocata Pease, 1860 *
Architectonica laevigatum Lamarck, 1861 * Haminoea cymbalum *
Architectonica perspectiva (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Haliacus variagatus Family: Siphonariidae
Philippia hybrida Siphonaria cf. acmaeoides Pilsbury *
Siphonaria alternata Say, 1826 *
Family: Amathinidae Siphonaria atra
Amathina tricarinata (Linnaeus, 1758) * Siphonaria javanica (Lamarck, 1819) *
Family: Pyramidellidae Family: Ellobiidae
Otopleura auriscati Holten, 1802 * Cassidula nucleus (Gmelin, 1791) *

Ellobium gangeticum (Pfeiffer, 1855) *
Melampus fasciatus (Deshayes, 1830) *
Melampus sp. 1 *
Pythia plicata (Ferrusac) Gray, 1825 *
391
Part 2: Provisional Checklist of Species of Bivalves in Sri Lanka
Family: Arcidae Modiolus metcalfei (Hanley)

Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus Modiolus tulipa (Lamarck)
Anadara complanata (Chemnitz) Modiolus cf. micropterus (Deshayes, 1836)*
Anadara clathrata (Reeve) Modiolus sp. 1*
Anadara granosa (Linnaeus, 1758)* Musculus (Reynella) cupreus (Gould)*
Anadara lateralis (Reeve)* Mytilus sp. 1 *
Anadara maculosa (Reeve) Perna perna (Linnaeus, 1758) *
Anadara nodifera (Martens, 1860)* Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Anadara pilula Reeve Septifer bilocularis Linnaeus, 1758*
Anadara satowi Dunker* Septifer virgatus (Wiegmann)*
Anadara sp. ‘Wellawatte’* Septifer (?) sp. 1 (Wellawatte 5.9.2010)*
Anadara cf. troscheli *
Arca arabica Philippi Family: Isognomonidae
Arca bistrigata Dunker Isognomon ephippium (Linnaeus)
Arca lienosa Isognomon isognomum (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Arca navicularis Bruguiere, 1789* Isognomon perna Linnaeus, 1767*
Arca sp. 1*
Arca sp. 2* Family: Malleidae
Arca sp. 3* Malleus albus Lamarck, 1819*
Arca sp. 4* Malleus malleus Linnaeus, 1758*
Arca sp. 5* Malleus sp.*
Arca sp. 6* Vulsella vulsella (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Arca ventricosa Lamarck, 1819*
Arca (Trisodos) tortuosa (Linnaeus, 1758)* Family: Pteriidae
Barbatia foliata (Forsskal,1775)*
Barbatia fusca (Bruguiere, 1789)* Electroma (Pterelectroma) zebra (Reeve, 1857)*
Barbatia sp. 1* Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Barbatia sp. 2* Pinctada radiata (Leach, 1814)*
Barbatia sp. 3* Pteria brevialata (Dunker, 1872)*
Barbatia sp. 4* Pteria inquinata (Reeve)*
Barbatia virescens (Reeve)* Pteria penguin (Roding, 1758)*
Barbatia virescens obtusoides (Nyst)* “Pteria” sp.*
Scapharca inaequivalvis (Bruguière, 1789)*
Family: Pinnidae
Family: Cucullaeidae Atrina pectinata (Linnaeus)
Cucullaea labiata (Lightfoot, 1786) Atrina vexillum (Born, 1778)*
Pinna bicolor Gmelin*
Family: Glycymerididae Pinna muricata Linnaeus
Streptopinna saccata (Linnaeus)
Glycymeris oblingus (Reeve)*
Glycymeris rotunda (Dunker) Family: Limidae
Glycymeris sp. 1*
Ctenoides ales (Finley, 1927)*
Family: Mytilidae Ctenoides annulata Lamarck*
Brachiodontes sp. 1* Lima vulgaris (Link, 1807)*
Brachiodontes sp. 2* Limaria basilanica (Adams & Reeve, 1950)*
Brachiodontes sp. 3* Limaria fragilis (Gmelin, 1791)*
Lithophaga cinnamomea (Lamarck)
Lithophaga cf. lima (Lamy)* Family: Gryphaeidae
Lithophaga nigra (d’Orbigny) Hyotissa hyotis (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Lithophaga teres (Philippi, 1846)*
Modiolus auriculatus (Krauss, 1848)* Family: Ostreidae
Modiolus philippinarum Hanley, 1843* Crassostrea belcheri (Sowerby)*
392
Crassostrea cf. madrasensis (Preston)?* Family: Chamidae
Crassostrea sp. 1* Chama dunkeri Lischke*
Crassostrea cf. gryphoides (Scholtheim, Chama fragum Reeve*
1813)* Chama lazarus Linnaeus, 1758*
Dendostrea folium (Linnaeus, 1758)* Chama pulchella Reeve, 1846*
Lopha cristagalli Linnaeus, 1578* Chama reflexa Reeve, 1846*
Ostrea sp. 1*
Ostrea sp. 2* Family: Lucinidae
Ostrea sp. 3*
Saccostrea cucullata (Born, 1778)* Codakia punctata (Linnaeus)
Saccostrea mordax (Gould, 1850)*
Family: Ungulinidae
Family: Pectinidae Diplodonta rotundata (Montagu, 1803)*
Amusium pleuronectes (Linnaeus) Diplodonta semiasperatoides Nomura
Chlamys irregularis Sowerby
Chlamys senatorius Gmelin, 1791* Family: Carditidae
Chlamys (Excellichlamys) spectabilis Reeve, Cardita bicolor Lamarck*
1853* Cardita crassicosta (Lamarck, 1819)*
Chlamys (Mimachlamys) nobilis Reeve* Cardita variegata Bruguiere, 1792*
Chlamys gloriosus Reeve Cardita sp.
Chalmys pelseneeri Dautzenberg & Bavay
Chlamys pyxidata (Born) Family: Crassatellidae
Chlamys tranquebarica (Gmelin) ? Eucrassatella sp. 1*
Chlamys sp. 1*
Decatopecten striatus (Schumacher, 1817)* Family: Cardiidae
Pecten (Cryptopecten) pallium Linnaeus, 1758*
Pecten nodosus Linnaeus Afrocardium latum (Born)*
Pecten townsendi Sowerby Afrocardium setosum (Redfern)*
? Pecten sp. 1* Fragum hemicardium (Linnaeus, 1758)*
? Plicatula sp. 2* Fulvia australis I(Sowerby)
Fulvia asiatica (Bruguière)
Family: Spondylidae Laevicardium biradiatum (Bruguiere, 1789)*
Laevicardium sp. 2*
Spondylus imperialis* Laevicardium sp. 3*
Spondylus layardi Reeve Laevicardium sp. 4*
Spondylus nicobaricus Schreibers Nemocardium lyratum (Soweby, 1841)*
Spondylus versicolor Schreibers,1793* Trachycardium angulatum (Lamarck, 1822)*
Spondylus cf. barbatus* Trachycardium elongatum Bruguière, 1789*
Spondylus cf. cruentus Lishke* Trachycardium enode (Sowerby), 1841*
Spondylus cf. marisrubri Roding* Trachycardium flavum (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Spondylus sp. 1* Trachycardium sp. 1*
Spondylus sp. 2* Vasticardium lacunosum (Reeve)*
Spondylus sp. 3* Vasticardium rubicundum (Reeve)
Spondylus sp. 4* Vasticardium arenicola (Reeve)
Spondylus sp. 5* Vasticardium flavum (Linnaeus)
Vasticardium assimile (Reeve)
Family: Anomiidae Vepricardium asiaticum (Bruguière, 1792)*
Anomia achaeus Gray Undetermined genus*

Family: Placunidae Sub-family Tridacninae
Placuna placenta (Linnaeus)* Tridacna maxima (Röding)*

Family: Unionidae Family: Mactridae
Lamellidens lamellatus (Lea, 1838)* Lutraria arcuata Reeve*
Lamellidens testudinarius (Spengler, 1793)* Mactra complanata Deshayes
Parreysia corrugata (Müller, 1774)*
393
Mactra cuneata Chemnitz Macoma bruguierei Hanley*
Mactra mera Reeve* Tellina angulata Gmelin
Mactra ornata Gray, 1836* Tellina coarctata Philippi
Mactra lurida (Philippi) * Tellina palatan (Iredale, 1929)*
Mactra turgida Gmelin Tellina remies Linnaeus, 1758*
Mactra sp. 1* Tellina timorensis (Lamarck, 1818)*
Mactra sp. 2* Tellina cf. virgata Linnaeus, 1758*
Mactra sp. 3* Tellinimactra sp. 1*
Mactrinula laevis (Chemnitz)
Oxyperas bernardi (Pilsbury)* Family: Trapeziidae
Oxyperas triangularis (Lamarck)* Trapezium rostrata Lamarck*
Spisula sp. Trapezium sp. 1*

Family: Pharidae Family: Corbiculidae
Ensis sp. 1* Geloina coaxans (Gmelin, 1791)*
Ensis sp. 2
Ensiculus philippinus (Dunker) Superfamily: Veneroidea
Siliqua radiata Linnaeus, 1758* Family 33: Petricolidae
Petricola (?) sp. 1*
Family: Solenidae
Solen brevis Gray, in Hanley,1842* Family: Veneridae
Solen exiguus Dunker Antigona lamellaris Schumacher
Solen lamarckii Deshayes, 1839* Anodontia edentula (Lin.)
Solen roseomaculatus Pilsbury, 1901* Anodontia ovum (Reeve)
Solen strictus Gould Anomalocardia donacina (Lamarck)
Anomalocardia producta Kuroda & Habe
Family: Donacidae Callanaitis disjecta Perry
Donax cuneatus Linnaeus. 1758* Callista erycina Linnaeus*
Donax deltoides Lamarck, 1818* Callista chinensis (Holten)
Donax faba Gmelin, 1791 * Circe scripta Linnaeus*
Donax scortum Linnaeus* Dosinia biscocta (Reeve)*
Donax variabilis Say. 1822* Dosinia cretacea (Reeve)
Dosinia histrio (Gmelin, 1791)*
Family: Psammobiidae Dosinia juvenilis Chemnitz
Dosinia puella Angas
Asaphis dichotoma (Anton) Dosinia trigona (Reeve)
Gari elongata (Lamarck, 1818)* Dosinia variegata (Gray)
Gari maculosa (Lamarck, 1818)* Ctene divergens (Philippi)
Gari cf. sibogai Prashad* Gafrarium dispar (Dillwyn)*
Gari sp. 1* Gafrarium divaricatum (Gmelin, 1791)*
Scutarcophagia linguafelis (Linnaeus) Gafrarium tumidum Roding, 1798*
Soletellina diphos (Linnaeus, 1771)* Lioconcha castrensis Linnaeus, 1758*
Lioconcha dautzenbergi Prashad
Family: Semelidae Lioconcha fastigiata Sowerby, 1851*
Semele cordiformis (Holten, 1803)* Marcia hiantina (Lamarck, 1818)*
Semele jukesi A. Adams, 1853* Marcia opima (Gmelin, 1791)*
Semele radiata Ruppel Meretrix casta Gmelin*
Semele sp. 1* Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Semele (?) Sp. 2* Meretrix sp. ‘Rekawa’ ?casta*
Mesodesma glabratum (Lamarck)
Family: Solecurtidae Paphia alapapilionis Röding, 1798*
Solecurtus exaratus Philippi Paphia amabilis Philippi
Paphia exarata (Philippi)*
Family: Tellinidae Paphia gallus f. lentiginosa (Reeve, 1864)*
Paphia textilis (Gmelin, 1791)*
Gastrana polygona (Hanley)
394
Paphia sp. 1* Corbula sp. 1*
Paphia sp. 2*
Paphia sp. 3* Family: Gastrochaenidae
Paphia sp. 4* Gastrochaena sp. 1 *
Periglypta reticulata (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Pitar ceylonensis (Sowerby) Family: Hiatellidae
Pitar sulfureum (Pilsbury)
Pitar striata (Gray) Hiatella arctica (Linnaeus, 1767)*
Sunetta effossa (Reeve, 1843)*
Sunetta meröe (Schumacher) Family: Pholadidae
Sunetta scripta (Linnaeus)* Martesia striata (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Sunetta truncata (Deshayes, 1853)* Pholas orientalis (Gmelin, 1791)*
Sunetta sp. 1* Undetermined genus sp. 1*
Sunetta sp. 2*
Sunettina cf. solanderii (Gray, 1825)* Family: Teredinidae
Tapes deshayesi (Hanley) “Teredo” sp. 1 +
Tapes literatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tapes radiata (Chemnitz)* Family: Clavagellidae
Tapes sp. 1*
Timoclea arakana (Nevill, 1871) * Brechites penis (Linnaeus, 1758)*
Timoclea marica Linnaeus*
Venus toreuma Gould, 1851* Family: Periplomatidae
Undetermined Gen. 1* Periploma (?) sp. 1*

Family: Corbulidae Family: Cuspidariidae
Corbula sulcata Lamarck, 1801* Cuspidaria sp. 1*
395
Provisional Check List of the Marine Crustaceans
(Arthropoda; Crustacea) in Sri Lanka
Prasanna Weerakkody
Introduction
Sri Lanka is surrounded by the Indian Ocean. The shallow seas in the continental shelf region
gently slope from sub-littoral zone to depths of around 30-50m, where it will begin to drop at a
steep incline to depths of 600m to over 1000m. The width of the shelf from the shore line can
vary from 5-15 km and connects with the Indian continental shelf in the Palk bay area. Beyond
the Territorial seas, the Exclusive Economic Zone of the country claims a sea area of 200
nautical miles in extent except at the boundary it shares with India. The extent of the Territorial
sea and the Exclusive Economic Zone of Sri Lanka stands at 21,500 Km2 and 517,000 Km2
respectively, the latter amounting to nearly 8 times the total land area of the country.
Sri Lankan marine environment contain a diverse array of habitats that range from coastal
shallows to deep oceanic and pelagic regions, on soft and hard bottoms as well. These habitats
house a diverse assemblage of marine crustacean fauna. The marine crustaceans are a highly
diverse group of invertebrates classified under the Phyllum Arthropoda, and consists primarily
of Marine and Aquatic forms. Indian shores contain about 3500 species of crustaceans and
checklist published for the State of Tamil-nadu contains about 419 species.
This paper aims to cover the marine crustacean fauna of the shallow seas and the oceanic
epi-pelagic zones and does not cover the deep sea fauna of the region. The list is compiled by
collecting available records specified for Sri Lanka. The regional records were not considered
during the compilation of this list. However, some species recorded in the Indian shores of the
Palk Strait and Mannar basin were selectively included based on personal observations made
by the author while diving in reef habitats or inspecting of incidental and fishing by-catch. Since
the boundary of the estuarine species is not clearly defined, transitional zone fauna are also
included in this list. The provisional checklist of marine crustaceans of Sri Lanka presented in
this paper includes 742 species. Based on the probabilities of occurrence it is estimated that
the total Sri Lankan Crustacean fauna would comprise of approximately 1500 species.
Taxonomy
Probably the most extensive collection of records on marine invertebrates of Sri Lanka is given
in “Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar”
by W. A. Herdman (1903-06). This list however needs to be revised and verified based on the
current information available on crustacean taxonomy and distribution that has resulted due to
significant amount of work that has been carried out by regional scientists and Indian Ocean
Explorations. Further, the commercially important crustacean species have been well studied
across the region and information regarding this species can be found in the FAO species
catalogues for the region. This paper is a preliminary effort at updating the list of Crustacea in
Sri Lanka based on available information and should not be considered as a complete list as
it may contain inadequacies.
396
Distribution
Many Marine species including the Crustacea reproduce through release of eggs and larvae
into the water column. The duration of time the larvae spend drifting in the ocean as plankton,
existing pattern of currents and the ability to find a suitable substrate for settlement will dictate
the rate of dispersal of the species. Under favourable conditions sedentary species may cross
deep oceans to settle on distant shores regularly. In addition to the demersal species, the
Crustacea contain a large group of taxa that inhabit the Pelagic or open seas as part of the
Plankton or Nekton throughout their lives and may inhabit and traverse large expanses of
Oceanic waters and shores. Therefore, many marine species display wide distribution patterns
occupying similar habitats across the region. Further, dispersal strategies of most marine
species and the lack of hard ecological barriers prevent the establishment of endemic species
in the marine environment.
The Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar represent a shallow and narrow stretch of sea between
the shores of Southern India and Sri Lanka. The general homogeneity of habitats across the
shores of the two countries and their close proximity would make it highly probable that both
shores would harbour a similar species assemblage.
Threats
Crustacea include species of commercial interest both as local food species and exploited for
the export trade both as food and Ornamental species. While harvesting of Shrimps, Prawns
and Crabs for local consumption is high, the most severe exploitation of Crustaceans occur
due to the export industry. The spiny lobster fisheries take place around the shores of Sri
Lanka and have a significant impact on the wild populations. The population densities on
exploited reefs have depleted significantly and on occasion they have reached near-extinction
levels on certain reefs. Though regulations are in place for some species the populations
are on the decline due to inadequate enforcement. The collection of high value ornamental
species is causing significant reduction of reef Shrimps, Crabs, Hermit crabs Mantis shripms
and Lobster species. The excessive collection of reef shrimp species that play an important
role on the reef as cleaners of other species can result in a reduction of health of reef fauna
and abandonment of sections of the reef by other animal species affecting the balance of
the eco-system. However, habitat loss, including the degradation of coral reef environments,
probably pose a greater threat to Marine Crustacean Diversity than that of direct extraction.
Conservation
Several species of Marine crustaceans are currently listed as Protected under the Fauna and
Flora Protection Ordinance. These include the Painted/Harlequin/Orchid Shrimp (Hymenocera
elegans), Scarlet/Reef Lobsters in the genus Enoplometopus (E.ocedentalis ,E. debellius
and E.holthuisi) and the Hairy-red/ White-spotted Orange Hermit-Crab (Dardanus megistos).
However, providing legal protection to many species has not had a significant impact as on
site enforcement is ineffective. Therefore, the unregulated harvest/extraction of many species
of crustaceans tends to have significant impacts on their populations.
397
Most species of crustaceans still survive in the reefs located in the Northern and Eastern coast
that were spared of human impacts for 3 decades due to the war. However, these reefs are
also being subject to the same fate at present with the opening up of these areas after the
end of the war. Therefore, study and conservation of these reefs and their diversity is of prime
importance to ensure survival of these species and the crustacean bio-diversity of Sri Lanka.
The Current level of knowledge on marine Crustacea is far from complete with significant
gaps in the knowledge on many groups of taxa as well as the status of their populations. It is
important to carry out detailed studies on the Sri Lankan Marine Crustacean fauna as early as
possible as the populations are under threat both from excessive extraction as well as major
habitat loss.
Only a few studies have focussed on marine Crustacea of Sri Lanka. Further, most of the work
carried out by local scientists to date focused mainly on commercially important food species.
During the last 3 decades the diving scientists contributed significantly for the furthering of
knowledge on marine natural habitats including marine crustacea. The extensive extraction of
crustaceans as an export resource both as food and for the ornamental marine aquarium trade
have also indirectly added to the knowledge of species in our waters. As in the case of most
marine invertebrate fauna, a significant amount of work needs to be carried out to gain a better
understanding of the true diversity of marine Crustaceans of Sri Lanka as well as their biology
and conservation status.
An effort has to be taken to effectively enforce the existing fishing regulations with a better
mechanism for monitoring the efficiency of enforcement. Further, steps must be taken to phase
out tightly regulate all wild collection of Marine ornamental species. The financial benefits
achieved through exploitation of ornamental species for export can be nullified by the benefits
that can be accrued from tourism and the ecosystem services that can be obtained by retaining
healthy reefs. The greatest need however, is to conserve the critical marine habitats to ensure
long term survival of our rich marine biodiversity.
398
Provisional Check List of the Marine Crustaceans
Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name

Order: Pedunculata Family: Asteropidae
(Stalked barnacles)
Asterope oculata1
Family: Artemiidae
Asterope quadrata 1

Artrmia parthegenetica 22
Asterope arthuri 1

Family: Lepadidae
Lepas anserifera1 Goose Barnacle Cyclasterope similis 1

Lepas anatifera1 Goose Barnacle Family: Vypridinidae
Lepas tenuivulvata 1
Goose Barnacle Cypridina faveolata1
Dichelaspis equina 1
Pyrocypris chiechiae 1

Dichelaspis pellucida1 Codonocera crenulata 1

Paecilasma kempferi1 Family: Sarsiellidae
Sculpellum grurelli1
Sarsiella ornithoides1
Sculpellum alcockianum1
Sarsiella carinata 1

Sculpellum squamiferum1
Sarsiella gracilis1
Sculpellum truncatum1
Sculpellum tenue1 Sarsiella similis1
Sculpellum subflavum1 Sarsiella crispata1
Conchoderma sp.41 Whale Barnacle Sarsiella tumida 1

Order: Sessilia (Barnacles) Family: Halocyprididae
Family: Chthamalidae Conchoecia magna1
Chthamalus challengeri10 Star Barnacles Conchoecia clausii 1

Poli’s Stellate Conchoecia acuminata1
Chthamalus stellatus1 barnacle
Halocypris concha 1

Family: Tetraclitidae
Family: Cypridae
Tetraclita squamosa10 Acorn Barnacle
Macrocypris decora1
Tetraclita serrata1 Volcano Barnacle
Macrocypris orientalis 1

Family: Balanidae
Macrocypris similis 1

Balanus tintinabulum1,10 Acorn Barnacle
Macrocypris maculata1
Balanus amphitrite1,10 Acorn Barnacle
Pontocypris robusta 1

Balanus amaryllis1,10 Acorn Barnacle
Pontocypris elegans 1

Balanus longirostrum10 Acorn Barnacle
Pontocypris rostrata1
Armatobalanus allium1
Pontocypris tumida 1

Armatobalanus terebratus1
Eurythorocypris herdmani1
Solidobalanus socialis1
Bairdia villosa 1

Solidobalanus cilliatus1
Bairdia attenata 1

Pyrgoma conjugtum1,10 Acorn Barnacle
Bairdia woodwardiana1
Family: Cornulidae Bairdia amygdaloides 1

Chelonibia testudinaria42 Bairdia faveolata 1

Stephanolepas muricata42 Bairdia hirsuta1
Chelolepas cheloniae42 Bairdia inornata 1

Family: Pygomatidae Bairdia robusta 1

Creusia spinulosa1 Coral Barnacle Anchistrocheles bradyi1
Family Archaeobalanidae Pseudocythere minuta 1

Acasta cyathus1 Sponge barnacle Paradoxostoma cingalense 1

Acasta funiculorum1 Paradoxostoma attenuatum1
399
Paradoxostoma stebbingi1 Family: Odontodactylidae
Xestolebris margaritea 1
Peacock Mantis-
Xestolebris tumefacta1 Odontodactylus scyllarus30,31 Shrimp
Xestolebris aurentia1 Short-nose Mantis-

Odontodactylus brevirostris1 Shrimp
Xestolebris variegata1
Odontodactylus japonicus
Xestolebris squamigera 1

Family: Gonodactylidae
Xestolebris irrasa1
Gonodactylus chiragra1 Smasher Shrimp
Xestolebris tumida1
Purple-spot
Paracytheridea perplexa1 Gonodactylus smithii33 Smasher-Shrimp
Cytherura concinna1 Gonodactylaceus glabrous1 Smasher Shrimp
Loxoconcha anomala1 Gonodactylopsis herdmani 1
Smasher Shrimp
Loxoconcha alata1 Hoplosquilla acanthurus 1
Smasher Shrimp
Loxoconcha papillosa1 Family: Squillidae
Loxoconcha sculpta1 Spearer Mantis-
Loxoconcha australis 1
Harpiosquilla indica41 Shrimp
Cythere bimammillata1 Spearer Mantis-
Cythere darwini 1
Harpiosquilla raphidea1 Shrimp
Cythere inconspicua 1
Oratosquilla sp.41 Mantis-Shrimp
Cythere ovalis1 Family: Protosquillidae
Cythere polytrema 1
Rainbow Mantis
Pseudosquilla cillata1 Shrimp
Cythere rectangularis1
Haptosquilla trispinosa1
Cythere ruperti1
Chrlorisquilla spinosissima 1

Cythere stimpsoni1
Order:Mysida (Mysid
Cythere subcuneata1 shrimps)
Cythere knoxi1 Family: Mysidae
Cythere chalmersi1 Siriella paulsoni1 Mysid shrimp
Cythere imthurni 1
Haplostylus erythraeus1 Mysid shrimp
Cythere thompsoni1 Order: Amphipoda (Amphi-
Cythere donnani1 pods)
Cythere willeyi1 Family: Amaryllidae
Cythere hornelli1 Vijaya tenuipes11,12 Amphipod
Cythere halyi 1
Family: Lysianassidae
Cythere kelaarti1 Socarnella bonide12 Amphipod
Cythere willisi 1
Lysianassa cinghalens 12
Amphipod
Cythere coletti 1
Lysianassa coelochir12 Amphipod
Cythere holdsworthi1 Orehomenella nana 12
Amphipod
Family: Cytherellidae Tryphosa eucullata 12
Amphipod
Cytherella ondaatjei 1
Anonyx schmardae 12 Amphipod
Cytherella vraspillaii 1
Family: Ampeliscidae
Order: Leptostraca Ampelisca tridens 12 Amphipod
Family: Nebalidae Ampelisca scabries 12 Amphipod
Nebalia bipes 1
Ampelisca brevicornis 12
Amphipod
Order: Stromatopoda (man- Ampelisca cyclops 12 Amphipod
tis shrimps) Ampelisca zamboangae 12
Amphipod
Family :Lysiosquillidae Family: Haustoriidae
Spearing / Zebra Phtyischnopus herdmani 12 Amphipod
Lysiosquilla maculata30,31 Mantis-Shrimp
Urothoe spinidigitus 12
Amphipod
400
Family: Argissidae Photis longimanus12 Amphipod
Argissa hamatipes 12
Amphipod Photis nana 12
Amphipod
Family: Phoxocephalidae Cheriphotis megacheles12 Amphipod
Paraphoxus unicirostrata 12
Amphipod Chevaria avriculae 12
Amphipod
Family: Amphilochidae Family: Ampithoidae
Cyproidea ornata12 Amphipod Ampithoe ramondi12 Amphipod
Family: Leucothoidae Family: Corophidae
Leucothoe spinicarpa12 Amphipod Carapus abditus12 Amphipod
Leucothoe funima 12
Amphipod Erichthonius macrodactylus 12
Amphipod
Family: Anamyxidae Erichthonius brasillensis 12
Amphipod
Stenothoe gallensis12 Amphipod Siphonocaetes orientalis12 Amphipod
Stenothoe monoculoides 12
Amphipod Corophium triaenonyx 12
Amphipod
Family: Colomastigidae Family: Podoceridae
Colomastix pusilla12 Amphipod Podocerus laevis12 Amphipod
Family: Liljborgidae Podocerus zeylanicus 12
Amphipod
Liljborgia pallida 12
Amphipod Podocerus brasillensis 12
Amphipod
Family: Oedicerotidae Order: Isopoda (Isopods)
Periculodes serra 12
Amphipod Family: Cirolanidae
Family: Tironidae Cirolana willeyi11 Isopod
Tiron Thompsoni 12
Amphipod Family: Taneidae
Family: Eusiridae Tanais gracilis1 Isopod
Eusiroides diplinyx12 Amphipod Heterotanais crassicornis1 Isopod
Eusiroides orchomenipes 12
Leptochelia mirabilis 1
Isopod
Family: Atylidae Leptochelia lifuensis 1
Isopod
Atylus grannulosa12 Amphipod Family: Anthuridae
Family: Gammaridae Calathura sp.1 Isopod
Melita fresnelli 12
Amphipod Family: Gnathiidae
Melita obtusata12 Amphipod Gnathia insolita1 Isopod
Maera othonidea 12
Amphipod Family: Eurydicidae
Maera subcarinata12 Amphipod Cirolana sulcaticaudata1 Isopod
Maera tenella 12
Amphipod Cirolana parva 1
Isopod
Maera inaequipes 12
Amphipod Conilopheus herdmani 1
Isopod
Ceradocus rubromaculatus12 Amphipod Hansenolana sphaeromifor-
Elasmopus spinimanus12 Amphipod mis1 Isopod
Elasmopus pectinicrus12 Amphipod Family: Agarthonidae
Elasmopus dubius12 Amphipod Agarthona normani1 Isopod
Parelasmopus suluensis12 Amphipod Lanochira gardineri 1

Isopod
Family: Dexamanidae Lanochira zeylanica 1

Isopod
Dexamine serraticrus Amphipod Family: Aegidae
Polycheria atolli 12
Amphipod Aega ommatophylax1 Isopod
Family: Melphidippidae Rocinela orientalis 1

Isopod
Hornella incerta 12
Amphipod Family: Cymothoidae
Family: Aoridae Anilocra dimidiata1 Isopod
Lembos podoceroides12 Amphipod Rhiothra callipia1 Isopod
Lembos chelatus12 Amphipod Irona nanaoides 1

Isopod
Family: Photidae Nerocila sigani 18

Isopod
Eurytheus atlanticus12 Amphipod Family: Sphyromidae
Photis longicaudata 12
Amphipod Sphyroma walkeri1 Isopod
401
Cilicaea latreillii1 Isopod Parapenaeopsis nana3 Dwarf Shrimp
Cilicaea whiteleggei 1
Isopod Parapenaeopsis sculptilis 3
Rainbow Shrimp
Cilicaea beddardi1 Isopod Parapenaeopsis stylifera3 Kiddi Shrimp
Cymodoce bicarinata 1
Isopod Smoothshell
Cymodoce inornata1 Isopod Parapenaeopsis tenella3 Shrimp
Family: Amesopodidae Parapenaeopsis uncta3 Uncta Snrimp
Amesopous richardsonae1 Isopod Parapenaeus longipes 3

Flamingo Shrimp
Family: Idoteidae Indian White

Peneus indicus3 Shrimp
Idotea sp.1 Isopod
Peneus merguiensis3 Banana Prawn
Family: Astacillidae
Penaeus canaliculatus3 Witch Prawn
Astacilla amblyurna1 Isopod
Western King-
Family: Janiridae Penaeus latisulcatus3 prawn
Janira nana1 Isopod Penaeus monodon3 Giant Tiger Prawn
Jaeropsis curvicornis1 Isopod Penaeus semisulcatus 3
Green Tiger Prawn
Faamily: Stenetriidae Penaeus japonicus 43

Stenetrium chiltoni1 Isopod Trachypenaeus cavirostris3 Cocktail Shrimp
Family: Munnidae Trachypenaeus granulosus 3
Coarse Shrimp
Pleurocope dasyura1 Isopod Malayan Rough
Family: Ligiidae Trachypenaeus sedili3 Shrimp
Sea Slater /Sea Family: Solenoceridae
Ligia exotica1 roach Solenocera choprai4 Ridgeback Shrimp
Order: Euphausiacea (Krill) Coastal Mud
Family: Euphausiidae Solenocera crassicornis4 Shrimp
Euphausia sibogae24 Krill Deep Sea Mud
Euphausia paragibba11 Krill Solenocera hexii4 Shrimp
Euphausia mutica1 Krill Family: Sergastidae
Euphausia latifrons1 Krill Jawla paste

Acetes indicus4 Shrimp
Nematoscelis microps 1
Krill
Tsivakihini paste
Order: Decapoda (Prawns, Acetes eurythaeus4 Shrimp
shrimps)
Acetes japonicus4
Family: Penaeidae
Acetes sibogei 4

Atypopeneus stenodactylus3 Periscope Shrimp
Acetes johni4
Metapenaeops hilarula3 Minstrel Shrimp
Leucifer typus 4

Metapenaeops mogiensis3 Velvet Shrimp
Family: Stenopodidae
Metapenaeops stridulans3 Fiddler Shrimp
Banded Boxing
Metapenaeops toloensis3 Tolo Velvet Shrimp Stenopus hispidus41 Shrimp
Metapenaeus affinis3 Jinga Shrimp Blue-legged Box-
Metapenaeus dobsoni 3
Kadal Shrimp Stenopus cyanoscelis41 ing shrimp
Metapenaeus elegans3 Fine Shrimp Zanzibar Boxing
Stenopus zanzibaricus41 Shrimp
Greasyback
Metapenaeus ensis3 Shrimp Stenopus goyi41
Metapenaeus lysianassa 3 Bird Shrimp Kalpitiya boxing
Stenopus sp.41 shrimp
Metapenaeus monoceros 3
Speckled Shrimp
Family: Palaemoninae
Metapenaeus moyebi 3
Moyebi Shrimp
Macrobrachium rosenbergii3 Giant River Prawn
Parapenaeopsis acclivirostris3 Hawknose Shrimp
Rough River
Parapenaeopsis cornuta3 Coral Shrimp
Macrobrachium equidens3 Prawn
Parapenaeopsis coroman- Coromandel
Macrobrachium rude3 Hairy River Prawn
delica3 Shrimp
Macrobrachium latimanus 4

Parapenaeopsis maxillipedo3 Torpedo Shrimp
402
Monsoon River Alpheus malleodigitatus1
Macrobrachium malcomsoni 4
Prawn Bristle Snapping
Expalaemon stylifer3 Rushna Shrimp Alpheus spongiarum1 Shrimp
Nematopalaemon tenuipes4 Spider Prawn Alpheus paralcyone1
Brachycarpus biunguiculatus 18
Alpheus miersi 1

Urocaridella antonbruunii32 Alpheus pareuchirus1
Family: Pontoininae Flathead Snapping
Periclimenes imperator32 Emperor Shrimp Alpheus bi-incisus 1 Shrimp
Peacock-tail Alpheus edwardsii1

Periclimenes brevicarpalis 32
Anemone Shrimp Alpheus malabaricus 1

Periclimenes magnificus32 Anemone shrimp Cauliflower coral
Purple spotted Alpheus lottini1 snapping shrimp
Periclimenes holthuisi32 cleaner Shrimp Synalpheus laticeps1
Periclimenes soror32 Sea star Shrimp Synalpheus biunguiculatus1
Periclimenes tenuipes 32
Synalpheus comatulorum 1

Periclimenes psamathe 32
Synalpheus neomeris 1

Periclimenes incertus18 Synalpheus carinatus1
Periclimenes spp. 41
Athanas nitescens 1

White Striped Athanas orientalis 1

Stegopontonia commensalis32 Urchin Shrimp Potamalpheops galle23
Vir phillippinus32 Family: Crangonidae
Coralliocaris viridis18 Coral shrimp Aegaeon cataphractus1
Coralliocaris sp.41 Family: Hippolytidae
Jocuste lucina18 Exhippolysmata ensirostris3 Hunter Shrimp
Harpiliopsis beaupresii 18
Peppermint
Harpiliopsis depressa18 Lysmata amboinensis41 Cleaner Shrimp
Kamponia elegans18 Scarlet Cleaner
Kamponia grandis18 Lysmata debellius41 Shrimp
Kamponia tenuipes18 Pepermint Cleaner

Lysmata vittata41,1 Shrimp
Family: Pandalidae
Saron marmorata41,1 Marbled Shrimp
Indian Nylon
Heterocarpus woodmasoni3 Shrimp Spotted Marbled
Saron neglectus41 Shrimp
Family: Atyidae
Saron spp.41 Marbled Shrimp
Atyopsis moluccensis
Thor amboinensis 41
Ambon Shrimp
Caradina vitiensis1
Heptacarpus futilirostris 1

Family: Rhynchocinetidae
Latreutes ceylonensis1
Camel / Hinge-
Rhynchocinetus durbanensis41 beak shrimp Family: Gnathophyllidae
Uniform-hingebeak Gnathophyllum americanum41 Bumblebee Shrimp

Cinetorhynchus concolor41 Shrimp Family: Hymnoceridae
Henderson’s Painted/ Orchid/
hendersoni Hingebeak Shrimp Hymenocera elegans41 Harlequin Shrimp
Family: Alphaedae Family: Thalasssinidea
Alpheus soror 23
Thalassina anomala8 Mub Lobster
Fasquel’s snap- Family: Palinuridae
Alpheus fasqueli23 ping shrimp. Ornate Spiny
Three-colored Panulirus ornatus3 Lobster
Alpheus tricolor23 snapping shrimp. Painted Spiny
Alpheus bellulus41 Tiger Pistol Shrimp Panulirus versicolor3 Lobster
Alpheus ideocheles1 Longlegged Spiny
Panulirus longipes3 lobster
403
Scalloped Spiny Family: Diogenidae
Panulirus homarus3 lobster Aniculus aniculus (?)41 Red Hermit Crab
Pronghorn Spiny Aniculus maximus41
Panulirus penicilliatus3 Lobster
Hairy red Hermit
Panulirus polyphagus3 Mud Spiny Lobster Dardanus magistos41 Crab
Arabian Whip Dardanus logopodes41 Hare Hermit Crab
Puerulus sewelli3 lobster
Dardanus pedunculatus 41

Family: Scyllaridae
Blue-knee Hermit
Sculptured Mitten Dardanus guttatus41 Crab
Parribacus antarcticus3 Lobster
Jewelled hermit
Scyllarus batei3 Soft locust Lobster Dardanus gemmatus41 crab
Striated locust Dardanus setifer41
Scyllarus martensii3 Lobster
Dardanus deformis 5
Pale hermit Crab
Thenus orientalis3 Flathead Lobster
Dardanus aspar5
Family: Nephropidae
Diogenes diogenes 5

Enoplometopus occidentalis41 Red Reef lobster
Diogenes miles 5

Holthuis’s Reef
Enoplometopus holthuisi 41
Lobster Diogenes custos5
Debellius’s reef Diogenes costatus 5

Enoplometopus debellius 41
Lobster Trizopagurus kremfi 5

Family: Galatheidae Calcinus herbsti5
Uroptchas bacillimanus 9
Squat lobster Yellow antennae
Uroptchas indicus9 Squat lobster Calcinus gaimardi41 hermit Crab
Uroptchas nonophrys9 Squat lobster Left-handed Her-

Calcinus laevimanus41 mit Crab
Agononida prolixa9 Squat lobster
Seurat’s hermit
Allogalethea elegans9 Squat lobster Calcinus seurati41 Crab
Galacantha bellis9 Squat lobster Calcinus taeniatus41
Galathea australensis 9
Squat lobster Greenish Hermit
Galathea corallicola9 Squat lobster Calcinus virescens41 Crab
Munida japonica9 Squat lobster Hidden Hermit
Munida microps 9
Squat lobster Calcinus latens41 Crab
Munidopsis antonil9 Squat lobster Calcinus morgani41
Munidopsis bairdii9 Squat lobster Paguristes incomitatus 41

Munidopsis edwardsii9 Squat lobster clibanarius pedavensis5
Munidopsis sinclari9 Squat lobster White finger Her-

clibanarius bimaculatus41 mit Crab
Munidopsis spissata9 Squat lobster
Long-legged Her-
Munidopsis wardeni9 Squat lobster clibanarius longitarsus5 mit Crab
Raymunida elegantissima9 Squat lobster Ribbed Hermit
Family: Porcellanidae clibanarius striolatus5 Crab
Ancylocheles gravelei7 Porcellaine crab clibanarius merguiensis5
Petrolisthes ornatus 7
Porcellaine crab Spotted Black
Neopetrolisthes maculatus 41
Porcellaine crab clibanarius cruentatus41 Hermit crab
Family: Hippidae clibanarius aequabilis7
Emerita asiatica41 Mole Crab Family: Paguridae
Emerita rathbunae ?41 Mole Crab Pagurus sp.41 Hermit crab
Family: Cenobitidae Coral boring her-

Paguritta spp.41 mits”
Stridulating Land
Cenobita rugosa41 Hermit Crab Family: Dromiidae
Strawberry Land Dromia dromia6

Cenobita c.f. perlates 41
hermit crab Dromia Intermedia 1

404
Dromia dehanni14 Sponge crab Urnalena haematosticta1
Dromiopsis australensis 1
Hiplyra platycheir 1

Cryptodromia canaliculata 1
Hiplyra adamsi1
Cryptodromia bullifera 1
Hiplyra elegans 19

Cryptodromia demani 1
Philyra globus1
Cryptodromia hilgendorfi1 Pseudophilyra tridentata 1

Cryptodromia gilesi 1
Pseudophilyra melita 1

Conchaecetus artificiosus 1
Heterolithadia fallax1
Conchaecetus andamanicus1 Arcania gracilis 1

Family: Raninnidae Arcania erinaceus 1

Rannina ranina 14
Spanner Crab Arcania tuberculata1
Notosceles serratifrons1 Ixa pulcherrima 1

Family: Dorippidae Ixa cylindrus 1

Notopus dorsipes 1
=Dorippe dorsipes Family: Majidae
Dorippoides facchino1 =Dorippe facchino Sunipea indicus1
Family: Calappidae Menaethius monoceros41
Calappa calappa41 Giant Box Crab Schizophrys aspera 6

Calappa lophos 2
Box Crab Paramithrax aculeatus 6

Calappa gallus 2
Lumpy Box Crab Hyastenus plannasius6
Calappa hepatica2 Reef Box Crab Maja proteus 1

Calappa capellonis 2
Box Crab Micippa philyra 1

Calappa japonica 41
Box Crab Micippa thalia1
Calappa phillargius 2 Box Crab Micippa margaritifera 1

Mursia bicristimana 1
Micippa parca 1

Cyloes marisrubri 1
Schizophrys aspera1
Family: Matutidae Cyclax suborbicularis 1

Matuta planipes 41
moon Crab Phalangipus arachnoides 1

Matuta victor2 moon Crab Pseudomicippe nodosa1
Ashtoret lunaris 41
moon Crab Rochinia sp. 14
Spider crab
Ashtoret miersii 2
moon Crab Hyas araneus14 Spider crab
Ashtoret picta2 moon Crab Family: Inachidae
Family: Leucosidae Achaeus lacertosus1
Leucosia pubescens 6
Pebble Crab Achaeus dubia1
Leucosia anatum1 Pebble Crab Oncinopus aranea 1

Myra affinis 15
Pebble Crab Paratymolus hastatus 1

Myra brevimanna 15
Pebble Crab Camposcia retusa1 Decorator crab
Myra fugax 15
Pebble Crab Family: Epialtidae
Myrine kesslerii 15
Pebble Crab Xenocarcinus tuberculatus1
Cryptocnemus holdsworthi1 Simocarcinus simplex1
Oreotlos havelocki 1
Menaethius monoceros 1

Nursia plicata 1
Acanthonyx scutellatus1
Nursia lar1 Hyastenus pleione 1

Ebalia diadumenna 1
Nut Crab Hyastenus hilgendorfi 1

Ebalia maldiviensis 1
Nut Crab Hyastenus convexus1
Euclosiana obtusifrons1 Hyastenus brockii 1

Coleusia urania 1
Naxioides hirtas 1

Urnalena cumingi 1
Naxiodes investigatoris1
Doclea rissoni 1

405
Doclea alcocki1 Family: Atelecyclidae
Tylocarcinus styx 1
Twin horn Helmut
Family: Hymenosomatidae Trachycarcinus ovalis2 Crab
Elamena cristatipes6 Family: Corystidae
Elamena sindens13 Twin-Horn Helmut

Gomeza bicornis1 Crab
Elamena truncata 1

Family: Thiidae
Elamenopsis woodmasoni 13

Palapedia integra
Elamenopsis tuberculata13
Family: Portunidae
Family: Aethridae
Catoptrus nitidus1,2
Aethera scruposa2,16 Stone Crab
Lissocarcinus laevis1,2
Drachiella sculpta1
Lissocarcinus orbicularis 1,2

Family: Parthinopidae
Lissocarcinus polybioides 1,2

Cryptopodia angulata20 Bat Crab
Blue swimming
Lambrus carinatus1 Portunus pelagicus3 Crab/ Flower Crab
Rhinolambrus pelagicus1,2 Three-spot Swim-
Aulacolambrus hoplodontus1 Portunus sanguinolentus3 ming crab
Lambrus calappoides1,2 Portunus argentatis2
Pseudolambrus beaumonti 1,2
Portunus gracillimanus 1,2

Pseudolambrus harpax1 Portunus grannulatus1
Aulacolambrus curvispinis 1
Portunus haani 1

Rhinolambrus contrarius 1,2
Portunus longispinus 1

Rhinolambrus longispinis1 Portunus hastatoides1
Parthenope longimanus 2
Portunus convexus 1

Parthenope echinatus 2
Portunus petreus1
Parthenope cybelis 2
Portunus euglyphus 1

Parthenope lamellifrons 2
Portunus spinipes 1

Parthenope longimanus 2,1
Portunus longispinosus1
Parthenope petalophorus 2
Macropipus tuberculatus 1

Doldorfia horrida 2
Rubble Crab Neptunus argentatus 1

Common Buckler Neptunus hastatoides1
Cryptopodia fornicata1,2 Crab Neptunus tenuipes(de Haan
Cryptopodia pan1 1835)1
Furtipodia petrosa1 Cavoportunus dubius1
Family: Scalopidiidae Lupocyclus rotundatus 1,2

Scalopidia spinosipes 1
Lupocyclus philippinensis 1

Family: Pilumnidae Charybdis cruciata41 Cross Crab
Zebrida adamsi 1
Charybdis miles 41
Soldier Crab
Harrovia albolineata 1
Charybdis ferriata41
Pilumnus cursor 1
Charybdis annulatus 2,6

Pilumnus longicornis 1,2
Charybdis helleri 2

Pilumnus minutus 2
Charybdis lucifera2,6
Pilumnus vespertillio 1,2
Charybdis natator 1,2

Actumnus setifer 1
Charybdis orientalis 1,2

Actumnus asper1 Charybdis ornata1
Actumnus calypso 1
Thalamita chaptali 1,2

Actumnus fissifrons 1
Mangrove Swim-
Mertonia lanka1 Thalamita crenata1,2 ming Crab
Thalamita ocules2 Swimming Crabs
406
Thalamita picta2 Swimming Crabs Atergatis integerrimus2 Bashful Crab
Thalamita prymna 1,2
Swimming Crabs Atergatopsis alcocki 2,1
Actaea alcocki
Thalamita chaptali1 Swimming Crabs Actumnus setifer1,2
Thalamita sexlobata 2
Swimming Crabs Actumnus squamosus 2

Thalamita sima2 Swimming Crabs Carpilius maculatus41 Spotted reef Crab
Thalamita poissoni 1
Swimming Crabs Carpilius convexus 41
Red Egg Crab
Thalamita admete 1
Swimming Crabs Cymo andreossyi 1,2

Thalamita exetastica1 Swimming Crabs Cymo melanodactylus2
Thalamita integra 1
Swimming Crabs Calmania prima 1

Thalamita investigatoris 1
Swimming Crabs Calvactaea tumida 2

Thalamita sexlobata1 Swimming Crabs Chlorodiella nigra1
Thalamita woodmasoni 1
Swimming Crabs Chlorodiella laevissima 25

Thalamita oculea 1
Swimming Crabs Chlorodopsis areolata 1

Podophthalmus sp.41 Chlorodopsis pilumnoides1
Scylla cirrata 3
Giant Mud Crab Calamania prima 2

Scylla olivacea Orange Mud Crab Demania buccalipes2
Scylla tranquebarica Purple Mud Crab Demania splendida 1

Macropipus tuberculatus 1
Epixanthus frontalis 2

Family: Goneplacidae Euxanthus exsculptus2
Mertonia lankae 2
Euxanthus herdmani 1

Family: Trapeziidae Etisus analglypticus 2

Trapezia wardi41 Etisus splendidus41 Splendid Spooner
Cymodoce Guard Etisus laevimanus 25,41
Smooth Spooner
Trapezia cymodoce1,2 Crab Red-eyed Rock
Trapezia digitalis2 Eriphia scabricula2 Crab
Trapezia ferruginea1,2 Red-eyed Rock
Trapezia lutea 2
Eriphia sebana ?41 Crab
Crimson-spotted Red-eyed Rock

Trapezia rufopunctata 1,2
Guard Crab Eriphia smithi ??41 Crab
Honey-combed Eumedonus zebra2

Trapezia septata 2
Guard Crab Forestia depressa2
Trapezia tigrina 2
Gaillardius rupelliae 2

Trapezia maculata 1
Gorgonariana sodalis 2

Tetralia glaberrima1,2 Harrovia albilineata2
Tetralia rubridactyla 2
Harrovia elegans 2

Quadrellia coronata1,2 Hypocolpus rugulosus1
Quadrellia maculosa 2
Halimede ochtodes 1

Quadrellia reticulata 2
Lybia caestifera 2

Family: Xanthiidae Liomera bella2
Actaea calculosa 1,2
Liomera cinctimana 2
Colourful reef crab
Actaeaperonii 1
Liomera tristis 1

Actaea granulata1 Liomera laevis41
Actaea savignii 2,6
Liomera monticulosa 2

Actaea speciosa 25
Liomera rugata 2

Actaea rupelliae1 Liomera venosa2 Ruby Reef Crab
Actaeodes tomentosum 2
Lophozosymus incisus 1,2

Atergatis diladatus2 Lophozosymus dodone1
Atergatis floridus 2
Flowery Crab Lophozosymus pulchellus 1,2

407
Leptodius exaratus1,2 Family: Palicidae
Macromadaeus crassimanus 2
Pseudopalicus serripes1,2
Macromadaeus distinguen- Family: Gecarcinidae
dus1 Cardiosoma carnifex41 Brown land Crab
Menippe rumphii 2
Family: Grapsidae
Neoxanthops lineatus1,2 Common Sally
Nanopilumnus rouxi 2
Grapsus tenuicrustatus41 light-foot Crab
Ozius rugulosus2,6 Mottled Sally light-
Ozius tuberculosus 1
Grapsus albolineatus2 foot Crab
Palapedia nitida 1
Swift footed rock
Grapsus strigosus14 crab
Pseudoliomera speciosa1,2
Varuna literata41 Paddler Crab
Pseudoliomera variolosa 1

Red-brick Shore
Psaumis cavipes2 Geograpsus stormii41 Crab
Pseudoactaea corallina2 Geograpsus crinipes1 Brown Land Crab
Platypodia anaglypta 1,2
Green-lined Flat
Platypodia ceylonica41 Percnon planissimum1,2 Crab
Pilodius aereolatus2 Red-eyed Flat
Pilodius pugil 1,2
Percnon guinotae41 Crab
Phymodius nitidens2 Plagussia depressa1 Rafting Crab
Phymodius ungulatus2 Metopograpsus latifrons 2

Rock crab
Phymodius sculptus25 Metopograpsus messor 1,8,14

Rock crab
Paraxanthias notatus1,2 Metopograpsus thukhar21
Serenius ceylonicus1,2 Parasesarma plicatum 2

Xantho scabrerrimus6 Family: Macrophthalmidae
Xanthias lamarcki1,2 Lamarck’s Crab Macrophthalmus latreillei2 Sentinel Crab
Xanthias punctatus2 Macrophthalmus depressus 8

Zebrida adamsi2 Pseudoserarma edwardsii 1

Zosymus anaeus 25,41

Killer Crab Neosermatium malabaricum8
Zosymodus cavipes2 Venitus latreillei 1

Family: Cryptochiridae Family: Sesarmidae
Hepalocarcinus marsupialis2 Coral gall crabs Face-banded Ses-

Perisesarma indiarum8 armine Crab
Family: Pinnotheridae
Perisesarma bidens2,8 Red Clawed Crab
Pinnotheres margaritiferae1 Pea crab
Perisesarma darwinensis 8

Family: Ocypodidae
Perisesarma bengalensis
Ocypode saratan41 Ghost Crab
Perisesarma guttatum21
Horn-eyed Ghost
Ocypode ceratophthalma1 crab Episesarma versicolor 21

Smooth-handed Neosermatium smithii 21

Ocypode cordimana2 Ghost Crab Family: ?
Stalk eyed ghost Lahaina agassizi1
Ocypode platytasus 1,14
crab Thysaenys pehlevi 1

Uca annulipes1,2 Fiddler Crab Naxia spinosa1
Uca vocans2 Fiddler Crab Thusaenys irami 1

Uca lactea8 Fiddler Crab Paramithrax longispinosus1
Uca dussumieri8 Fiddler Crab Stenocionops cervicornis 1

Dotilla myctiroides17 Soldier Crab Neopalicus jukesii 1

Scopimera pilula41 Sand-bubbler Crab
408
References
1 W. A. Herdman, 1903-6. Report To The Government Of Ceylon On The Pearl Oyster Fisheries Of The Gulf Of
Mannar. The Royal Society Vol. I-V
2 Dr. Tsune Sakai. 1976. Crabs Of Japan And The Adjacent Seas revised and extended by: Dr. Michael Türkay,.
Dr. Danièle Guinot, Dr. Peter Davie
3 George H.P. De Bruin, Barry Russell, Andre Bogusch. 1994. FAO Species Identification Field Guide for Fishery
Purposes. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations
4 W. Fischer, G. Bianchi (eds). 1984. FAO Species Identification Sheets For Fishery Purposes: Western Indian
Ocean- Fishing Area 51. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations. Volume I-V
5 M, M. Thomas. On A Collection Of Hermitcrabs From The Indian Waters Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute, Cochin-6S2 031
6 Chaapgar, B.F. 1957. Marine Crabs Of Bombay State. Theraporevala Marine Biological Station
7 Feroz A. Siddiqui And Quddusi B. Kazmi1986 A Checklist Of Marine Anomurans (Crustacea: Decapoda) Of
Pakistan, Northern Arabian Sea
8 Leonard Pinto. Mangroves Of Sri Lanka. Naresa
9. Patricia Cabezas, Chia-Wei Lin, Martha Nizinski, Celso Rodrigues & Kareen E. Schnabel. 2008. Catalogue Of
Squat Lobsters Of The World. J. Zootaxa
10 A.Daniel. Marine Inter-Tidal Barnacles Of The Indian Ocean. Marine survey division Zoological surveys of India
11 World Register Of Marine Species (Website)
12 K. Nagappan Nayar. On The Gammaridean Amphipoda Of The Gulf Of Mannar, With Special Reference To
Those Of The Pearl And Chank Beds*
13 Lucas, J. S., 1980. Spider Crabs Of The Family Hymenosomatidae Records of the Australian Museum 33(4):
148–247.
14 Kuganathan, S.,2008. A Monograph On Marine Crabs Of Point- Pedro Coast Sri Lanka
15 B.S. Galil. 1817. A Revision Of Myra Leach, (Crustacea: Decapoda: Leucosioidea)
16 Peter K. L. Ng. A Synopsis Of The Genus Aethra Latreille
17 Christopher John Allen Ecology Of The Intertidal Crab Dotilla Intermedia From Tsunami-Impacted Beaches In
Thailand
18 Xinzheng LI, Alexander Bruce. 2006. Further Indo-West Pacific palaemonoid shrimps. Journal of Natural
History,; 40(11–12): 611–738
19 Reza Naderloo & M. Apel. 2009. Leucosiid Crabs of the Genus Hiplyra Galil, (Crustacea: Brachyura:
Leucosiidae) from the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, with Description of a New Species
20 S. Ravichandran*, Ramasamy Anbuchezhian, K. Sivasubramaniyan & G. Rameshkumar . Southeast Coast
of India
21 S.H.R.Priyadarshini, S.C. Jayamanna & Y.N. Hirimuthugoda. 2008. Diversity Of Crabs In Kadolkele, Negombo
Estuary, NARA SRI Lanka. S.L. J. Aquatic sci. 13
22 M.M. Kuruppu & S.U.K.Ekarathne.1995. Characterization Of Brine Shrimp Artemia From Sri Lanka. J. Natn.
Sci. Coun. Sri Lanka 23(4)
23 Arthur Anker. 2005. Presence of the alpheid shrimp genus potamalpheops powell. The raffles bulletin of
zoology Supplement No. 12: 31–37
24 K. J. Jayalakshmi, P. Jasmine, K. R.Muraleedharan, M. P. Prabhakaran, H. Habeebrehman, Josia Jacob, and
C. T. Achuthankutty. 2011. Aggregation of Euphausia sibogae during Summer Monsoon along the Southwest
Coast of India. Journal of marine biology
25 C. SANKARANKUTTY. 1962. On Decapoda Brachyura From The Andaman And Nicobar Islands, Family
Xanthidae**. J. Mar. biol Ass. India
26 Notes on Crustacea Decapoda in the Indian Museum. XII. Secpimerinae Stanley Kemp Records of the Indian
Museum 16:305-348 (1919)
27 Christian Schmidt & Andreas Leistikow. Catalogue of genera of the terrestrial Isopoda (Crustacea: Isopoda:
Oniscidea)
28 Shane T. Ahyong. 2001. Revision Of The Australian Stomatopod Crustacea. Records of the Australian Museum
409
29 Stephenson, W., and Frank A. McNeill, 1955. The Australian Stomatopoda,(Crustacea) In The Collections Of
The Australian Museum, with a check list and key to the known Australian species. Records of the Australian
Museum 23(5): 239–265.
30 Prasanna Weerakkody and Laksiri Kaurnarathne. 1993. Status And Bio-Diversity Of The Buona-Vista Coral
Reef, Rumassala, Galle. Natcog 1993-4
31 Prasanna Weerakkody, Nishan Perera. 2005. A Biodiversity Status Profile Of Sub-Tidal And Inter Tidal Habitats
Of The Rekawa, Ussangoda And Kalametiya Area. Occasional papers of IUCN Sri Lanka, No.5, March
32 Ranjith De Silva, Prasanna Weerakkody. 2010. Study 18, A Review Of Coral Reefs On The East Coast Of Sri
Lanka: Distribution, Ecology, Status And Threats. Green tech Consultants/NECCDEP.
33 Stanley Kemp. 1919. Notes on crustacea decapoda in the indian museum. Xii. Scopimerinae Records of the
Indian Museum 16:305-348
34 Mathew D. Richmond. 1997. A guide to the seashores of eastern africa. Sida
35 Patrick Collins & Charles Arneson. 1991. Tropical Pacific Invertebrates. CRRF
36 Terrance Gosliner, David Behrens & Gary Williams. 1996. Coral Reef Animals Of The Indo-Pacific. Sea
Challengers
37 Gerald Allen, Roger Steene. 1994. Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide. Tropical Reef Research
38 Holthuis, L.B. 1980. Shrimps And Prawns Of The World. An annotated catalogue of species of interest to
fisheries: FAO species catalogue. Vol.1. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations
40 Xinzheng Li & Alexander J. Bruce. Further Indo-West Pacific Palaemonoid Shrimps
41 Authors personal recods- Prasanna Weerakkody
42 Deraniyagala, 1939
43 S. Kuganathan personal records
*In addition to personal observations and records; species with specific records from Sri Lanka or Gulf of Mannar
for mud/sand living species were included in the list from published sources. Where published data was available I
have given precedence to the record it over my own records.
**Records from Herdman need updating- this has been carried out in some sections. Not all taxa from Herdman
have been added where more aiuthoratative recent lists were available and due to in sufficient time to verify all
records.
410
Provisional Checklist of Marine fish of Sri Lanka
Terney P. Kumara P.B. and Kasun R. Dalpathadu
Department of Oceanography and Marine Geology, University of Ruhuna, Matara
Introduction
Consisting of more than 32,000 species, marine fish are the most diverse group of organisms
among the chordates (Froese & Pauly, 2012). They are found in most bodies of water and
found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even
hadal depths of the deepest oceans. Depending on the oceanic zone they occupy, fish can
be divided into three main categories, pelagic, demersal and reef fishes. Pelagic fish live near
the surface or in the water column of coastal, ocean and lake waters. Demersal fish, live on or
near the bottom of the water body while reef fish are associated with coral reefs (Lal & Fortune,
2000). Marine pelagic fish can be divided into coastal (inshore) fish and oceanic (offshore)
fish (McLintock, 2007). Coastal fish inhabit the relatively shallow and sunlit waters above the
continental shelf, while oceanic fish (which may well also swim inshore) inhabit the vast and
deep waters beyond the continental shelf (Walrond, 2007).
Fish are an important resource worldwide, especially as a source of protein. Commercial and
subsistence fishery depend on wild stocks or more intensive culture of selected fish species
under captive conditions. Marine fish are also caught by recreational fishers, kept as pets,
raised by fish keepers, and exhibited in public aquaria. Therefore, depending on the use, fish
can be divided mainly into major categories, food fish and recreational fish. Sri Lanka enjoys
an eight time larger maritime zone than its land area. A variety of habitats such as sea grass
beds, lagoons, estuaries, coral reefs and fertile coastal waters around the country. These
diverse array of habitats support a rich marine fish fauna.
Taxonomy
A complete systematic study of Sri Lankan marine fish is still lacking. However, the literature
on Sri Lankan fishes dates back to the early 19th century (De Bruin, et al., 1994). Most of the
early records of Sri Lankan marine fish have appeared in ‘Ceylon Journal of Science’ and in
various reports by marine biologists appointed by the Sri Lankan government (Munro, 1955; De
Bruin, et al., 1994). Among them Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, the former Director of the national
Museum in Colombo and Ian S. R. Munro (1955) has made remarkable contribution to further
our knowledge on marine fish (De Bruin, et al., 1994). Munro (1955) has listed 856 marine,
brackish water and fresh water fish species for Sri Lanka. However, at present most of these
early taxonomic works have been largely revisited and eclipsed by more modern taxonomic
treatments. De Bruin, et al. (1994) lists about 800 marine and brackish water fishes in Sri
Lankan waters. The FAO “Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles of Sri Lanka” (FAO, 2004)
indicates that there are about 975 marine and brackish water fish (610 species of coastal fish,
60 species of sharks, 90 species of oceanic pelagic species of fish and 215 demersal species).
In addition, Öhman, Rajasuriya, & Linden (1993) have listed over 300 species of reef and reef
associated fish belonging to 62 families. Thus, the actual number of marine and brackish water
fishes living in Sri Lankan Waters could be in excess of 1800 species (The Government of Sri
Lanka, 2006; Weerakkody, 2012).
411
Threats
In addition to the excess fishing pressure, marine fish are facing number of problems including
environmental degradation, e.g., discharge of contaminated waters by domestic and foreign
vessels, heated water from land based industries, pollutants and other nonbiodegradable
materials (such as oil spills). Higher amounts of nutrients and toxic pollutants in the coastal waters
also cause stress conditions and physiological changes that leads to reduced reproductive
rates, shorter life spans, behavioural changes, rapid expansion or total disappearance of
some species. In addition, climate change, ocean acidification and sea level rise could further
aggravate these conditions.
Overfishing, fishing in proscribed areas and use of unauthorized gears and methods all have
major impacts on the marine fish resource, which require immediate attention. Blast fishing,
bottom set nets, moxy nets, trammel nets, trawl nets and push nets are banded in Sri Lanka.
Though it is banned, moxy nets are frequently used as a fishing gear by ornamental fish
catchers. The use of trawl nets, especially by Indian fishermen in Sri Lankan territorial waters
has become a major threat not only to marine fish fauna, but also to the complete ecosystem
in the North and North western parts of the country.
Conservation
Sri Lanka has ratified and signed several international treaties in order to conserve and
manage marine fish resources in a sustainable manner. Further, there are number of state level
legislations available to conserve and effectively manage marine and coastal fish resources.
Some of them directly control the management of marine fish resources while others can be
used indirectly to regulate the exploitation of marine fish.
Sri Lanka has also established four Marine Protected areas, The Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary,
Rumassala Marine Sanctuary, Pigeon Island National Park and Hikkaduwa National Park and
two fisheries management areas, Great and Little Basses fisheries management area and
Polhena fisheries management area. Although several MPAs exist in Sri Lanka, most are not
managed, and resource extraction and habitat degradation continue unabated (Perera & De
Vos, 2007). In 1998, the Export and Import of Live Fish Regulations were introduced. These
regulations define which species of fish are prohibited from being exported or imported and
denote that permits are required to export certain fish species and/or live fish eggs, roe or
spawn.
Marine fish resources are over exploited in most part of the country and the fishing stress is
unimaginable. However still there are rarely exploited resources in deep sea environments
where the possibility for undescribed species is still very high. Further, the expansion of EEZ
into the high seas may add new species to the marine fish list of Sri Lanka. Thus the actual
number of marine fish spices in Sri Lankan waters may be higher than the recorded number in
this provisional check list.
All the species and family names were checked for the synonyms using the online resources
(World Register of Marine Species and Fish Base). Thus the currently accepted name is listed
with its synonym and its source for easy verification.
412
References
De Bruin, G. H. P., Russell, B. C. & Bogusch, A., (1994). FAO Species Identification Field Guide for Fishery Purpose:
The Marine Fishery Resources in Sri Lanka. Rome: FAO.
Froese, R. & Pauly, D. eds., (2012). FishBase [Online] (Updated October 2012)
Available at: <http://www.fishbase.org/search.php> [Accessed 22 November 2012].
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), (2004-2012). Fishery and Aquaculture Country
profiles: Sri Lanka. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online] (Updated 5 August 2004).
Available at: <http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/FI-CP_LK/en> [Accessed 22 November 2012].
Lal, B. V. & Fortune, K. eds., (2000). The Pacific Islands: An encyclopedia. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu.
McLintock, A. H. ed., (1966). An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand: FISH, MARINE. [Online] (Updated 23 April 2009)
Available at: <http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/fish-marine/1> [Accessed 22 November 2012].
Munro, I. S. R., 1955. The marine and freshwater fishes of Ceylon. Dept. of External Affairs. Colombo.
Öhman, M.C., Rajasuriya, A. & Linden, O., (1993). Coral reefs in north-western Sri Lanka; biology and human
disturbances. Proc. Coll. Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Miami: Rosential School
of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, pp.404-409.
Perera, N. & De Vos, A., (2007). Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka: A Review. Environ Manage, 40, pp.727–738.
The Government of Sri Lanka., (2006). The Gazette Extraordinary of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri
Lanka-: No. 1429/11, 2006 January 24th Tuesday. (Part I: Sec. I). Sri Lanka.
Walrond, C., (2007). Oceanic fish - New Zealand’s oceanic species, Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand.
[Online] (Updated 02 March 2009).
Available at: <http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/oceanic-fish/1>
[Accessed 22 November 2012].
Weerakkody, P., (2012). Personal Records. [e-mail] (Personal communication, 12 November, 2012).
413
Provisional Check List of Marine and Brackish water fish in Sri Lankan waters.
Kasun Randika Dalpathadu.
Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences & Technology, University of Ruhuna.
Boney Fishes Family: Antennariidae

Antennarius indicus Schultz, 1964 5
Family: Acanthuridae Antennarius maculatus (Desjardins, 1840) 5
Acanthurus dussumieri Valenciennes, 1835 1 Antennarius pictus (Shaw, 1794) 19, 21
Acanthurus leucosternon Bennett, 1832 1, 5, 7 Antennarius striatus (Shaw, 1794) 19, 21
Acanthurus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23 Antennatus tuberosus (Cuvier, 1817) 21
Acanthurus mata (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5 Antennarius hispidus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 19
Acanthurus nigricauda Dunker and Mohr, 1926 1, 5 Antennarius commerson (Lacepède, 1798) 19
Acanthurus nigrofuscus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Antennarius nummifer (Cuvier, 1817) 19
Acanthurus tennentii Gunther, 1861 1, 5 Histrio histrio (Linnaeus, 1758) 5, 19
Acanthurus triostegus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23
Family: Aploactinidae
Acanthurus tristis Tickell, 1888 1, 5
Acanthurus xanthopterus Valenciennes, 1835 1, 5 Cocotropus monacanthus (Gilchrist, 1906) 18, 21
Acanthurus pyroferus Kittlitz, 1834 5 Paraploactis taprobanensis (Whitley, 1933) 1, 21

Acanthurus bariene Lesson, 1831 2
Acanthurus nigricans (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 Family: Apogonidae
Ctenochaetus striatus Quoy and Gaimard, 1824 1, 5, 23 Acropoma japonicum Günther, 1859 18, 20
Ctenochaetus strigosus (Bennett, 1828) 1, 5 Apogon spp.2
Ctenochaetus binotatus Randall, 1955 5 Apogon aureus (Lacepede, 1802) 5
Naso annulatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) 1 Apogon fraenatus Valenciennes, 1832 5
Naso brevirostris (Valenciennes, 1835) 1, 5, 7 Apogon nigrofasciatus (Lachner, 1953) 5
Naso lituratus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5 Apogon cookii Macleay, 1881 22
Naso thynnoides (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Apogon taeniophorus Regan, 1908 22
Naso tuberosus Lacepede, 1802 1 Apogon cyanosoma Bleeker, 1853 22
Naso unicornis (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Apogon apogonides (Bleeker, 1856) 22
Naso vlamingi (Valenciennes, 1835) 2 Apogon kallopterus Bleeker, 1856 22
Paracanthurus hepatus (Linnaeus, 1766) 5 Archamia fucata (Cantor, 1849) 20, 22
Zebrasoma scopas (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5 Archaemia spp.2
Zebrasoma veliferum (Bloch, 1795) 1, 20, 21 Cheilodipterus spp.2
Zebrasoma xanthurum (Blyth, 1852) 1 Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Cuvier, 1828 5
Zebrasoma desjardeinii (Bennett, 1836) 5, 20 Cheilodipterus macrodon (Lacepede, 1802) 22
Cheilodipterus artus Smith, 196122
Family: Acropomidae Sphaeramia nematoptera (Bleeker, 1856) 5
Acropoma japonicum Gunther, 1859 18
Synagrops malayanus Weber, 1913 18
Family: Albulidae Family: Ariidae

Albula glossodonta (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Arius jella Day, 18771
Albula neoguinaica Valenciennes, 1846 1
Arius maculatus (Thunberg, 1792) 1, 20
Arius subrostratus Valenciennes, 1840 1
Family: Alepocephalidae Arius sumatranus Bennett, 1840 1
Alepocephalus blanfordii Alcock, 1892 1
Batrachocephalus mino (Hamilton – Buchanan, 1822) 1
Nemapteryx caelata (Valenciennes, 1840) 1, 20
Family: Ambassidae Netuma bilineata (Valenciennes, 1840) 1, 20
Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Netuma thalassina (Rüppell, 1837) 1, 21
Osteogeneiosus milittaris (Linnaeus, 1758)1
Family: Anguillidae Plicofollis dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1840) 1, 20
Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (Gray, 1831) 1 Plicofollis platystomus (Day, 1877) 1, 21
Anguilla bicolor bicolor McClelland, 1844 1 Sciades sona (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 20
414
Family: Ariommatidae Ecsenius bicolor (Day, 1888) 5
Ariomma indica (Day, 1871) 18, 20, 21 Ecsenius midas Starck, 1969 5
Ecsenius nalolo Smith, 1959 22
Family: Atherinidae Ecsenius yaeyamaensis (Aoyagi, 1954) 21, 22
Ecsenius gravieri (Pellegrin, 1906) 21, 22
Atherinomorus lacunosus (Forster, 1801) 1
Ecsenius lineatus Klausewitz, 1962 21, 22
Hypoatherina temminckii (Bleeker, 1853) 1
Ecsenius frontalis (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 21
Entomacrodus striatus (Valenciennes, 1836) 19
Family: Aulostomidae
Entomacrodus spp.2
Aulostomus chinensis (Linnaeus, 1766) 1
Escanius spp.2
Exallias brevis (Kner, 1868) 19, 21
Family: Balistidae
Helcogramma striata Hansen, 1986 22
Abalistes stellatus (Lacepede, 1798) 1, 5 Helcogramma spp. 22
Balistapus undulatus (Park, 1797) 1, 5
Istiblenius edentulous Forster & Schneider, 1801 2
Balistoides conspicillum (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5, 9 Istiblennius andersoni (Day, 1870) 19
Balistoides viridescens (Bloch, 1801) 1, 5 Istiblennius lineatus (Valenciennes, 1836) 19
Canthidermis maculata (Bloch, 1786) 1, 21 lstiblennius edentulus (Forster & Schneider, 1801) 19, 21
Melichthys indicus Randall and Klausewitz, 1973 1, 5 Istiblennius unicolor (Rupell, 1838) 19
Melichthys vidua (Richardson, 1845) 20, 21, 22 Meiacanthus smithi Klausewitz, 1962 5, 22
Melichthys niger (Bloch, 1786) 22 Petroscirtes variabilis Cantor, 1849 20, 22
Odonus niger (Ruppell, 1840) 1 Petroscirtes mitratus Rüppell, 1830 20, 21, 22
Pseudobalistes fuscus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5, 9 Petroscirtes breviceps (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 20
Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus (Rupell, 1829) 22 Plagiotremus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1857) 22
Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos (Bleeker, 1852) 22
Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7
Plagiotremus phenax Smith-Vaniz, 1976 22
Rhinecanthus rectangulus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5
Salarias fasciatus (Bloch, 1786) 2
Rhinecanthus verrucosus (Linnaeus, 1758) 22
Salarias alboguttatus Kner, 1867 19
Sufflamen chrysopterus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5
Sufflamen fraenatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5
Family: Bothidae
Sufflamen bursa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5
Arnoglossus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1866) 1
Sufflamen albicaudatum (Rüppell, 1829) 21, 22
Bothus pantherinus (Ruppell, 1830) 1
Bothus myriaster (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846) 1
Family: Bathyclupeidae
Bothus mancus (Broussonet, 1782) 5
Bathclupea hoskynii (Alcock) 18
Chascanopsetta lugubris Alcock, 1894 1
Crossorhombus azureus (Alcock, 1889) 1
Family: Batrachoididae
Crossorhombus valderostratus (Alcock, 1890) 1
Allenbatrachus grunniens (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 21
Engyprosopon grandisquama (Temminck & Schlegel,
1846) 1, 21
Family: Belonidae Grammatobothus polyophthalmus (Bleeker, 1866) 1
Ablennes hians (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Laeops kitaharai (Smith & Pope) 18
Strongylura leiura (Bleeker, 1850) 1
Parabothus polylepis (Alcock, 1889) 1
Strongylura strongylura (van Hasselt, 1823) 1
Tylosurus acus melanotus (Bleeker, 1850) 1 Family: Caesionidae
Tylosurus crocodilus crocodilus (Peron and Le Seur, Caesio caerulaurea Lacepede, 1802 1
1821) 1
Caesio cuning (Bloch, 1791) 1
Caesio lunaris Cuvier, 1830 1
Family: Blenniidae
Caesio teres Seale, 1906 1
Alticus saliens (Forster, 1788) 19
Caesio varilineata Carpenter, 1987 1
Aspidontus taeniatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1834 21, 22
Caesio xanthonota Bleeker, 1853 1
Aspidontus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 21, 22
Dipterygonotus balteatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1
Blenniella periophthalmus (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 21
Cirripectes stigmaticus Strasburg & Schultz, 1953 20, 22 Gymnocaesio gymnoptera (Bleeker, 1856) 1
Cirripectes auritus Carlson, 1981 22 Pterocaesio chrysozona (Cuvier, 1830) 1
Pterocaesio pisang (Bleeker, 1853) 1
415
Pterocaesio tessellata Carpenter, 1987 1 Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier, 1833) 1
Pterocaesio tile (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Seriola rivoliana (Valenciennes, 1833) 1
Seriolina nigrofasciata (Ruppell, 1829) 1
Family: Callionymidae Trachinotus baillonii (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Synchiropus stellatus Smith, 1963 5 Trachinotus blochii (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Trachinotus mookalee (Cuvier, 1832) 1
Trachinotus botla (Shaw, 1803) 1, 21
Family: Caproidae
Ulua mentalis (Cuvier, 1833) 1
Antigonia rubescens (Gunther, 1860) 1
Uraspis helvola (Forster, 1801) 1
Antigonia malayana Weber, 1913 18
Family: Carapidae
Family: Caracanthidae
Carapus mourlani (Petit, 1934) 1
Caracanthus zeylonicus (Day, 1869) 1
Family: Centriscidae
Family: Carangidae
Aeoliscus strigatus (Günther, 1861) 22
Alectis ciliaris (Bloch, 1788) 1 Centriscus scutatus Linnaeus, 1758 1
Alectis indicus (Ruppell, 1830) 1
Alepes djedaba (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Family: Centropomidae
Alepes melanoptera (Swainson, 1839) 1 Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1796) 1
Alepes vari (Cuvier, 1833) 1
Psammoperca waigiensis (Cuvier, 1828) 1
Alepes kleinii (Bloch, 1793) 1, 21
Atropus atropos (Schneider, 1801) 1
Family: Cepolidae
Atule mate (Cuvier, 1833) 1, 21
Owstonia weberi (Gilchrist, 1922) 18, 21
Carangoides armatus (Ruppell, 1830) 1
Carangoides coeruleopinnatus (Rüppell, 1830) 1, 21
Carangoides chrysophrys (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Family: Chaetodontidae
Carangoides ferdau (Forsskål, 1775) 1, 20 Chaetodon vagabundus Linnaeus, 1758 2, 5, 7
Carangoides fulvoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Chaetodon decussatus Cuvier, 1829 2, 5
Carangoides gymnostethus (Cuvier, 1833) 1, 14 Chaetodon cittrinellus Cuvier, 1831 2
Carangoides hedlandensis (Whitley, 1933) 1 Chaetodon trifascialis Quoy and Gaimard, 1825 2, 5
Carangoides malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1 Chaetodon trifasciatus Park, 1797 2, 5, 7
Carangoides oblongus (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Chaetodon meyeri Bloch and Schneider, 1801 2, 5, 9
Carangoides plagiotaenia (Bleeker, 1851) 1 Chaetodon lunula (Lacepede, 1802) 2, 5, 7
Carangoides praeustus (Bennett, 1830) 1
Chaetodon collare Bloch, 1787 2, 5
Carangoides talamparoides (Bleeker, 1852) 1
Chaetodon auriga Forsskal, 1775 2, 5, 7
Carangoides coeruleopinnatus (Rüppell, 1830) 1, 21
Chaetodon plebeius Cuvier, 1831 2, 5, 12
Caranx heberi (Bennett, 1830) 1, 14
Chaetodon xanthocephalus Bennett, 1832 2, 5, 9
Caranx ignobilis (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14
Chaetodon unimaculatus Bloch, 1787 2, 5, 9
Caranx melampygus Cuvier, 1833 1, 20
Caranx papuensis (Alleyne and Macleay, 1877) 1 Chaetodon kleinii Bloch, 1790 2, 5
Caranx sexfasciatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Chaetodon madagascariensis Ahl, 1923 3, 5, 9
Caranx tille (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Chaetodon gardneri Norman, 1939 3, 5
Decapterus macarellus (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Chaetodon semeion (Bleeker, 1855) 5, 9
Decapterus macrosoma (Bleeker, 1852) 1 Chaetodon octofasciatus Bloch, 1787 5, 9
Decapterus russelli (Ruppell, 1830) 1 Chaetodon ornatissimus Cuvier, 1831 5, 9
Elagatis bipinnulata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Chaetodon ephippium Cuvier, 1831 5, 9
Gnathanodon speciosus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Chaetodon bennetti Cuvier, 1831 5, 9
Megalaspis cordyla (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Chaetodon triangulum Cuvier, 1831 5, 9
Naucrates ductor (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Chaetodon citrinellus Cuvier, 1831 5, 7
Parastromateus niger (Bloch, 1795) 1 Chaetodon falcula Bloch, 1795 5, 7, 9
Scomberoides commersonianus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Chaetodon guttatissimus Bennett, 1833 5
Scomberoides lysan (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Chaetodon interruptus Ahl, 1923 5
Scomberoides tala (Cuvier, 1832) 1 Chaetodon lineolatus Cuvier, 1831 5
Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) 1 Chaetodon oxycephalus Bleeker, 1853 22
Selar crumenophthalmus (Bloch, 1793) 1 Chaetodon melannotus Bloch & Schneider, 1801 5
416
Chaetodon mertensii Cuvier, 1831 5 Nematalosa galatheae Nelson and Rothman, 1973 1
Chaetodon rafflesi Anonymous [Bennett], 1830 5, 9 Nematalosa nasus (Bloch, 1795) 1, 14
Forcipiger flavissimus Jordan & Evermann, 1898 3, 5 Sardinella albella (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 14
Forcipiger longirostris Broussonet, 1782 3, 5 Sardinella fimbriata (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 21
Hemitaurichthys zoster (Bennett, 1831) 3, 5 Sardinella gibbosa (Bleeker, 1849) 1, 14
Heniochus singularis Smith & Radcliffe, 1911 3, 5 Sardinella jussieu (Lacepède, 1803) 1, 20
Heniochus monoceros Cuvier, 183 3, 5, 9 Sardinella longiceps (Valenciennes, 1847) 1
Heniochus acuminatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 3, 5, 7 Spratelloides delicatulus (Bennett, 1831) 1
Heniochus pleurotaenia (Cuvier, 1831) 5, 9 Spratelloides gracilis (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846) 1
Heniochus diphreutes Jordan, 1903 22 Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1
Parachaetodon ocellatus (Cuvier, 1831) 22 Tenualosa toli (Valenciennes, 1847) 1
Prognathodes guyotensis (Yamamoto & Tameka, 1982) 22
Family: Congridae
Family: Chanidae Ariosoma anago (Schlegel, 1849) 1
Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Conger cinereus (Ruppell, 1828) 1
Uroconger lepturus (Richardson, 1848) 1
Family: Chauliodontidae
Chauliodus sloani Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1 Family: Coryphaenidae
Coryphaena hippurus Linneaus, 1758 1
Family: Chaunacidae
Chaunax pictus Lowe, 1846 1 Family: Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossus arel (Schneider, 1801) 1
Family: Chirocentridae Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1
Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Cynoglossus kopsii (Bleeker, 1851) 1, 21
Chirocentrus nudus (Swainson, 1839) 1 Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 1
Cynoglossus puncticeps (Richardson, 1846) 1
Family: Chlorophthalmidae Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day, 1877 1
Chlorophthalmus agassizi (Bonaparte, 1850) 1 Cynoglossus marleyi Regan, 192118
Chlorophthalmus bicornis (Norman, 1939) 1 Paraplagusia bilineata (Bloch, 1784) 1
Symphurus septemstriatus (Alcock, 1891) 1
Family: Cirrhitidae Symphurus trifasciatus (Alcock, 1894) 1
Cirrhitus pinnulatus (Forster, 1801) 2
Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) 5 Family: Dactylopteridae
Cirrhitichthys bleekeri Day, 1874 5 Dactyloptena orientalis (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5
Cirrhitichthys aprinus (Cuvier, 1829) 7
Oxycirrhites typus Bleeker, 1857 5 Family: Diodontidae
Paracirrhites forsteri (Schneider, 1801) 2, 5 Cyclichthys orbicularis (Bloch, 1785) 1, 21
Paracirrhites arcatus (Cuvier, 1829) 5 Diodon holocanthus Linneaus, 1758 1
Diodon hystrix (Linneaus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23
Family: Clinidae Diodon liturosus Shaw, 1804 5
Springeratus xanthosoma (Bleeker, 1857) 1, 20
Family: Drepanidae
Family: Clupeidae Drepane punctata (Linneaus, 1758) 1
Amblygaster clupeoides Bleeker, 1849 1, 14
Amblygaster leiogaster (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Family: Echeneidae
Amblygaster sirm (Walaum, 1792) 1, 14 Echeneis naucrates Linneaus, 1758 1, 5
Anodontostoma chacunda (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 20 Remora australis (Bennett, 1840) 1
Dayella malabarica (Day, 1873) 1 Remora remora (Linneaus, 1758 1
Dussumieria acuta (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 14 Remora albescens (Temminck and Schlegel, 1843) 1
Dussumieria elopsoides Bleeker, 1849 1, 21
Ehirava fluviatilis Deraniyagala, 1929 1 Family: Elopidae
Escualosa thoracata (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 14 Elops machnata (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus (Ruppell, 1837) 1
Hilsa kelee (Cuvier, 1829) 1
417
Family: Emmelichthyidae Parexocoetus mento (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Plagiogeneion rubiginosum (Hutton, 1875) 1, 21 Prognichthys brevipinnis (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Family: Engraulididae Family: Fistulariidae

Coilia dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Fistularia commersonii (Ruppell, 1835) 1, 23
Coilia neglecta (Whitehead, 1968) 1 Fistularia petimba (Lacepede, 1803) 1
Encrasicholina devisi (Whitly) 1
Encrasicholina heteroloba (Ruppell, 1873) 1 Family: Gadidae
Encrasicholina punctifer Fowler, 1938 1 Physiculus peregrinus (Gunther, 1872) 18
Setipinna taty (Valenciennes, 1848) 1
Stolephorus commersonnii Lacepede, 1803 1 Family: Gempylidae
Stolephorus indicus (van Hasselt, 1823) 1 Gempylus serpens (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Stolephorus insularis Hardenberg, 1933 1 Lepidocybium flavobrunneum (Smith, 1849) 1
Stolephorus waitei Jordan and Seale, 1926 1 Neoepinnula orientalis (Gilchrist and von Bond, 1924) 1
Thryssa baelama (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Rexea prometheoides (Bleeker, 1856) 1
Thryssa dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1848) 1 Ruvettus pretiosus Cocco, 1829 1
Thryssa encrasicholoides (Bleeker, 1852) 1
Thryssa gautamiensis Babu Rao, 1971 1 Family: Gerreidae
Thryssa hamiltonii (Gray, 1835) 1 Gerres erythrourus (Bloch, 1791) 1, 21
Thryssa malabarica (Bloch, 1795) 1 Gerres longirostris (Lacepède, 1801) 1, 21
Thryssa mystax (Schneider, 1801) 1 Gerres filamentosus (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Thryssa polybranchialis Wongratana, 1983 1 Gerres limbatus Cuvier, 1830 1, 21
Thryssa purava (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Gerres oblongus (Cuvier, 1830) 1
Thryssa setirostris (Broussonet, 1782) 1 Gerres oyena (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Thryssa vitrirostris (Gilchrist & Thompson, 1908) 1, 21 Pentaprion longimanus (Cantor, 1850) 1
Family: Ephippidae Family: Gobiidae

Ephippus orbis (Bloch, 1787) 1 Acentrogobius caninus (Valennciennes, 1837) 19
Platax orbicularis (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5, 7 Acentrogobius masoni (Day, 1873) 19
Platax teira (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Valennciennes, 1837) 19
Platax pinnatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5, 9 Alburnus arborella (Bonaparte 1841) 19, 20
Amblyeleotris spp.2
Family: Epigonidae
Amblyeleotris diagonalis Polunin & Lubbock, 1979 5
Epigonus robustus (Barnard, 1927) 18, 21
Amblyeleotris steinitzi (Klausewitz, 1974) 5
Epigonus telescopus (Risso, 1810) 18 Amblyeleotris periophthalma (Bleeker, 1853) 21, 22
Amblyeleotris wheeleri (Polunin & Lubbock, 1977) 22
Family: Exocoetidae
Amblygobius hectori (Smith, 1957) 5
Cheilopogon atrisignis (Jenkins, 1904) 1
Amblygobius nocturnus (Herre, 1945) 22
Cheilopogon cyanopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Amblygobius semicinctus (Bennett, 1833) 22
Cheilopogon furcatus (Mitchill, 1815) 1
Asterropteryx semipunctatus Rüppell, 1830 22
Cheilopogon nigricans (Bennett, 1846) 1
Asterropteryx spp.2
Cheilopogon spilopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Bathygobius fuscus (Rupell, 1830) 19
Cheilopogon suttoni (Whitley and Colefax, 1938) 1
Bostrychus sinensis Lacepède, 1801 19, 20
Cheilopogon katoptron (Bleeker, 1865) 1, 21
Cypselurus naresii (Gunther, 1889) 1 Bryaniops spp.2
Cypselurus oligolepis (Bleeker, 1866) 1 Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 21
Cypselurus opisthopus (Bleeker, 1866) 1 Butis koilomatodon (Bleeker, 1849) 19, 20
Cypselurus poecilopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Callogobius mannarensis Rangarajan 1968 22
Exocoetus monocirrhus Richardson, 1846 1 Callogobius hasselti (Bleeker, 1851) 22
Exocoetus volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Callogobius spp.2
Hirundichthys coromandelensis (Hornell, 1923) 1 Cryptocentrus cryptocentrus (Valenciennes, 1837) 2, 22
Hirundichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1857) 1 Cryptocentrus caeruleomaculatus (Herre, 1933) 22
Hirundichthys speculiger (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Cryptocentrus cinctus (Herre, 1936) 22
Parexocoetus brachypterus (Richardson, 1846) 1 Ctenogobius aurocingulus (Herre, 1935) 22
418
Ctenogobiops spp.2 Pomadasys commersonnii (Lacepede, 1802) 1
Eleotris fusca (Forster, 1801) 19, 20 Pomadasys furcatus (Schneider, 1801) 1
Exyrias belissimus (Smith, 1959) 20, 21, 22 Pomadasys kaakan (Cuvier, 1830) 1
Eviota zonura Jordan & Seale, 1906 19, 21 Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch, 1797) 1, 21
Fusigobius sp.5 Pomadasys multimaculatum (Playfair, 1866) 1
Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 20 Pomadasys olivaceus (Day, 1875) 1, 21
Pomadasys guoraca (Cuvier, 1829) 21, 22
Gnatholepis spp.2
Gobiodon citrinus (Rüppell, 1838) 5
Family: Halosauridae
Gobiodon quinquestrigatus (Valenciennes, 1837) 20, 21, 22
Gobiodon atrangulatus Garman, 1903 22 Aldrovandia affinis (Günther, 1877) 1, 21
Gobiodon rivulatus (Rüppell, 1830) 19, 21
Family: Hemiramphidae
Istigobius spp.2
Euleptorhamphus viridis (van Hasselt, 1823) 18
Istigobius decoratus (Herre, 1927) 5
Hemiramphus archipelagicus Collette and Parin, 1978 1
lstigobius ornatus (Rüppell, 1830) 19, 21, 22
Hemiramphus far (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Oligolepis acutipennis (Valenciennes, 1837) 19
Hemiramphus lutkei (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Ophiocara porocephala (Valenciennes, 1837) 19
Hyporhamphus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Oplopomus oplopomus (Valenciennes, 1837) 22
Hyporhamphus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Oxyurichthys microlepis (Bleeker, 1849) 19
Hyporhamphus quoyi (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes, 1837) 19
Rhynchorhamphus georgii (Valenciennes, 1846) 1
Paragobiodon echinocephalus (Rüppell, 1830) 22
Rhynchorhamphus malabaricus Collette, 1976 1
Paragobiodon lacunicolus (Kendall & Goldsborough,
1911) 20, 22
Family: Holocentridae
Periophthalmus barbarus (Linnaeus, 1766) 19, 21
Myripristis kuntee (Cuvier, 1831) 1
Periophthalmus argentilineatus Valenciennes 1837 19, 21
Pleurosicya bilobata (Koumans, 1941) 19, 21 Myripristis botche Cuvier, 1829 1, 21
Priolepis semidoliata (Valenciennes, 1837) 19, 21 Myripristis adusta (Bleeker, 1853) 2, 5, 10
Psammogobius biocellatus (Valenciennes, 1837) 19, 20 Myripristis berndti Jordan & Evermann, 1903 5
Pseudogobius javanicus (Bleeker, 1856) 19, 21 Myripristis murdjan (Forsskål, 1775) 5
Sicyopterus lagocephalus (Pallas, 1770) 19, 21 Myripristis chryseres Jordan & Evermann, 1903 10
Stenogobius gymnopomus (Bleeker, 1853) 19, 21 Myripristis botche Cuvier, 1829 10
Stigmatogobius sadanundio (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 21 Myripristis pralinia Cuvier, 1829 10
Valenciennea helsdingenii (Bleeker, 1858) 5
Myripristis violacea Bleeker, 185110
Valenciennea puellaris (Tomiyama, 1956) 5
Neoniphon samara (Forsskal, 1775) 2, 5
Valenciennea sexguttata (Valenciennes, 1837) 5 Neoniphon opercularis (Valenciennes, 1831) 22
Valenciennea strigata (Broussonet, 1782) 5 Sargocentron diadema (Lacepede, 1803) 1, 5
Valenciennea longipinnis (Lay & Bennett, 1839) 20, 22 Sargocentron punctatissimum (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Valenciennea muralis (Valenciennes, 1837) 22 Sargocentron rubrum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5
Valenciennea helsdingenii (Bleeker, 1858) 20, 22 Sargocentron spiniferum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5
Sargocentron caudimaculatum (Rüppell, 1838) 2, 5
Family: Gonostomidae
Phosichthys argenteus Hutton, 1872 18, 21 Family: Istiophoridae
Polymetme corythaeola (Alcock, 1898) 18, 20 Istiophorus platypterus (Shaw and Nodder, 1792) 1, 6, 13, 14
Makaira indica (Cuvier, 1832) 1, 13, 14
Family: Haemulidae Makaira mazara (Jordan & Snyder, 1901) 13, 14
Diagramma pictum (Thunberg, 1792) 1, 5, 21 Tetrapturus angustirostris Tanaka, 1915 1, 21
Plectorhinchus ceylonensis (Smith, 1956) 1, 14 Tetrapturus audax (Philippi, 1889) 1, 13, 14
Plectorhinchus gibbosus (Lacepede, 1802) 1
Plectorhinchus schotaf (Forsskål, 1775) 1, 21 Family: Kuhliidae
Plectorhinchus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 7 Kuhlia mugil (Forste, 1801) 1
Plectorhinchus vittatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5 Kuhlia rupestris (Lacepede, 1802) 1
Plectorhinchus albovittatus (Ruppel, 1838) 5, 9
Plectorhinchus orientalis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 Family: Kurtidae
Pomadasys argenteus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Kurtus indicus Bloch, 1786 1
Pomadasys argyreus (Valenciennes, 1833) 1
419
Family: Kyphosidae Pseudocheilinus hexataenia (Bleeker, 1857) 5
Kyphosus cinerascens (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Pseudocheilinus octotaenia Jenkins, 1901 20, 22
Pseudojuloides erythrops Randall & Randall, 1981 22
Family: Labridae Stethojulis spp.2
Anampses meleagrides Valenciennes, 1840 1 Stethojulis bandanensis (Bleeker, 1851) 5
Anampses caeruleopunctatus Rüppell, 1829 5 Stethojulis trilineata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5
Anampses lineatus Randall, 1972 5 Stethojulis interrupta (Bleeker, 1851) 22
Anampses melanurus Bleeker, 1857 22 Stethojulis albovittata (Bonnaterre, 1788) 22
Bodianus bilunulatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Stethojulis strigiventer (Bennett, 1833) 22
Bodianus diana Lacepede, 1802 1, 5
Thalassoma hebraicum (Lacepede, 1801) 2
Bodianus axillaris (Bennett, 1832) 2, 5
Thalassoma janseni (Bleeker, 1856) 2, 5
Bodianus neilli (Day, 1867) 5
Thalassoma hardwickii (Bennett, 1830) 2, 5
Bodianus macrourus (Lacepède, 1801) 22
Thalassoma quinquevittatum (Lay & Bennett, 1839) 2, 5
Cheilinus chlorourus (Bloch, 1791) 1, 20
Thalassoma lunare (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7
Cheilinus fasciatus Bloch, 17911
Thalassoma purpureum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5
Cheilinus trilobatus Lacepede, 18011
Thalassoma trilobatum (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Cheilinus undulatus Ruppell, 18281
Thalassoma amblycephalum (Bleeker, 1856) 22
Cheilio inermis (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Xyrichtys pavo (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 5
Choerodon anchorago (Bloch, 1791) 1
Xyrichtys pentadactylus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1
Choerodon robustus Gunther, 1862 1
Cirrhilabrus rubrisquamis Randall & Emery, 1983 5
Family: Lactariidae
Coris cuvieri (Bennett, 1831) 1, 21
Coris aygula Lacepede, 1802 1, 5, 9 Lactarius lactarius (Schneider, 1801) 1
Coris frerei Gunther, 1866 1, 5
Coris cuvieri (Bennett, 1831) 5 Family: Leiognathidae
Coris batuensis (Bleeker, 1856-57) 22 Equulites elongatus (Günther, 1874) 1, 21
Diproctacanthus xanthurus (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Equulites rivulatus (Temminki & Schlegel, 1845) 18
Epibulus insidiator Pallas, 1770 1, 20 Equulites leuciscus (Günther, 1860) 1, 21
Gomphosus caeruleus Lacepede, 18011, 5 Eubleekeria splendens (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 21
Halichoeres hortulanus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 2, 5 Gazza achlamys Jordan and Starks, 1917 1
Halichoeres dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 2 Gazza minuta (Bloch, 1797) 1
Halichoeres marginatus (Ruppell, 1835) 1, 2, 5 Leiognathus berbis (Valenciennes, 1835) 1
Halichoeres scapularis (Bennett, 1831) 1, 2, 5 Leiognathus brevirostris (Valenciennes, 1835) 1
Halichoeres zeylonicus (Bennett, 1832) 1 Leiognathus daura (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Halichoeres nebulosus (Valenciennes, 1839) 2 Leiognathus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1835) 1
Halichoeres timorensis (Bleeker, 1852) 2 Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 8
Leiognathus fasciatus (Lacepede, 1803) 1
Halichoeres leucoxanthus Randall & Smith, 1982 2, 5
Leiognathus lineolatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1
Halichoeres margaritaceus (Valenciennes, 1839) 20, 22
Leiognathus longispinis (Valenciennes, 1835) 1, 21
Halichoeres notospilus (Günther, 1864) 20, 22
Nuchequula blochii (Valenciennes, 1835) 1, 21
Halichoeres biocellatus Schultz, 1960 20, 22
Photopectoralis bindus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1, 21
Halichoerus spp.2
Secutor insidiator (Bloch, 1797) 1
Hemigymnus fasciatus (Bloch, 1792) 1, 5
Secutor ruconius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1
Hemigymnus melapterus (Bloch, 1791) 1, 5
Hologymnosus annulatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Family: Lethrinidae
Hologymnosus doliatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Gnathodentex aureolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 20
Labroides dimidiatus (Lacepede, 1839) 1, 5, 7
Gymnocranius elongatus Senta, 1973 1
Labroides bicolor (Fowler and Bean, 1928) 5, 9
Gymnocranius grandoculis (Valenciennes, 1830) 1
Macropharyngodon ornatus Randall, 1978 5
Gymnocranius griseus (Schlegel, 1844) 1
Macropharyngodon meleagris (Valenciennes, 1839) 22
Lethrinus conchyliatus (Smith, 1959) 1
Novaculichthys taeniourus Lacepede, 18011, 5
Lethrinus crocineus Smith, 1959 1
Oxycheilinus digramma (Lacepède, 1801) 1, 21
Lethrinus harak (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Paracheilinus mccoskeri Randall & Harmelin-Vivien,
1977 5 Lethrinus lentjan (Lacepede, 1802) 1
Pseudodax moluccanus (Valenciennes, 1839) 1 Lethrinus mahsena (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Lethrinus microdon Valenciennes, 1830 1
420
Lethrinus nebulosus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Pinjalo pinjalo (Bleeker, 1850) 1
Lethrinus obsoletus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Pinjalo lewisi (Randall, Allen and Anderson, 1987) 1
Lethrinus olivaceus Valenciennes, 1830 1, 14 Pristipomoides filamentosus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1
Lethrinus ornatus Valenciennes, 1830 1 Pristipomoides multidens (Day, 1870) 1
Lethrinus rubrioperculatus Sato, 1978 1 Pristipomoides sieboldii (Bleeker, 1857) 1
Lethrinus semicintus Valenciennes, 1830 1 Pristipomoides typus Bleeker, 1852 1, 14
Lethrinus variegates Valenciennes, 1830 1 Pristipomoides zonatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1
Lethrinus spp.1
Monotaxis grandoculis (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Family: Macrouridae
Wattsia mossambica (Smith, 1975) 1 Caelorinchus flabellispinnis (Alcock 1894) 18
Coryphaenoides woodmasoni (Alcock, 1890) 1
Family: Lobotidae Hymenocephalus heterolepis (Alcock, 1889) 1
Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch, 1790) 1
Family: Malacanthidae
Family: Lophiidae Malacanthus brevirostris Guichenot, 1848 5
Lophiodes mutilus (Alcock, 1893) 1
Malacanthus latovittatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 5
Lophiomus setigerus (Vahl, 1797) 1
Family: Megalopidae
Family: Lutjanidae Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet, 1782) 1
Aphareus furca (Lacepede, 1802) 1
Aphareus rutilans Cuvier, 1830 1 Family: Menidae

Aprion virescens Valenciennes, 1830 1 Mene maculata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1
Etelis carbunculus Cuvier, 1828 1
Etelis coruscans Valenciennes, 1862 1 Family: Ptereleotridae
Etelis radiosus Anderson, 1981 1
Nemateleotris decora Randall & Allen, 1973 5
Lipocheilus carnolabrum (Chan, 1970) 1
Nemateleotris magnifica Fowler, 1938 5
Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14
Ptereleotris evides (Jordan & Hubbs, 1925) 5
Lutjanus bengalensis (Bloch, 1790) 1
Ptereleotris hanae (Jordan & Snyder, 1901) 5
Lutjanus biguttatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1
Ptereleotris heteroptera (Bleeker, 1855) 5
Lutjanus bohar (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Ptereleotris microlepis (Bleeker, 1856) 5
Lutjanus guilcheri Fourmanoir, 1959 1
Ptereleotris zebra (Fowler, 1938) 5
Lutjanus johnii (Bloch, 1792) 1
Ptereleotris monoptera Randall & Hoese, 1985 22
Lutjanus kasmira (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5
Lutjanus lemniscatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1
Family: Molidae
Lutjanus lunulatus (Park, 1797) 1
Mola mola (Linneaus, 1841) 1
Lutjanus lutjanus Bloch, 1790 1
Ranzania laevis (Pennant, 1776) 1
Lutjanus madras (Valenciennes, 1831) 1
Lutjanus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1
Lutjanus monostigma (Cuvier, 1828) 1 Family: Monacanthidae
Lutjanus quinquelineatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5 Acreichthys tomentosus (Linneaus, 1758) 1
Lutjanus rivulatus (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 14 Aluterus monoceros (Linneaus, 1758) 1
Lutjanus russellii (Bleeker, 1849) 1, 21 Aluterus scriptus (Osbeck, 1765) 1
Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier, 1828) 1 Amanses scopas (Cuvier, 1829) 2, 5
Lutjanus sebae (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 5 Anacanthus barbatus (Linneaus, 1758) 1
Lutjanus vitta (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1, 20 Cantherhines pardalis (Ruppell, 1835) 1
Lutjanus decussatus (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 5 Oxymonacanthus longirostris (Bloch & Schneider,
Lutjanus ehrenbergii (Peters, 1869) 1 1801) 5
Lutjanus erythropterus Bloch, 1790 1 Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker, 1852) 1
Lutjanus fulviflamma (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Paramonacanthus nipponensis (Kamohara, 1939) 1
Lutjanus fulvus (Schneider, 1801) 1, 2 Pervagor janthinosoma (Bleeker, 1854) 5
Lutjanus gibbus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Stephanolepis diaspros Fraser-Brunner, 1940 1
Macolor niger (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5
Paracaesio sordida Abe and Shinohara, 1962 1, 21 Family: Monocentridae
Paracaesio xanthura Bleeker, 1869 1, 20 Monocentris japonica (Houttuyn, 1782) 1, 21
421
Family: Monodactylidae Echidna nebulosa (Ahl, 1789) 1, 5, 21, 23
Monodactylus argenteus (Linneaus, 1758) 1, 5 Echidna xanthospilos (Bleeker, 1859) 1, 21
Monodactylus falciformis Lacepede, 1801 1 Echidna polyzona (Richardson, 1845) 22
Monodactylus kottelati Pethiyagoda, 19911 Enchelycore bayeri (Schultz, 1953) 22
Gymnomuraena zebra (Shaw, 1797) 5
Family: Moridae Gymnothorax favagineus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5
Physiculus argyropastus Alcock, 1893 1 Gymnothorax fimbriatus (Bennett, 1831) 1
Gymnothorax meleagris (Shaw and Nodder, 1795) 1
Family: Moringuidae Gymnothorax pseudothyrsoidea (Bleeker, 1852) 1
Gymnothorax punctatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 22
Moringua bicolor Kaup, 1856 1
Gymnothorax rueppellii (McClelland, 1844) 1, 21
Gymnothorax undulatus (Lacepede, 1803) 1, 23
Family: Mugilidae
Gymnothorax javanicus (Bleeker, 1859) 2, 23
Liza macrolepis (Smith, 1849) 1
Gymnothorax breedeni McCosker & Randall, 1977 22
Liza melinoptera (Valenciennes, 1836) 1
Gymnothorax buroensis (Bleeker, 1857) 22
Liza parsia (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1
Liza subviridis (Valenciennes, 1836) 1 Gymnothorax chilospilus (Bleeker, 1856) 22
Liza tade (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 21 Gymnothorax enigmaticus McCosker & Randall, 1982 22
Liza vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Gymnothorax flavimarginatus (Rüppell, 1830) 22
Mugil cephalus Linneaus, 1758 1 Gymnothorax herrei Beebe & Tee-Van, 1933 22
Oedalechilus labiosus (Valenciennes, 1836) 1 Gymnothorax melanospilus (Bennett,) 22
Sicamugil cascasia (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 20 Gymnothorax permistus (Smith, 1962) 22
Valamugil buchanani (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Gymnothorax pindae Smith, 1962 22
Valamugil cunnesius (Valenciennes, 1836) 1 Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Bleeker, 1853) 22
Valamugil seheli (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Gymnothorax zonipectis Seale, 1906 22
Valamugil speigleri (Bleeker, 1858) 1 Gymnothorax pictus (Ahl, 1789) 1, 21
Gymnothorax thyrsoideus (Richardson, 1845) 1, 20
Family: Mullidae
Gymnothorax griseus (Lacepède, 1803) 21, 22
Mulloidichthys flavolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 5 Pseudechidna brummeri (Bleeker, 1859) 1, 21
Mulloidichthys vanicolensis (Valenciennes, 1831) 1 Rhinomuraena quaesita Garman, 1888 5
Mulloidichthys mimicus Randall & Gueze, 1980 22 Strophidon sathete (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 21
Parupeneus barberinus (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Uropterygius concolor (Ruppell, 1835) 1
Parupeneus bifasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Uropterygius marmoratus (Lacepede, 1803) 1
Parupeneus heptacanthus (Lacepède, 1802) 1, 21
Parupeneus cyclostomus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Family: Myctophidae
Parupeneus indicus (Shaw, 1803) 1, 5
Diaphus knappi Nafpaktitis, 1978 18, 21
Parupeneus macronema (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5
Diaphus splendidus (Brauer, 1904) 1, 21
Parupeneus rubescens (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Lampanyctus macropterus (Brauer, 1904) 18
Upeneus japonicus (Houttuyn, 1782) 1, 21
Upeneus moluccensis (Bleeker, 1855) 1
Family: Nemipteridae
Upeneus sulphureus Cuvier, 1829 1
Nemipterus bipunctatus (Ehrenberg, 1830) 1
Upeneus sundaicus (Bleeker, 1855) 1
Nemipterus furcosus (Valenciennes, 1831) 1
Upeneus taeniopterus Cuvier, 1829 1
Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch, 1791) 1
Upeneus tragula Richardson, 1845 1
Nemipterus nematophorus (Bleeker, 1853) 1
Upeneus vittatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Nemipterus peronii (Valenciennes, 1830) 1
Nemipterus randalli Russell, 1986 1
Family: Muraenesocidae
Nemipterus zysron (Bleeker, 1856-57) 1
Congresox talabon (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Nemipterus hexodon (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 18
Congresox talabonoides (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Parascolopsis aspinosa (Rao and Rao, 1981) 1
Muraenesox bagio (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Parascolopsis eriomma (Jordan and Richardson, 1909) 1
Muraenesox cinereus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Parascolopsis inermis (Schlegel, 1843) 1
Serrivomer beanii Gill & Ryder, 1883 1, 21 Scolopsis bilineata (Bloch, 1793) 1, 20
Scolopsis bimaculatus Ruppell, 1828 1, 21
Family: Muraenidae Scolopsis taeniatus (Ehrenberg, 1830) 1, 21
Echidna delicatula (Kaup, 1856) 1 Scolopsis vosmeri (Bloch, 1792) 1, 21
422
Family: Neoscopelidae Family: Percophidae
Neoscopelus macrolepidotus Johnson, 1863 18 Bembrops caudimacula Steindachner, 1876 1, 18, 21
Family: Nomeidae Family: Peristediidae

Cubiceps whiteleggii (Waite, 1894) 18, 21
Peristedion riversandersoni Alcoclk, 1894 19
Peristedion halyi (Day, 1888) 19
Family: Ogcocephalidae Satyrichthys adeni (Lloyd, 1907) 19, 21
Coelophrys micropa (Alcock, 1891) 1, 21
Halieutaea stellata (Vahl, 1797) 1 Family: Pinguipedidae

Parapercis clathrata Ogilby, 1910 5
Family: Ophichthidae Parapercis cylindrical (Bloch, 1792) 5
Bascanichthys kirkii (Günther, 1870) 19, 21 Parapercis hexophthalma (Ehrenberg, 1829) 1, 5
Callechelys marmorata (Bleeker, 1853) 19, 21 Parapercis millepunctata (Gunther, 1860) 1, 5
Leiuranus semicinctus (Lay & Bennett, 1839) 19, 21 Parapercis pulchella (Schlegel, 1843) 1
Muraenichthys gymnopterus (Bleeker, 1853) 19 Parapercis punctata (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Myrichthys colubrinus (Boddaert, 1781) 5 Parapercis robinsoni (Fowler, 1932) 1
Myrichthys maculosus (Cuvier, 1816) 5 Parapercis signata Randall, 1984 5
Ophichthus rutidoderma (Bleeker, 1853) 19, 21
Ophichthus apicalis (Anonymous [Bennett], 1830) 19, 20 Family: Platycephalidae
Ophichthus altipennis (Kaup, 1856) 19, 20 Cociella crocodile (Tilesius, 1812) 1
Ophichthus polyophthalmus Bleeker, 1864 19, 21 Grammoplites scaber (Linneaus, 1758) 1
Pisodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson, 1848) 19, 20 Grammoplites suppositus (Troschel, 1840) 1
Inegocia japonica (Tilesius, 1812) 1
Family: Ophidiidae Platycephalus indicus (Linneaus, 1758) 1
Hephthocara simum (Alcock, 1892) 1 Rogadius pristiger (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Monomitopus conjugator (Alcock, 1896) 1 Rogadius serratus (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Hypopleuron caninum Smith & Radcliffe, 1913 18, 20 Sorsogona tuberculata (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Suggrundus macracanthus (Bleeker, 1869) 1
Family: Ostraciidae
Lactoria cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Family: Plesiopidae
Lactoria fornasini (Biancorni, 1846) 19 Plesiops nigricans (Ruppell, 1828) 1
Ostracion cubicus Linnaeus, 1758 5
Ostracion meleagris Shaw, 1796 5, 7, 19 Family: Pleuronectidae
Ostracion tuberculatum Linnaeus, 1758 7 Poecilopsetta colorata Gunther, 1880 1
Tetrosomus gibbosus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Poecilopsetta praelonga Alcock, 1894 1
Samaris cristatus Gray, 1831 1
Family: Paralepididae Samariscus longimanus Norman, 1927 1
Lestidium nudum Gilbert, 1905 18
Family: Plotosidae
Family: Paralichthyidae Plotosus canius Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 1
Pseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Plotosus limbatus Valenciennes, 1840 1
Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogiby, 1912 1 Plotosus lineatus (Thunberg, 1787) 1, 5
Pseudorhombus javanicus (Bleeker, 1853) 1
Pseudorhombus malayanus Bleeker, 1866 1 Family: Polymyxiidae
Pseudorhombus triocellatus (Schneider, 1801) 1 Polymixia japonica Günther, 1877 18, 21
Family: Pempheridae Family: Polynemidae

Pempheris oualensis Cuvier, 1831 2 Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) 1
Pempheris schwenkii Bleeker, 1855 2 Filimanus similis Feltes, 1991 1
Pempheris vanicolensis Cuvier, 1831 22 Filimanus xanthonema (Valenciennes, 1831) 1
Parapriacanthus spp.2 Leptomelanosoma indicum (Shaw, 1804) 1, 21
Polydactylus sexfilis (Valenciennes, 1831) 1, 21
Polydactylus sextarius (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 1, 21
423
Polynemus plebeius Broussonet, 1782 1 Pomacentrus proteus Allen, 19912
Polynemus paradiseus (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Pomacentrus similis Allen, 19915, 12
Pomacentrus melanochir Bleeker, 1877 7
Family: Pomacentridae Pomacentrus caeruleus Quoy & Gaimard, 1825 22
Abudefduf septemfasciatus (Cuvier, 1830) 2 Pomacentrus coelestis Jordan & Starks, 1901 22
Abudefduf sordidus (Forsskål, 1775) 2 Pomacentrus pavo (Bloch, 1787) 22
Abudefduf vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 2, 5 Pomacentrus phillippinus Evermann & Seale, 1907 22
Abudefduf saxatilis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 Pomacentrus tripunctatus Cuvier, 1830 22
Abudefduf notatus (Day, 1870) 22 Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert, 1772) 5, 9
Abudefduf sexfasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) 22, 23 Stegastes albifasciatus (Schlegel & Müller, 1839) 22
Abudefduf bengalensis (Bloch, 1787) 22 Stegastes fasciolatus (Ogilby, 1889) 22, 23
Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster (Bleeker, 1847) 22 Stegastes lividus (Forster, 1801) 22
Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett, 1830) 5, 12 Stegastes nigricans (Lacepède, 1802) 22
Amphiprion nigripes Regan, 1908 5 Stegastes obreptus (Whitley, 1948) 22
Amphiprion sebae Bleeker, 1853 5
Amphiprion akallopisos Bleeker, 1853 22 Family: Pomacanthidae
Amphiprion chrysogaster Cuvier, 1830 22 Apolemichthys xanthurus (Bennett, 1833) 3, 5
Centropyge bispinosus (Gunther, 1860) 5, 9 Apolemichthys trimaculatus (Cuvier, 1831) 9
Chromis atripectoralis Welander & Schultz, 19515 Centropyge flavipectoralis (Randall and Klausewitz,
1977) 3, 5, 9
Chromis dimidiata (Klunzinger, 1871) 5
Centropyge eibli Klausewitz, 1963 3, 5
Chromis viridis (Cuvier, 1830) 5
Centropyge multispinis (Playfair, 1867) 3
Chromis caeruleus (Cuvier, 1830) 7
Centropyge bispinosus (Gunther, 1860) 5, 9
Chromis lepidolepis Bleeker, 1877 22
Pomacanthus imperator (Bloch, 1787) 3, 5
Chromis nigrura Smith, 1960 22
Pomacanthus annularis (Bloch, 1787) 3, 5, 7, 23
Chromis ternatensis (Bleeker, 1856) 22
Pomacanthus semicirculatus (Cuvier, 1831) 3, 5, 7
Chromis opercularis (Günther, 1867) 22
Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert, 1772) 5, 9
Chromis weberi Fowler & Bean, 1928 22
Chrysiptera brownriggii (Bennett, 1828) 2, 5
Family: Priacanthidae
Chrysiptera glauca (Cuvier, 1830) 2
Cookeolus japonicus (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Chrysiptera biocellata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 2, 5
Heteropriacanthus cruentatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Chrysiptera spp.2
Priacanthus hamrur (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Chrysiptera kuiteri (Allan and Rajasuriya, 1995) 5
Priacanthus tayenus Richardson, 1846 1
Chrysiptera unimaculata (Cuvier, 1830) 22
Dascyllus aruanus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5
Family: Pristigasteridae
Dascyllus carneus Fischer, 1885 5
Ilisha elongata (Bennett, 1830) 1
Dascyllus trimaculatus (Rüppell, 1829) 2, 5, 7
Ilisha filigera (Valenciennes, 1847) 1
Lepidozygus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1856) 22
Ilisha kampeni (Weber and de Beaufort, 1913) 1
Neoglyphidodon bonang (Bleeker, 1852) 2
Ilisha megaloptera (Swainson, 1839) 1
Neoglyphidodon melas (Cuvier, 1830) 22
Ilisha melastoma (Schneider, 1801) 1
Neopomacentrus azysron (Bleeker, 1877) 2, 5
Ilisha obfuscate Wongratana, 1983 1
Neopomacentrus cyanomos (Bleeker, 1856) 5
Ilisha sirishai Seshagiri Rao, 1975 1
Neopomacentrus taeniurus (Bleeker, 1856) 5
Ilisha striatula Wongratana, 1983 1
Plectroglyphidodon dickii (Liénard, 1839) 2, 23
Opisthopterus tardoore (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus (Quoy & Gaimard,
Pellona dayi Wongratana, 1983 1
1825) 2, 23
Pellona ditchela (Valenciennes, 1847) 1
Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus Fowler & Ball, 1924 22
Raconda russeliana Gray, 1831 1
Plectroglyphidodon imparipennis (Vaillant & Sauvage,
1875) 22
Plectroglyphidodon leucozonus (Bleeker, 1859) 22 Family: Psettodidae
Pomacentrus chrysurus Cuvier, 1830 2 Psettodes erumei (Schneider, 1801) 1
Pomacentrus indicus Allen, 19912
Pomacentrus trilineatus Cuvier, 1830 2
424
Family: Pseudochromidae Protonibea diacanthus (Lacepede, 1802) 1
Chlidichthys inornatus Lubbock, 1976 5 Pterotolithus maculates (Kuhl and Van Hassel, 1830) 1
Pseudochromis dilectus Lubbock, 1976 5
Pseudochromis fuscus Müller & Troschel, 1849 5 Family: Scombridae
Acanthocybium solandri (Cuvier, 1831) 1, 6, 13
Family: Rachycentridae Auxis rochei (Risso, 1810) 1, 6, 13, 14
Auxis thazard (Lacepede, 1800) 1, 6, 13, 14
Rachycentron canadum (Linneaus, 1766) 1
Euthynnus affinis (Cantor, 1849) 1, 6, 13, 14
Gymnosarda unicolor (Ruppell, 1838) 1
Family: Scaridae
Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 6, 13, 14
Calotomus carolinus (Valenciennes, 1840) 1 Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1817) 1, 20
Calotomus spinidens (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Sarda orientalis (Temminck and Schlegel, 1844) 1
Cetoscarus bicolor (Rüppell, 1829) 5 Scomberomorus commersoni (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 6, 13, 14
Chlorurus rhakoura Randall & Anderson, 1997 2 Scomberomorus guttatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 13
Chlorurus atrilunula (Randall & Bruce, 1983) 5 Scomberomorus koreanus (Kishinouye, 1915) 1
Chlorurus oedema (Snyder, 1909) 1, 21 Scomberomorus lineolatus (Cuvier, 1831) 1, 13
Chlorurus sordidus (Forsskål, 1775) 1, 21 Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788) 1, 6, 13, 14
Chlorurus strongylocephalus (Bleeker, 1854) 21, 22 Thunnus abesus (Lowe, 1839) 1, 6, 13, 14
Hipposcarus harid (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Thunnus tonggol (Bleeker, 1851) 1, 13
Leptoscarus vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1
Scarus ghobban Forsskal, 1775 1 Family: Howellidae
Scarus niger Forsskal, 1775 1 Howella sherborni (Norman, 1930) 18
Scarus psittacus Forsskal, 1775 1
Scarus quoyi Valenciennes, 1840 1
Family: Scorpaenidae
Scarus rivulatus Valenciennes, 1840 1
Apistus carinatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 21, 22
Scarus rubroviolaceus Bleeker, 1847 1
Scarus russelii Valenciennes, 1840 1 Choridactylus multibarbus Richardson, 1848 22
Scarus frenatus Lacepède, 1802 22 Dendrochirus biocellatus (Fowler, 1938) 5
Scarus caudofasciatus (Günther, 1862) 22 Dendrochirus brachypterus (Cuvier, 1829) 5
Dendrochirus zebra (Cuvier, 1829) 5
Family: Scatophagidae Inimicus filamentosus (Cuvier, 1829) 22
Scatophagus argus (Bloch, 1758) 1 Minous monodactylus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22
Pterois antennata (Bloch, 1787) 5
Family: Sciaenidae Pterois russelli Bennett, 1831 5
Argyrosomus amoyensis (Bleeker, 1863) 1 Pterois volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) 2, 5, 7, 23
Chrysochir aureus (Richardson, 1846) 1 Pterois radiata (Cuvier, 1829) 5, 9
Daysciaena albida (Cuvier, 1830) 1, 20, 21 Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828) 7
Dendrophysa russellii (Cuvier, 1830) 1, 21 Pterois mombasae (Smith, 1957) 22
Johnius amblycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) 1 Parascorpaena picta (Cuvier, 1829) 2
Johnius belangerii (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Parascorpaena bleekeri (Day, 1878) 22
Johnius carouna (Cuvier, 1830) 1
Pseudovespicula dracaena (Cuvier, 1829) 20, 22
Johnius carutta (Bloch, 1793) 1
Rhinopias frondosa (Gunther, 1891) 22
Johnius elongatus Mohan, 1976 1, 20
Rhinopias eschmeyeri Condé, 1977 22
Johnius macropterus (Bleeker, 1853) 1
Scorpaenodes parvipinnis (Garrett, 1864) 5
Johnius macrorhynus (Mohan, 1976) 1
Scorpaenodes guamensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 22
Johnius mannarensis (Mohan, 1969) 1
Scorpaenodes parvipinnis (Garrett, 1864) 21, 22
Johnius trewavasae Sasaki, 1992 1, 20
Scorpaenopsis diabolus (Cuvier, 1829) 22
Johnius borneensis (Bleeker, 1851) 1, 20, 21
Kathala axillaris (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Scorpaenopsis gibbosa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22
Nibea maculata (Schneider, 1801) 1 Scorpaenopsis venosa (Cuvier, 1829) 22
Nibea soldado (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Scorpaenopsis oxycephala (Bleeker, 1849) 22
Otolithes cuvieri Trewavas, 1947 1 Setarchus longiceps (Gunther) 22
Otolithes ruber (Schneider, 1801) 1 Sebastapistes cyanostigma (Bleeker, 1856) 22
Otolithoides biauritus (Cantor, 1850) 1 Sebastapistes erostris (Alcock, 1896) 22
Panna microdon (Bleeker, 1849) 1 Sebastapistes strongia (Cuvier, 1829 22
Pennahia anea (Bloch, 1793) 1 Synanceia verrucosa Bloch & Schneider, 1801 22
425
Synanceia horrida (Linnaeus, 1766) 22 Family Siganidae
Taenianotus triacanthus Lacepede, 1802 22 Siganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797) 1
Tetraroge niger (Cuvier, 1829) 20, 22 Siganus javus (Linneaus, 1766) 1
Siganus lineatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1
Family: Serranidae Siganus spinus (Linneaus, 1758) 1
Aethaloperca rogaa (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 21 Siganus stellatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Cephalopholis argus (Schneider, 1801) 1, 5, 7, 23 Siganus vermiculatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1
Cephalopholis aurantia (Schneider, 1801) 1 Siganus virgatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1
Cephalopholis boenack (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5, 7 Siganus argenteus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 22
Cephalopholis formosa (Shaw, 1804) 1, 5 Siganus guttatus (Bloch, 1787) 22
Cephalopholis leopardus (Lacepede, 1801) 1
Cephalopholis minata (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5, 14 Family Sillaginidae
Cephalopholis sexmaculata (Ruppell, 1828) 1, 5 Sillago aeolus Jordan and Evermann, 1902 1
Cephalopholis sonnerati (Valenciennes, 1825) 1, 2 Sillago ingenuua McKay, 1985 1
Cephalopholis urodeta (Forster, 1801) 1 Sillago lutea McKay, 1985 1
Cromileptes altivelis (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Sillago sihama (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Diploprion bifasciatum Cuvier, 1828 1 Sillago vincenti McKay, 1980 1
Epinephelus areolatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Epinephelus bleekeri (Vaillant, 1877) 1 Family Soleidae
Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5 Brachirus orientalis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 1, 21
Epinephelus chlorostigma (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Heteromycteris oculus (Alcock, 1889) 1
Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton, 1822) 1 Solea elongata Day, 1877 1
Epinephelus diacanthus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Synaptura commersonnii (Lacepède, 1802) 1, 21
Epinephelus erythrurus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Zebrias quagga Kaup, 1858 1
Epinephelus fasciatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Zebrias synapturoides (Jenkins, 1910) 1
Epinephelus faveatus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1
Epinephelus flavocaeruleus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 5, 9 Family: Solenostomidae
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Solenostomus paradoxus (Pallas, 1770) 1, 5
Epinephelus hexagonatus (Schneider, 1801) 1 Solenostomus cyanopterus Bleeker, 1854 22
Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5, 9 Solenostomus spp.2
Epinephelus latifasciatus (Temminck and Schlegel,
1842) 1
Family: Sparidae
Epinephelus longispinis (Kner, 1865) 1
Acanthopagrus berda (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 14
Acanthopagrus bifasciatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Epinephelus merra Bloch, 1793 1, 23
Acanthopagrus latus (Houttuyn, 1758) 1
Epinephelus poecilonotus (Temminck and
Schlegel, 1842) 1 Argyrops spinifer (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Epinephelus radiatus (Day, 1867) 1, 20 Rhabdosargus sarba (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Epinephelus tauvina (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Epinephelus tukula Morgans, 1959 1 Family: Sphyraenidae
Epinephelus undulosus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1, 14 Sphyraena acutipinnis Day, 1876 1
Epinephelus rivulatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 22 Sphyraena barracuda (Walbaum, 1792) 1
Epinephelus spilotoceps Schultz, 1953 22 Sphyraena forsteri Cuvier, 1829 1
Grammistes sexlineatus (Thunberg, 1792) 1, 5 Sphyraena jello Cuvier, 1829 1
Plectropomus laevis (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Sphyraena obtusata Cuvier, 1829 1
Plectropomus pessuliferus (Fowler, 1904) 1
Pogonoperca punctata (Valenciennes, 1830) 5 Family: Sternoptychidae
Pseudanthias cooperi (Regan, 1902) 5 Polyipnus spinosus Gunther, 1887 18
Pseudanthias evansi (Smith, 1954) 5
Pseudanthias hypselosoma Bleeker, 1878 5
Family: Stomiidae
Pseudanthias ignites (Randall & Lubbock, 1981) 5
Astronesthes richardsoni (Poey, 1852) 18
Pseudanthias squamipinnis (Peters, 1855) 5
Stomias nebulosus (Alcock, 1889) 1
Rabaulichthys stigmaticus Randall & Pyle, 1989 5
Variola albimarginata (Baissac, 1952) 1, 5
Variola louti (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5
426
Family Stromateidae Family: Toxotidae
Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) 1 Toxotes chatareus (Hamilton – Buchanan, 1822) 1
Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen, 1788) 1
Family: Trachichthyidae
Family: Syngnathidae Gephyroberyx darwinii (Johnson, 1866) 1
Hoplostethus mediterraneus Cuvier, 1829 1
Corythoichthys amplexus Dawson & Randall, 1975 5
Corythoichthys flavofasciatus (Rüppell, 1838) 19, 21 Family: Triacanthidae
Doryrhamphus excisus Kaup, 1856 21, 22 Halimochirurgus centriscoides Alcock, 1899 18
Doryrhamphus janssi (Herald & Randall, 1972) 20, 22 Pseudotriacanthus striglifer (Cantor, 1849) 1
Doryrhamphus spp.2 Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch, 1786) 1, 19
Halicampus grayi Kaup, 1856 19, 21
Hippocampus kuda Bleeker, 1852 5 Family: Trichiuridae
Hippocampus fuscus Ruppell 1838 22 Eupleurogrammus glossodon (Bleeker, 1866) 1
Hippocampus spinosissimus Weber 1913 22 Eupleurogrammus muticus (Gray, 1831) 1
Ichthyocampus carce (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 20 Lepturacanthus pantului (Gupta, 1966) 1
Microphis brachyurus (Bleeker, 1854) 19 Lepturacanthus savala (Cuvier, 1829) 1
Microphis cuncalus (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 20 Trichiurus gangeticus Gupta, 1966 1
Siokunichthys southwelli (Duncker, 1910) 19, 21 Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758 1
Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Bloch, 1785) 19
Trachyrhampus serratus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1850) 19, 20 Family: Trichonotidae
Trachyrhampus longirostris Kaup, 1856 19 Trichonotus setiger Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1, 20
Family: Synodontidae Family: Triglidae

Saurida nebulosa (Valenciennes, 1849) 1 Lepidotrigla longipinnis Alcock, 1890 1, 21
Saurida tumbil (Bloch, 1795) 1 Lepidotrigla faurei (Gilchirst & Thompson, 1914) 18
Saurida undosquamis Richardson, 1848 1 Pterygotrigla leptacanthus (Günther, 1880) 18, 20
Synodus binotatus Schultz, 1953 1
Synodus dermatogenys Fowler, 1912 1 Family: Tripterygiidae
Synodus indicus (Day, 1873) 1
Tripterigion spp.2
Synodus jaculum Russell and Cressey, 1979 1
Synodus sageneus Waite, 1905 1
Family: Uranoscopidae
Synodus variegatus (Lacepede, 1803) 1, 22
Trachinocephalus myops (Forster, 1801) 1 Ichthyscopus lebeck Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1, 21
Family: Terapontidae Family: Veliferidae
Pelates quadrilineatus (Bloch, 1790) 1 Velifer hypselopterus Bleeker, 1879 18, 21

Terapon jarbua (Forsskal, 1775) 1
Terapon puta (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Family: Xiphidae
Terapon theraps (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Xiphias gladius Linnaeus, 1758 1, 6, 13, 14
Family: Tetraodontidae Family: Zanclidae

Arothron nigropunctatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 2, 5 Zanclus cornutus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23
Arothron meleagris (Anonymous, 1798) 2, 5, 23
Arothron mappa (Lesson, 1831) 5 Family: Zenionidae
Arothron hispidus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Zenion leptolepis (Gilchrist & von Bonde, 1924) 18, 21
Arothron stellatus (Anonymous, 1798) 20, 22
Arothron immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22 Cartilaginous Fishes.
Canthigaster solandri (Richardson, 1845) 2, 5, 23
Canthigaster janthinoptera (Bleeker, 1855) 5 Sharks.
Canthigaster valentine (Bleeker, 1853) 5
Canthigaster coronata (Vaillant & Sauvage, 1875) 7 Family: Alopiidae
Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788) 1, 16, 17
Alopias superciliosus (Lowe, 1839) 17
Alopias pelagicus (Nakamura, 1935) 17
427
Family: Carcharhinidae Isurus paucus (Guitart Manday, 1966) 17
Carcharhinus albimarginatus (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 17 Isurus spp.14
Carcharhinus altimus (Springer, 1950) 1, 16, 17
Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides (Whitley, 1934) 1, 16, 17 Family: Odontaspididae
Carcharhinus amboinensis (Muller and Henle, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharias tricuspidatus Day, 1878 1, 21
Carcharhinus brevipinna (Muller and Henle, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Eugomphodus taurus (Rafinesque, 1810) 15, 16, 17
Carcharhinus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Odontaspis noronhai (Maul, 1955) 17
Carcharhinus falciformis (Bibron, 1839) 1, 14, 16, 17 Odontaspis ferox (Risso, 1810) 17
Carcharhinus hemiodon (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17
Carcharhinus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Family: Proscylliidae
Carcharhinus longimanus (Poey, 1861) 1, 14, 15, 16, 17 Eridacnis radcliffei Smith, 1913 1, 16, 17
Carcharhinus macloti (Muller and Henle, 1839) 1, 16, 17
Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy and Gaimard, Family: Pseudocarchariidae
1824) 1, 5, 16, 17
Pseudocarcharias kamoharai (Matsubara, 1936) 17
Carcharhinus plumbeus (Nardo, 1827) 17
Carcharhinus sealei (Pietschmann, 1916) 1, 16, 17
Family: Rhincodontidae
Carcharhinus sorrah (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17
Rhincodon typus Smith, 1828 1, 16, 17
Carcharhinus wheeleri (Garrick, 1982) 15, 16, 17
Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Bleeker, 1856) 15, 17
Family: Scyliorhinidae
Carcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839) 15
Atelomycterus marmoratus Bennett, 1830 1, 17
Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) 11, 15, 16, 17
Halaelurus hispidus Alcock, 1891 1, 17
Galeocerdo cuvier (Peron and Le Seuer, 1822) 1, 15, 16, 17
Glyphis gangeticus (Müller & Henle, 1839) 15
Family: Sphyrnidae
Lamiopsis temmincki (Muller & Henle, 1839) 16, 17
Loxodon macrorhinus Muller and Henle, 1839 1, 16, 17 Eusphyra blochii (Cuvier, 1817) 1, 16, 17
Negaprion acutidens (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 16, 17 Sphyrna lewini (Griffith and Smith, 1834) 1, 16, 17
Negaprion brevirostris (Poey. 1868) 15, 17 Sphyrna mokarran (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 15, 16, 17
Prionace glauca (Linneaus, 1758) 1, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17 Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 15, 16, 17
Rhizoprionodon acutus (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 16, 17
Rhizoprionodon oligolinx Springer, 1964 1, 16, 17 Family: Squalidae
Scoliodon laticaudus Muller and Henle, 1838 1, 16, 17 Centrophorus squamosus (Bonaterre, 1788) 17
Triaenodon obesus (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 5, 16, 17 Centroscyllium ornatum (Alcock, 1889) 17
Dalatias licha (Bonnaterra, 1788) 17
Family: Echinorhinidae
Echinorhinus brucus (Bonnaterre, 1788) 1, 16, 17 Family: Stegostomatidae
Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann, 1783) 1, 16, 17
Family: Ginglymostomatidae
Nebrius ferrugineus (Lesson, 1830) 1, 16, 17 Family: Triakidae
Mustelus manazo (Bleeker, 1854) 17
Family: Hemigaleidae Mustelus mosis (Hemprich and Ehrenbergh, 1899) 1, 16, 17
Chaenogaleus macrostoma Bleeker, 1852 1, 16, 17
Hemigaleus microstoma Bleeker, 1852 1, 16, 17 Batoids.
Hemipristis elongatus (Klunzinger, 1871) 1, 16, 17
Family: Dasyatididae
Family: Hemiscylliidae Dasyatis kuhlii (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 4, 17
Chiloscyllium griseum Muller and Henle, 1838 1, 5, 16, 17 Dasyatis marginatus (Blyth, 1860) 1, 4, 17
Chiloscyllium indicum (Gmelin, 1789) 1, 5, 16, 17 Dasyatis pastinacus (Linnaeus, 1758) 17
Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Bennett, 1830) 1, 5, 16, 17 Dasyatis zugei (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 4, 17
Himantura bleekeri (Blyth, 1860) 1, 17
Family: Hexanchidae Himantura gerrardi (Gray, 1851) 1, 4, 17
Hexanchus griseus (Bonaterre, 1788) 17 Himantura imbricata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17, 20
Notorynchus cepedianus (Peron, 1807) 16, 17 Himantura uarnak (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 4, 17
Pastinachus sephen (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 4, 17
Family: Lamnidae Taeniura lymma (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 17
Taeniura meyeni Muller and Henle, 1841 1, 17
Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 18101, 15, 16, 17
Urogymnus asperrimus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17
428
Family: Gymnuridae Narcine brunnea Annandale, 1909 1, 17
Gymnura poecilura (Shaw, 1804) 1, 17 Narcine timlei (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17
Family: Mobulidae Family: Pristidae

Mobula kuhlii (Valenciennes in Muller and Henle, Anoxypristis cuspidata (Latham, 1794) 1, 17, 20
1841) 1, 4, 17 Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 1, 17
Mobula eregoodootenkee (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 4, 17 Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851 1, 17
Mobula japanica (Muller and Henle, 1841) 4
Mobula tarapacana (Philippi, 1892) 4 Family: Rajidae
Fenestraja mamillidens (Alcock, 1889) 1, 17, 20, 21
Family: Myliobatididae
Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790) 1, 4, 14, 17 Family: Rhinobatidae
Aetomylaeus maculatus (Gray, 1834) 1, 17, 20 Glaucostegus granulatus (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 17, 20, 21
Aetomylaeus nichofii (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17 Rhina ancylostoma Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1, 17
Rhinobatos annandalei Norman, 1926 1, 17
Family Rhinopteridae Rhynchobatus djiddensis (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 17
Rhinoptera adspersa (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 17 Rhi-
noptera javanica (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 4, 14, 17
Total = 1377
Family: Narcinidae
Narke dipterygia (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17
References: (For the check list)
1. De Bruin, G.H.P. Russell, B.C. & Bogusch, A., 1994. FAO Species Identification Field Guide for Fishery
Purpose: The Marine Fishery Resources in Sri Lanka. Rome: FAO.
2. Perera, N. & Weerakkody, P., 2004. Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No: 5- A Biodiversity Status Profile
of Sub-tidal and Inter-tidal Habitats of the Rekawa, Ussangoda and Kalametiya Area. Colombo: IUCN Sri
Lanka Country Office.
3. Rajasuriya, A., n.d. The Present Status of Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka.
4. Dalpathadu, K. R., 2011. Study on skate and ray fishery in the southern coast of Sri Lanka. Bsc (Sp.). University
of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka.
5. Long, B. G. et al., 2010. Sri Lanka fisheries atlas volume 1: Status of resources, fisheries and management
initiatives on sea cucumber, chank, shrimp and marine aquarium fish in the North West, South and East coast
of Sri Lanka. Colombo: National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency.
6. Dayaratne, P. Maldeniya, R. Amarasooriya, D & Senadhira, R., 1996. Large pelagic fisheries in Sri Lanka:
Annual fishery statistics 1995. Colombo: National Aquatic resource Research and Development Agency.
7. Claasz, D., 1985. A reef inventory off Wellawatta. Loris, XVII(01), pp. 25-27.
8. Lankadhikara, L. M. C. V., 2004. Food and feeding habits of common pony fish Leiognathus equulus in Negomo
estuary. Sri Lanka Naturalist, VI(01-02), pp. 10-11.
9. Rajasuriya, A., 2004. The marine aquarium fishery in Sri Lanka. Business Lanka, 22(02), pp. 2-8.
10. Moosleitner, H., 1998. Myripristis adusta and M. violacea: two new records of holocentrid fishes from Sri Lanka.
Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3(1), pp. 53-54.
11. De Silva, R. I., 1993. The great white shark Carcharodon carcharias in Sri Lanka. Loris, XX(01),
pp. 10-11.
12. Christoffelsz, A. Fernando, M. & Rajasuriya, A., 2002. Reef check’ 99: A new threat to the Pigeon Islands’
corals?. Sri Lanka Nature, pp. 18-23.
13. Jayathilaka, et al., 2010. Atlas of tuna fishery and resources in Sri Lanka – OFCF Tuna Atlas Project in the
IOTC Waters: Tuna Atlas Series No. 4. Colombo: National Aquatic resources Research and Development
Agency.
14. National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA). 2005. Sri Lanka Fisheries Year book
-EXPLANATORY NOTES. [Online] (Updated 12 Feb. 2008).
Available at: http://www.nara.ac.lk/ybook2005/explan.html
[Accessed 29 October 2012].
429
15. De Silva, R. I., 2012. Shark attacks in Sri Lanka. [Online] (Updated 6 February 2012)
Available at: http://sharkattacksrilanka.blogspot.com/2012/02/shark-attacks-in-sri-lanka-rex-i.html
[Accessed 12 November 2012].
16. De Silva, R. I., 1988. The sharks of Sri Lanka: A key to the different species and a preliminary checklist.
CEYLON J.SCI. (BIO.SCI.), 17 & 18, pp. 56-66.
17. De Silva, R.I., 2006. Taxonomy and status of sharks and rays of Sri Lanka. In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed. The
Fauna of Sri Lanka – status of taxonomy, research and conservation. Colombo. The World Conservation Union
(IUCN) Sri Lanka and Government of Sri Lanka, pp. 297-301.
18. Munasinghe, N.L.R., 1977. A Description of some Deep Sea Fishes from the Gulf of Mannar and Adjecent
Waters. Bull.Fish. Res. Stn. Sri Lanka (Ceylon).
19. Munro, I. S. R., 1955. The marine and freshwater fishes of Ceylon. Dept. of External Affairs.
20. Froese, R. & Pauly, D. eds., 2012. FishBase [Online] (Updated October 2012)
Available at: http://www.fishbase.org/search.php [Accessed 22 November 2012].
21. Appeltans, W. et al. eds., 2012. World Register of Marine Species. [Online].
Available at: http://www.marinespecies.org [Accessed 22 November 2012].
22. Weerakkody, P., 2012. Personal Records. [e-mail] (Personal communication, 12 November, 2012).
23. Kumara, P. B. T. P. Cumaranathunga P. R. T. & Linden, O., 2005. Bandaramulla reef of Southern Sri-Lanka:
Present status and impacts of coral mining. In: D. Souter & O. Linden, eds. CORDIO. Kalmar, Sweden, pp.
233-242.
430
Provisional Checklist of the Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Sri Lanka
R. Gnaneswaran,
Department of Zoology, University of Jaffna, Jaffna
Introduction
Leafhoppers are small phytophagous insects with a worldwide distribution in almost all habitat
types. They belong to Family Cicadellidae, the largest family in the Suborder Auchenorrhyncha
of the Order Hemiptera, which includes more than 22,000 described species in 40 subfamilies
and 98 tribes (Oman et al., 1990; Dietrich, 2005). Phytophagous feeding habit of the adults
and the nymphal stages of leafhoppers results in four types of plant injuries: loss of plant sap
due to feeding, contamination of plant with phytotoxins through injection of toxic saliva while
feeding, enhancing fungus growth and transmission of disease causing microbes such as virus
and phytoplasma. Among the 22,000 known species of leafhoppers, 170 have been reported
as vectors of plant pathogens of cultivated crops.
Taxonomy
Since the description of 130 species by Melichar (1903) and 62 species belonging to 40 genera
by Distant (1908, 1916 & 1918), the family Cicadellidae has not been extensively examined in
Sri Lanka for nearly 80 years. In 1994, Dworakowska has described 76 species of Sri Lankan
leafhoppers including 7 genera and 22 species that are new to science, after examining the
specimens located in the Natural History Museum in London. Thereafter, Viraktamath and
Parvathi (2002) and Viraktamath (2007b) described three new genera and seven new species.
This was followed by the description of a new subgenus and a new species by Viraktamath &
Gnaneswaran (2009). Finally, Gnaneswaran, et al., (2007, 2008a and 2009) have added one
genus and 5 species with their host plant records, to the list of Sri Lankan leafhopper fauna.
Of the 25 subfamilies of Cicadellidae found in the Indian sub-continent 17 are found in Sri
Lanka. At present the leafhopper fauna of Sri Lanka consists of 257 species belonging to 120
genera.
Distribution
Leafhoppers of Sri Lanka are distributed throughout the island and their distribution is mainly
related to the vegetation type. Many species recorded from Sri Lanka are known only from
museum specimens and the information of their ecology and host plant association is not
available (Melicher, 1903; Distant, 1908, 1916 & 1918). A recent study on leafhoppers in Sri
Lanka by the author (from 2006-2008), revealed more information about species (including the
discovery of new species), their host plant associations and distribution patterns. For instance,
Kamaza sadakorni Dworakowska, earlier recorded from Bangkok (Thailand) on Erythrina
fusca and Manthal (Jammu and Kashmir, India) on Ficus sp, was found breeding extensively
on wing bean in Kandy District (Gnaneswaran, et al., 2008). This study further indicated that
species richness and abundance of leafhoppers were higher in natural ecosystems compared
to managed ecosystems.
431
Threats
The majority of leafhoppers except tiny Typhlocybines (which can disperse by wind) are
generally slow dispersers associated with specialized habitats or limited numbers of host plants.
Therefore, these species are potentially threatened by habitat destruction or fragmentation
due to human activities. Only a few species were observed in vegetable plots (S = 25) and
paddy fields (S = 27) compared to Grassland (S=49) and forest with scattered grass patches
(S=58) in the Mid country Wet Zone of Sri Lanka (Gnaneswaran, 2010) and species diversity
appears to be high in natural habitats. Thus, damage to such natural habitats as a result of
human activities pose a major threat to leafhoppers.
Research Gaps
The natural history of the Sri Lankan leafhoppers has been neglected by native scientists
for nearly 100 years since the work done by Distant (1918). Their role in the ecosystem was
not given due consideration apart from being considered as a pest/ disease vector in agro-
ecosystem. Recent studies have led to the discovery of several new species of leafhoppers
from Sri Lanka. This clearly indicates that there can be more species present in Sri Lanka
unknown to science and the need to carry out detail investigation on this less known yet
economically important faunal group.
Recommendations
1. An intensive island wide survey should be conducted by academic/research institutions to

document the diversity, density and distribution of the leafhoppers.
2. Appropriate molecular biological studies should be promoted within the country to confirm
the taxonomic and vector status of the leafhoppers.
3. Ecological studies should be encouraged in different ecosystems throughout the island,

with the aim of identifying whether leafhoppers can be used as indicator species to
measure habitat quality.
References
Dietrich, C.H., 2005. Keys to the families of Cicadomorpha and subfamilies and tribes of Cicadellidae (Hemiptera:
Auchenorhyncha). Fla. Entomol. 88: 502- 517.
Dworakowska, I., 1994. Typhlocybinae (Auchenorrhyncha, Cicadellidae) known to occur in Sri Lanka. Ann. Zool.
Bot. 216: 3-39.
Gnaneswaran, R. 2010. Taxonomy and Ecology of Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Sri Lanka. Post
Graduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Ph.D. Thesis , Pp. 243
Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra, K.S., Viraktamath , C.A., Ahangama , D., Wijayagunasekara H.N.P., Wahundeniya.
I. 2007. Idioscopus nagpurensis (Pruthi) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Idiocerinae): A New Member of Mango
Leafhopper Complex in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research. 19: 78 – 90.
Gnaneswaran, R, Viraktamath, C.A., Hemachandra,K.S., Ahangama, D., Wijayagunasekara, H.N.P. and
Wahundeniya,I. 2008 Typhlocybine Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Cicadellidae) Associated with
Horticultural Crops in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agiricultural research. 20: 1-11.
Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra,K.S. Ahangama,D . Wijayagunasekara,H.N.P. and Wahundeniya,I, 2008a. Species
of Nephotettix Matsumura Hemiptera: Auchenorhyncha: Cicaedellidae) Sri Lanka. Short communication:
432
Tropical agricultural research. 20: 414-418.
Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra, K.S., Wijegunasekara, H.N.P. and Ahangama.D., 2009. A Key for identification of
Deltocephaline Genera (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae) Associated with Vegetable ecosystem in
Sri Lanka. Short communication: Tropical agricultural research. 21: (in Press).
Gnaneswaran, R., Viraktamath, C.A. and Hemachandra, K.S., 2009a. Taxonomic studies on Deltocephaline
leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae) of Sri Lanka. At 14th International Forestry and
Environment Symposium 2009, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. 18th -19th December 2009. Proceedings Part. I abstract
p.62.
Oman, P.W., Knight W.J. and Nielson, M.W., 1990. Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) A bibiliography, Generic Check-list
and Index to the World Literature 1956-1985. CAB International Institute of Entomology. Wallingford. P.368.
Viraktamath, C.A, 2007. New genera and species of idiocerine leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) from India, Sri
Lanka and Myanmar. Biosystematica 1(1):21-30.
Viraktamath, C. V and Gnaneswaran, R , 2009. Three new species of Goniagnathus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) from
the Indian Subcontinent with description of a new subgenus. Zootaxa, 2224: 51-59.
Viraktamath, C. A. and Parvathi, C., 2002. Description of a new Idiocerine Genus Periacerus. Hemiptera:
Cicadellidae, and two new species from India and Sri Lanka. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 99:
488-494.
433
Provisional Checklist of Leafhoppers in Sri Lanka
Distribution
Leafhopper Species
(DZ, WZ,IMZ) Habitat Host plants /at light
Sub family: Acostemminae

Acostemma walkeri Kirkakdy WZ H long bean
Sub family: Agalliinae
Austroagallia bifurcata Sawai Singh
DZ, WZ G grass, flower bush
and Gill
Austroagallia quadtrinotata (Melichar) DZ, WZ G grass, flower bush
Sub family: Cicadellinae
Anatkina helena (Distant) WZ F grass
Anagonalia melichari (Distant) WZ F grass
Atkinsoniella sp. WZ F grass
Cofana lineata (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass , paddy
Cofana spectra (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass, paddy, brinjal
Cofana unimaculata (Signoret) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass
Cofana sp. WZ F grass
Kolla ceylonica (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ C,P,V,F grass, coconut
Kolla paulula (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ F, C grass
Ujna delicatula Distant IMZ F grass
Ujna sp IMZ F grass
Sub family: Coelidiinae
Calodia ostenta (Distant) WZ H,F grass, croton
Thagria introducta (Distant) WZ F grass
Sub family: Deltocephalinae
Aconeurella sp.I DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass
Aconeurella indica DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass
Balclutha rudrostriata (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,P,G grass
Balclutha incisa (Mastumura) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G grass
Balclutha rosea (Scott) WZ,IMZ V,G grass
Balclutha viridinervis Mastumura WZ, IMZ V,G grass
Banus oblatus Distant WZ F grass
Changwhania ceylonensis (Baker) WZ,IMZ P,G grass
Chiasmus mustilinus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ G grass
Chiasmus sp. DZ WZ,IMZ G grass
Cicadulina bipunctata (Melichar) WZ,IMZ P,G grass
Exitianus indicus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,F,C grass
Exitianus nanus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,F grass
Goniagnathus (T.) zeylonicus Viraktamath
IMZ G grass
&Gnaneswaran
Goniagnathus (T.) nervosus Distant WZ,IMZ F,G, grass
434
Goniagnathus (T.) puntifer (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ C,G grass
Goniagnathus (T.) fumosus Distant DZ G grass
Goniagnathus (T.) appallans Baker DZ G grass
Hecalus arcuatus (Motschulsky) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass
Hecalus porrectus (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass
Hecalus paraumballaensis Rao DZ, WZ H at light
Hecalus.ghaurii Rao and Ramakrishnan WZ G

grass
Hecalus prasinus (Mastumura) DZ G grass
Hecalus nervosus Melichar WZ G grass
grass. brinjal, tea,
Hishimonus phycitis (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,T,H,C
coconut
Leofa (Leofa) mysorensis (Distant) DZ G grass
Litura unda Knight DZ, WZ,IMZ T,G tea, grass
Macrosteles vaga (Melichar) WZ G grass
Maiestas distincta (Motschulsky) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass
Maiestas portica (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ P.G grass
P,V,G
Maiestas dorsalis (Motschulsky) Paddy, grass,
DZ, WZ,IMZ
coconut
Maiestas sp, DZ G grass
Monobazus fuscovarious (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ F,G,O,S Grass,
Nephotettix parvas Ishihara & Kiwase DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,V paddy, grass
Nephotettix virescencs (Distant) Pruthi DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G.C paddy, grass
Nephotettix malayanus shihara and Kawase DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G

paddy, grass
Nephotettix nigropictus (Stal) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,V paddy, grass

Neohotettix sympatricus Ghauri DZ, WZ,IMZ G Grass
Orosius albicinctus Distant WZ,IMZ V,O grass, mango
Platyrectus marginatus Melichar WZ,IMZ F,G,C Grass
Scaphoideus morosus Melichar WZ F,G,C Grass and at light
F,G
Scaphoideus sculptellus Virak. & Mohan WZ grass
Scaphotettix sp. IMZ F grass

Stirellus sp I. WZ G grass
Stirellus sp II DZ, WZ G grass
Stirellus indra (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,C grass
Stirellus jacosa Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,G grass
Yuanamia sp. New WZ G grass
Subfamily: Lassinae
Batrocomorphus sp. I DZ, WZ F,G grass
Batrocomorphus sp. II DZ,IMZ F,G grass
Batrocomorphus sp.III DZ F,G grass
435
Krisna sp. female only H mussaenda and
WZ
at light
Sub family: Idiocerinae
Amritodus brevistylus Viraktamath. DZ, WZ,IMZ O,H,F mango

F
Busoniomimus manjunaththi Virak.& Vira DZ, WZ,IMZ clove
Jogocerus freytagi Viraktamath IMZ F attariya

Idioscopus nitidulus (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ O,H,F mango, asoka
mango, jampola, cocoa

O,H,F avocado,na, rambuttan,
Idioscopus nagpurensis (Pruthi) DZ, WZ,IMZ
carambola,teak, pepper,
coffee
O,H,F mango, jampola,
Idioscopus clypealis (Lethierry)
avocado, na, rambutan,
DZ, WZ,IMZ
teak ,cocoa carambola,
teak,pepper, coffee.
Idioscopus unimaculatus (Melichar) WZ F badulla, na
Sub family: Ledrinae

Petacephala sp. IMZ G,C grass
Sub family : Macropsinae
Pediopsoides (Pediopsoids) sp. WZ F,G grass
Macropsis sp. WZ F,G grass
Sub family: Nirvaninae
Kana thoracica Distant WZ F,G grass
Nirvana pallida Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ V,F.G grass
Nirvana suturalis Melichar WZ F,G grass
Sophonia longitudinalis (Distant) WZ F,G grass
Sub family: Penthiminae
Neodartus acocephaloides Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ F,G,V grass
Uzelina thaloriensis Sharma WZ F grass
Penthimia sp. WZ F grass
Thambila sp. WZ F grass
Sub family : Selanocephalinae

Bhatia olivercea Melichar WZ F,G grass
Bhatia Distanti Zang and Webb WZ F,G grass
Drabescus conspicuus Distant WZ F,G grass
Drabescus stramineus Distant WZ F,G grass
Kutata transversa Zang and Webb WZ F,G grass
Subfamily: Signoretinae
Preta gratiosa Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ G grass
Sub family: Typhlocybinae
436
Alebroides nigroscutellata (Distant) WZ G grass, at light
V, H brinjal, okra, bitter-gourd,

Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida) DZ, WZ,IMZ
potato, cow pea. at light
Amrasca splendens Ghauri DZ, WZ O, H mango, asoka, ,at light
Baguoidea rubra (Melichar) WZ H at light
Empoasca sp. O,H
WZ,IMZ mango, rambutan, cocoa
P,V,G
Empoascanara (E.) maculifrons Dworak. DZ, WZ,IMZ grass
Empoascanara (E.) cilla Dworak. DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,G grass

F
Empoascanara (Bza) regularis Dworak. WZ grass, at light
agati, beat root , carrot,
Empoasca (Empoasca) triangularis Dworak. WZ V brinjal, bush bean, long
bean, castor
Faiga dropica Dwarakowsha WZ F
grass, at light
Apheliona bioculata (Melichar) WZ F,G grass
Heliona constricta Melichar WZ F,H at light
Kamaza sadakorni Dworakowska WZ V,H winged bean
cocoa, mousey mi, at
Lankasca centromaculata (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ O,F,
light
F,O
WZ,IMZ mango,rambuttan
Motschulskyia (Togaritettix) serratus (Mats.)
at light
Seriana sagara Dworakowska WZ F,G grass
Seriana sp I WZ F,G,C indian almond
Thaia subrufa (Motschulsky) WZ P,G grass
Thia (Nlunga) sp. WZ G grass
Uzeldikra citrina (Melichar) WZ G grass
Velu caricae Ghauri WZ F, at light
Sub family : Xestocephalinae
Xestocephalus sp. WZ,IMZ F at light
Habitat:C-Coconut estate; F- Forest; G- Grass land; H-Home garden; O- Ochard: P- Paddy; T- Tea estate;
V- Vegetable garden;
Ecological Zone: DZ- Dry Zone; WZ- Wet Zone; IMZ- Intermediate Zone
437
A Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Sri Lanka
Enoka P. Kudavidanage and Deepchandi Lekamge
Department of Natural Resources, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Beihul Oya
Introduction
Dung beetles are scavengers that feed and breed on dung, carrion, decaying fungi, or litter.
The Scarabaeinae subfamily comprises about 4,500 described species known as true dung
beetles exclusively feeding on dung. There are dung-feeding beetles in other families, such
as the Geotrupidae (the earth-boring dung beetles) and Aphodiinae. Aphodiinae beetles are
relatively small and comprise the bulk of dung dwellers. Scarabaeinae are more common
in tropical regions, but in northern latitudes Aphodiinae tend to dominate the dung beetle
assemblage. Dung beetles mainly use herbivore and omnivore dung, particularly from
mammals, but occasionally from birds and reptiles. They provide several ecological services
such as waste removal, secondary seed dispersal and vertebrate parasite suppression. Dung
beetles are characterized by how they process dung. These groups are called guilds or clades
of which there are four rollers (telecoprid nesters), tunnelers (paracoprid nesters), dwellers
(endocoprid nesters) and kleptoparasites. Dung beetles have well-understood ecological roles
and species composition is known to changes distinctly across habitat types.
Taxonomy
Scarabaeinae dung beetles of Sri Lanka have been recorded in two classic, regional volumes
covering parts of South Asia, Arrow 1931 and Balthasar 1963. These volumes cover the
diversity of lamellicorn beetles in a wide geographical region from Sri Lanka, India, China
Java and Arabia. The Monograph of the Scarabaeidae and Aphodiidae of the Palaearctic and
Oriental region Coleoptera: Lamellicornia by Vladimir Balthasar (1963) includes fifty dung
beetle species found in Sri Lanka, whereas the whole volume describes the distribution of
dung beetles in Europe, Central, South and Southeast Asia. Prior to Arrow’s (1931) relatively
comprehensive publication on the Sri Lankan lamellicorn fauna (beetles with lamellate terminal
segments in the antennae; includes the scarabaeids and stag beetles), a single paper briefly
discussed some of the lamellicorns collected in Sri Lanka by Gille, 1924. It records 47 species
from three subfamilies: Coprinae, Aphodiiane and Troginae. More recent work includes a study
on the diversity of dung beetles in dung of cattle and buffalo conducted in Kandy, Sri Lanka
(Nawodinee & Edirisinghe, 2007) and a four year ecological study that assessed the effects
of habitat fragmentation and land use change on dung beetle communities of the lowland
wet zone of Sri Lanka (Kudavidanage, 2012). This was coupled with an island-wide survey to
document the species distributions of dung beetle across the bio-climatic zones of Sri Lanka
(Kudavidanage, 2012; Lekamge, in preparation). The geographic distribution of dung beetles
sampled was compared with the historical distributions indicated by Arrow (1931) to identify
possible changes in distribution patterns. Specimen collected were identified through the
assistance of the National Museum of Sri Lanka, Ashoka Trust of India, the British Museum of
Natural History, the ScarabNet Global Taxon Database Version 1.5 and and primarily, Oxford
University Museum of Natural History which supported the taxonomic work. The checklist is
yet to be completed in collaboration with the above institutes. The current list consists of all
Scarabaeinae dung beetles recorded in Sri Lanka including species recorded by Arrow (1931),
438
Balthasar (1963), ScarabNet, the ScarabNet Global Taxon Database Version 1.5, specimen
collections at the National Museum of Sri Lanka, Oxford University Museum of Natural History,
British Museum of Natural History, and species recorded during the field surveys. Potentially
new species and dung/dung dwelling beetles of other families/sub families (Aphodiinae,
Hystaridae, Cyanidae, Elataridae, Chrysomalidae, Trogidae, Bostrichidae and Scirtidae) are
excluded from this list.
Distribution
ScarabNet Global Taxon Database lists 81 species of Scarabaeinae beetles belonging to eight
tribes from Sri Lanka. The most recent study identified 103 species of the same tribes. Out of
the 103 species listed for Sri Lanka, 21 species (21%) are endemic while 63 species (61%)
are found in the Indo-Sri Lankan region. The remaining species show a wider distribution.
However, these numbers are likely to change once the ongoing survey and taxonomic work is
completed including the description of several potentially new species. Some of the endemics
recorded recently were previously only known from the type specimen (i.e., Sysiphus tarantula,
which was collected from the same location as the type).Genus Onthophagus comprises of the
highest number of species found in Sri Lanka. These include species that show an island wide
distribution (i.e. Onthophagus unifaciatus, O. Cervus,O. spinifex) as well as species showing
restricted distribution (i.e Onthophagus martialis, O. igneus), where some species showing a
clear restriction to certain bio-geographical zones (i.e Onthophagus fuscopunctatus - restricted
to coastal areas in the dry and arid zones). Catharcius molossus, Sisyphus longipes and Copris
signatus are the most commonly found species while Catharcius molossus, is the largest
tunneler beetle recorded in Sri Lanka. This species often visit homes attracted by the light.
There are distinctive differences between dry and wet zone communities which can be
attributed to the environmental conditions and the distribution of large mammals. Dry zone
has the highest species richness and abundance of dung beetles. The wet zone supports a
diverse dung beetle assemblage; however, biomass per unit area is much low compared to
the dry zone. The number of species recorded from the montane zone clearly was less than
that of the other zones. Paragymnopleurus melanarius is the largest roller species found in
the wet zone while Scarabaeus gangeticus, the largest crepuscular roller beetle found in Sri
Lanka, display a clear habitat preference to the dry and arid zones (sandy soil) where cattle
and other large mammals are abundant. Genus Ochicanthon is represented by four species in
the Sri Lanka and two of them (O. cingalense and O. triste) were only recorded in the montane
zone above 1200 m asl. Panelus setosus was found only in the low and mid country wet zone
and Caccobius. ultor, C. lilliputanus, O. ludio in the low-country intermediate zone. The genera
Paraliatongus, Euoniticellus, Drepanocerus and Panelus were represented by single species
only. More intense sampling is required with multiple bait types and sampling methods to
establish the final geographic range of each species.
Some of the species in historical records were not found during the present survey. For example
only one species in the genus Scarabaeus, S. gangeticus, was found in the present study. The
other two species, Scarabaeus erichsoni and Scarabaeus sanctus, were not recorded. Further,
Onthophagus regalis and O. questus recorded by Arrow (1931) were also not recorded during
this study. Several previously recorded species from the genera Gymnopleurus, Caccobius,
439
Onthophagus and Panelus were also not recorded during extensive surveys. Five out of the
known six Gymnopleurus species were found except G. Smaragdifer.
Shifts in the distribution patterns were also observed for some species. For instance, P.
melanarius that was known to be widely distributed across the wet zone in the past was
recorded only from relatively undisturbed areas and good forests during this survey. Caccobius
unicornis which was only recorded from the wet zone by Arrow (1931) was also found the in dry
zone. Likewise, Onthophagus laevigatus that was earlier recorded in the wet-zone, was only
recorded from the dry and arid zones during our survey.
The distribution of Scarabaeinae beetles can be attributed to species-specific habitat

preferences interacting with climatic/geographic variation across the island and anthropogenic
modifications of habitats. Spatial diversity is influenced primarily by climate, elevation, vegetation
types, available dung types and microhabitat conditions created by canopy, shrub cover, soil
and litter properties. These directly affect predation, foraging and reproduction of dung beetles.
Mammals are the major suppliers of dung resources. Although diversity and endemism of the
mammals are high in the wet and montane zones, the dry zone forests contain most of the
large mammals that are the primary suppliers of dung. The species richness of dung beetles
tends to increase with rainfall. Dung beetles reproduce during rainy reasons, leading to more
dung burial for egg laying. Community structure, abundance and diversity, are often negatively
correlated with elevation. Lower productivity at higher elevations is suggested as one of the
reasons for this decline. Further, body size of a species is considered to be a function of
environmental productivity. This is consistent with the findings of this survey where smaller
species were found to dominate the species assemblage in the montane zone while large and
medium sized species were more abundant in all other zones.
Threats and conservation priorities
Dung beetles are strongly influenced by climate change, forest modification, deforestation and
alteration of microhabitat conditions. Large dung beetles are especially susceptible to the loss
of forest cover. For instance, P. melrnarius, is vulnerable to loss of forest cover and populations
decrease rapidly in open, modified areas. Change of favourable environmental conditions can
significantly alter forest dung beetle communities. Forest loss results in increased predation by
natural enemies, and loss of mammals providing dung resources. Sri Lanka has undergone
massive loss of forest cover in the last century. With few exceptions, the effects of these
changes on the insect fauna are virtually unknown. It is known that native, forest-inhabiting
dung beetle species undergo local extinction in areas where tree cover has disappeared. In
addition, deforestation in the wet zone during the 19th century caused many large mammals
to move to the dry zone. Large mammals in the wet zone are mostly restricted to forests and
exist in small populations.
Altered habitats are often replaced by different communities that are more adapted to new
conditions. In the dry and arid zones, large beetles like Scrabaeus gangeticus appear to be
highly adapted to open environments and take advantage of the surfeit of dung. However, in
the wet zone, dung beetle biomass is high in forest habitats compared to open modified areas.
Some of the modified open habitats of the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka are occupied by
dung beetle communities that are much less functionally efficient than the forest communities
occupying the same area.
440
Forest dwelling dung beetles may benefit from good forest cover and increased connectivity
between forest fragments. Sustainable management of modified habitats to increase habitat
complexity, shade and soil quality and availability of dung resources through the presence of
mammals can favour healthy dung beetle communities. Overuse of pesticides and fertilizer is
a known threat to dung beetles elsewhere. Use of pesticides and other chemicals in intensely
cultivated areas adjoining large forests and fragments may have detrimental effects.
Community education efforts can greatly contribute to the sustainable management of human
modified areas. Importance of dung beetles and their ecological services, specifically their role
in enhancing soil fertility are not well known and understood by the local communities. Wanton
destruction of dung beetles is an issue infrequently discussed. Catharsius molossus is often
burned in rural areas due to a mythological belief among tea plantations workers.
Collecting and killing of Scarabaeus gangaticus was observed in the arid agricultural areas.
Awareness development can reduce negative impacts of human activities and facilitate more
biodiversity friendly anthropogenic habitats.
Research needs and recommendations
The “imbalance in the number of collections, experts, and species” is a common problem faced
by many countries in the Asian region including Sri Lanka. Many Sri Lankan invertebrates
are less known, revised taxonomic keys are rarely available, and reference collections with
type specimens are primarily found in European museums. On the Indian subcontinent, the
taxonomy of most invertebrate groups has not been revised since the publication of the Fauna of
British India series in the mid-1900s. Constraints of limited access to reference specimens and
lack of taxonomic expertise encountered at the initial stages of the recent dung beetle survey
were tackled through resources and collaboration provided by the Oxford University Museum
of Natural History. The completion of the dung beetle checklist for Sri Lanka, establishing
the status of species and description of new species will require a greater sampling effort
considering geographical, microhabitat, seasonal and food habit variations expressed by dung
beetles. Further, more sampling is required to verify if the absence of previously recorded
species. All endemic species recorded in the present study were found in the wet zone, and most
were rare. This could be attributed either to natural rarity or to endemics being more vulnerable
to disturbances in this landscape. Clear morphological variations were observed within certain
species indicating the need for in depth taxonomic revision of Scarabaeinae dung beetles.
Shifting distribution of species ranges were observed by comparing current records with the
published historical records, and the locations of specimens from multiple museums. These
should be interpreted in the light of changing natural habitats, climate change and resource
availability. The recent inclusion of dung beetles in the global IUCN database marked a turning
point in dung beetles conservation. Globally, more than 12% of the dung beetle species are
threatened, and most have a restricted range, or are rare forest-dwelling species. The impacts
of deforestation and land use change are heavily impinging on faunal communities. Recent
studies conducted in Sri Lanka using dung beetles as an indicator of habitat change highlights
the importance of assessing faunal community and functional responses to habitat disturbance.
441
References
Arrow, G.J. 1931. The Fauna of the British India, including Ceylon and Burma. In: Coleoptera Lamellicornia Part III
(Coprinae). Taylor and Francis, London, 428 pp.
Balthasar, V. 1963. Monograph of the Scarabaeidae and Aphodiidae of the Palaearctic and Oriental regions
Coleoptera: Lamellicornia. Volume 1 (Publishing house of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences) Prague.
Kudavidanage, E. P. 2011. Effects of land use change and forest fragmentation on the biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning in the tropical lowlands of Sri Lanka. PhD Thesis. National University of Singapore.
Kudavidanage, E. P., Qie, L. & Lee, J. S. H. 2012. Linking biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of dung beetles
in South and Southeast Asian tropical rainforests. Raffles Bulletin for Zoology, Supplement No. 25, 141-154.
Nichols, E., Larsen, T., Spector, S., Davis, A.L., Escobar, F., Favila, M., and Vuline, K. 2007. Global dung beetle
response to tropical forest modification and fragmentation: A quantitative literature review and meta-analysis.
Biol Conserv 137, 1-19.
442
A Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) of Sri Lanka
Tribe: Canthonini Tribe: Onthophagini

Ochicanthon cingalense Arrow, 1931 R
Caccobius rufipennis Motschulsky, 1858 D
Ochicanthon tristis Arrow, 1931 R Caccobius (Caccophilus) indicus Harold, 1867 D
Panelus puncticollis Arrow, 1931 R
Caccobius (Caccophilus) aterrimus Fabricius, 1798 D
Panelus setosus Arrow, 1931 R Caccobius (Caccophilus) diminutives Walker, 1858 D
Panelus imitator Balthasar, 1972 R
Caccobius(Caccophilus) meridionalis Boucomont,
Panelus ceylonicus Balthasar, 1972 R 1914 D
Panelus fallax Balthasar, 1972 R Caccobius(Caccophilus) unicornis Fabricius, 1798 D
Panelus pernitidus Balthasar, 1972 R Caccobius(Caccophilus) vulcanus Fabricius, 1801 D

Caccobius (Caccophilus) ultor Sharp, 1875 D
Tribe: Coprini Cleptocaccobius durantoni Cambefort, 1985 D
Catharsius capucinus Fabricius, 1781 T Cleptocaccobius (Caccophilus inermis Arrow, 1931 D
Catharsiu granulates Sharp, 1875 T Haroldius krali Utsunomiya & Masumoto, 2000 D
Catharsius molossus Linnaeus, 1758 T Haroldius herrenorum Paulian, 1985 D
Catharsius pethecius Fabricius 1775 T Onthophagus amphinasus T
Copris repertus Walker, 1858 T Onthophagus centricornis Fabricius, 1798 T
Copris sodalis Walker, 1858 T Onthophagus cervus Fabricius, 1798 T
Copris fricator Fabricius, 1787 T Onthophagus cryptogenus Boucomont, 1914 T
Copris indicus Harold, 1867 T Onthophagus difficilis Walker, 1858 T
Paracopris signatus Walker, 1858 T Onthophagus ensifer Boucomont, 1914 T
Heliocopris bucephalus Fabricius, 1775 T Onthophagus favrei Boucomont, 1914 T

Onthophagus fuscopunctatus Fabricius, 1798 T
Tribe: Gymnopleurini Onthophagus gemma
Gymnopleurus cyaneus Fabricius, 1798 R Onthophagus gravis Walker, 1858 T
Gymnopleurus (Garreta) smaragdifer Walker, 1858 R Onthophagus hystrix Boucomont, 1914 T
Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) koenigi Onthophagus igneus Vigor, 1825 T

Fabricius, 1775 R Onthophagus keiseri Frey, 1956 T
Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) miliaris Onthophagus laevigatus Fabricius, 1798 T
Fabricius, 1775 R Onthophagus ludio Boucomont, 1914 T
Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) parvus MacLeay, Onthophagus (Furconthophagus) lilliputanus
1821 R Lansberge, 1883 T
Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) gemmatus Onthophagus martialis Boucomont, 1914 T
Harold, 1871 R
Onthophagus militaris Boucomont, 1914 T
Paraymnopleurus melanarious Harold, 1867 R
Onthophagus castetsi
Onthophagus negligens Walker, 1858 T
Tribe: Oniticellini
Onthophagus parvulus Fabricius, 1798 T
Drepanocerus setosus Wiedemann, 1823 R
Onthophagus politus Fabricius, 1798 T
Euoniticellus pallipes Fabricius, 1781 D
Onthophagus pusillus Fabricius, 1798 T
Liatongus (Paraliatongus) rhadamistus Fabricius,
1775 D Onthophagus pygmaeus Schaller, 1783 T
Onthophagus refulgens Arrow, 1931?? T
Tribe: Onitini Onthophagus regalis Arrow, 1907 T
Ontis philemon Fabricius, 1801 D Onthophagus spinifex Fabricius, 1881 T
Ontis singhalensis Lansberge, 1875 D Onthophagus taprobanus Arrow, 1931 T
Ontis subopacus Arrow, 1931 D Onthophagus tritinctus Boucomont, 1914 T
Onthophagus turbatus Walker, 1858 T
Onthophagus troglodyte (Wiedemann, 1823) T
Onthophagus unifasciatus Schaller, 1783 T
443
Onthophagus gemma Sharp, 1875 T Onthophagus (Parascatonomus) quaestus Sharp,
Onthophagus refulgens 1875 T
Onthophagus heterorrhinus Lansberge, 1885 T Onthophagus (Proagoderus) gemmatus Peringuey,

1901 T
Onthophagus sparsepunctatus Frey, 1956 T
Onthophagus(Serrophorus) rectecornutus
Onthophagus (C.) occipitalis Lansberge, 1885 T Lansberge, 1883 T
Onthophagus (C.) quadridentatus Fabricius, 1798 T Phaedotrogus ceylonicus Balthasar, 1972 T
Onthophagus (Digionthophagus) bonasus Fabricius, Phalops divisus Wiedemann, 1823 T
1775 T
Onthophagus (Digionthophagus) gazella (catta)
Fabricius, 1787 T Tribe: Scarabaeini
Onthophagus (Micronthophagus) ochreatus Scarabaeus gangeticus Castelnau, 1840 R

d’Orbigny, 1897 T Scarabaeus sanctus Fabricius, 1798 R
Onthophagus (Micronthophagus) oculatus Arrow, Scarabaeus (Kheper) erichsoni Harold, 1867 R
1931 T
Onthophagus (Onthophagiellus) solmani Tribe: Sisyphini
Stebnicka, 1975 T
Neosisyphus tarantula Arrow, 1909 R
Onthophagus (Proagoderus) pactolus Fabricius, 1787
T Sisyphus longipes Olivier, 1789 R
Onthophagus (Colobonthophagus) dama Fabricius, Sisyphus indicus Hope, 1831 R
1798 T Sisyphus (Crispatus) hirtus Wiedemann, 1823 R
Onthophagus(Paraphanaeomorphus) bifaciatus
Fabricius 1781 T
Functional groups: R= roller; T= tunneler;
D= dweller
444
Records of Centipede Fauna In Sri Lanka
Duminda S. B. Dissanayake and Sriyani Wickramasinghe
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
Introduction
Sri Lanka, even though a small island is listed as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world
(Bossuyt et al., 2004; Myers et al., 2000). Most invertebrate fauna of Sri Lanka have been
inadequately studied both in terms of their diversity and conservation priorities (Attems 1930;
Balan et al., 2012; IUCN Sri Lanka and MoENR 2007; Sureshan et al., 2006). Sri Lanka consists
of miscellaneous geographic and climatic zones joined with vast environment diversity and
maintains a rich diversity of species in the whole island. This has been comprehensive for flora
and fauna especially in vertebrates fauna and several invertebrate fauna too (Bambaradeniya
2006). Centipedes are not as popular as Butterflies, Dragonflies and Fresh water crabs.
The last comprehensive study was conducted more than a century ago by several foreign
researchers such as Newport (1845), A. Humbert (1865), Haase (1887), R.I Pocock (1892),
Verhoeff (1905), F. Silvestri (1903). In 1973 E.H Eason described a new centipedes fauna from
the collection by R.I Pocock from 1890 to 1901 in British Natural History Museum. There is no
involvement of local researchers in centipedes’ taxonomy in Sri Lanka.
Literature review is in progress by the authors contributing to a significant revision of our

understanding of the actual diversity of Centipedes in the Sri Lanka. Aims of this paper are
to provide a check list of centipede fauna of Sri Lanka and to highlight research gaps and
priorities for further investigation.
Materials And Methods
All scientific names of centipedes cited by Pocock in Vol. 7 (1892) of the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society are recorded below in checklist format. The checklist was completed
with author and year of each name, current order and family in which the species is placed and
the current valid name. The information incorporated in this checklist includes the synonyms
of each species. For the delegation of the current valid names for each species, the latest
taxonomic scrutiny reference was reviewed. The authors follow the works of Newport G. (1844),
Templeton R. (1846), Haase E. (1887), Silvestri F. (1919), Verhoeff K.W. (1925), Attems C.
(1930, 1947), Dowdy W.W. (1951), Koch L.E. (1983, 1985) Eason E.H. (1990), Shelley R.M.
(2000), Edgecombe G.D & Giribet G. (2004, 2009), Lewis J, Edgecombe G, Shelley R (2005),
Edgecombe G.D (2011), Edgecombe and Bonato (2011) and Schileyko A.A & Stagl V. (2004).
Also, all current valid names were checked with the use of the online database Chilobase
(Minelli et al., 2006).
Results And Discussion
According to literature the centipedes of Sri Lanka belong to four orders, representing six
families. The total centipedes species in Sri Lanka described to date includes 19 species;
classified under Order Scolopendromorpha (Family Scolopendridae – 12 species), Order
Geophilomorpha (Family Mecistocephalidae – 2 species, Oryidae – 1 species), Order
445
Lithobiomorpha (Family Lithobiidae – 2 species) Order Scutigeromorpha (Family Scutigerinidae
– 1 species, Family Scutigeridae – 1 species).
List of the Species
Order - Scolopendromorpha Pocock, 1895

Family - Scolopendridae Newport, 1844
1). Scolopendra hardwickei Newport, 1844 Synonym(s): Scolopendra bicolor Humbert,
1865, Scolopendra histrionica C.L. Koch, 1847
2). Scolopendra crassa Templeton, 1846
3). Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1815. Synonym(s): Otostigmus politoides Attems,

1953, Otostigmus politoides Attems, 1953, Otostigmus puncticeps Attems, 1953,
Rhombocephalus gambiae Newport, 1845, Rhombocephalus smaragdinus Butler, 1876,
Scolopendra aringensis Sinclair, 1901, Scolopendra atra Wood, 1861, Scolopendra
audax Gervais, 1837, Scolopendra aurantipes Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra bispinipes
Wood, 1862, Scolopendra borbonica Blanchard, 1844, Scolopendra byssina Wood,
1861, Scolopendra cephalica Wood, 1861, Scolopendra ceylonensis Newport, 1845,
Scolopendra damnosa L. Koch, 1878, Scolopendra dinodon Wood, 1861, Scolopendra
elongata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra flava Newport, 1845, Scolopendra flavicornis
Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra gervaisii Newport, 1845, Scolopendra gracilipes Wood,
1861, Scolopendra lutea Newport, 1845, Scolopendra machaeropus Attems, 1900,
Scolopendra macracanthus Bollman, 1889, Scolopendra mactans C.L. Koch, 1847,
Scolopendra meyeri Haase, 1887, Scolopendra nesuphila Wood, 1862, Scolopendra
newporti Lucas, 1849, Scolopendra ornata Newport, 1845, Scolopendra parvidens
Wood, 1861, Scolopendra placeae Newport, 1845, Scolopendra planiceps Newport,
1845, scolopendra plumbeolata Wood, 1861, Scolopendra polyodonta Daday, 1893,
Scolopendra rarispina Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra repens Wood, 1862, colopendra
rugosa Meinert, 1886, Scolopendra sandwichiana Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra
septemspinosa Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra sexspinosa Newport, 1844, Scolopendra
sulphurea C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra variispinosa Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra
cephalica gracilis Wood, 1861, Scolopendra subspinipes gracilipes Daday, 1891,
Scolopendra subspinipes molleri Verhoeff, 1892
4). Cormocephalus sarasinorum Haase, 1887
5). Cormocephalus inermipes Pocock, 1891
6). Rhysida ceylonica Gravely, 1912
7). Rhysida longipes Newport, 1845. Synonym(s): Branchiostoma affine Kohlrausch, 1878,
Branchiostoma gracile Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma longipes rotundatum Haase,
1887, Otostigmus simplex Chamberlin, 1913, Rhysida yanagiharai Takakuwa, 1935
8). Rhysida immarginata Porat, 1876. Synonym(s): Branchiostoma gymnopus Kohlrausch,

1878, Branchiostoma indicum Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma subspinosum
Tömösváry, 1885, Branchiostoma immarginata celebense Haase, 1887, Rhysida nuda
brevicornis Wang, 1951, Rhysida nuda brevicornuta Wang, 1951.
446
9). Scolopendra morsitans Linnaeus, 1758. Synonym(s): Eurylithobius slateri Butler, 1876,
Scolopendra afzelii Porat, 1871, Sv, Scolopendra angulipes Newport, 1844, Scolopendra
attenuata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra bilineata Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra brachypoda
Peters, 1862, Scolopendra brandtiana Gervais, 1837, Scolopendra carinipes Humbert
& Saussure, 1870, Scolopendra chlorocephala Porat, 1871, Scolopendra cognata
Porat, 1871, , Scolopendra crassipes Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra elegans Brandt, 1841,
Scolopendra erythrocephala Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra fabricii Newport, 1845,
Scolopendra formosa Newport, 1845, Scolopendra fulvipes Brandt, 1841, Scolopendra
grandidieri Saussure & Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra impressa Porat, 1876, Scolopendra
infesta C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra intermedia Porat, 1871, Scolopendra leachii
Newport, 1844, Scolopendra limbata Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra lineata Saussure
& Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra longicornis Newport, 1844, Scolopendra modesta
Wood, 1862, Scolopendra mossambica Peters, 1862, Scolopendra pella Wood, 1861,
Scolopendra picturata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra pilosella Porat, 1871, Scolopendra
planipes C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra platypoides Newport, 1844, Scolopendra
platypus Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra porphyratainia Wood, 1861, Scolopendra
richardsoni Newport, 1845, Scolopendra saltatoria Porat, 1871, Scolopendra spinosella
Saussure & Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra tigrina Newport, 1845, Scolopendra tongana
Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra tuberculidens Newport, 1844, Scolopendra vaga Porat,
1871, Scolopendra varia Newport, 1845, Scolopendra wahlbergi Porat, 1871,
Scolopendra morsitans amazonica Bücherl, 1946, Scolopendra morsitans calcarata
Daday, 1891, Scolopendra morsitans fasciata Attems, 1930, Scolopendra morsitans
procera Haase, 1887, Scolopendra morsitans scopoliana C.L. Koch, 1841, Scolopendra
morsitans sulcipes Haase, 1887, Trachycormocephalus jodhpurensis Khanna, 1977.
10). Ethmostigmus rubripes Brandt, 1840. Synonym(s): Ethmostigmus australianus

Chamberlin, 1920, Heterostoma bisulcatum Tömösváry, 1885, Heterostoma crassipes
Silvestri, 1894, Heterostoma fasciata Newport, 1845, Heterostoma flava Newport G,
1845, Heterostoma rubripes grossipes Pocock, 1891, Scolopendra megacephala
Newport, 1844, Scolopendra rapax Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra scabriventris Newport,
1844, Scolopendra spinulosa Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra squalidens Newport, 1844,
Scolopendra sulcicornis Newport, 1844, Scolopendra sulcidens Newport, 1844.
11). Otostigmus (Otostigmus) ceylonicus Haase, 1887.
12). Otostigmus (Otostigmus) scaber Porat, 1876. Synonym(s): Branchiotrema multicarinatum

Kohlrausch, 1878, Otostigmus carinatus Porat, 1876, Otostigmus malayanus Chamberlin,
1914, Otostigmus (Otostigmus) striatus Takakuwa, 1940, Otostigmus carinatus insulare
Haase, 1887, Otostigmus (Otostigmus) striatus porteri Dobroruka, 1960, Otostigmus
(Otostigmus) striatus striatus Takakuwa, 1940.
Order- Geophilomorpha Pocock, 1895

Family- Mecistocephalidae
13). Mecistocephalus heteropus Humbert, 1865,
14). Mecistocephalus subinsularis Silvestri, 1919,
447
Family- Oryidae Cook, 1896
15). Orphnaeus brevilabiatus Newport, 1845. Synonym(s) Orphnaeus bilineatus Peters,

1855, Orphnaeus lividus Meinert, 1870, Orphnaeus phosphoreus Linnaeus, 1758,
Orphnaeus xanti Tömösváry, 1885,
Order - Lithobiomorpha Pocock, 1895
Family- Lithobiidae Newport, 1844
16). Australobius sculpturatus Pocock, 1901. Synonym(s): Australobius ceylanicus Attems,

1909.
17). Australobius palnis Eason, 1973

Order - Scutigeromorpha
Family - Scutigerinidae
18). Scutigerina weberi Silvestri, 1903. Synonym(s): Scutigerina transvaalicus Silvestri, 1903.
Order- Scutigeridae Gervais, 1837
19). Thereuopodina tenuicornis Verhoeff, 1905.
According to the present knowledge altogether 19 described centipedes’ species from five
families occur in Sri Lanka. It is evident that at present we know very little about centipedes of Sri
Lanka. According to published information on the ecology and biology, endemic representatives
are virtually non-existent, while our knowledge on the taxonomy and distribution is very poor.
Also, not a single centipedes species from Sri Lanka is included in the National 2007 IUCN
Red List.
References
Attems, C. (1930). Myriopoda. 2. Scolopendromorpha. Das Tierreich. De Gruyter, Berlin 54: 1–308.
Attems C. (1947) "Neue Geophilomorpha des Wiener Museums" Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums,
Wien 55: 50-149, see p. 93.
Balan, D., P.M. Sureshan & V. Khanna (2012). A new species of centipede of the genus Cryptops Leach
(Scolopendromorpha: Cryptopidae) from southern Western Ghats with a key to the species of Cryptops in
India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2510–2514.
Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (Editor), 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. The
World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. viii + 308pp.
Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D.J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson,
M., Bahir, M.M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P.K.L., Schneider, C.J., Oommen, O.V. & Milinkovitch, M.C.
(2004) Local endemism within the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. Science, 306, 479–481.
Dowdy W.W. (1951) "Further ecological studies on stratification of the arthropods"Ecology, Brooklyn 32: 37-52, see
p. 334, fig.15.
Eason E.H. (1990) "On the true identity of Geophilus insculptus Attems, 1895"Bulletin of the British Myriapod
Group 7: 3-4
Edgecombe GE, Giribet G (2009) Phylogenetics of scutigeromorph centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda) with
implications for species delimitation and historical biogeography of the Australian and New Caledonian faunas.
Cladistics 25: 406–427.
Edgecombe G.D., Giribet G. (2004) "Adding mitochondrial sequence data (16S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase
subunit I) to the phylogeny of centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda): an analysis of morphology and four molecular
loci" Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 42 (2):89-134, see p. 132.
Edgecombe GE (2011) Chilopoda - taxonomic overview: Order Scutigeromorpha. In: Minelli A (Ed) Anatomy,
Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Vol. 1. Brill, Leiden, 363–370.
Edgecombe GE, Bonato L (2011) Chilopoda - taxonomic overview: Order Scolopendromorpha. In:Minelli A (Ed)
Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Vol. 1. Brill, Leiden, 392–407.
448
Haase E. (1887) "Die Indisch-Australischen Myriopoden. Pt. I. Chilopoden" Abhandlungen und Berichte des
Königlichen Zoologischen und. Anthropologisch- Ethnographischen Museums zu Dresden 5: 1-118, see p. 43.
IUCN Sri Lanka and MoENR (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources). 2007. The 2007 Red List of Threat
ened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Koch L.E. (1983) "Revision of the Australian centipedes of the genus Cormocephalus Newport (Chilopoda:
Scolopendridae: Scolopendrinae)" Australian Journal of Zoology 31: 799-833, see p. 828.
Koch L.E. (1985) "The taxonomy of Australian centipedes of the genus Rhysida Wood (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae:
Otostigminae)" Journal of Natural History 19: 205-214, see p. 212
Lewis J, Edgecombe G, Shelley R (2005) A proposed standardised terminology for the external
Minelli A, Bonato L, Dioguardi R et al. (Ed) (2006): Chilobase: a web resource for Chilopoda taxonomy. http://
chilobase.bio.unipd.it/ [accessed 01/May/2010]
Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B. da Fonseca & J. Kent (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for
conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858.
Newport G. "A list of the species of Myriapoda order Chilopoda contained in the cabinets of the British Museum with
synoptic descriptions of forty-seven new species" Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 1844: 13: 94-101,
see p. 96.
Schileyko A.A., Stagl V. (2004) "The collection of scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda) in the Natural History
Museum in Vienna: a critical re-evaluation of former taxonomic identifications" Annalen des Naturhistorischen
Museums in Wien, Serie B 105B: 67-137, see p. 118.
Shelley R.M. (2000) "The centipede order Scolopendromorpha in the Hawaiian islands (Chilopoda)" Bishop Museum
Occasional Papers 64: 39-48, see p. 42.
Silvestri F. (1919) "Contributions to a knowledge of the Chilopoda Geophilomorpha of India" Record of the Indian
Museum, Calcutta 16: 45-107, see p. 54.
Sureshan, P.M., V. Khanna & C. Radhakrishnan (2006). Additional distributional records of scolopendrid centipedes
(Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) from Kerala. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(6): 2285–2291.
Templeton R. (1846). "Extracts from a letter addressed to Mr Westwood on the habits and on the bite of the
Scolopendrae of Ceylon" Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 17(1): 65, see p. 65.
Verhoeff K.W. (1925) "Results of Dr. E. Mjöberg's Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Australia 1910-1913. 39.
Chilopoda" Arkiv för Zoologi 17A (3): 1-62, see p. 29.
449
The IUCN Red List Categories
(Source: www.redlist.org)
Technical definitions of the IUCN of the IUCN REd List Categories and Criteria are give in the IUCN
Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 booklet and the Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List
Categories and Criteria.
Extinct (EX)
A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is
presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times
(diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys
should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.
Extinct In The Wild (EW)
A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized
population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when
exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual),
throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame
appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.
Critically Endangered (CR)
A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the
criteria A to E for Critically Endangered and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild.
Endangered (EN)
A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E
for Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction
in the wild.
Vulnerable (VU)
A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for
Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Near Threatened (NT)
A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify
for a threatened category in the near future.
Least Concern (LC)
A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for
Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa
are included in this category.
450
Data Deficient (DD)
A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment
of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may
be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are
lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates
that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show
that threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are
available. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened
status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period of
time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified.
Not Evaluated (NE)
A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.
Critically Endangered ‘Possibly Extinct’ CR (PE)
Although an evidentiary approach to classifying extinctions is appropriate, this approach biases analyses
of recent extinctions when based only on those species classified as Extinct or Extinct in the Wild (when
individuals survive only in captivity). For example, the number of recent extinctions documented on the
IUCN Red List is likely to be a significant underestimate, even for well-known taxa such as birds. The tag
of ‘possibly extinct’ has therefore been developed to identify those Critically Endangered species that
are likely already Extinct, but for which confirmation is required. Taxa tagged as possibly extinct would
then be included within bounded estimates of the number of recent extinctions to indicate plausible
uncertainty in contemporary rates of extinction.
Note that ‘possibly extinct’ is a tag, and not a new Red List Category.
451
Summary of the five criteria (A–E) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in a threatened category (Critically
Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable).
Use any of the criteria A–E Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable

A. Population reduction Declines measured over the longer of 10 years or 3 generations
A1 ≥ 90% ≥ 70% ≥ 50%
A2, A3 & A4 ≥ 80% ≥ 50% ≥ 30%
Al. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of the reduction are clearly
reversible AND understood AND have ceased, based on and specifying any of the following:
(a) direct observation
(b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon
(c) a decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) and/or habitat quality
(d) actual or potential levels of exploitation
(e) effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.
A2. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of reduction may not have
ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al.
A3. Population reduction projected or suspected to be met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) based on (b) to (e)
under Al.
A4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population reduction (up to a maximum of 100 years) where the
time period must include both the past and the future, and where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not
be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al.
B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) AND/OR B2 (area of occupancy)
B1. Extent of occurrence (EOO) < 100 km² < 5,000 km² < 20,000 km²
B2. Area of occupancy (AOO) < 10 km² < 500 km² < 2,000 km²
AND at least 2 of the following:
(a) Severely fragmented, OR
Number of locations =1 ≤5 ≤ 10
(b) Continuing decline in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) area, extent and/or quality of
habitat; (iv) number of locations or subpopulations; (v) number of mature individuals.
(c) Extreme fluctuations in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) number of locations or
subpopulations; (iv) number of mature individuals.
C. Small population size and decline
Number of mature
< 250 < 2,500 < 10,000
individuals
AND either C1 or C2:
C1. An estimated continuing 25% in 3 years or 1 20% in 5 years or 2 10% in 10 years or 3
decline of at least: generation generations generations
(up to a max. of 100 years in future)
C2. A continuing decline AND (a) and/or (b):
(a i) Number of mature
individuals in each < 50 < 250 < 1,000
subpopulation:
or
(a ii) % individuals in one
90–100% 95–100% 100%
subpopulation =
(b) Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals.
D. Very small or restricted population
Either:
Number of mature
< 50 < 250 D1. < 1,000
individuals
AND/OR
D2. typically:
Restricted area of occupancy AOO < 20 km² or
number of locations ≤ 5
E. Quantitative Analysis
Indicating the probability of ≥ 50% in 10 years or 3 ≥ 20% in 20 years or 5
≥ 10% in 100 years
extinction in the wild to be: generations (100 years max.) generations (100 years max.)
452

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Red List 2012

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The National Red List 2012

Conservation Status of the Fauna and

Copyright : Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment

1. For citing the threatened list

2. For citing an article

ISBN Number : : 978-955-0033-55-3

Printed by : Karunarathne and Sons Pvt (Ltd)

Available from : Biodiversity Secretariat,

Cover page photos: George Van der Poorten

ARROS Amphibian & Reptile Research Organization of Sri Lanka

Supervision and Guidance

Prof. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo)

Ms. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat)

Ms. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat)

Prof. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo)

Mr. Pradeep Arjuna Jayatunga

Cover page design & page setting

Data Compiling and Mapping Assistance

Ms. Nadeeka Gunawardana (National Herbarium)

Prof. Deepthi Yakandawala University of Peradeniya

Dr. Siril Wijesundara Department of National Botanic Gardens

Dr. D.N.K.G.Pushpakumara University of Peradeniya

Prof. L.P. Jayatissa University of Ruhuna

Red Listing Team

Anura Priyadharshana Yapa,

1. Enforce existing conservation measures in protected areas

4. Restore already degraded areas in key locations

5. Limit agricultural expansion in forest areas

6. Enforce existing legislation regarding corridors and reservations

Conclusions and recommendations

1. Do comprehensive surveys in order to map the distributions of all species

Scientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS Criteria

Current taxonomic status and taxonomic issues

Subfamily Genera Species Morpho-species

Awareness programmes on the ecological and economic (where applicable) importance,

Research gaps and research needs

Conclusions and recommendations

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria

Global list contains only Aneuretus simoni as CR (B1+2c)

Conclusions and recommendations

Scientific Name NCS Criteria

Anthidiellum ramakrishnae (Cockerell, 1919) CR B2ab(iii)

Current taxonomic status

Dry intermediate zone

Wet zone: lowland

Wet zone: submontane

Wet zone: montane

Recommendations for Research and Conservation

1. Establish an officially recognized group of amateur and professional lepidopterists to work

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria

Conclusions and recommendations

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria

Recommended conservation actions

ADB, (2003). Sri Lanka: environmental statistics [pdf]

Conclusions and recommendations

Some of the key recommendations include

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria

Macrochlamys tratanensis (Jousseaume 1894) CR B2ab(iii)

Leptopomoides taprobanensis (Preston 1909) CR B1+2ab(iii)

Tortulosa leucocheilus (Adams & Sowerby 1866) DD

Several species such as Ophisternon bengalense, Systomus martenstyni, Labeo fisheri

Research gaps and research needs

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria

The keys provided by Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996); Manamenrda-Arachchi &