Bioregions of Sri Lanka

Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
IN SRI LANKA
A Framework for Action
The Ministry of Forestry and Environment acknowledges the technical assistance rendered by IUCN - The
World Conservation Union (Sri Lanka) in the preparation of Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka: A
Framework for Action, with funding from the Global Environment Facility through the World Bank. The
lay-out and printing of this document were carried out with financial assistance of the German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) through the IUCN South & South East Asian
Regional Biodiversity Programme.
APPROVED BY THE CABINET OF MINISTERS ON 27 AUGUST, 1998
1
Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka:
A Framework for Action
© Ministry of Forestry and Environment
ISBN 955-9120-03-4
Published by
Ministry of Forestry and Environment
"Sampathpaya",
Rajamalwatte Road,
Battaramulla
Sri Lanka
Published in 1999
2
Message of the Hon. Minister of Forestry and Environment
The word biodiversity is of recent origin. However, we have a strong tradition in our culture in conservation
of our biological wealth. Our ancient records have numerous references to the initiatives taken by the rulers to
preserve flora and fauna. For instance, King Devanampiyatissa declared an animal sanctuary in 3rd century
BC.
Sri Lanka has a rich diversity of flora and fauna, owing to the varied climate, topography and soils. The high
diversity of ecosystems has provided habitats for rich species diversity, and edaphic and climatic variants of
individual species. Sri Lanka is heavily dependent on her biological resources to sustain its economy, making
it incumbent upon us to take very serious note of the threats to our indigenous biota and to the natural
ecosystems of which they are a part.
In the modern times, there have been various developmental activities in the country. There was the develop-
ment of settlement agriculture in the 50's and 60's, followed by industrial development and the 'green'
revolution. These coupled with the phenomenal increase of human population have placed severe stress on the
environment, resulting in today's crisis predicament. As a result of these development processes, we are losing
wild populations, and thus the genetic diversity. Many endemic species, including medicinal plant species
which have been used for centuries in our traditional systems of health care are either lost or under threat.
Indeed, these losses cannot be valued.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a welcome move to arrest the erosion of biodiversity world-
wide. Indeed, Sri Lanka, being proactive to the needs, was one of the early countries to ratify the CBD in
1994. As a first step in implementing the CBD, Sri Lanka has prepared a framework for action for the
conservation of biodiversity (BCAP), which has been approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in August 1998.
I am particularly pleased that the government has now a definite policy framework for the conservation of
biodiversity. It necessarily brings out a commitment from all stakeholders to achieve the goals of this
document. In the current context of our economy, it is of paramount importance to proceed with the stated
development plans of the government. This framework document has provided the background to plan the
strategy to balance the forces between conservation and development.
There are numerous state agencies managing Sri Lanka's natural resources. Indeed, some resources such as
forests are managed by more than one agency. It is therefore of utmost importance to seek ways and means of
integrating sectorial plans and policies within the common framework of the BCAP so that all those who have
a stake in natural resources understand their responsibilities towards conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity. An equally important facet is to bring in the provincial administrations into the framework of the
BCAP - for they are all managing the country's biological wealth.
As the national focal point for the CBD, my Ministry fervently hopes that this endeavour will bring about the
coordination and promotion of this national effort to conserve the nation's beleaguered biodiversity.
Nandimithra Ekanayake
Minister of Forestry and Environment
iii
3
Message by the Secretary to the Ministry of
Forestry and Environment
I am pleased to provide this message on the occasion of the publication of "Biodiversity Conservation in Sri
Lanka - A Framework for Action" prepared by my Ministry. This document heralds a new era in focusing on
the Government's programmes on conservation and sustainable use of Sri Lanka's rich biological diversity.
The publication of this document is the culmination of a long and arduous preparatory process. The Ministry
with technical assistance provided by IUCN - The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka began this important
activity with the preparation of a strategy document setting out the steps and actions needed for the prepara-
tion of a plan of action for biodiversity conservation. The preparation of this strategy was an intensely
participatory process involving many discussions and consultations with relevant agencies and stake-holders,
which was completed in 1994.
The preparation of "Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka - A Framework for Action" began in early 1996.
Once again, with the technical assistance provided by IUCN, my Ministry took the initiative to consult all
stake-holders, in the participatory process. Several drafts were reviewed over a period of one year, and the
final document resulting from these consultations was approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in August 1998.
It should be noted that for expediency, this document uses statistics and data that were widely available in the
early 1990's. Much of the data, and in particular those relating to statistics on genera and taxa have been used
more to underscore the status and trends in biological diversity. These have been helpful in formulating the
final recommendations contained in this document. It is understood that research on plant and animal tax-
onomy is, of course, a continuing activity, and new species are regularly discovered and added to existing
listings. For example, a considerable number of new amphibian species have been discovered recently by local
scientists. Thus some of the statistics on species given in the publication may be different to that recorded at
the present time. Some readers may therefore get a feeling of unreality and may consider it a rebuff to the
inquiring mind; yet, however, such discrepancies will not materially affect the general trends encompassing the
final recommendations. To the discerning mind, updated information on our biological wealth will be continu-
ously available in various technical publications.
I hope that this publication will catalyze the relevant agencies to reflect biodiversity in their respective plans
and programmes in order to facilitate my Ministry's efforts in this important national endeavour.
K. A. S. Gunasekera
Secretary, Ministry of Forestry and Environment
4
v
Contents
Message of the Hon. Minister of Forestry and Environment .............................................. iii
Message by the Secretary to the Ministry of Forestry and Environment ........................... iv
Contents ..................................................................................................................................... v
Abbreviations ...........................................................................................................................vii
Chapter 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2
Sri Lanka and Its Biodiversity - an Overview .............................................................. 5
2.1 Physical Features ...................................................................................... 5
2.2 History and Culture .................................................................................. 5
2.3 Population and People ............................................................................ 10
2.4 Land Ownership and Tenure .................................................................. 10
2.5 Biodiversity - a Broad Overview ........................................................... 10
2.6 The Need to Conserve ........................................................................... 14
Chapter 3
The Major Ecosystems ................................................................................................ 17
3.1 Forests .................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Wetlands ................................................................................................. 23
3.3 Coastal and Marine Systems .................................................................. 28
3.4 Agricultural Systems ............................................................................... 32
Chapter 4
Bio-regions ................................................................................................................ 37
Chapter 5
Principles, Goal and Broad Objectives........................................................................ 43
5.1 Biodiversity Management Principles ..................................................... 43
5.2 The Goal of Biodiversity Conservation ............................................... 43
5.3 The Broad Objectives ............................................................................. 44
5
vi
Chapter 6
Biodiversity Conservation - Proposals for Action ..................................................... 45
6.1 Forests .................................................................................................... 45
6.2 Wetlands ................................................................................................. 51
6.3 Coastal and Marine Systems .................................................................. 55
6.4 Agriculture Systems................................................................................ 63
6.5 Priority Action for Selected Bioregions ............................................... 65
6.6 Ex situ Conservation ............................................................................ 66
6.7 Research ................................................................................................. 69
6.8 Education and Awareness ...................................................................... 70
6.9 Biodiversity Information ....................................................................... 73
6.10 Legal Measures ....................................................................................... 75
6.11 Institutional Support ............................................................................... 77
6.12 Valuation of Biodiversity ...................................................................... 79
Chapter 7
Integrating National Efforts for Biodiversity Conservation ........................................ 81
7.1 The Role of Government........................................................................ 81
7.2 Community-based Resource Management ............................................. 82
7.3 The Role of Non-governmental Organizations ...................................... 83
7.4 The Role of the Private Sector .............................................................. 83
Chapter 8
Implementation ............................................................................................................ 85
Appendices ........................................................................................................................... 90
Appendix 1 - The BCAP Preparation Process ...................................................... 90
Appendix 2 - Provisional List of Threatened Species of Vascular
Plants in Sri Lanka ........................................................................... 94
Provisional List of Threatened Animal Species in Sri Lanka ....... 102
Appendix 3 - Glossary.......................................................................................... 118
Appendix 4 - Sources of Information .................................................................. 121
6
Introduction
The term Biological Diversity or Biodiversity is including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other
new. However, in Sri Lanka, the basic concept of aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes
biodiversity and its conservation is as old as the of which they are a part; this includes diversity
recorded history of the country, dating back to within species, between species and of ecosystems.”
over 2000 years. When the monarchs of old
proclaimed edicts for the preservation of wildlife Article 6 of the Convention requires each
in defined areas, they were, in today’s context, contracting party to: "(a) Develop national
establishing "protected areas". When the village strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation
communities systematically organized their and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt
landscape, with the irrigation tanks and cultivated for this purpose existing strategies, plans or
areas in the low-lying land, the settlements at higher programmes which shall reflect,
inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention
levels, and the catchments in the hilly areas left
relevant to the contracting party concerned: and
under forest, they were recognizing the
"(b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate,
environmental value of conserving the natural forest
the conservation and sustainable use of biological
in the catchments. When the farmers cultivated
diversity into relevant sectoral plans, programmes
many different varieties of rice, recognizing their
and policies.”
special qualities regarding food value, cooking
properties, palatability, medicinal value, etc., they The preparation of this Biodiversity
were in fact conserving the genetic diversity of this Conservation Action Plan (BCAP) was undertaken
species; and this diversity remains to this day, but in response to Article 6 of the Convention.
is now under threat due to the preference for high- Agriculture, the plantation industry, and fisheries
yielding varieties with a narrow genetic base. When are vital sectors of Sri Lanka’s development
the households raised multi-tiered crops in their programme. The use of biological resources is
home gardens, they were conserving and using therefore of critical importance to the sustenance
sustainably a multitude of species for food, of the country’s economy. What the plan proposes
medicine, fuel and fodder, while at the same time is a course of action to ensure that the biological
replicating the structure of a natural forest. diversity within the country is conserved and used
sustainably and that development programmes
The Convention on Biological Diversity, pursued by the different sectors do not cause serious
which aims to conserve the planet’s biological or irreversible damage to the indigenous
species and provide for their sustainable use by biodiversity.
present and future generations, was placed before
The value of the nation’s biodiversity has
the heads of state for signature at the United Nations
not gone unrecognized by the government and
Conference on Environment and Development, or
people of Sri Lanka. There are many legislative
Earth Summit, on 5 June 1992. The nations of the enactments that deal with the protection of
world gave a clear expression of their concern "that biological resources. In 1980, the National
biological diversity is being significantly reduced Environmental Act constituted the Central
by human activities" when over 150 of them signed Environmental Authority. Soon after, in response
the Convention within two weeks, and subsequent to the World Conservation Strategy, Sri Lanka
ratification proceeded so fast that, within 18 months, began preparing a National Conservation Strategy
the Convention came into force. Sri Lanka ratified (NCS), one of the first countries in Asia to do so.
the Convention in March 1994. In 1988, after a lengthy process of survey and
consultation, the NCS was adopted as the centre-
Biodiversity is the variety of organisms
piece of the government’s policies to deal with
found on earth. The definition given in the environmental degradation in the country. Then, in
Convention is more explanatory; it is: "the 1991, based on the recommendations of the NCS,
variability among living organisms from all sources a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) was
7
adopted for a four year period. The implementation and brings together within a single framework all
experience led, in 1994, to a revised NEAP, for the the activity areas that need to be addressed. The
period 1995-98. Over the years these environmental Plan should, therefore, serve as a policy instrument
policy frameworks have influenced and helped shape for securing financial support both nationally and
several generations of sectoral and national from foreign donors.
development strategies.
The BCAP presents a framework for
The National Conservation Strategy, the action. It has not attempted to spell out in detail
National Environmental Action Plan, the Forestry each activity and to set out the financial budget
Sector Master Plan, the National Coastal Zone and other resources needed. Such a step, it is
Management Plan, and Coastal 2000, are some of argued, would not only be impractical but would
the policy instruments that have addressed have been counter-productive had it been attempted.
biodiversity conservation. There are many As stated earlier, many of the activities are ongoing,
government institutions whose responsibility it is and many others, with very little additional
to translate these policy initiatives into action. These resources, could be accommodated in the ongoing
include the Forest Department, Coast Conservation programmes. Setting out resource needs and
Department, Department of Wildlife Conservation, financial budgets for each activity would discourage
Central Environmental Authority, Department of the institutions concerned from undertaking the
Agriculture, Botanical Gardens and Zoological tasks unless substantial additional resources are
Gardens. However, despite the legal, policy and made available. For activities where new resources
institutional support for its conservation, the are in fact needed, the institution concerned should
country’s biodiversity is continuing to get depleted. have the expertise and would be in the best position
There are many causes for this; the growth and to prepare project proposals.
movement of populations, the opening of economic In preparing the BCAP, the ecosystem diversity
markets, and new trends in industrial development of Sri Lanka was categorized into four broad areas:
will have a growing adverse impact on biodiversity forests, wetlands, coastal and marine systems, and
unless more systematic and stringent corrective agricultural systems. This classification, besides
measures are taken. signifying an ecological differentiation, is useful in
terms of the division of responsibilities between
The BCAP recognizes the many projects and
different organizations of government.
programmes currently in progress for the
conservation of biodiversity. However, some of Chapter 2 which follows this Chapter gives
these activities are stalled or not proceeding at the a broad overview of the country and its
expected rate, and the main reason for this is biodiversity.* Chapter 3 describes the four major
resource limitations. In the course of BCAP ecosystems, the species diversity within them, the
preparation, the problems of depletion of relevant policies relating to them, and their
biodiversity in the different ecosystems were subject jurisdictional institutions.
to causal chain analyses to determine the issues, Chapter 4 presents the results of a study
proximate causes, underlying causes, and action carried out in the course of BCAP preparation to
needed. divide the island and its offshore territory into bio-
The BCAP sets out the range of activities regions, and, using various criteria, to determine
needed for addressing biodiversity as a co-ordinated, the bio-regions that should be given high priority
holistic exercise. Many of the activities are at in addressing biodiversity conservation issues.
present in progress, and their inclusion in the Plan Chapter 5 sets out the guiding principles, the goal
will add strength and a sense of urgency to the and the overall objectives of the Plan. Chapter 6
current efforts. Other proposals address gaps in sets out the proposals for action. In respect of
the current programmes, which the relevant each activity area, the section dealing with it has
institutions should take up for implementation. Yet four parts: identifying the issues; the objectives;
others are new activities which the concerned the recommended actions; and the main
institutions should undertake so as to ensure the implementing institutions. Chapter 7 deals with the
success of the national effort for biodiversity intersectoral and inter-institutional integration
conservation. The BCAP urges that biodiversity needed for the implementation of the BCAP.
conservation is of critical importance for the Chapter 8 is on implementation. It sets out the
ecological and economic sustenance of the nation,
8
proposed institutional arrangements for met with several heads of institutions to discuss
implementing the Plan and sets time frames for their mandates and programmes as they relate to
achieving various outputs. A two-year inception the conservation and use of biodiversity and the
phase is proposed, followed by a ten-year programmatic gaps that exist. In addition, they had
implementation phase, the latter broken down into discussions with many well-informed individuals.
two phases of five years each. In practical terms, it Several workshops and seminars were held,
is recommended that the Plan be subject to a review commencing from the early stages of plan
and revision at the end of the first five-year period. preparation, to seek the views of NGOs, government
It is also recommended that a comprehensive review organizations and the public. The collaborating
of progress be made three years after the Ministry wrote to over a 100 NGOs scattered across
commencement of the first phase. the country explaining the task in hand and seeking
their views on the national efforts needed for
The BCAP has been prepared by IUCN conserving the country’s biodiversity. A round-table
Sri Lanka in collaboration with the Ministry of was held to discuss in depth the Convention and
Transport, Environment and Women’s Affairs. The the implications of its implementation in Sri Lanka.
National Environmental Policy Project of the The BCAP is the product of these many consultative
Ministry carried out two preparatory studies - on processes. (See Appendix 1 for details).
valuation of biodiversity and biodiversity
information. In preparing the BCAP, IUCN’s core The Ministry of Forestry and Environment
staff was supported by a team of national (MFE)** and IUCN Sri Lanka wish to thank the
consultants, many of whom worked for brief periods Global Environment Facility and the World Bank
on the tasks assigned to them. Two international for providing assistance for the preparation of this
experts were brought in by IUCN at different times Plan.
during plan preparation to advise the consultancy
team.
The preparatory process was intensely
participatory. The members of the consultancy team
* In chapter 2, the main source of figures for species is Wijesinghe et
al. (1993), Biological Conservation in Sri Lanka: a national status
report, IUCN, Sri Lanka, the figures for flowering plants are from
MALF (1995), Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan; the figures for
birds are from Kotagama, S. W. (pers. com.); the figures for amphibians
are from Dutta, Sunil K. and Manamendra - Arachchi, Kelum (1996),
The Amphibian Fauna of Sri Lanka, Wildlife Heritage Trust, Sri
Lanka.
** In the text where the abbreviation ME is used, it refers to the Ministry

in charge of the subject of Environment, which prior to 10 June 1997
was the Ministry of Transport, Environment and Women's Affairs
(MTEWA), and since then is the Ministry of Forestry and Environment
(MFE).
9
10
Sri Lanka and its Biodiversity - an Overview
2.1 Physical Features red-yellow podzolic soils (lateritic red loams) in

the wet region and reddish brown earths in the dry
zone are the most common.
Geomorphologically, Sri Lanka is part of
Sri Lanka is located at the southern point of the
the ancient continent of Gondwanaland. India and
Indian sub-continent, between 5o 54' and 9° 52'
Sri Lanka broke off from the disintegrating
North Latitude and 79o 39' and 81o 53' East
continent as what is called the Deccan Plate, and,
Longitude. Its land area is 6,570,134 ha.
as this plate drifted northwards, the two countries
Topographically, the island consists of a south-
became isolated around 20 million years ago. Sri
central mountainous region which rises to an
Lanka has retained its present outline for the last
elevation of 2500 m, surrounded by broad lowland ten million years, since the end of the Miocene.
plains at an elevation of 0 - 75 m above sea level. Today, Sri Lanka is separated from India by the
From the mountainous region nine major rivers narrow Palk Strait, but it is likely that there had
and 94 other rivers drain across the lowlands into been oscillations of the relative levels of the land
the Indian Ocean. and sea resulting in land connections with India for
The climate is tropical overall, but it shows short periods.
variations across the island due mainly to Sri Lanka, despite its small size, has a rich
differences in rainfall and elevation. The rainfall diversity of soils (Figure 2.2). Fourteen of the
shows seasonal fluctuations and is dependent on Great Soil Groups have been recognized within the
the southwest and northeast monsoons and on country. The Great Soil Groups in the dry zone
convectional and cyclonic effects. The mean and the drier part of the intermediate zone are
temperature in the lowland areas is 270C in the Reddish Brown Earths (occupying the largest area),
wet region and 300C in the dry zone. It decreases Low Humic Gley Soils, Non-calcic Brown Soils,
with increase in altitude, and in the montane region Red-Yellow Latosols, Alluvial Soils (in the flood
the mean monthly temperature varies from 130C to plains of the larger rivers), soils of the Old
160C, with the night temperature occasionally Alluvium, Solodized Solonetz (in the arid areas),
dropping to around zero. Regosols (in the coastal areas), and Grumusols and
The country has been divided into climatic Rendzinas which are found in relatively small
extents.
regions in many different ways. Generally three
broad climatic regions are recognized: the wet zone, The Great Soil Groups in the wet zone and
dry zone and intermediate zone. Whereas the dry in the wetter parts of the intermediate zone are the
zone is all lowland, the other two zones are further Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils (which is the dominant
subdivided on the basis of altitude. Figure 2.1 type), Reddish Brown Latosolic Soils, Immature
shows a division of the island into a large number Brown Loams and Bog and Half-bog Soils (found
of agro-ecological regions, where the annual rainfall mainly in the tidal marshes).
and its seasonal distribution and the altitude are
taken into consideration.
2.2 History and Culture
Geologically, 90 per cent of the island
consists of Precambrian crystalline rocks. The other The recorded history of Sri Lanka goes
main rock types are Miocene limestone deposits back to the advent of Indo-Aryans from India in
that extend from the Jaffna peninsula and the 543 BC. Until the sixteenth century AD, the country
adjoining offshore islands to the northwest coast had an independent, monarchical system of
as far as Puttalam and down the northeast coast to governance. From 1505, the maritime areas were
Mullaitivu, and a small area of Jurassic deposits dominated successively by the Portuguese, Dutch
at Tabbowa andw Andigama, near Puttalam. The and British. In 1815, the British assumed control
overlying soils are of many different types, but the of the entire island after they annexed the central
11
During the time of monarchial rule,
the concepts that we now recognize as
biodiversity conservation were ingrained
in the cultural and religious beliefs of the
people of Sri Lanka. According to the
Mahavamsa, the great chronicle of Sri
Lankan history, the protection of forests
and animals was esteemed highly by both
rulers and subjects. This respect for all
forms of life is fostered by Buddhism
which spurns animal slaughter. As far
back as the third century BC, wildlife
'sanctuaries' for the protection of fauna
and flora existed in this country, while
the concept of 'urban nature reserves' was
promulgated in the twelfth century AD.
A temple painting at the Mirissa Sumudragiri Viharaya depicting With the onset of the colonial era,
biodiversity as a part of the wider human environment (Jinie Dela). there was a dramatic change in the cultural
and socio-political climate in the country.
kingdom. Sri Lanka regained political independence During this period of foreign rule there was large
in 1948 and became a Republic in 1972. scale destruction of the forests, particularly for the
Box 2.1
”CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY” IN ANCIENT LANKA
In centuries past, during the time of the Sinhala Kings, forests and animal life were an important part of the
social fabric. They were accorded a special status and protected under the law of the land. Commenting on
this aspect of social life, John D’ Oyly (1835) states that ”Within Mahanuwara itself there was no doubt that
the forest was strictly interdicted as a royal preserve - the ditch marking the limits of the city went round the
king’s great thicket, Udawattekale, and people were not allowed even to gather firewood and withes in it.”
Like the Udawattekalle, other forests were also owned directly by the king, and considered Crown property
or Rajasan taka. Any sort of activity within these. Tahansi Kalle”, or ”Forbidden Forests”, was strictly
prohibited. Almost every province of the Kandyan Kingdom had several such ”protected areas”, where any
kind of cultivation, felling of trees, hunting or fishing were strictly prohibited, and punishable by a heavy fine.
The king ensured that these laws were enforced by a regular Forest Department, comprising the ”Kalle
Korales” appointed by him. It was the duty of these officers to ensure that the Crown forests were not
damaged in any way.
Historical chronicles record that animals, too, were given special protection. The ”Niti Nighanduva”, which
is the repository of ancient Sinhala law, records that all elephants were regarded as the property of the
Crown, and killing an elephant was perceived as one of the most atrocious of all crimes. In keeping with the
prevalent social fabric, hunting and killing of animals appears to have been generally looked down upon, for
the ''Niti Nighanduva” statesthat animal slaughter was outlawed during the last 50 years of the Kandyan
Kingdom, on the grounds that it was contrary to Buddhist principles.
Respect for forests and all forms of animal life was thus not only deeply enshrined in the moral and legal
codes of the ancient Sinhalese, it was also a part of their way of life. When the British began clearing the
forests in the mid 19th century, it destroyed an ancient society and a way of life which had existed since the
coming of Buddhism to Sri Lanka in the third century B.C.
Source: Tammita Delgoda (1997)
12
Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka and its Biodiversity - an Overview
Figure 2.1 Agro-Ecological Regions of Sri Lanka and Rainfall Expectancy (contd on page 8)
WU - Wet Zone Up Country

WM - Wet Zone Mid Country
WL - Wet Zone Low Country
IU - Intermediate Zone Up Country
IM - Intermediate Zone Mid Country
IL - Intermediate Zone Low Country
DL - Dry Zone Low Country
Each of the above zone contains several

agro-ecological regions as shown in the map
and accompanying tabulated data
Source : C R Panabokke and P Ratnaseeli Kannangara

(1996)
13
Figure 2.1 Agro-Ecological Regions in Sri Lanka (Contd.)
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS
Agro-ecological 75% expectancy value of 75% expectancy value of dryness Major Soil Groups Terrain
region & symbol annual rainfall (ins.) for particular months
Jan Feb Mar May Jun Jul Aug Sep Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply
WU1 >125 J1/2 F • • • • • • Regosols dissected hilly and
rolling
WU2 >75 J1/2 F 1

/2M • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply
Regosols dissected hilly and
rolling
WU3 >55 J1/2 F 1

/2M • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with dark B Rolling
horizon; and Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with
prominent A1 horizon
WM1 >125 J1/2 F • • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils; Red-Yellow Steeply dissected

Podzolic soils with semi-prominent hilly and rolling
A1 horizon
WM2 >55 J1/2 F • • • • • • Reddish Brown Latosolic soils, Immature Steeply dissected
Brown Loams; and Red-Yellow Podzolic soils hilly, rolling and
undulating
WL1 >100 J1/2 F • • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils; Red-Yellow Rolling and undulating
Podzolic soils with semi-prominent
A1 horizon
WL2 >75 J1/2 F • • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils; Red-Yellow Podzolic Rolling and undulating
soils with strongly mottled sub-soil;
and low Humic Gley soils
WL3&4 >60 J1/2 F 1

/2M • • • Aug • WL3-Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with soft and WL3 - Rolling and
hard Laterite undulating
WL4-Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with soft WL4 - Undulating
and hard Laterite; and Bog and half Bog soils and flat
1U1 >85 • • 1
/2M • • Jul1/2 Aug 1
/2Sep Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply
rolling
IU2 >55 • F1/2 1

/2M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug Sept Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply
rolling
IU3 >45 • F 1
/2M • Jun Jul Aug 1
/2Sept Red-Yellow Podzolic soils Steeply dissected
hilly and rolling
IM1 >55 • • M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug 1

/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown Rolling hilly and
Loams steep
IM2 >45 J1/2 F • • Jun Jul Aug Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown Rolling hilly and
Loams steep
IM3 >35 • F M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug Sept Immature Brown Loams, Reddish Brown Steeply dissected,
Latosolic soils; and Reddish Brown Earths hilly and rolling
IL1 >40 J F 1
/2M • • Jul Aug 1
/2Sept Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with strongly Rolling undulating
mottled subsoil, low Humic Gley soils, and flat
Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with soft and
hard Laterite; and Regosols on red and yellow
sands
IL2 >45 • F1/2 M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug 1

/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown Rolling hilly and
Loams and low Humic Gley soils undulating
1
IL3 >35 J F /2M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug 1
/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown Undulating
Soils and low Humic Gley soils
DL1 >30 J1/2 F 1

/2M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug 1
/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and low Humic Undulating
Gley soils
DL2 >35 • F1/2 M My Jun Jul Aug Sept Non-Calcic Brown soils, Reddish Brown Earths Undulating and flat
soils on old alluviu, Solodized, Solonetz,
low Humic Gley soils and Regosols
DL3&4 >23 J1/2 F M My Jun Jul Aug 1

/2Sept DL3- Red-Yellow Latosols and Regosols DL3-flat to slightly
DL4 - Solodized, Solonetz, Solonchaks and undulating
Grumusols DL4-flat
DL5 >20 J1/2 F M My Jun Jul Aug 1

/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths with high amount Undulating and flat
of gravel in subsoil, low Humic Gley soils
and Solodized, Solonetz
J1/ 2 = denotes 2nd half of January

* = denotes wetness for the month Similarly for other months
1
/ 2M = denotes 1st half of March
14
Figure 2.2 Soil Map of Sri Lanka
Reddish Brown Earths

Noncalcic Brown Soils, Low Humic Gley
Noncalcic Brown Soils, Soils on old alluvium &
Solodized Solonetz
Red - Yellow Latosols
Calcic Red-Yellow Latosols
Solodized Solonetz and Solonchaks
Grumusols
Soils on recent marine Calcareous sediments
Alluvial Soils of variable drainage and texture
Regosols on Recent beach and dune sands
Red-Yellow Podzolic soils

Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with
semi-prominent At horizon
Reddish Brown Latosolic soils
Immature Brown Loams
Bog and Half-bog soils
Latosols and Regosols on old red and yellow sands
Miscellaneous land units comprising of Rock Knob
Plains, Erosional remnants with eroded and
shallow soils
Tank / Reservoir
Source: Irrigation Department (1988)
15
establishment of plantations. These activities marked 71 years and the adult literacy rate, 88 per cent.
the beginning of environmental problems and large Infant mortality is low (24 per 1000 population),
scale biodiversity erosion in the country. After and 93 per cent of the population have access to
gaining independence, clearing land for development advanced health care. The Human Development
schemes in the dry zone commenced and continued
Index is 701, approaching the level of developed
to gain momentum, causing a further loss of
countries, demonstrating a high quality of life. Sri
indigenous biodiversity. Despite these adverse
trends, the concepts which underlie conservation of Lanka is a multi-ethnic secular state. The major
biodiversity continue to influence the lives of rural ethnic groups in the country are Sinhalese (74.0
people, particularly those of the older generation. per cent), Tamils (18.2 per cent) and Muslims (7.1
Even today, certain species of trees are protected per cent). The majority of the population are
by religious beliefs. Ficus religiosa is considered Buddhists (69.3 per cent), and the other major
sacred by Buddhists as the tree or 'bhodhi' under religions are Hinduism (15.5 per cent), Islam (7.6
which the Buddha attained enlightenment; Mesua per cent), and Christianity (7.5 per cent).
spp., bamboo groves and Ficus benghalensis are
2.4 Land Ownership and Tenure
some species that are held in high esteem by
Buddhists; and the neem tree(Azadiracta indica) is In Sri Lanka, 82 per cent of the land area
comes under some form of state control. This
revered by Hindus. Most rural people consider it
includes the land alienated under settlement schemes
irreverent to fell large trees, due to their belief that
which may be governed by restrictions on
such trees are the abodes of lesser gods. Among inheritance, transfer and subdivision and which
the fauna, the elephant (Elephas maximus) plays a accounts for 15 per cent of the total land area of
dominant role in the cultural and religious pageants the country. Over the years, state land has been
of the country, especially in the age old annual alienated under various schemes, such as village
Esala Perahara (procession) in which about a expansion, regularization of encroachments, special
hundred domesticated elephants participate. leases, etc. The Land Reform Law 1972 limited
the extent of freehold land to a total of 50 acres
Recent decades have seen a sharp increase (subsequently increased to 100 acres) per
in human population, and the overriding need to individual, and in the case of paddy land to 25
produce more food has exerted great pressure on acres. Land in excess of these limits was vested in
the forests which were seen as a source of land the Land Reform Commission, and these areas
for agriculture. There was also a growing added up to 6.2 per cent of the total land area of
tendency towards secularism. These factors, as the country.
expected, led to an undermining of the values Except for a few catchment areas in
which are an integral part of the cultural and privately owned plantations, and freehold lands in
religious heritage of Sri Lanka. some wildlife sanctuaries, natural forests are under
the jurisdiction of the state. Although the species
diversity of agricultural lands does not match that
2.3 Population and People of natural ecosystems, the plantations, home gardens
and agricultural crop holdings contribute
Sri Lanka is one of the most densely
significantly to the in-situ conservation of species
populated countries of Asia, with 292 inhabitants and genetic diversity.
per square kilometre. Estimates for 1996 indicate a
total population of 18.3 million. The population
growth rate is 1.1 per cent at present and it is 2.5 Biodiversity - a Broad Overview
projected that the population will reach the 25
Conservation of biodiversity is of special
million mark by the middle of next century.
relevance to Sri Lanka. The country, though small
Although the average per capita GNP is low (US
in size, has a varied climate and topography which
$ 760 in 1996), the human development indicators has resulted in a rich biodiversity, distributed within
show values that are exceptionally high for a a wide range of ecosystems. An important feature
developing country. The life expectancy at birth is
16
of the climate is that there are two basic eco-zones. swamps, constitute the panorama of natural
This is due to the positioning of the central ecosystems in the country. In addition, there are
mountains which intercept the monsoonal winds. numerous man-made ecosystems related to
This has created an ever-wet region in the agriculture and irrigation which have a direct
southwestern quarter of the island and a rain shadow bearing on the conservation, sustenance and survival
in the remaining area. Since these demarcations of biological resources. This array of ecosystems
are not sharp, but grade off from one to the other, found in the country can also be grouped into four
it is customary to recognize an intermediate basic habitat classes: forests, inland wetlands,
transition zone termed the intermediate zone. Small agricultural lands, and coastal and marine systems.
sections to the northwest and southeast which escape
The remaining land is used for living areas,
the monsoons have a climate which approaches
arid conditions. Within this broad differentiation roads, and other infrastructures.
of climate types, there is a multitude of ecosystems. The high diversity of ecosystems has
Among the terrestrial ecosystems are forests varying provided habitats for rich species diversity and
from wet evergreen forest (both lowland and climatic and edaphic variants of individual species,
montane) to dry thorn forests; grasslands; and a particularly among the plants. The wet zone
complex network of rivers, wetlands and freshwater rainforests provide habitats for nearly all of the
bodies. These, together with the coastal and marine
country’s woody endemic plants and for about
ecosystems such as sea-grass beds, coral reefs,
three-quarters of the endemic animals. The inland
estuaries and lagoons, and associated mangrove
Box 2.2
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY DEFINED
Biological diversity. The Global Biodiversity Strategy and the Convention on Biological Diversity recognize
three functionally related components of biological diversity, or biodiversity :
Genetic diversity within species: Genes are the storehouses of the heritable characteristics of an organism,
and form the basis for variation between individuals of a species. The qualitative and quantitative
variation of the genetic material between individuals, and the genetic variation between
populations of the same species, constitute the genetic diversity of a species.
Species diversity: This is the component of biodiversity that is most widely known and often used as a
synonym of biodiversity. Species are populations of individuals within which breeding could
take place to produce fertile offspring. Species diversity refers to variation between species, or
to the variety of life forms on earth. To date about 1.7 million species have been described, and
it is estimated that the total number of species present on earth may be many times this
number. The measurement of species diversity provides an important preliminary assessment
of overall biodiversity.
Ecosystem diversity: This refers to the variation between ecosystems. Different species of animals, plants
and microorganisms interact to form communities. In concert with the processes that maintain
their lives, and interacting with their non living environment, these communities form functional,
dynamic and complex units that are termed ecosystems. Different permutations of species and
their interrelations, combined with differences in abiotic factors such as climate, soil and water,
give rise to different ecosystems.
Conservation of biological diversity covers all human actions ranging from totally preserving any component
of biological diversity to using biological resources within sustainable limits so that there is no erosion of
biodiversity.
Main source: WCMC (1992)
17
waters provide aquatic habitats for a large number
of freshwater species, notably, the fish fauna. Inland Box 2.3
wetlands, both natural and man made, are also the
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA
habitats of many species of birds, mammals and
plants. Of these, the Mahaweli Flood Plains in the Forest and related ecosystems
dry zone is the most important habitat in terms of - Tropical wet evergreen forest (lowland rain
animal biomass in the country. forest)
- Tropical moist evergreen forest
The many critical marine near-shore
- Tropical dry mixed evergreen forest
- Tropical thorn forest
- Savannah
- Riverine forest
- Tropical sub montane forest
- Tropical montane forest
- Dry montane grasslands dry patanas
Inland wetland ecosystems
- Flood plains
- Swamps
- Streams and rivers
- Reservoirs and ponds
- Wet Villu grasslands
- Wet montane grasslands wet patanas
The colourful flower of the endemic Gordonia speciosa Coastal and marine ecosystems
(S. Balasubramaniam) - Mangroves
- Salt marshes
habitats of the coastal areas form the breeding
- Sand dunes and beaches
grounds for a host of marine organisms. These
- Mudflats
habitats contain 183 species of fish, many of which
- Seagrass beds
breed in the area. The mangrove areas are relatively
- Lagoons and estuaries
small and discontinuous, but are important in terms
- Coral reefs
of the species they contain and the socio-economic
- Coastal seas
importance to local people, and for prevention of
Agricultural ecosystems
coastal erosion. The Exclusive Economic Zone,
- Paddy lands
which covers an area up to 200 nautical miles
- Horticultural farms
beyond the coastline, contain the coastal reefs along
- Small crop holdings or other field crops
much of the 1600 km of coastline. The best known
(pulses, sesame etc)
coral reefs occur off the northwestern and
- Crop plantations
southwestern coasts, while rich coral reefs are also
- Home gardens
found in the north and northeast. Sandstone reefs
- Chena lands (slash and burn cultivation)
and boulder reefs occur in other parts of the
coastline.
The inland waters support a rich invertebrate fauna.
In terms of plant species diversity, the The following information is based on the available
vegetation supports over 3368 species of flowering
data. There are around 140 species of Rotifera.
plants (of which 26 per cent are endemic) and 314
Among the Crustacea are 68 species of Cladocera,
species of ferns and fern allies (of which 57 are
endemic). Species diversity is also high among 27 species of Copepoda (none endemic), 31 species
mosses (575), liverworts (190), algae (896) and of Ostracoda (11 endemic) in 19 genera, and over
fungi (1920). 60 species of decapods (prawns and crabs). There
are 31 species of freshwater molluscs, of which 12
Similarly, the country supports a high are endemic and restricted in distribution. The
faunal diversity due to the varied climatic and mayflies are incompletely documented, but 18
topographic conditions prevailing in the island. species are known to be endemic. The marine
18
invertebrate fauna are even more diverse; examples The species richness of the terrestrial
are the presence of over 180 species of corals mammalian fauna in the island is high, compared
belonging to 68 genera, and over 200 species of with other islands of similar size. In this category
crabs. are 86 indigenous and ten introduced species. The
indigenous species comprise 30 species of bats,
Among the indigenous terrestrial
23 rodents, 14 carnivores inclusive of the leopard
invertebrates there are over 400 species of arachnids
and sloth bear, seven artiodactyls (among which
(spiders) in 236 genera, over 242 species of
are four species of deer), six shrews, four primates
butterflies of which 14 are endemic, 139 species of
mosquitos, 525 species of carabid
beetles from 140 genera, and 266
species of land snails. Ten genera
and 127 species of carabid beetles
are endemic, as are 201 species
of land snails.
Among the vertebrates,
there are 65 species of freshwater
fishes indigenous to Sri Lanka,
of which about a half are endemic.
Many of these species are riverine
or marsh dwelling and occur
mainly in the wet zone streams.
In addition, there are 22 species
of introduced fish which are
consumed for food. There are also
about 350 species of marine fish
which include ornamental fishes
and food species such as seer, A herd of spotted deer at the Yala National Park (H.I.E. Katugaha)
tuna and skipjack.
The amphibian fauna number 53 species and one species each of elephant and pangolin.
from 16 genera. Of these, the genus Nannophrys, The 12 species of endemic mammals include two
with three species, is endemic, as are 27 other species of primates and one carnivore. It is
species including three species of limbless noteworthy that several of the species show
amphibians. A majority of the amphibian species prominent sub-specific variation indicative of high
have very restricted geographic ranges and are
intra-specific genetic variability. Within the
found mainly in specific ecological niches of wet
territorial waters of the island there are 38 species
zone forests.
of marine mammals, including the sperm whale,
The reptilian fauna of Sri Lanka show the blue whale and a rare species of dugong.
considerable diversity, with two species of
Sri Lanka is also a valuable repository of
crocodiles, five species of marine turtles, three
crop germplasm, especially of rice. There are
species of tortoises, 92 species of snakes (of which
varieties of rice which are resistant to pests and
approximately half are endemic), 21 species of
adverse climatic and soil conditions, exhibit
geckoes (of which six are endemic), 14 species of
variations in grain size and quality, and show
agamid lizards (of which ten are endemic), two
differences in rate of maturing. There is also
species of monitor lizards, and 21 species of skinks
significant crop genetic diversity among spices of
(all rare, and 17 endemic).
commercial importance. Among these are 500
The rich avifauna of the country is reflected selections of pepper and about seven wild species,
by the presence of 435 species of birds which 10 wild races of cardamom, and several indigenous
include about 113 migrants. The 23 species endemic varieties of betel and chilli. Grain legumes and
to this country are found mainly in the wet zone root and tuber crops also show a rich genetic
forests. variability, as do fruit crops such as banana, mango
and citrus. Similarly, there are many varieties of
19
vegetables such as cucurbits, tomato and eggplant. woody plants, vertebrates, and selected invertebrate
Out of 170 plant species of ornamental value, 74 taxa (molluscs and butterflies) present along
are endemic, and many species of orchids and gradient directed transects. The NCR data revealed
foliage plants of commercial importance occur that, among the wet zone forests, Sinharaja,
naturally in forests. Knuckles, Gilimale-Eratne, and the Kanneliya-
Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) complex are
Among domesticated animals of economic foremost in terms of woody species diversity.
value are wild species of buffalo, cattle and fowl. Knuckles, Gilimale-Eratne, Horton Plains,
The local cattle show high resistance to disease Mulatiyana and Sinharaja were found to be the
and tolerance of internal parasites. Likewise, the most important wet zone forests for faunal diversity.
local breeds of poultry are resistant to tropical The Ruhuna National Park is important in terms
diseases. of biodiversity in the dry zone, especially for the
A significant milestone in the study of the large herbivores and carnivores.
terrestrial species diversity of Sri Lanka is the For the development of conservation
National Conservation Review (NCR) carried out strategies for faunal species, an impediment has
by the Forest Department with technical assistance been the paucity of data on population status and
from IUCN - The World Conservation Union. This distribution, especially of vertebrates. In this
was a sample survey of all the natural forests of context, it is important to note that the government
the country, barring some areas in the north and has initiated action to set up a national zoological
east which were inaccessible due to the prevailing survey, a long-felt need.
civil disturbances. This survey enumerated all the
Box 2.4
BIODIVERSTIY CONSERVATION - THE GLOBAL PICTURE
The earth’s biodiversity is the result of nearly four billion years of evolution. Current estimates of
the number of existing species range from 2 100 million, while only about 1.7 million have been
documented. Distributed throughout the world’s biota are about a billion different genes. This biodiversity
is found within an array of ecosystems, both natural and man made. Today, much of this biodiversity is
being lost on a global scale at an unprecedented rate as a result of human activity. In the ast 200 years,
over six million km 2 of forests have been decimated. About 40 % of the entire photosynthetic
productivity on earth is now being used or destroyed. If these current trends continue, a quarter of all
extant species on arth will perish or be reduced to unsustainable levels by the mid 21st century.
The consequences of biodiversity erosion of this magnitude are profound. Most significant is the
destruction of species and ecosystems that are vital for the functioning of global life support systems.
Others are loss of wild relatives of crop plants and domesticated animals that serve as ‘gene banks’ when
economically valuable breeds have to combat disease or adapt to climate change. Many species with
potential medicinal or economic value may also become extinct before they are discovered. Developing
countries, which are the main repositories of global biodiversity, do not have the financial and technical
resources to manage and conserve their indigenous biological resources, and this exacerbates biodiversity
loss. Developed countries contribute to biodiversity loss by providing lucrative markets for timber from
tropical forests, ornamental fish and other endangered species. While the ultimate prerogative for
conservation and management of a country’s biodiversity lies with its national government, the global
implications of continued biodiversity loss has resulted in increased international cooperation to strengthen
national efforts. International efforts comprise bilateral and multi lateral financial assistance for biodiversity
conservation, international treaties and conventions such as the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES), the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR
Convention) and, most significantly, the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Sources: IUCN (1994a); WCMC (1992); Beazley, M (1993)
20
Assessments of coral reefs and associated be used for the genetic improvement of cultivated
fauna are being carried out by the National Aquatic plants. Another valuable genetic resource is the
Resources Research and Development Agency wide range of varieties and ecotypes of cultivated
(NARA), from Tangalle to Kandekuliya. Studies species found in the country. For example, in the
on wetland biodiversity have been carried out by case of rice, there are over 2500 accessions of
the Wetland Conservation Project of the Central indigenous varieties. These have not been fully
Environmental Authority and have resulted in 23 characterized, and allowing for the presence of
site reports to date, with another three pending. duplicates it would appear that these accessions
represent about 1000 distinct cultivars. Plant
products such as fruits, fibre, spices, kitul sap,
2.6 The Need to Conserve bamboo and rattan are used as raw material for
many small scale industries which provide financial
Sri Lanka’s high population density, high security to rural populations. The biological
levels of poverty and unemployment, and resources of coastal and marine ecosystems provide
widespread dependence on subsistence agriculture nearly 70 per cent of the protein requirements of
have exerted considerable pressure on the the country and generates employment for about
biodiversity of the country. Extensive deforestation 500,000 people. Biodiversity also contributes
and land degradation and the unregulated directly to the national economy in the form of
exploitation of natural resources (e.g. mining for revenue from National Parks and other wildlife
coral lime, sand and gemstones) are some of the reserves, while its potential to promote eco-tourism
manifestations of the social problems the country could be a significant income generator in the future.
faces causing destruction of natural ecosystems The forests of southwest Sri Lanka (wet
and the species they contain. evergreen forests) are particularly rich in
The conservation of biological diversity is biodiversity and endemic species, and they are
of special significance to Sri Lanka in the context fragmented and under severe threat. On account of
of its predominantly agriculture-based economy and this, southwest Sri Lanka has been named as one
of the 18 biodiversity hotspots in the world (i.e. an
the high dependence on many plant species for
area with high species diversity and high levels of
food, medicines and domestic products. Over a
endemism and where species are subject to
third of the plant species in the country are used exceptional levels of threat). Conservation of Sri
in indigenous medical practice, and many of these Lanka’s biodiversity, therefore, transcends national
species are growing scarce due to habitat interests it is of global relevance.
destruction and over-collection. The rich and
diverse ecosystems of the country harbour many Appendix 2 gives provisional lists of
wild relatives of cultivated species, and the gene species of flora and fauna considered to be
pools represented by these wild plants are a threatened in Sri Lanka.
resource of considerable potential value that could
21
22
Biodiversity Conservation
Conservation in Action Plan
Sri Lanka
The Major Ecosystems

3.1 Forests
Sri Lanka has a long history of protection of wildlife

and sustainable use of forests, fostered by Buddhist
philosophy that respects all forms of life. One of
the world's earliest wildlife sanctuaries was
established by King Devanampiyatissa in 246 BC,
along with the advent of Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
Succeeding kings upheld these traditions, and kele
koralas (forest officers) were appointed to prevent
poaching and to protect trees belonging to the
Crown. In the twelfth century AD, King Keerthi
Nissanka Malla proclaimed that no animal should
be killed within a radius of seven 'Gau' (equivalent
to 35.7 km) of the sacred city of Anuradhapura.
These noble traditions and attitudes changed
with the onset of the colonial era, when the rulers
were more bent on exploiting rather than conserving
the natural resources. This is evident from some of
the earlier government ordinances under foreign
rule. For instance, the Timber Ordinance (of 1848)
created forest reserves for the purpose of timber
supply. The Wastelands Ordinance of 1840 vested
all lands that were unoccupied and uncultivated
(including forests), and previously held by royalty,
temples, local communities and individuals, in the
British Crown. This effectively paved the way for
the clearing of wet zone forests at mid and high
elevations for the establishment of tea and rubber
plantations, while the wet lowland forests in the
coastal areas were cleared for coconut and The view through the mist at Horton Plains
cinnamon plantations. Similarly, declaration of (S. Balasubramaniam)
game reserves in the dry zone, following the Trimen who were responsible for documenting the
enactment of the Fauna and Flora Protection flora of Sri Lanka. Their influence on government
Ordinance of 1937 during British rule, was for policy led to attention being focused on forest
protection of game for hunting. During this period, conservation and the inclusion of this concept into
populations of species considered big game, policy and legal instruments. Despite these policy
particularly the elephant, declined considerably as initiatives, however, exploitation of forests by
a result of hunting for sport, and in some cases, logging, quarrying, collecting forest produce,
for meat. The destruction of forests during colonial pasturing cattle, and clearing for shifting cultivation
rule contributed largely to the decline of wildlife (chena) continued. In the colonial period much of
the deforestation occurred in the wet zone. In the
as well.
post-independence period (after 1948), forest
A redeeming feature of the colonial period clearing took place at an accelerated pace for
was the scientific contributions of the eminent shifting cultivation, land settlement, and expansion
British botanists Hooker, Thwaites, Alston and of irrigation agriculture, and this was mainly in the
dry zone.
23
The latest forest survey (in 1992) shows that reaching 30-40 m in height, with emergents rising
"dense" natural forests (i.e. with over 75 per cent to about 45 m, and woody lianas that form an
canopy cover) occupy 23.88 per cent of the total intricate network. Due to the height of the canopy
land area. To this may be added the "sparse forests", trees and straightness of their boles, wet lowland
consisting mainly of scrub vegetation, which cover forests are considered to be very productive in terms
7.01 per cent of the land area. The rate of of timber. As a result, many of the lowland
deforestation can be gauged by the fact that 40 dipterocarp-dominated forests have been selectively
years ago the forest cover was nearly double what logged in the past.
it is today (Figure 3.1).
Wet zone rainforests are exceptionally rich
Sri Lanka has a striking variety of forest in biodiversity and high in endemism, especially
types brought about by spatial variations in rainfall, among the dipterocarps which constitute the
altitude and soil. The forests have been categorised characteristic tree flora of both wet lowland and
broadly as tropical wet lowland evergreen forests hill forests and dominate the structural and floristic
(at elevations between 0-1000 m); wet sub-montane composition of these ecosystems. All endemic
forests (at elevations between genera and over 90 per
1000-1500 m in the wet zone); cent of the woody
wet montane forests (at elevations endemic species occur
of 1500-2500m); tropical dry in these forests, as well
mixed evergreen forests in the dry as about 75 per cent
lowlands, with riverine vegetation of the endemic
along river banks; tropical moist animals.
evergreen forest in the
intermediate zone; thorny scrub The southern
in the arid areas; and mangrove lowland hills and
swamps in the coastal areas, plains extending from
fringing the lagoons and at the the east of Kalutara to
river mouths. In addition, the southeast are
different types of grasslands exceptionally rich in
occur in the wet and dry areas, plant diversity, and this
in the lowlands as well as in the area is believed to be,
hills. As the wet lowland forests floristically, the richest
transform into sub-montane and in South Asia. Another
montane forests, there is a interesting feature is
progressive decline in canopy that many endemics are
height, and at the highest restricted to a single
elevations above 2000 m, unique forest or a single
pygmy forests may occur. The cluster of forest blocks.
most extensive forest type, the For instance, the
tropical dry mixed evergreen forests in the valleys of
forest, is characterized by a the foothills of Adam's
canopy that is relatively open and Peak and
seldom exceeds 20 meters in Ambagamuwa contain
A giant tree (a dipterocarp) in the Sinharaja Forest many highly localized
height. A survey based on (S. Balasubramaniam)
Landsat imagery carried out in
plant species. Stemenoporus moonii, a member of
1992 gave the areas of the main types of natural
an Lendemic genus, is restricted to the Waturana
forest in the country as shown in Table 3.1.
forest, and Stemonoporus affinis, another very rare
The fragmented wet lowland forests of the species, is confined to a small area within the
country are of particular importance as they Knuckles forest. Other species of Stemonoporus
constitute the last remnants of the once widespread and species of another endemic genus Glenniea are
mid-miocene tropical rain forests of Sri Lanka. In found in Warukandeniya, but not in Sinhagala and
the lower slopes and valleys, these forests are Waturawa, although all three sites are located within
characterised by a dense canopy of tree species
24
Figure 3.1 Sri Lanka Forest Cover in 1956 and 1992
FOREST COVER - 1956

FOREST COVER - 1992
Source: Adapted from Wijesinghe et.al., (1993)
25
the Sinharaja forest complex. Many species of
endemic fauna are also highly localised;
examples are the endemic lizards Cophotis
ceylanica, found only in montane and cloud
forest above 1300m, and Ceratophora tennenti,
found only at elevations above 800 m in the
Knuckles forest.
Some of the most important wet zone
forests in terms of biodiversity are the Peak
Wilderness Sanctuary (22,379 ha), the
Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN)
Reserve (10,139 ha), the Sinharaja Forest
(11,280 ha ), the Knuckles Range of Forests
(21,650 ha) and the Horton Plains National Park
(3159 ha). These forests are also important
hydrologically as they protect the headwaters of A view of Peak Wilderness from Horton Plains
all of Sri Lanka's main rivers. (D. B. Sumithraarachichi)
The Kanneliya forest is notable for having threatened species that it contains. In this forest,
the highest percentage of endemic woody species species endemism in some plant families (e.g.
(60 per cent) of any single wet zone forest. The Dipterocarpaceae) exceeds 90 per cent.
streams of this forest contain many species of Detailed studies of the floristic composition
endemic fish, including several threatened species. of the forest demonstrate that no single part of it is
Associated with these waterways are a number of representative of the whole, due to microclimatic
rare endemic amphibians such as Nannophrys differences.
guentheri, Ramanella palmata and Icthyophis
glutinosus. The Sinharaja forest complex is also of The Knuckles forest is important in terms of
special importance because of its high species rare species of woody plants and animals, some of
diversity and the large number of unique and which are unique to this site. In addition, this forest
contains 14 of the 23 species of endemic birds;
more than 50 per cent of the endemic fish, of which
nine are threatened and three are restricted to the
forest; and a large number of butterflies and
reptiles.
The Peak Wilderness Sanctuary is unique
among Sri Lanka's forests in having a range of
altitudinally graded, structurally and
physiognomically distinct, and biologically diverse
forest formations that include tropical lowland, sub-
montane and upper-montane rain forests, and
natural grasslands. This forest is also floristically
important in terms of the large number of rare
endemics it contains.
It is unique in having the endemic
Stemonoporus spp. growing at high elevations, and
Shorea gardneri consociations occurring at altitudes
of over 1800 m.
Due to historical factors, the dry zone forests
are secondary and seral, although climax vegetation
can be found in isolated hills such as Ritigala.
Polypedates cruciger - the endemic common hour-glass Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests are the
tree frog (Ranil Perera) characteristic vegetation of the dry zone, and
26
tropical moist evergreen forests

constitute a distinct group in the
lowland intermediate zone. The
northwestern and southeast corners
of the island constitute the arid zone
in which the characteristic
vegetation is thorny scrub.
Among the dry zone forests,
Ruhuna National Park (blocks 1-
4) is outstanding in terms of woody
species and faunal diversity. It is
also very rich in the number of rare
species it contains. Overall, dry
zone forests have a low level of
species endemism ranging from 10-
16 per cent. In comparison, the
levels of endemism are high in wet
zone forests, and range from 37-64
per cent for woody plants and 14-
52 per cent for animals. Dry zone
Elephants at the Ruhunu National Park (H.I.E. Katugaha)
forests, though less diverse than wet
zone forests floristically, are more
Table 3.1: Areas of natural forest remaining in 1992, by forest type
Forest type Total forest area (ha) % of total land area
Montane forest 3,108 0.05

Sub montane forest 68,616 1.04
Lowland wet evergreen forest 141,506 2.14
Moist evergreen forest 243,886 3.69

Dry mixed evergreen 1,090,981 16.49
Riverine forest 22,435 0.43
Mangrove forest 8,688* 0.13
Total extent of "closed canopy"

forest: 1,579,220 23.88
Open canopy:
sparse forest 464,076 7.01
Total forest cover in the country: 2,043,296 30.89
The total area of mangrove habitats is around 12,500 ha (Source: Legg and Jewell, 1994) of Sri Lanka's main
rivers.
27
extensive spatially, and they are important as reason, the dry zone forests merit special
habitats for large mammals like the elephant. consideration for conservation planning.
Notably, faunal groups such as carnivores,
ungulates and primates show their highest species Considering the protected areas in Sri Lanka,
diversity in the dry zone. The wet villu grasslands it is encouraging that nearly 14 per cent of the
in the flood plains of rivers of the dry zone are country falls into this category. The major part of
particularly rich in biodiversity, especially among the protected area system is under the control of
the large grazing and browsing herbivores. For this the Department of Wildlife Conservation. However,
Box 3.1
What the NCR Reveals
The National Conservation Review (NCR) of Sri Lanka was carried out by the Forest Department
with technical assistance from IUCN The World Conservation Union. This unique exercise constituted a
systematic assessment of biodiversity in the natural forests of the country. Its overriding objective was to
define a national system of protected areas in which watersheds important for soil conservation and
hydrology are protected and forest biodiversity is fully represented, while meeting the cultural, economic
and social needs of the country.
The review covered all natural forests in the country of 200 ha or more, except those in sections
of the north and east which were inaccessible due to political unrest. Between April 1991 and September
1996, 204 forests were subject to biodiversity assessment by sampling 1,725 plots of 100 m x 5 m
along 310 gradient directed transects (gradsects). An important feature of the methodology used is that
gradsect sampling optimises the sampling of species in relation to time and effort. Although the biodiversity
assessment was restricted to woody plants, vertebrates, molluscs and butterflies, the NCR is hailed as
one of the most detailed, comprehensive and innovative evaluations of its kind carried out on a country
wide scale to date. The study has yielded 69,400 records of 1,153 woody plant species and 24,000
records of 410 faunal species. A total of 281 forests were also evaluated for their importance in soil and
water conservation.
The NCR reveals that, although Sri Lanka has an extensive protected area network covering
almost 14% of its land area, critical gaps exist in the context of biodiversity and hydrology conservation.
The present protected area network does not adequately represent some floristic regions of the country,
including areas that occur within the biodiversity rich wet zone. In addition, about 15% of indigenous
terrestrial species diversity is not found within the established protected areas.
The NCR identifies the wet zone forests as the most important in terms of soil and water
conservation. As regards biodiversity, the survey has revealed that 79% of the woody plant diversity,
88% of endemic woody plant diversity, 83% of faunal diversity, and 85% of endemic faunal diversity
are represented in just eight units of contiguous forests: Bambarabotuwa, forests of the central highlands,
Gilimale Eratne, KDN, Sinharaja and Pedro (all in the wet zone); Knuckles/Wasgomuwa (in the
intermediate zone); and Ruhuna/Yala (in the dry zone). The comprehensive picture of natural terrestrial
biodiversity that has emerged through the NCR will provide valuable information for planning an
optimal network of protected areas.
The study has also provided dividends in other ways. Field trips during the survey have served to
bring about new discoveries of plants and animals. In 1993 Rock Balsam Impatiens repens an endemic
herb not seen for 136 years, was rediscovered. Another "lost and found" plant is Semecarpus
pseudomarginata an endemic belonging to the mango family. A new species of lizard, and a new species
of ebony are just a few among the 'new' species that were found during this unique survey.
Sources: Green and Jayasuriya (1996); Green (1997)
28
within the one million hectares of state forests under of biological diversity. In policy implementation,
the jurisdiction of the Forest Department, there are the Forest Department has assumed a greatly
some important protected areas. These include two enhanced role in conserving the nation's biodiversity.
international Biosphere Reserves (Hurulu and This is evident in many of the department's recent
Sinharaja) and many recently designated initiatives, some of which are the creation of an
conservation forests (31 forests so designated up environmental management division within the
to now). The protected areas under the Forest department, the setting up of a database on forest
Department include the
Sinharaja, Knuckles, and KDN
rainforests which are noted for
their high levels of biodiversity
and endemism. The Sinharaja
forest has been statutorily
declared a National Heritage
Wilderness Area. It is also a
World Heritage (natural) Site,
the only one so declared up to
now in Sri Lanka. (See Figure
3.2 for protected areas). Until
recently, despite the fact that
the total area under protection
had been large, many wet zone
forests that are critically
important from the point of
view of biodiversity
conservation were not within
the protected area network.
This is being remedied by the Wetland blooms (S. Balasubramaniam)
Forest Department by the
creation of conservation forests. biodiversity, the creation of a new category of
protected areas - conservation forests - through
As regards forest plantations, the Forest amending legislation and the inclusion of many wet
Department data indicate that the total area of forest zone forests in this category, and the move towards
plantations raised up to 1991 was 175,443 ha.
linking the management of the conservation forests
Recent surveys using aerial photographs, where only
with development activities in the buffer zone. In
the well-stocked plantations were covered, give the
wildlife conservation, the current project supported
area as 117,424 ha. Forest plantations of teak,
by the Global Environmental Facility offers much
eucalyptus and pine (none of which are indigenous
scope for building capacity and strengthening
to Sri Lanka) add up to nearly 90,000 ha. The
management. This project has so far not realized
Eucalyptus species most widely planted were E.
its full potential, but much could be done during
grandis, E. microcorys and E. robusta. The pine
the remaining period in the life of the project.
is mainly Pinus caribaea. Other exotic species
have also been used for forest plantations, but on a The Forestry Sector Master Plan of 1996, in
lower scale. These include Swietenia macrophylla sharp contrast to the earlier Master Plan of 1986,
(broad leaf mahogany), Acacia spp. and Cedrela places special emphasis on the conservation of
sp. biodiversity both in the forest and wildlife sub
sectors. It also advocates a reorientation of the
In the sphere of policy, there have been
traditional approaches of both the Forest and
several positive and encouraging developments in
Wildlife Departments, to permit the involvement of
recent years. There are well articulated forestry
the community in protected area management. In
and wildlife policies declared by the government,
fact, in the management of the conservation forests,
which place special emphasis on the conservation
the Forest Department envisages an active
29
participatory role for the communities through The man-made wetlands are the rice paddies,
community based organizations. irrigation tanks, large reservoirs, canals, and
aquaculture ponds. They together make up about
two-thirds of the total area of all wetlands. This
3.2 Wetlands section deals mainly with the inland freshwater
wetlands.
Wetlands, both natural and man-made, were
Sri Lanka's river system (Figure 3.3),
the centres of Sri Lanka's ancient hydraulic
comprising 103 rivers flowing from the central
civilization which thrived in the island for over a
highlands and making up a total collective length
thousand years and formed the hub of its cultural,
of about 4560 km, plays a dominant role in shaping
economic and social evolution. Due to the system
the wetland landscape. At the coast, where they
of land use adopted in ancient times, catchment
enter the sea, these rivers
areas and other important
form lagoons and
wetlands in the uplands
estuaries. In the dry
were preserved under
zone, the rivers and their
forest cover, while the dry
tributaries supply water
zone lowlands were
to the floodplains and to
irrigated using water from
irrigation reservoirs.
thousands of rainfed tanks
There are extensive
dotted throughout this
marshes and swamps
region. This system of land
associated with the
use served to conserve the
rivers, which are
biodiversity of natural
important in terms of
wetlands. There is also
Fig. 3.2 biodiversity. In
evidence that the
association with the
conservation of
Mahaweli Ganga and its
biodiversity in man-made
tributaries alone, there
tanks was given
are about 10,000 ha of
consideration in Royal Riverine vegetation (S. Balasubramaniam)
freshwater riverine
Decrees as early as the
marshes which are very
twelfth century AD. Many of the wetland sites in
rich in biodiversity and are highly productive.
Sri Lanka are today being recognized as important,
Riverine floodplains contain saucer-like depressions
both regionally and globally; and one (Bundala)
(villus) that become inundated with the overflow
has been recognized internationally as a Ramsar
from rivers during the rainy seasons and contract
site.
during drought conditions. The cyclic variation in
The Convention on Wetlands of International habitat conditions due to fluctuations in salinity
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (also and the depth of water is an important ecological
called the RAMSAR Convention) defines wetlands feature that fashions the biodiversity and
as "areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether productivity of villus.
natural or temporary, with water that is static,
Although Sri Lanka does not have large
flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of
natural lakes, the total area covered by man-made
marine water, the depth of which at low tide does
water bodies exceeds 170,000 ha. There are at
not exceed 6 m." Both natural and man-made
present about 10,000 tanks which irrigate over
wetlands occur throughout Sri Lanka, and comprise
500,000 ha of land for agriculture. Tanks range in
about 15 per cent of the land area. Rivers and
size from 6500 ha down to about one hectare. The
streams, riverine floodplains, small isolated
vast majority are small; there are less than 100
freshwater bodies, freshwater springs, seasonal
which exceed 300 ha in size. The tanks were
ponds, and fresh water marshes comprise natural
originally constructed many centuries ago. They
inland wetlands. Coastal wetlands include estuaries
subsequently fell into disuse and the forest reclaimed
and lagoons with associated mangrove swamps,
the land. Many of the tanks in use today are these
saline marshes, mudflats, and coastal seagrass beds.
old constructions which have been restored. The
30
Figure 3.2 Protected Areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation and Forest
Department according to available records
Protected Areas under Department of Wildlife
Strict Natural Reserve

1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567 National Park
JAFFNA Nature Reserve
Jungle Corridor
Larger Sanctuaries
Locations of smaller Sanctuaries
Protected Areas under Forest Department

National Heritage Wilderness Area and International
Biosphere Reserve
International Biosphere Reserve
Conservation Forests
Climatic Boundaries
DRY ZONE
TRINCOMALEE
ANURADHAPURA
BATTICALOA
INTERMEDIATE
KURUNEGALA
KANDY ZONE
NUWARA ELIYA BADULLA

COLOMBO WET ZONE
10 0 10 20 30
Km
HAMBANTOTA
GALLE
The Major Eco-systems
MATARA
31
ecological conditions of these tanks vary in terms Jussiaea peruviana, and species of Potamogeton,
of depth; degree of siltation; pH; and the calcium, Chara, Utricularia, Lemna and Najas. The deeper
nitrate and phosphate levels of the water. At reservoirs contain floating plants such as Neptunia
present, the irrigation reservoirs and their associated oleracea, Azolla pinnata, Wolffia arrhiza, Pistia
canal network add up to about 2400 km2 . The stratiotes and Hydrilla verticillata; fresh water
rice paddies, both irrigated and rainfed, comprise algae, including unicellular and colonial chlorophyta
about 780,000 ha and are spread throughout the and some filamentous forms; and several species
country. of diatoms. When there is high eutrophication due
to pollution, fresh water bodies are dominated by
Wetlands are valuable in terms of hydrology,
the exotic water weed Eichhornia crassipes and a
plant and animal productivity, and biodiversity;
heavy growth of Cyanophyta (blue-greens). The
and they carry out important functions in terms of
introduced water weed Salvinia molesta was a
sustaining hydrological and chemical cycles.
serious problem in the past, but has been
Swamps and marshes function as ground water
successfully eradicated from most water bodies due
aquifers and are of indirect use in protecting the
to biological control measures. The shallow village
shoreline by regulating water flow. Wetlands are
tanks often support a rich phytoplankton among
also important as gene pools for wild varieties of
which are Oscillatoria, Microcystis, Hyella and
crop species, such as wild rice.
Coelosphaerium. Grasses and sedges occur in the
In the uplands where the rivers originate, shallow submerged areas, with other herbaceous
there is fast-flowing water. These streams and species such as Monochoria and Jussiaea. At the
rivulets contain simple aquatic plant communities tank margins are sedges such as Cyperus and
and species that are segregated based on their Fimbristylis spp., rushes such as Typha spp. and
degree of tolerance of the speed of water flow. emergent vegetation such as Ipomoea aquatica.
Species such as Dicraea elongata and Podostemum Shrubs (e.g. Hibiscus tiliaceus) and small trees
subulatus are found in flowing water. In the lowland occur in the adjacent high ground. River banks
streams and rivers, and shallow tanks and ponds, support gallery forests with tree species such as
there are various rooted aquatics with floating or Terminalia arjuna Mitragyna parviflora, Madhuca
submerged leaves such as Nymphaea spp. longifolia, Polyalthia longifolia and Diospyros
Nymphoides spp Nelumbo nucifera, Cabomba, malabarica. Further away from the water, the
Ceratophyllum, Ipomoea aquatica, Asteracantha vegetation merges into the natural forest typical of
longifolia, Aponogeton crispum and Monochoria the area.
spp. as well as submergent macrophytes such as
Faunistically, inland water bodies
are important in terms of zooplankton
and invertebrates. Diversity is especially
high among the Rotifera. There are also
several species of Cladocera, Copepoda,
Monogenea and Hirudinea, and
numerous freshwater crustaceans.
Inland wetlands are also home to over
30 species of fresh water molluscs.
Freshwater aquatic systems are among
Sri Lanka's most valuable habitats in
terms of macrofauna. The structural
diversity of vegetation and the
availability of water and open spaces
has created an ideal habitat for wildlife,
especially the larger grazing mammals
such as deer, buffalo and elephant.
Foremost among such habitats are the
flood plains in the dry zone. Of all
Painted stork at Bundala- the only Ramsar Site in Sri Lanka (H.I.E. Katugaha)
32
Figure 3.3 Sri Lanka's River System
River
Source: Adapted from NARESA (1991)
33
wildlife habitats in the country, the Mahaweli flood carry out ecological functions that contribute,
plains are believed to support the highest animal directly or indirectly, to the well being and
biomass, especially of large mammals. Wetlands development of communities. For instance, they
contain numerous species of reptiles, including two serve to prevent or mitigate floods following heavy
species of crocodiles, hard and soft shelled rain. Coastal wetlands such as mangroves stabilize
terrapins, the water monitor, and water snakes. the shoreline and prevent coastal erosion, and
The wetlands support almost all of the indigenous provide important sites for aquaculture. Due to their
amphibian species. They also provide habitats for key role in the cycling of nutrients, wetlands support
rare endemic species. Interestingly, the small a high biomass and provide local people with wood,
Waturana swamp forest in the wet zone is the only food, pasture and manure. They often serve as sinks
site in the world where the rare endemic trees for urban wastes and a medium for transportation,
Stemenoporus moonii and Mesua stylosa occur and are of high aesthetic, recreational and scientific
and is also the habitat of one of the rarest of value.
endemic fishes, Lepidocephalicthys jonklaasi.
Today, wetlands play a significant role in
Inland wetlands offer food, water and cover to a
the economy of Sri Lanka. Several of the larger
rich diversity of avifauna, including many migratory
reservoirs provide hydropower that constitutes a
species. Wetland fauna also includes a number of
large component of the national electricity supply.
endemic reptiles, many of which are known to be
In addition, the inland fishery in tanks and reservoirs
threatened - both nationally and internationally.
account for about 15 per cent of Sri Lanka's total
The species composition and biodiversity of fish production and provides food and income for
a wetland depends on the climatic zone in which it the rural population. The importance and
is located and on whether it is at the coast or productivity of the inland fishery increased with
inland. The rivers and streams that originate in the the introduction of fingerlings of many exotic
rain forests of the wet zone constitute the main species, such as tilapia and gourami. However, the
habitats for indigenous freshwater fish, including importance of the inland fishery declined in 1990
almost all the endemic species. The wet patanas in due to the withdrawal of state support at that time,
the montane region (typically at Horton Plains) are but this has subsequently changed.
unique in their characteristic wetland flora, In the 1960s the environmental value of
including the patana grasses, reed bamboo, ferns wetlands began to be recognized in Sri Lanka, at
and flowering herbs, as well as the stream fauna, first mainly as a habitat for waterfowl. Since then,
such as the naturalized rainbow trout. The there has been a growing interest in conserving
Anuradhapura tanks, in the dry zone, are the home wetlands and halting their destruction. A significant
of some species of fish (e.g. Puntius ticto and step was taken in 1971 when Sri Lanka ratified the
Labeo porcellus) that are limited to the dry zone. Ramsar Convention through which the conservation
Coastal wetlands such as Bundala, the only Ramsar of global wetlands is secured and governments are
site in Sri Lanka, host a large number of migrant committed to conserve and manage their important
bird species that winter in this country from August wetland sites.
to April annually. Freshwater marshes, such as the
Bellanwila-Attidiya sanctuary, provide a habitat In the late 1980s, the Sri Lanka Land
for over 150 species of birds. Due to its urban Reclamation and Development Corporation carried
location and ease of access, this site is of great out a feasibility study on the areas needed to be set
value for conservation education, scientific research apart for flood control in and around Colombo. An
and recreation. The Kalametiya sanctuary is of initiative to develop the Muthurajawela marsh
special importance because of its avifauna, which through a marine and sand fill operation also
number over 150 species including water birds such resulted in a comprehensive study of this marsh
as pelicans, cormorants, herons, storks, egrets, and its environs, leading to the preparation of an
ibises, migrant ducks and some rare species such environmental profile and master plan for this area.
as the Black Capped Kingfisher and the Indian However, significant measures for the conservation-
Reef Heron. management of wetlands were taken only after the
commencement of the Wetland Conservation Project
Many components of wetland biodiversity by the CEA in 1991. This project spanned a period
are currently or potentially of economic value. They
34
Departments of Forestry, Agriculture, Irrigation,

and Fisheries; the Land Reclamation and
Development Board; and local government bodies
are involved to varying degrees with the use or
conservation of wetlands outside the protected area
network. The Central Environmental Authority
deals with the setting of environmental standards
and controls for these areas. The Provincial
Councils and the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources deal with the fisheries aspects of inland
wetlands.
Currently, a National Wetlands Policy is
being formulated based on the recommendations
of the Strategy for Wetland Conservation in Sri
Lanka prepared (in 1994) through the Wetland
Conservation Project of the Central Environmental
Authority. A draft policy has been prepared within
the framework of the conservation and sustainable
use of wetland resources. Recognizing the
multifaceted and inter-sectoral issues that affect
wetland biodiversity, the proposed interventions
cover irrigation and drainage, aquaculture, fisheries,
clearing of mangrove vegetation, landfills, sand
mining, sea shell mining, coral mining, salt
production, siltation, livestock grazing, use of minor
The highly produtive mangrove ecosystem plays a vital products, and pollution.
role in the ecology and economy of coastal and marine
systems (S. Balasubramaniam)
of over six years and was instrumental in 3.3 Coastal and Marine Systems
prioritizing wetlands for conservation-management,
and preparing site reports for 23 wetlands and In ancient times, Sri Lanka was at the hub
management plans for ten of these areas. Three of several important trade routes from different
other site reports are in preparation. The plans parts of the world. Some of the most developed
envisage a sustained yield of multiple benefits with cities in the kingdoms of Maya rata and Ruhunu
a minimum of resource use conflicts and within a rata - two ancient sub-divisions of the island -
framework of preserving the ecological, cultural were also located along the coastal belt. Since the
and social values of the wetlands.
Most wetlands occur on state lands, but some
are either wholly or partly under private ownership
(e.g. Walauwawatte-Waturana swamp forest;
Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary). Some of the most
important wetlands occur within protected areas
managed by the Department of Wildlife
Conservation. These include wetlands in the
Mahaweli flood plains, Maduru Oya, Yala East,
Ruhuna, Bundala, Horton Plains and Wilpattu, and
in the Kalametiya Sanctuary and the Bellanwila-
Attidiya Sanctuary. The Muthurajawela marsh is The beauty of fire coral: Dendronephthya sp.
also under the Department of Wildlife Conservation. (Arjan Rajasuriya - NARA)
The Urban Development Authority; the
35
sixteenth century, due to colonial rule, the coastal shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.
areas in the west and southwest coasts were subject Other coastal habitats comprise an extensive system
to extensive changes in terms of biodiversity, human of estuaries and lagoons (158,017 ha) (Figure 3.4),
population density, as well as cultural and socio- mangroves (12,500 ha), salt marshes (23,819 ha),
economic features. sand dunes (7606 ha), beaches (11,788 ha), coastal
Sri Lanka's coastal zone is defined by statute marshy wetlands (9,754 ha), and other water bodies
as a two km wide band of ocean, and an adjoining (18,839 ha).
strip of land extending 300 m inland; except that Marine fishery is the foremost economic
where a water body connected to the sea occurs, activity in the coastal zone and provides full or
the zone extends two kilometres inwards from the part employment for about 100,000 people. Coastal
mouth of the water body. The area defined for and marine fisheries contribute 85 per cent of all
management purposes as the coastal region fish production in the island, and provides about
comprises all of the 67 administrative divisions 65 per cent of animal protein and 13 per cent of
with a coastal boundary. This area extends about the total protein consumed nationally. Agriculture
50 km inland from the coast and covers 24 per within the coastal zone is of secondary importance,
cent of the land area. It contains 32 per cent of the but the much larger coastal region contains about
total population (including 65 per cent of the total 21 percent of all paddy lands in the country and
urban population), about 90 per cent of the the large bulk of the coconut land.
industrial units and over 80 per cent of the tourist
Coral reefs are rich in biodiversity and are
infrastructure, but these are concentrated only in
important as habitats for flora and fauna, for
certain parts of the region. Much of the coastal
containing coastal erosion, and for sustaining the
region is sparsely populated, and many sections
coastal fishery. Sri Lanka has well developed reefs,
are at present not freely accessible due to conditions
but the majority are of sandstone and rock, and
of civil unrest.
boulder reefs are common along the southern and
The continental shelf around the island is 20 eastern coasts. In contrast, the extent of true coral
reefs is limited: only about two per cent of the
coastline has fringing coral reefs (mostly along
the southwestern, southern and eastern coasts) but
off-shore patch reefs are more extensive. There
are also some well-developed off-shore coral reefs,
especially in the Gulf of Mannar and west of the
Kalpitiya Peninsula. Coral reefs around the Jaffna
Peninsula are less well developed, and generally
occur around the coastal islands. A total of 68
indigenous coral genera and 183 species have been
recorded to date. The common coral genera are
Acropora, Echinopora, Montipora, Porites, Favia,
Favites, Pocillopora, Goniastrea, Platygyra and
Leptoria. Invertebrates that occur among reefs
consist mainly of molluscs, sea anemones and sea
The globally threatened hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys cucumbers. Marine algae, including Halimeda spp.,
imbricata) nests in Sri Lanka (Anuok Illangakoon)
are found on sandy patches and coral rubble
km in most parts. The Exclusive Economic Zone between live coral. Coral reefs may also support
(EEZ) extends 200 nautical miles from the shore around 350 species of reef fishes, such as groupers,
and is almost four times the country's land area. snappers, sweetlips, emperor fish, parrot fish,
Coastal waters extend from the shore to the edge rabbit fish, surgeon fish, butterfly fish, and damsel
of the continental shelf, while the offshore waters fish. Several species are harvested in the ornamental
of the country extend from the continental shelf to fishery, and some, such as Chaetodon bennetti,
the outer limits of the EEZ. The coastline which is Chaetodon unimaculatus and Balistoides
about 1585 km in length supports highly productive conspicellum, have small populations though
marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and widely distributed.
36
Figure 3.4 Distribution of Basin Estuaries and Lagoons
Thondaimannar Lagoon
Jaffna
Lagoon
Nanthi Kadal
Nayaru Lagoon
Kokkilai Lagoon
Kuchchaveli
Periyakarachchi
Sinnakarachchi
Uppuveli
Thambalagam Koddiyar Bay
Bay
Ilakkantai
Uppur Lagoon
Puttalam Lagoon
Vendeloos Bay
Mundal Lake
Batticaloa Lagoon
Chilaw Lagoon
Periya Lagoon
Negombo
Thandiodi Lagoon
Lagoon
Komari Lagoon
Arugam Bay
Lunawa Lagoon Okandawara Bay
Bolgoda Lake
Kalutara
Lagoon
Dedduwa Palatupana Saltern
Lake Bundala Saltern
Embitikala Saltern
(Bentota)
Madampe Lake Malala Saltern
Ratgama Lake Koholankola Saltern
Maha Saltern
Koggala Lake Karagan Saltern
Weligama Bay Lunama Lagoon
Dondra Lagoon Kalametiya Lagoon
Kahanda Lagoon
Mawella Lagoon
Rekawa Lagoon
Source: CCD (1996)
37
Offshore fish species include large predatory
fish such as the black-tip reef shark and the white-
tip reef shark, and food fish such as tuna, seer
and skipjack. These waters also contain about 37
species of cetaceans, including 20 species of
dolphins and the sperm - and blue-whales. The
dugong is also present in Sri Lankan waters, but
is considered rare, and sightings have been made
mainly off the Kalpitiya coast.
The shoreline and near-shore areas contain
a variety of marine habitats, including seagrass
beds. Among the invertebrate fauna are 201
species of crabs. There are five species of turtles
that come ashore for nesting on Sri Lankan
beaches. The fauna of the lagoons and estuaries
are economically important. They include about Ornamental fish associated with the productive and complex coral
reef ecosystems (Arjan Rajasuriya - NARA)
five annelids, 28 molluscs and 25 arthropods, none
of which is endemic. Sri Lanka has also been
known over the years for its pearls from the pearl of other state departments in the fisheries, shipping
oyster beds located in the northwestern coast of the and tourism sectors, the Department of Wildlife
island, but these are now much reduced due to Conservation, the Forest Department, the Urban
over-harvesting and siltation. The mangrove areas Development Authority, the Irrigation Department
are discontinuous, but are important breeding and the Central Environmental Authority.
grounds for marine organisms. The flora found here
The prime national institution for research
comprise both true mangroves and mangrove
in the coastal and marine sector is the National
associates, and some are limited in distribution to
Aquatic Resources Research and Development
specific parts of the coastline. Sri Lankan beaches
Agency (NARA). Reef research in Sri Lanka is
vary in size and type. Many are wide and sandy
being carried out mainly by NARA. This institution
and have high potential for tourism. They also
has also initiated research on the ex situ
support a distinct littoral sandy shore fauna
and flora.
First efforts at systematic coastal
resource management in Sri Lanka
commenced in the early 1980s with the setting
up of the Coast Conservation Department
(CCD). The Coast Conservation Act of 1981
identified the CCD as the prime agency for
coastal issues and gave it the mandate to
survey and inventory the coastal resources,
issue permits for developmental activities in
the coastal zone, and prepare management
plans. The department is responsible for the
conservation of natural coastal habitats and
areas of cultural and recreational value and
has been successful in attracting funding for
its work. Programmes carried out so far Paddy fields are an integral component of the Sri Lankan landscape
(Channa Bambaradeniya)
include mitigating coastal erosion, policy
development and coastal resources management. conservation of a few species of the fauna and
The CCD is expected to coordinate all sectoral flora which are becoming rare in their natural
activities in the coastal zone, including the activities habitats. These include the sea cucumber
38
Holothuria spinifera, two species of brackish water areas. These are: the Marine Pollution Prevention
ornamental fish Scatophagus argus and Act (1981) that provides for prevention, reduction
Monodactylus argentius, and two species of and control of pollution in Sri Lankan waters and
mangrove plants Heritiera littoralis and has provision for penal action for any form of
Xylocarpus granatum. marine pollution or damage to live marine resources
and wildlife; the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
A landmark event in coast conservation Act (revised in 1996) that provides for the integrated
planning was the preparation of the first national management, regulation, conservation and
Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) in 1990. development of fisheries and aquatic resources in
It dealt mainly with the problem of coastal erosion Sri Lanka, and the declaration of fisheries reserves;
and the degradation and loss of critical habitats the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (revised
and sites of historic, cultural, scenic or recreational in 1993) that provides protection to specified
value within the coastal zone. Subsequently, threatened species of corals, fish and turtles and
"Coastal 2000: Recommendations for a Resource all marine mammals in Sri Lankan waters; the
Management Strategy for Sri Lanka's Coastal National Environmental Act (amended in 1988) that
Region", was produced in 1992 and endorsed by forbids pollution of marine waters; the Crown Lands
the Cabinet of Ministers in 1994. This document Ordinance of 1929 that bans the removal of corals;
addresses coastal zone management more and the Forest Ordinance which can be used for
holistically than in the 1990 plan, and takes into taking action against those responsible for the illicit
account social and economic factors in identifying cutting of mangroves or encroaching on such land.
measures to conserve unique natural coastal Notwithstanding the multiplicity of statutes that
resources with the long term goal of sustainable are expected to act as deterrents, degradation of
use. A deficiency in the plan of 1990 was its failure coastal and marine habitats continues to take place
to recognize the importance of giving a due to deficiencies in the laws and law enforcement
participatory role to local stakeholders in the and the failure to recognize the social dimensions
management of coastal resources. This shortcoming of the problem when attempting to take remedial
is rectified in the strategy of 1996 which promotes action.
the formulation and implementation of Special Area
Management (SAM) Plans for selected coastal sites. Several marine areas have been identified as
At present SAM Plans have been prepared for deserving protection, but currently there are only
Hikkaduwa and Rekawa, and implementation of two areas that have been declared as marine
sanctuaries. The Bar Reef, located west of the
Kalpitiya peninsula in the vicinity of Puttalam
TABLE 3.2: EXTENT OF LAND UNDER lagoon, was declared a marine sanctuary in 1992.
DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL USES IN SRI The total area of the sanctuary is 306.7 km2. The
LANKA (1995) core zone, with an area of 70km2, supports true
coral reefs. Around 300 species of reef associated
fish have been recorded in the Bar Reef, and some
Land Use Area (e.g. Chaetodon semeion) are restricted to this
Paddy 780,000ha site. The Hikkaduwa marine sanctuary is located
in the southern province of Sri Lanka. It is 45 ha
Vegetables
in extent, with about 25 ha of corals within and
(including root and abutting the sanctuary. This area is endowed with
tuber crops 110,000ha a near-shore coral reef with about 60 coral species
Fruits 97,000ha and 168 reef fish species. The sanctuary is also the
Other field crops 128,00ha centre of lucrative tourist based activities.
Plantation crops 772,000ha
3.4 Agricultural Systems
some of the proposed activities has commenced.
Sri Lanka has been an agrarian-based society
There are several statutes, in addition to the for more than 2500 years. At present agriculture
Coast Conservation Act, that can influence the contributes 20 per cent to the country's GNP, second
conservation of biodiversity in coastal and marine only to the manufacturing sector. Currently, an
39
estimated 1.8 million families are engaged in being recognized as such, and even these are now
farming, and nearly 75 per cent of the country's known to be dwindling due to land fragmentation
labour force is dependent upon the agricultural caused by the rapidly changing socio-economic
sector (including plantations) for its income and conditions in these areas.
sustenance. The Sri Lankan agricultural scene is
Sri Lanka's farming systems which have
dominated by small-holders, and over 64 per cent
evolved over thousands of years include a rich
of farming families in the country cultivate small
array of cultivated plants including grains,
holdings of less than 0.8 ha.
vegetables, fruits and spices, and livestock. Adding
The agricultural landscape of the country to this, numerous new local cultivars have been
consists mainly of rice paddies, covering 780,000 developed in the plantation sector during this
ha of cultivated land, and the plantation sector century.
amounting to about 772,000 ha. The plantation
crops are tea, rubber, coconut and sugarcane, and, In terms of crop biodiversity, the long history
on a smaller scale, coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, pepper, of rice cultivation and the wide range of eco-edaphic
clove and other spices. conditions present in the country have resulted in
Sri Lanka having a wide varietal diversity of Oryza
Paddy cultivation receives the highest sativa. Indigenous rice varieties show adaptability
attention in the agricultural sector. Rice constitutes to various adverse climatic conditions. For instance,
the staple food of the population and is the traditional upland varieties are well known for their
backbone of Sri Lanka's agriculture and its ancient drought tolerance; varieties grown in the coastal
culture. Other crops in this sector include over areas and floodplains of rivers possess tolerance
100 species used as items of food. Many of these, of submergence and flash floods; the few rice
such as onion, potato and vegetables, remain a
varieties cultivated at higher elevations (over 1000
small farmer activity, and most fruit species are
m) can grow at low temperatures; and several
grown in home gardens. A few crops, such as
varieties show broad-based resistance to serious
chilli and cashew, are grown on a semi-commercial
pests and to high salinity and other adverse soil
scale. A good many field crops also continue to be
conditions.
harvested from chena plots in the dry zone. This
method of agriculture, involving the "slash and Sri Lanka also has considerable biodiversity
burn" of forest vegetation, has caused widespread in terms of other cereals such as millet, sorghum
forest destruction in the dry zone where it is and maize. Finger millet is the staple food of the
practised, and adversely affected biodiversity. dry zone chena cultivator, and is grown in almost
all the chena holdings. Maize is also widely
Table 3.2 gives the areas of land under
cultivated in the dry zone for human consumption
agriculture in Sri Lanka.
and animal feed. In contrast, the cultivation of
Over the years there has been an expansion sorghum is very limited in extent and is restricted
of agriculture resulting in an increase in the to the drier parts of the country. Unlike rice, most
cultivated land area from around 1.35 million other cereals have undergone little selection by
hectares in 1956 to around 2.02 million hectares farmers.
in 1995. Home gardens also make a substantial Grain legumes, such as cow pea, green gram,
contribution to agricultural production, and it is black gram, winged bean, and soya bean constitute
estimated that there are now a total of around 1.33 an important source of protein for most Sri
million home gardens in Sri Lanka, accounting for Lankans, particularly in rural areas, and are
about 367,800 ha of cultivated land. Home gardens increasingly used for crop diversification. Winged
constitute a traditional system of perennial cropping bean, in particular, shows much genetic variability
for a wide range of valuable crops and are as is evident in the seed colour, pod size and flower
considered important sites for in-situ conservation colour.
of crop germplasm. Today, however, only those Sri Lanka has been world-renowned for its
categorized as Forest Gardens or the typical spices for centuries. There are at least eight
Kandyan home gardens in the districts of Kandy, indigenous species of Cinnamomum, of which the
Matale, Kegalle and Kurunegala are worthy of wild species are restricted to the natural forests of
40
the wet zone. Cultivation of cinnamon for show considerable genetic variation. Sweet potato,
commercial purposes has also been widespread in although introduced to this country, is naturalized
the south-western coastal areas since the mid and has high genetic variability.
fifteenth century. Another important local spice crop
With regard to the ex situ conservation of
is Elettaria cardamomum. Cardamom cultivation
agricultural germplasm, this activity was placed
and the cultural practices associated with it in the
on a sound scientific footing by the setting up of
Knuckles forest, where conditions are ideal for the
the Plant Genetic Resources Centre for the cryo
growth of this species, has had very adverse effects
preservation of plant germplasm. (See Table 3.3).
on forest biodiversity and the regeneration of canopy
Other institutions carrying out ex situ conservation
species. The spice plant Piper nigrum (pepper)
of food crops, but only as field gene banks, are
and the betel leaf plant Piper betle are both widely
the Horticultural Crops Research and Development
cultivated in the lowland wet and intermediate zones
Institute (for fruit and vegetable species, root and
of Sri Lanka. The latter is sometimes grown in
tuber crops), the Rice Research and Development
forest deniya lands, causing the destruction of
Institute (for rice genes), and the Field Crop
wetlands in the forest. Syzygium aromaticum
Research and Development Institute (coarse grains,
(clove) is cultivated in home gardens of the Kandyan
grain legumes and condiments). These institutes
and Matale districts, and Areca catechu (arecanut
are under the Department of Agriculture. The
or betelnut) is a common home garden species in
Department of Export Agriculture maintains germ
the wet zone. A wild relative of arecanut, A.
plasm of coffee, cocoa, cardamom and clove. There
concinna, is considered endangered in the wild.
is an inadequacy of field gene banks for traditional
Among other spice crops found in Sri Lanka are
species of fruits (e.g. madan, atamba, divul,
three species of nutmeg (Myristica), two species of
himbutu), grain legumes, and medicinal plants.
chilli, (Capsicum annum and C. frutescens) and
one species each of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and The economy of Sri Lanka has been long
turmeric (Curcuma longa). dominated by plantation crops, mainly tea, rubber
and coconut. Tea germplasm, originally introduced
Among the horticultural crops grown in Sri
from Assam in 1839, has undergone selection
Lanka, there are several cultivars of banana (Musa
through breeding programmes, and the selected
spp.) cultivated in the different agro-ecological
genotypes are being conserved in numerous
regions of the country. Interestingly, M. acuminata
breeding stations and tea estates in the country.
and M. balbisiana, the parent species of the
Selection and vegetative propagation have resulted
cultivated banana are both present in Sri Lanka.
in a series of high-yielding tea clones that are
There is also considerable genetic variation among
resistant to pests, diseases and drought, and have
a wide range of fruit crops, such as citrus, mango,
high rates of fermentation. The rubber plantations
avacado and jak, that are grown mainly in home
in Sri Lanka were initially derived from a highly
gardens. Other fruit crops such as durian,
inbred selection of lines derived from South
pomegranate, rambutan, guava and papaw have
American seedlings introduced to the country in
also been in cultivation for a long time and exhibit
1876. Clonal propagation of these lines for selected
a wide range of genetic diversity. Fruit crops such
characters narrowed down this genetic base until,
as wood apple and velvet tamarind are a source of
in the early 1980s, 6000 new accessions were
income for the dry zone farmers, and are harvested
introduced from Malaysia from a special collection
from forests for sale. Of concern is the fact that
of wild Hevea germplasm brought in by the
harvesting of the latter species from forests is
International Rubber Research and Development
destructive as it involves chopping down of large
Board from Brazil. With regard to coconut, a
fruit bearing branches to facilitate collection.
number of new varieties and hybrids have been
Sri Lanka has a large number of vegetables, developed in Sri Lanka, and much of this work
including both temperate and tropical species, has been carried out by the Coconut Research
cultivated throughout the country. Among these, Institute. The three crop plantation research
cucurbits, tomato and eggplant exhibit high genetic institutes and the Sugar Research Institute conserve
diversity. There is also a fair number of root and their respective germplasms as live genebanks at
tuber crops, of which cassava, dioscorea and innala their field stations.
41
TABLE 3.3 GERMPLASM COLLECTION STATUS BY CROP GROUP AT THE PGRC
Crop Group Number of Percentage

Species Accessions Collection
Rice 2 3809 34.0

Other cereals 9 785 7.0
Grain legumes 14 1907 17.0
Vegetables 52 2927 26.1
Spices & condiments 9 500 4.5
Fruits 16 363 3.2
Root & tubers 7 309 2.8
Oil seeds 3 180 1.6
Medicinal plants 12 21 0.2
Wild relatives of crop species 26 308 2.7
Other - 96 0.9
Total 150 11205 100
Sri Lanka also has about 170 species of 95 per cent of the buffaloes in the country are the
plants of ornamental value, of which about 74 indigenous "Lanka Buffalo", while the rest are of
species are endemic. Notably, the natural habitats foreign origin and belong to the river type. The
for several Dendrobium and Vanda species and exotic breeds are the Murah and Surti from India
many foliage plants of commercial value are the
and the Nili-Ravi breed from Pakistan. Little is
wet zone forests of the country.
known about the indigenous varieties of goats, sheep
In the livestock industry, the animals and pigs, and there have been only little efforts to
commonly reared comprise neat cattle (1,644,000), identify and conserve genepools of these breeds.
buffalo (760,900), goats (535,200), sheep (11,400),
pigs (84,800) and poultry (9,136,600). The The local backyard breed of scavenging
indigenous cattle have a very low genetic potential poultry that are resistant to tropical diseases and
for milk production, but are resistant to diseases were commonly found in many village households
and have the ability to feed on coarse grasses. prior to 1960s are fast disappearing due to the
Several foreign breeds of cattle have been introduced strong preference for imported germplasm.
to the country over the last four decades in an Efforts have been made by the Department
effort to boost milk production.
of Animal Production and Health and the
With regard to the local breed of buffalo, Veterinary Research Institute (VRI) to conserve
there is as yet some uncertainty about its origins. the indigenous animal species of economic value,
Although it has been stated that it is not indigenous but they are constrained by insufficiency of funds
and the wild form is feral, recent evidence from and infrastructure. The private sector plays an
fossil discoveries indicates the existence at some important role in the maintenance of germplasm of
time in the past of an indigenous species of buffalo livestock, particularly of poultry, and it regularly
identified as a swamp type. It is believed that over imports exotic germplasm.
42
Bio-regions
Sri Lanka’s landscape presents a rich mosaic of climatic and geo-physical classifications, the faunal
forests, wetlands, agricultural land, and coastal and and floral distribution patterns, and the biodiversity
marine systems whose character and distribution richness of different parts of the country led to the
are conditioned by the wide range of climate, identification of the terrestrial
topography, and soil types found in the island. The bio-regions. The coastal and marine biodiversity
climatic and geomorphological variations in the regions were defined within a belt extending 300
country have resulted in a clear demarcation into m inland from the level of high tide through to
broad climatic, floristic and faunal zones, and this 22.2 km (12 nautical miles) into the ocean. The
information was used for identifying bioregions. bio-regions within this area were demarcated
The biodiversity rich ecosystems in the island, such according to the presence of characteristic
as the lowland rainforest and the coral reefs, are biological resources (e.g. coral reefs) and their uses,
confined spatially to specific geographic areas. the presence of special habitats, and threats to
These areas often present special problems for biodiversity due to human activity. A total of 15
biodiversity conservation. One example is the bio-regions was recognized (Table 4.1, Figure
biodiversity rich wet zone forests that are under 4.1).
threat due to the high population density in the
surrounding areas and the acute shortage of land. In order to assess the relative importance
Another example is the threat to the coastal and of these bio-regions for biodiversity conservation,
marine habitats in the west and southwest caused different parameters were used based on the
by overharvesting of marine resources. These available data. In respect of each parameter, priority
problems have to be addressed through location- ratings were assigned to each bio-region. For the
specific conservation action. terrestrial bio-regions, the criteria used are given
below.
In recent times there has been an increasing
commitment by the government to decentralize the • Degree of threat, based on
state administration to the provincial and district ❏ population density
levels. Devolution would mean that biodiversity
❏ development pressure, indicated by
conservation would have to become an integral part
of the regional planning and development process. ❍ percentage of urban population by
In this context, and also because much of the action district
recommended for the conservation of biodiversity ❍ number of schools per 30 km2 by
focuses on the conservation of species in situ and district
of habitats, the identification of biodiversity regions
for priority action will help the regional
administrators and planners to recognize and include • Biodiversity, based on
in their programmes the areas needing urgent action
❏ available data, including preliminary
for biodiversity conservation action. It would also
results of the National Conservation
enable national level state institutions directly
Review
concerned with biodiversity conservation to identify
areas for priority action in terms of implementing
the recommendations in the BCAP. Thus • Economic potential, based on
biodiversity regions were identified primarily to
❏ number of traders by district
facilitate the identification of spatially defined areas
for conservation action.
The identification of bio-regions for Sri • Access, based on
Lanka is a new concept, and the demarcation into ❏ road network, length per 100 km2,
bio-regions as proposed in this Plan should be by district
treated as provisional. A careful analysis of current
43
On the basis of the ranking, the regions
• Forest coverage identified for priority action for biodiversity
conservation were terrestrial regions 4,5, and 6,
and coastal and marine regions 11, 13 and 14.
• Watershed value These bio-regions are described briefly below.
Bio-region 4 (wet lowlands)
An additional criterion, security risk, was This covers the districts of Colombo,
also used since this is important in the current Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle and Matara, and parts
context. A subjective judgement was made in of the Ratnapura, Kandy and Kegalle districts. The
relation to the different districts where civil region receives about 2500 mm to 5000 mm of
administration was weak due to disturbances. It is rainfall, with no drought months. The altitude
clear that a re-evaluation would have to be made extends from sea level to about 1000 m. The mean
once normalcy is restored in these areas. High annual temperature is 27°C at sea level. The soil
ratings for threats, economic potential, access, and type in this region is basically red-yellow podzolic
species and ecosystem richness contributed soils with soft and hard laterite in the lower
positively towards priority rating, while a high forest elevations. The terrain ranges from flat to rolling
and undulating.
The tropical lowland wet evergreen forest
best represents the climax vegetation of this bio-
region. The remaining forests are concentrated
mainly in the Galle and Matara districts. They are
highly fragmented and many of them are small
blocks of a few hundred hectares each. The
southwestern section of this region is floristically
the richest in Sri Lanka, with the highest percentage
of endemic species among both the fauna and flora;
it has been rated (by Ashton and Gunatilleke) as,
floristically, the richest region in South Asia. The
climax forests of this bio-region are dominated by
Dipterocarp species, among which endemism
reaches 90 percent, and some species are very rare
and heavily localised. These forests also show
considerable micro-climatic differences within a
relatively small spatial area. At present, 93 per
cent of endemics in the rain forests of this bio-
region are either Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare
according to the IUCN Red Data Book criteria.
This is mainly due to the high human population
pressure on the limited land resources of this region
and consequent loss of forest habitats, and over-
exploitation of forest resources. The Sinharaja
An inside view of the Sinharaja forest (Vimukthi Weeratunga) World Heritage Site and the KDN forest reserve
(one of the richest in terms of biodiversity and
cover and security risk contributed negatively. endemism) are located in this bio-region.
A different set of criteria was used for Bio-region 5 (wet midlands)
priority ranking of the coastal and marine bio-
regions. The geomorphology of the coastal areas, This bio-region occurs mainly in the
and marine resources, their uses and threats, were Ratnapura district and some parts of the Kegalle
the criteria used. district. This region corresponds to the wet sub-
44
TABLE 4.1 THE BIO-REGIONS - BASIC INFORMATION
Bio- Identification of regions Key climatic and biological

region features
1 Arid zone Tropical thorn scrub with isolated trees. Altitude 0 100 m. Annual rainfall
less than 1250 mm (mainly from Oct. Jan.). More than 5 dry months
(month with less than 50 mm rainfall).
2 Dry zone Dry mixed ever green forest. Altitude 0 500 m. Annual rainfall 1250 - 1900
mm (mainly from Oct.- Jan.). 4-5 dry months.
3 Intermediate zone Moist evergreen forest. Altitude 0 -1000 m. Annual rainfall 1900 - 2500
mm. Less than 3 dry months.
4 Lowland wet zone Tropical (lowland) wet evergreen forest. Altitude 0 - 1000 m. Annual rainfall
2500 - 5000 mm. No dry months.
5 Sub-montane wetlands Sub-montane evergreen forest. Altitude 1000 - 1500 m. Annual rainfall
2500 - 5000 mm. No dry months.
6 Wet highlands Montane evergreen forest. Altitude 1500 - 2500 m. Annual rainfall 2500 -
5000 mm. No dry months.
7 Intermediate highlands Dry patanas. Altitude 1000 - 1500 m. Annual rainfall 1900 - 2500 mm.
Less than 3 dry months.
8 Kathiraveli to Mullaitivu Coral reefs and rocky habitats (comparable to bio-region 9), mangrove
(mineral sands) habitats, lagoons and estuarine systems (Trincomalee), and mineral sands
(Mullaitivu area). Large marine mammals (whales) present. Important for
fisheries.
9 Panama to Kathiraveli Near-shore coral reefs (relatively extensive but less than in bio-region
(eastern lagoon systems) 14). The Great and Little Basses reefs, mangrove habitats associated with
lagoon systems, multiple lagoons and estuarine systems (Batticaloa). Important
for fisheries and has minimal human interference (Panama to Kalmunai).
10 Tangalle to Panama Rocky and sandstone habitats, shield lagoons and estuarine deltas (Tangalle
(wildlife habitats) to Ambalantota), extensive sand dunes (Ambalantota to Dorawa Point), and
large lakes and lagoons (lewayas). Conservation areas including national
parks and turtle nesting sites. Coastal wetlands include a RAMSAR site,
and salt production in lewayas.
11 Hikkaduwa to Tangalle Rocky and near shore coral reefs and pockets of mangrove habitats
(near-shore coral beds) (Koggala, Polwattu modhara in Weligama). Important for fisheries and
tourism. Coral beds over-exploited for the lime industry, coastal erosion.
12 Chilaw to Hikkaduwa Coastal marshes and lagoon systems. (Chilaw to Peliyagoda), pocketed
mangrove habitats (Chilaw, Bolgoda, Panadura, Kalutara, Bentota), and
sandstone rocky habitats and sandstone reefs (Galle Face to Mt. Lavinia).
Beach seine fishery, tourism associated with sandy beaches, and high human
population density.
13 Kandakuliya to Chilaw Coral reefs, sandstone reef habitats, swamp marshes, lagoons and associated
(western marshes) mangrove ecosystems (Puttalam), important for fisheries and prawn farming.
14 Mannar to Kandakuliya Extensive coral reefs, sandstone reef habitats, sand dunes, mud flats, salt
(large off-shore coral beds) marshes (Kalpitiya), and limestone rich soil. Dugong sightings.
15 Mullativu to Mannar Coral reefs lie off-shore (north of Jaffna Peninsula). Sandstone reef
(limestone beds) habitats, limestone rich soil, shallow-wide continental shelf, salt marshes,
lagoon systems, associated mangrove habitats (Jaffna), and sand dunes. Fish
resources unexploited for the past decade.
45
Foothills of the Adam's Peak Range (S. Balasubramaniam) The characteristic gnarled trees at Horton Plains
(S. Balasubramaniam)
ranges from about 1500 m to 2500 m, in the wet

montane area of the country. At around 1000 m zone. The rainfall regime is broadly similar to that
altitude in the wet zone, there is a clear transition in the low and mid country wet zone, but the
of the natural vegetation into hill forest or sub- temperature is appreciably lower. At high
montane evergreen forest, and this forest type is elevations, on a few days in the year, the
found up to about 1500 m. The rainfall regime is temperature drops to below zero Celcius at night
broadly similar to that in the low country wet zone, and there is the occurrence of ground frost. This
but the temperature is a few degrees lower. The region contains the higher elevations of the Peak
terrain is steeply dissected, hilly and rolling in the Wilderness Sanctuary and the Horton Plains
mid elevations. The forests occur on the foothills National Park and parts of the Knuckles
of the Adam’s Peak range around Hatton, Kotagala Conservation Forest. The soils in this regions are
and Dambakelle, and on the upper slopes of red-yellow podzolic soils with mountain regosols
Sinharaja. Some forests of this region are in the higher elevations. The topography is steeply
exceptionally rich in heavily localised and rare dissected and rugged in the upper reaches of the
hills. The vegetation characteristic of this region
endemic tree flora. These submontane forests are
is montane evergreen forest. They are important in
also important catchment areas for several rivers.
containing dipterocarps at higher elevations than
Forests of this region have been impoverished due
elsewhere in the world. The forests at the highest
to selective logging. The Eratna-Gilimale Proposed elevations in this region are also characterised by
Forest Reserve and the Bambarabotuwa Forest unique pygmy forests. Wet patanas or wet montane
Reserve are located in this area. grasslands containing sub-alpine flora also occur
Bio-region 6 (wet highlands) in this region.
This bio-region covers the Nuwara Eliya The forests of this region are threatened
district and a part of the Badulla district. Its altitude by encroachments for tea planting and vegetable
46
Figure 4.1 Bioregions of Sri Lanka
47
gardening. Although village settlements are situated is not high, but is of considerable economic
somewhat away from these forests, there is a distinct importance. This region is critical because of its
threat from collection of firewood by villagers. economic significance in aquaculture development,
which has led to the extensive exploitation of coastal
Bio-region 11 (near shore coral beds)
wetland habitats for the establishment of prawn
This bio region covers a 22.2 km (12 farms.
nautical miles) wide marine area and a 300 m
Bio-region 14 (large off-shore coral reefs)
coastal belt from Hikkaduwa to Tangalle in the
districts of Galle and Matara. This region covers a This covers a 22.2 km wide marine area
belt of coral reefs which, though relatively narrow, and a 300 m coastal belt from Mannar to
is important due to its proximity to the coast and Kandekuliya in the districts of Mannar and
the richness of its fauna and flora. These reefs are Puttalam. It has some of the largest and well
of importance in the tourist industry, and because developed offshore coral reefs of this country,
of easy access they have been well studied. The including the Bar Reef marine sanctuary which
dominant species of coral found in this area belong contains intact coral reefs and sandstone habitats,
to the families Acroporidae, Faviidae, Poritidae,
and harbours dolphins and turtles. Off-shore coral
Mussidae, and Pocilloporidae. Most shallow water,
patches in this region may extend 100 m or more
near shore reefs are dominated by Acropora sp.,
Montipora sp., Porites sp., Favia sp., Favites across and are usually found beyond a distance of
sp., Echinopora lamellosa and species of two kilometres from the shore-line. Although much
Pocillopora, Platygyra and Goniastrea. A typical of the larger coral reefs in this region are spared of
near-shore reef in this area supports 40 to 50 excessive destruction, some are severely degraded
species of coral. The marine plants in the coastal due to adverse fishing methods and feeding by the
waters of this region include many species of algae Crown of Thorns starfish. This region is also
found on sandstone, coral reef or rock formations. important due to its fringing mangrove vegetation
There is large scale destruction of the coral reefs and an extensive shallow lagoon system including
for the lime industry, and several tons of live coral Portugal Bay, Dutch Bay and the coastal areas of
are collected annually from this area. This region the Wilpattu National Park. Sea turtles are caught
is also famous for the beach seine fishery and regularly in this area. It is also important due to
the characteristic wide sandy beaches which are a its abundant fish stock and habitats for diverse
popular tourist attraction. The Hikkaduwa marine fauna. The fauna include juvenile and adult fish
sanctuary is situated in this region. and many species of commercially important
Bio-region 13 (western marshes) invertebrates including the spiny lobster and crabs.
This bio-region covers a 300 m wide inland This region also contains extensive sea grass beds
strip and extends 22.2 km offshore, stretching from that are the habitat of the endangered dugong.
Kandakuliya to Chilaw, in the district of Puttalam. There is an urgent need for management of
It includes mangroves, mud flats, sand dunes and a activities connected with fishing practices by both
system of lagoons. national and foreign trawling vessels, and for
This area is important in terms of the stringent measures to conserve the valuable coral
lagoon ecosystems, in which the faunal biodiversity reefs of this region.
48
Principles, Goal and Broad Objectives

5.1 Biodiversity Management • Living resources cannot be sustainably
Principles managed exclusively by communities or
governments. The government must
recognize the interests and rights of
The success of biodiversity conservation will depend communities, while the community must
on how well the overall landscape is managed to recognize that such management is part of a
minimize loss. The needs of the people and their larger political and economic framework.
activities must be reconciled with the maintenance
of biodiversity. Protected areas must be integrated
• Recycling and conservation can directly
reduce demand for biological resources and
into natural and modified surroundings. The can reduce the pressure on natural habitats.
management of farms, forests, grasslands and
wetlands should be on the same planning framework • Biodiversity conservation can be sustained
as development activities like village settlement, if public awareness and concern are
irrigation, land restoration, etc. There are no simple substantially increased, and if policy-makers
prescriptions on how this could be done. have access to reliable information upon
which to base policy options.
The principles that are likely to provide
guidance in biodiversity conservation management • Revising public policies that result in the
are as follows. wasteful use of biodiversity or in irreversible
loss of biodiversity should facilitate
• Every form of life is unique; each plays a conservation management.
distinctive role in the web of life and warrants
respect and consideration by mankind. The many principles that set a framework
for conservation management lead inevitably to an
• Conservation of biodiversity is a common integrative approach. It involves a variety of interest
concern of all citizens, and the country has a groups, communities and state agencies on the one
stake in, and the sovereign right to use, its hand and a range of natural and modified habitats
biological resources for its own benefit. on the other. These principles have guided the
preparation of this framework plan of action for
• Biodiversity conservation is an investment
the conservation of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity.
that yields substantial benefits to its trustees;
ensuring a larger market share of benefits to
local communities will foster sustainable use. 5.2 The Goal of Biodiversity
Conservation
• Costs and benefits of biodiversity
conservation should be shared equitably; The recognition of the intrinsic value of
corrections in imbalances in the control of biological diversity, and of the ecological, genetic,
land and resources can reduce biodiversity social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural,
losses. recreational and aesthetic values of biological
systems and their components for the well being
• The best long-term economic use of and survival of all living beings, was the primary
biodiversity is that which will maintain the motive force for the development of a global
ecological and cultural values of ecosystems. strategy for the conservation and sustainable use
of biological diversity. The global community
• Recognition that both in situ conservation recognizes that:
and ex-situ preservation of biodiversity are
key tools in management of biodiversity (a) biodiversity is important for evolution and
for maintaining life sustaining systems of
conservation.
the biosphere,
• All sectors that influence biodiversity should (b) conservation of biological diversity is a
help plan its conservation. common concern of humankind,
49
(c) biological diversity is being significantly 5.3 The Broad Objectives
reduced by certain human activities, and that
it is vital to anticipate, prevent and attack In order to achieve the goal in the long
the causes of significant reduction or loss of term, the following broad objectives are set out.
biological diversity at source,
1. To build capacities and develop programmes
(d) where there is a threat of significant reduction for gaining a better understanding of the
or loss of biological diversity, lack of full different components of the country’s
scientific certainty should not be used as a indigenous biological diversity and the
reason for postponing measures to avoid or processes that govern their functioning.
minimize such a threat, and
2. To identify adverse impacts (including
(e) all countries have sovereign rights over their
potential impacts) on the different
own biological resources, and are responsible
components of biodiversity; to take action to
for conserving their biological diversity, and
mitigate such impacts and to avert potential
for using their biological resources in a
adverse impacts.
sustainable manner.
Sri Lanka has endorsed the global concern, 3. To build capacities and develop programmes
and resolved to set its goal and objectives and to to enhance the populations of species that
deploy the resources at its disposal to evolve its are in demand and are under threat due to
own strategic plan of activities for containing the excessive collection.
erosion of biological diversity and ensuring its 4. To manage bioresources so as to conserve
sustenance for the benefit of present and future biodiversity while enabling the use of the
generations. resources within sustainable limits.
The overall national goal of biodiversity 5. To enhance public awareness on biodiversity
conservation is, therefore, to conserve the and encourage public participation in its
biological diversity of Sri Lanka, while fostering conservation.
its sustainable use for the benefit of the present
and future generations. The chapter that follows will identify the
issues, set the specific objectives, and propose the
action to be taken in respect of the different activity
areas for conserving the nation’s biodiversity.
50
Biodiversity Conservation Proposals for Action

6.1 Forests reptiles, such as burrowing skinks, that live in
the leaf litter of tropical forests. Similarly,
Identifying the issues: amphibians are very sensitive to changes in
temperature and humidity in their forest
From the 1940s, the wet zone forests began environments. Of the endemic fish, about 50
to be recognized as a rich timber resource, and per cent live in the wet zone forests, and
with the continuing depletion of supplies from their distribution is affected by changes in
the dry zone, exploitation of the wet zone forests water quality caused by siltation and pollution.
gained momentum. This went on unabated until Eighty per cent of the endemic birds of Sri
1989 when a moratorium was placed on all Lanka are forest species, and they are usually
felling in the natural forests of the wet zone in unable to colonize non-forested areas
an effort to save this valuable resource for the successfully.
conservation of biodiversity and hydrology. The biodiversity in the wet zone is
Based on the ongoing assessment of biodiversity largely confined to the fragmented blocks of
and hydrology, many wet zone forests are forests which are surrounded by encroaching
being designated as "conservation forests" where human settlements and agricultural holdings of
no commercial logging will be allowed in the tea, rubber and paddy. To compound the problem,
future.
many of these forest blocks are already too small
Besides logging, another serious threat to maintain functional ecosystems or to sustain
to the biodiversity-rich wet zone forests has effectively viable populations of animals. Habitat
been encroachment by communities living in disturbance has also several other implications,
the peripheral areas. To arrest this problem as it brings in its wake restricted dispersal of
the Forest Department is moving towards species and pocketing of populations that could
adopting a participatory form of forest management lead to genetic erosion, especially among the
involving the local communities. With technical larger vertebrate fauna. Among the flora, the
support from the IUCN, the Department has dipterocarps that comprise the dominant
prepared management plans for several of the vegetation of wet zone forests are poor
conservation forests. The plans provide for dispersers, and their regeneration is threatened
activities in the buffer zones of the forests when there is excessive disturbance of crown
designed to benefit the communities living in these cover. A study by Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke
areas. (1991) revealed that, of 184 woody endemics
The consequences of deforestation in recorded in five rainforests, 93 per cent were
the wet zone are many, of which the depletion judged to be Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare
of the timber resource is just one. More according to the then prevailing IUCN criteria.
important is the loss of species and genetic Wet zone forests also play a crucial role in
diversity. Wet zone forests harbour most of the watershed protection, and deforestation could
endemic reptiles and amphibians, and the natural lead to serious problems in watershed
patchiness of distribution of these species is management and river flow.
aggravated as a result of habitat fragmentation.
Most endemic amphibians and reptiles are In the dry zone, the forest areas being
typically forest species and are unable to larger and the level of biodiversity and
establish viable populations in disturbed endemism substantially lower than in the wet
ecosystems. For example, the ground-dwelling zone, the adverse impacts of forest loss on
agamid lizards Otocryptis wiegmanni and biodiversity are not as severe, except for the
Ceratophora aspera are confined to shady areas effects on large mammals like the leopard,
within undisturbed forest patches, and changes elephant and primate species. For these species
in soil quality due to deforestation affect fossorial the loss of forests due to expansion of
51
settlements, irrigated agriculture and chena have
caused a reduction of contiguous geographic
ranges. Whether in the dry zone or wet, it
must be noted that when dealing with the
conservation of some faunal species, large
mammals for example, it is necessary to take
into account their particular characteristics in
relation to social organization and range
requirements.
Besides deforestation, excessive
exploitation for timber has had severe adverse
effects, so that even the forests that remain
are heavily depleted in terms of biodiversity.
The dry zone forests have been logged for
many decades, and mature trees of prized
timber species like satin wood (Chloroxylon
swietenia), halmilla (Berrya cordifolia) and ebony
(Diospyros ebenum) are now very rare. Natural
regeneration of these species is observed but
their establishment is poor. Some species like
wewarana (Alseodaphne semecarpifolia) and
panakka (Pleurostylia opposita) are so scarce
that they could be considered as threatened. In
the wet zone, there is now a moratorium on
felling, but exploitation had been severe prior
to 1989. Although there is no firm evidence
of species loss, the fauna and flora of these
Human encroachments into the Sinharaja Forest - tea
forests have become markedly depauperate in and rubber plantations (S. Balasubramaniam)
terms of size and distribution of species
populations. For example, nine of 23 species
animals recorded to be included. For both the
of timber value have become very rare in the
endemic woody plants and animals to be
past 40 years. One of these is the highly
included a total of 71 of the 204 forests are
prized calamander (Diospyros quaesita). There is required. Based on these data, it is to be
a clear need for a strong research programme expected that the Forest Department would
on the silvics of selected forestry species. declare more of the wet zone forests as
The National Conservation Review conservation forests.
covered 204 forests, and a total of 1153 Among the major activities that continue
species of woody plants and 410 species of to threaten biodiversity in forests is the use of
animals (vertebrates, molluscs and butterflies) forest land for agriculture, particularly shifting
were recorded. In the case of the woody cultivation or chena. Although it is carried out
plants, it was found that 108 forests are illegally, chena cultivation continues to supply
required to conserve all 1153 species. To a significant quantity of traditional vegetables,
conserve all 410 species of animals, 72 cereals and pulses to the urban markets.
forests are required, and all but 25 of these While traditional chena cultivation is now limited
are included among the 108 required for the almost entirely to the dry zone, forest
woody plants. Hence a total of 133 forests encroachment is continuing in the wet zone for
are required to conserve all the species of expansion of plantation crops such as tea,
plants and animals recorded during the survey. rubber and cinnamon, and this has become a
If the endemic species only are considered, 49 very lucrative occupation for small holders
forests are necessary for all of the 455 living adjacent to forests, particularly when
species of plants recorded to be included, and the market prices rise for these commodities.
35 forests for all of the 138 species of On an average, the size of a forest
52
Box 6.1
CONSERVATION OF MAMMALS - ACTION SHOULD TARGET THREATENED
SPECIES
Sri Lanka has one of the highest levels of biodiversity among mammals in terms of unit area in
the Asian region. Many of these species are considered threatened. Up to now, the conservation
action for mammalian fauna has been largely empirical - by protecting what is considered to be
sufficiently large areas of natural habitat, it is expected that the species would be conserved. This
approach to conservation is far from adequate, particularly when there is a growing pressure to
convert natural forests to other uses. This applies specially to mammalian macro fauna such as the
elephant, the ungulates, carnivores and primates. For these species, it is vital that population
status, behaviour, range patterns and habitat requirements are known in order to formulate
meaningful conservation action.
Trachypithecus vetulus, or the purple-faced monkey, is an endemic primate which is considered

threatened and is among the species that are given legal protection under the Fauna and Flora
Protection Ordinance. Among the Sri Lankan macro-fauna, this species is unusual in showing clear
morphological differences in different parts of its geographic range. Naturalists, in the early part
of this century, stated that it is almost impossible to give a short characterization of the purple-
faced monkey, due to the wide range of genetic variation between the sub-species that inhabit
different climatic zones of the country. In fact, an inhabitant of India, previously believed to be
a sub-species, has now been recognized as a distinct species and is known as Trachypithecus
johnii. Sub-specific variations occur mostly in body size, coat colour and length of fur. There are
also variations in food habit - some populations are highly folivorous, while others depend heavily
on fruits. It is suspected that social behaviour, which influences population status in this species,
may also differ in different environments.
While Trachypithecus vetulus is listed as highly vulnerable in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Globally
Threatened Animals, little has been done to investigate or address most of its conservation
requirements. The 1987-1991 Primate Action Plan for Asia states that to prevent this species from
entering the endangered category by 2000 AD, specific conservation action is needed. It is
necessary to determine its abundance, habitat requirements, and the adequacy of the protected area
system in the country vis a vis the status of the different sub-species. Populations of the species
are fragmented, and this is so to a marked degree in the wet zone which is home to three of
the five recognized sub-species. It is therefore vital that populations are monitored in the long
term with census work, especially where natural habitats are being converted to other land uses.
These problems and conservation requirements are common to most other large mammals in the
country. When addressing issues on in situ conservation of large mammals in particular, it is
necessary to determine their distribution and habitat requirements in relation to the size and
distribution of the protected areas and to extend conservation measures to areas outside the
protected area network wherever necessary. In the case of some species such as the elephant, it
may be necessary to prepare management plans for their conservation. It is also vital that, where
there are particular threats to the survival of these species, including conflicts with human needs,
these should be identified and addressed. In view of the individual conservation needs of some of
the large mammalian fauna, it is necessary that species-specific conservation measures are built
into the protected area management plans. It is also necessary that conservation initiatives are
backed up with education and awareness programmes, specially targeting the local communities.
Source: Dela (1997)
53
Box 6.2
SINHARAJA - A HAVEN OF BIODIVERSITY AND ENDEMISM
The Sinharaja forest is an International Biosphere Reserve (one of two in Sri Lanka); it has been
declared a National Heritage Wilderness Area (the only one so far); and it is Sri Lanka’s only
Natural World Heritage Site. What is so special about Sinharaja?
The Sinharaja rainforest covers an area of 11,000ha, and most of it is in its primeval condition,
representing a biome that dates back in its evolutionary history to the Deccan Plate, a section
of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland. It contains lowland, mid-elevational and montane rain
forest, and the lowland element is the only primeval (unlogged) ecosystem of its kind in the
country. Endemism among the flora of Sinharaja is particularly high; 86% of the individual trees
were found to belong to endemic species. Of the herbs and treelets, a survey revealed that there
were 259 species, and 156 of these were endemic. Of the 217 endemic tree species and woody
lianes in the island, 125 have been recorded at Sinharaja. Not surprisingly, most of the canopy
dominants are endemics. The dipterocarps are mainly represented by species of Shorea and
Stemonoporus. Among the endemic genera are Schumacharia and Hortonia two ancient gondwanic
relicts.
Biodiversity and endemism among the fauna match that of the flora. The number of endemics of
the different taxa in Sinharaja, and the percentage compared to the number of endemics in the
whole island (given in parenthesis) are: Fishes - 7 (41%); amphibians - 8 (42%); snakes - 14 (36%);
tetrapod reptiles - 8 (21%); birds -19 (95%); mammals - 7 (58%). The endemic mammals at
Sinharaja are the musk shrew, long-tailed shrew, purple-faced leaf monkey, toque monkey, spiny
rat, bicoloured rat, and the golden palmed civet. Among the invertebrate fauna, the endemicity of
butterflies is remarkable - of Sri Lanka’s 41 endemic species and subspecies 21 are found in
Sinharaja. Sinharaja is an important habitat for many of Sri Lanka’s swallow-tailed butterflies,
and these include the rare endemic Ceylon Rose (Atrophaneura japhon) which is confined to the
Sinharaja and adjacent rain forest blocks.
The Forest Department is endeavouring to preserve this forest and to promote research on its
biodiversity. Its efforts deserve all support and encouragement.
Sources: various, cited by Wijesinghe (1995)
encroachment by a household in the wet zone The depletion of forest resources is

is about 0.5 ha. These forest encroachments also linked closely in some areas to the
are established permanently, and this process demand for forest products such as timber,
leads to a significant loss of forest cover and posts, poles and fuelwood. Fuelwood collection
biodiversity over time. Deniya cultivation of from forests is prevalent in all climatic zones,
wetlands within forests with paddy or betel is but is least evident in the wet zone where a
also a destructive practice as it involves loss good part of the requirement comes from crop
of forest species localized in wetland sites and plantations. It is estimated that the need for
results in the addition of chemical fertilizer biomass fuel will increase in the future.
and pesticides to the forest environment. Besides fuel, certain other wood products like
One of the problems encountered in cane and bamboo are collected on a semi-
preventing forest encroachment is the lack of commercial scale, with the highest collection
clear and well-defined boundaries. It is necessary of rattan occurring in wet zone forests
that the forests are surveyed, particularly those for a lucrative rattan based cottage industry.
requiring special protection, and their Forests also provide a multitude of
boundaries established using permanent non-wood products such as gums, resins,
boundary markers.
54
Box 6.3
MEDICINAL PLANTS - SRI LANKA’S PRIZED BIODIVERSITY
Historical perspective: Plants and their products have been systematically used in Sri Lanka for
treating illnesses for over two thousand years, and a total of 1,414 plant species are
listed for their traditional medicinal use. These include several endemic species which
are becoming increasingly rare and under threat of extinction. Approximately 200
species of medicinal plants are in common use, and of these, 50 are heavily used
in ayurvedic medicinal preparations. In total, 79 species are now considered
threatened.
As local supplies can no longer meet the demand for medicinal plants, approximately
60% of Sri Lanka’s requirements are now imported, at considerable cost. Dwindling
supplies are exacerbated by the rapid depletion of natural habitats, the increased
export of a selected number of plant species, and unsustainable exploitation. Equally
threatened is the knowledge base on which the traditional medicinal system is based,
as only a small portion of the traditional knowledge is documented: the majority
remains recorded in ancient, obscure manuscripts scattered around the country or in
the memory of elderly practitioners.
Action to Conserve: The Ministry in charge of indigenous medicine, with support from other
ministries and technical assistance from IUCN - The World Conservation Union, aims
to address these problems through a project for the conservation of medicinal plants.
The project will focus on three major areas, namely: increasing populations of
medicinal plants in their natural habitat; cultivating and propagating medicinal plants
in sites outside their strict natural habitat; and strengthening the knowledge base
whilst promoting education and awareness.
The principal activities will include: the establishment of five medicinal plant reserves
supported by community based management structures and facilities such as herbal
gardens, nurseries, dispensaries, and information centres; formulation of standard
products and ayurvedic drugs; training staff; ethnobotanical studies in the villages near
the reserves; and introducing regulations necessary for medicinal plant cultivation and
conservation, harvesting, marketing and export.
The project will operate for five years and strengthen the capacities of the
Department of Ayurveda and the Bandaranaike Memorial Ayurvedic Research
Institute.
medicinal plants, bee honey, kitul treacle, material for use in ayurvedic medicine takes
jaggery and fermented products and, to a place from primary and secondary forests
lesser extent, certain materials of plant and and, on an intensive scale, from the savannah
animal origin used for socio-cultural practices. lands of the dry zone. Many species of
A national survey of the traditional uses of medicinal plants have become scarce as a
forests carried out by the Forest Department result of habitat loss and over-collection.
and IUCN indicates that kitul tapping is not a
harmful activity, provided the processing of Complete restriction of the use of forest
the sap is done outside the forest. Collection resources by local people (except in biological
of food items from forests is also sustainable sensitive areas) is not only unrealistic but
except when particularly adverse practices, also counter-productive. It is increasingly
such as cutting down branches to collect recognized that there should be an attempt to
fruit, are carried out. Collection of plant move towards a participatory management
approach which permits local communities to
55
assume a stakeholder role of conserving and 5. To promote mixed cropping with
managing forests as a resource useful to them indigenous species in private lands and
and their children. This has to be promoted state lands leased for agroforestry.
through education and awareness creation, and
6. To increase timber supplies through forest
by way of equitable sharing of benefits from
plantations, which will have the effect
the forest. Even under such schemes, the of reducing the pressure on natural
management strategy could break down with forests for producing timber.
the increase of population pressure. A
complementary strategy of providing alternative 7. To promote public awareness of the
employment opportunities is, therefore, necessary environmental benefits of conserving forest
to wean away households dependent on forest biodiversity.
resources for their living. Recommended action:
The policy framework in the form of 1. Develop a system for the regular
the Forestry Sector Master Plan of 1996 and monitoring of forest biodiversity, and
the current plans and programmes of the take remedial action to rectify any
Forest Department should provide the base for negative trends as and when necessary,
moving into an active phase of biodiversity including threats from invasive species.
conservation in forestry. What is required is
for the Department to strengthen its capacity 2. Take effective action to stop further
in the scientific and management aspects of encroachments on the wet zone forests
biodiversity conservation and sustainable use (bioregions 4,5 and 6).
and in community mobilization, and to secure 3. Take action to prevent the use of high-
the necessary resources for implementation. As forest areas and fragile ecosystems for
for wildlife conservation, the Department chena cultivation.
concerned has in the past focused its attention
4. Complete the preparation of management
on regulation and law enforcement, and a
plans (including surveying and boundary
change in approach is needed here. In the
sphere of medicinal plants, urgent action is marking) for all protected areas; ensure
required to arrest the decline in populations of that such plans continue to recognize the
many medicinal plant species and to document participatory role of communities living
and preserve the vast store of knowledge on in proximity to the areas under protection
medicinal plants and their uses that is now in and adequately address the conservation
the memory of old medical practitioners and and sustainable use of biodiversity.
in ancient ola manuscripts. The proposed 5. Actively implement the conservation-
project on medicinal plants is expected to management plans of protected areas,
address these issues. giving due attention to buffer zone
Objectives: activities involving the peripheral
1. To ensure that threatened forest communities.
ecosystems and species are given adequate 6. The Forest Department and Department
protection. of Wildlife Conservation to collaborate to
2. To put in place a system for monitoring strengthen their capabilities in protected
forest biodiversity and taking corrective area management.
action when necessary.
7. Enhance field staff capability in pest
3. To promote conservation of indigenous management, protection against unlawful
forest species both within and outside activities, and fire protection.
protected areas.
8. Define, demarcate and establish an optimal
4. To involve communities living on the
protected area system network utilizing
fringes of forests in participatory activities
scientific and distributional data available
for the conservation and sustainable use
from the NCR, paying special attention
of biodiversity.
56
to the conservation of endemic species and the use of alternative materials in place
of plants and animals. of timber.
9. Ensure that activities in forests outside 20. Organize skills enhancement and
protected areas are governed by awareness programmes on biodiversity
management plans that pay adequate conservation for operational staff, NGO
attention to the conservation of participants, CBO personnel and rural
biodiversity. communities.
21. Establish forest plantations on currently
10. Both within and outside protected areas,
non-productive land as entrepreneurial
promote in situ conservation activities
ventures in collaboration with the private
that specially target threatened species.
sector to cater to the timber and
11. Establish a mechanism to continually fuelwood demand.
expand and update the Forest 22. Review legal instruments relating to the
Department’s database on faunal and collection of forest plants and animals,
floral species in forests and other natural including regulations relating to export,
habitats. and amend in order to eliminate
12. Strengthen research capacity and pursue anomalies and strengthen the law, so as
research on the silvics of selected forest to afford protection to threatened species
species, with a view to promoting natural of indigenous plants and animals.
regeneration of, or actively propagating, 23. Strictly enforce the laws relating to
these species. collection, possession, sale, and export
of plants and animals protected by law.
13. Review the issue of deniya permits for
cultivation in forests in relation to the 24. Expand and maintain the programme of
impact of this practice on biodiversity. setting up urban forests, and develop
educational and awareness programmes in
14. Strengthen research capacity and pursue relation to these forests.
research to determine sustainable use
thresholds for selected forest species. Main state institutions involved in
implementing:
15. In forest extension work, promote the
FD, DWLC, Survey Department, Department
use of selected indigenous species of timber,
of Ayurveda, Mahaweli Authority, MFE,
medicinal plants, and food and fibre
Ministry in charge of plantations and provincial
producing plants, targeting home gardens,
administration, law enforcement agencies (Police,
private woodlots, etc.
Customs, Attorney General).
16. Promote the conservation and propagation
6.2 Wetlands
of indigenous medicinal plants.
Identifying the issues:
17. Establish a suitable mechanism for
ensuring co-ordination in the management There is an overall lack of awareness
of protected areas and the conservation among the general public of the importance of
of biodiversity between the Forest wetlands, and these areas are often considered
Department and the Department of as wastelands to be cleared and filled for
Wildlife Conservation. other land uses or to be used as waste
dumps. Large sections of these habitats have
18. Expand programmes for afforestation, been lost due to landfill for housing and
reforestation and forest rehabilitation, commercial and industrial development and
paying attention to the use of indigenous conversion to agricultural land for growing
species as far as possible. paddy, vegetables, betel, etc.
19. Promote the improved utilization of timber There are numerous factors, all of
57
Box 6.4
MUTHURAJAWELA MARSH - AN URBAN PROTECTED AREA
The Muthurajawela Marsh covers about 3000 ha and is part of a larger complex that stretches
up to and includes the Negombo lagoon. It is an important wetland located in the western
coast of Sri Lanka that has retained its natural values despite centuries of human activity in the
region. It is noted for its biological and ecological diversity, scenic beauty, history and scientific
potential, particularly because of its location in a highly urbanised and industrialized area. In
recognition of its ecological value, a Master Plan for the marsh-lagoon complex and surrounds
was completed In 1991. Proceeding from this, a Conservation Management Plan, directed
towards sustainable use of resources in different zones within the complex, was formulated in
1994. The management plan is implemented by DWLC. A participatory approach involving local
communities is adopted in the management of the Conservation Zone. This is proving to be
successful in effectively harmonising environmental management with economic development.
The Muthurajawela Marsh Conservation Zone was proclaimed a Sanctuary under the Fauna and
Flora Protection Ordinance in 1996. It is an important habitat for plant and animal life, and a
large number of the animal species found here are endemic, many of which are rare or
threatened. Mammals such as the fruit bat, slender loris, otter, fishing cat, and mouse deer are
found in this wetland. Among the numerous birds - of which 85 species are residents and 40
species are migrants - one can frequently see cormorants, storks, bee-eaters and kingfishers. Of the
reptiles, the saltwater crocodile is seen occasionally while the large monitor lizard and serpents
are plentiful. The rich vegetation found in this area includes mangroves, ferns, grasses and
sedges. At least 129 plant species were recorded recently, including 44 species with medicinal
value.
The marsh is also home to a human population of more than 4000, many from a long line of
marsh dwellers who belong to the lowest income category. Since the unsustainable use of
resources in the Conservation Zone by local people is directly linked to poverty and
unemployment, special emphasis is placed on community development. About 280 encroacher
families have been given permanent housing combined with opportunities for improving their
living conditions and earning capacity. These communities have also taken an active part in the
preparation and implementation of the Master Plan and are highly supportive of managing the
marsh as an urban protected area.
them the result of human activities, that pose for the aquarium trade. One of these is
a threat to the biodiversity of wetlands. Cryptocoryne thwaitesii, an endemic aroid,
Siltation, and pollution resulting in considered to be under threat. Although it is
eutrophication and the prolific growth of water illegal to do so, fishermen continue to use
hyacinth and other aquatic weeds, have eroded beach seines to catch fish in some of the
the species diversity of wetlands. For example, larger reservoirs. Exotic species of fish were
it is believed that the snake head (Channa introduced, without adequate research, for
marulius) has become rare due to the influx developing inland fisheries, and the prolific
of agrochemicals into its habitat. Over-fishing multiplication of these species can pose a
and poaching (mainly of birds) and the threat to the indigenous biodiversity in inland
uncontrolled collection of ornamental freshwater aquatic systems.
fish for export have placed several endemic
species under threat. In addition to the fish, Today, the state has acknowledged the
water plants are collected and exported in bulk value of wetlands and the scenario for
conservation of wetlands is encouraging. Site
58
Box 6.5
THREAT TO SRI LANKA’S ENDEMIC ORNAMENTAL FRESHWATER FISH
SPECIES
Over exploitation and improper management in the ornamental freshwater fish export trade are having
severe repercussions on the icthyofauna of Sri Lanka. About 75% of indigenous freshwater fish species
including 21 endemic species, are utilised in the ornamental fish trade, and the fishes are mainly
collected from the wild. Among the endemic species, 19 are listed as nationally threatened, and these
include two critically threatened species and one endangered species. Endemic species, which are
highly prized in the export industry, are the ones most at risk from over exploitation. Many of these
have a critical threshold limit to their population, below which the ability to maintain the population
is lost even when breeding occurs as usual. This has been observed in several endemics e.g. Puntius
nigrofasciatus, P. cumingi, and Rasbora vaterifloris. The survival of ornamental fish is further endangered
by the rapid deterioration of their habitats, mostly wet zone streams.
Many of the indigenous fish are exported at very low prices, and the foreign exchange earnings have
been negligible. As such, the full potential of the ornamental fish trade as a foreign exchange
generator has not been realized. Lack of proper management of the industry contributes to this. Basic
requirements of collected fishes, such as adequate space, clean water and oxygen are sadly
neglected, resulting in high death rates. In order to compensate for the high death rate during
transportation, sensitive and delicate endemics such as Rasbora vaterifloris and Puntius titteya are being
exported in huge quantities.
Although the export of live fish is governed by the provisions of the Fauna and Flora Protection Act
and the Fisheries Ordinance, it is believed that many protected species continue to be exported by
using various ruses to circumvent the provisions of the law. And such operations are not entirely
covert, as is evidenced by the fact that a newly found rare endemic which is legally protected,
Rasbora wilpita, has been listed (along with its price) in a UK ornamental fish catalogue.
The high demand for Sri Lankan ornamental freshwater fish is mainly due to the development of the
aquarium trade, setting up of fishery gene banks, and laboratory experimentation on fresh water fish
in developed countries. Today, Sri Lanka’s indigenous freshwater fish are exported to over 25
countries, with USA, Japan, Holland, Germany, UK, Singapore and Hongkong accounting for 60% of
the trade. Fish exports to Europe has been growing at an annual rate of 10% during the past five
years.
Clearly, the trade in Sri Lanka’s ornamental fishes, as it now occurs, is a threat to an important
component of the country’s biodiversity and it has to be addressed as a matter of urgency.
Source: Gunasekera (1996); Gunawardena (1994)
reports and management plans have been prepared are being carried out in the Bundala, Minneriya,
for many wetlands under the Wetland and Bellanwila-Attidiya wetlands, but only on
Conservation Project of the CEA. Several other a marginal scale. The challenge is to move
sites have been identified for conservation, and into a full scale implementation of the
a total of 41 wetland sites in Sri Lanka are management plans. An important pre-requisite
listed in the Directory of Asian Wetlands as for the effective management of the wetlands
being of critical importance, ecologically. The is their surveying and mapping on a suitable
Forest Department is preparing conservation- scale.
management plans for several selected mangrove
sites. As for implementation, only the There have been some studies of
management of Muthurajawela marsh is being wetlands by NGOs. The Ceylon Bird Club
fully implemented. Some management activities carries out counts of water birds annually. A
few other NGOs have also been active in
59
carrying out observations and educational are important in terms of biodiversity are
projects on wetland avifauna (e.g. the Field either wholly or partly under private ownership.
Ornithology Group). Some aspects of fisheries With regard to wetlands under state ownership
and limnological research in freshwater bodies which includes the large bulk of the wetlands,
have been carried out, mainly by the there are no special laws governing wetlands
universities and the National Aquatic Resources as such in Sri Lanka. Wetlands coming under
Research and Development Agency. In the state ownership are generally governed by the
wetlands associated with the Puttalam lagoon Fauna and Flora Ordinance and the Forest
and the southern lagoon systems, efforts are Ordinance. The Urban Development Authority
underway by the Ministry of Fisheries (under Act, the Land Reclamation Ordinance and the
the Bay of Bengal Fisheries Programme) to Agrarian Services Act also touch on some
culture sea weeds, molluscs, milk fish, etc. In aspects of wetland conservation. As regards
a few wetlands such as Mi Oya, Tabbowa the agencies in charge of wetlands, many of
and Bundala, there have been studies on the the natural habitats occur within protected
human-elephant interactions. There is also a areas managed by the Department of Wildlife
community-based research and management Conservation. The Forest Department controls
project by an NGO at the Nachchaduwa the wetlands falling within the forest areas
wetland site. These activities signify only an under its purview. The Forest Department has
awakening of interest in the conservation of also taken the responsibility for managing
wetlands and the sustainable use of their rich many ecologically sensitive mangrove sites. The
resources. It is time to establish a system to protection of wetland wildlife in terms of their
coordinate these efforts, to identify the areas collection, sale and export is the responsibility
where investments have to be made, and to of DWLC. It is important to note that with
mount a robust programme for conserving the the devolution of power the provincial
biodiversity of wetlands. administration shares responsibility with other
state agencies for the protection of wetlands
An area that requires urgent attention and their biodiversity.
is the development of scientific methods for
breeding of ornamental fish in captivity, which Due to the complex nature of the
is vital for sustaining the freshwater ornamental ecology and use of wetlands, as well as their
fish industry while ensuring the survival of situation, the need for collaborative programmes
rare species in inland waters. At present, to manage wetland sites is widely recognized.
some freshwater ornamental fish species are The implementation of management plans for
reared by a few private groups engaged in the wetlands should take into account the need for
aquarium trade, but this needs to be inter-agency coordination to minimise
scientifically monitored and expanded. environmental impacts and resource use conflicts.
Wetlands are often connected to rivers and
Foremost among the scientific initiatives streams that flow across administrative
so far taken in connection with safeguarding boundaries and this needs to be recognized in
the country’s wetlands is the assessment of decentralized regional administrative planning.
the hydrological value of all the natural
forests in the country through the National As it was felt that the absence of
Conservation Review carried out under the specific legislation or of a single responsible
Forestry Sector Development Project of the agency has been a setback for the proper
Forest Department, with technical assistance management of wetland ecosystems in Sri Lanka,
by IUCN - The World Conservation Union. In the Government, in 1990, granted approval for
terms of soil conservation and hydrology, this the establishment of a National Wetlands
study identified a total of 104 forests which Steering Committee (NWSC) within the Central
are critical to the protection and sustenance of Environmental Authority. Because of its function
the downstream wetlands. as the central coordinating arm between the
different line ministries and other agencies
An impediment to wetland conservation within whose jurisdiction wetlands occur, the
and management is that some wetlands which NWSC was subsequently re-constituted to
60
function under the relevant ministry - the terms of biodiversity, and prepare site
Ministry of Transport, Environment and reports and management plans where
Women’s Affairs (now the Ministry of necessary.
Forestry and Environment) - to ensure that it
3. Prepare suitable maps and implement the
will function more effectively.
management plans for wetlands, taking
In view of the importance of the into account the need for collaboration
wetlands in terms of productivity and the between the several state institutions
multiple benefits they provide, the NWSC has concerned, including the provincial
formulated a National Wetland Policy for the administration, and based on participatory
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. management principles.
This Policy which is still in the draft stage is 4. Increase public awareness of the
expected to complement the goals and objectives importance of wetlands and their benefits
of the National Conservation Strategy (of to local communities through the print
1988), the National Wildlife Policy (of 1990), and electronic media (government
the National Forestry Policy (of 1995), and departments in collaboration with the
other sectoral policies, including those of private sector, media and NGOs).
fisheries, irrigation, and agriculture. It will
also identify action necessary to halt the 5. By prohibiting or strictly regulating
deterioration of wetland ecosystems and ensure collection from the wild and adopting
sustained conservation of wetlands through active measures, promote the conservation
proper management. It will also cover of aquatic fauna and flora species under
prioritization of major wetlands for conservation, threat.
and, where necessary, restoration; development 6. Carry out a comprehensive awareness
and implementation of an effective research programme to combat disposal of
programme to ensure the conservation of household and industrial refuse into
wetlands; and the development and wetlands and enhance capability for law
implementation of a public awareness enforcement.
programme on wetlands. The overall policy
needs to spell out a general strategy for each 7. Increase the use of wetlands for education
of the major activity areas identified and and eco-tourism.
require that all interventions undergo the 8. Strengthen the capability of NARA and
mandatory EIA process. other relevant state institutions for regular
Objectives: monitoring of freshwater aquatic-
biodiversity, in collaboration with
1. To ensure that both natural and man- universities and NGOs, and provide
made wetlands are properly managed and guidelines where necessary.
to conserve and sustainably use wetland
biodiversity. 9. Carry out studies on the impact of
introduced exotic species of fish, and
2. To promote the restoration of ecologically measures for their control if found to be
important degraded wetlands. harmful to indigenous wetland biodiversity.
3. To build public awareness of the 10. Undertake research programmes to culture
importance of wetlands and the need for threatened freshwater flora and fauna
their conservation.
with emphasis on economically important
Recommended action: species including those that are commonly
1. Continue to develop strategies and plans exported.
for the management of wetlands. 11. Assist those in the aquarium trade to
2. Strengthen and enhance current efforts to culture organisms for export with stringent
identify critically important wetlands in monitoring and control by the state
sector through a licensing scheme.
61
12. Increase national funding for wetland With the use of large multi-day motorized
associated research, with special emphasis crafts with insulated fish hold facilities, the
on the ecology and culture of endangered catches are much larger than in the past, and
and economically important freshwater there is a much increased catch of marine
species. mammals encountered in the deeper waters. As
a result, some species of dolphins are now
13. Ensure that the forests identified as
considered threatened in Sri Lankan waters.
important hydrologically through the NCR
Fishing by local and foreign trawlers that use
study are brought within the protected
bottom-set nets and long drift nets may also
area system and given strict protection. affect biodiversity.
14. Enforce the legal provisions for protecting The traditional fishery which uses non-
river and stream reservations. motorized craft such as dugout canoes and
15. Review the legal framework that relates catamarans and relatively non-destructive fishing
to the conservation of wetlands, identify techniques such as angling, gill netting (using
gaps and rectify as necessary either natural fibre nets), and beach seining is
through strengthening existing laws or adversely affected due to the depletion of the
nearshore fish resources and the competition
enactment of new laws pertaining to
from mechanised crafts. Other factors, such as
wetlands.
restrictions imposed by hotels on access to
16. Examine government policies that may sections of the beach, may contribute to a
promote adverse activities concerning decline in the traditional beach seine fishery,
wetlands (e.g. reclamation of wetlands particularly on the southwestern coast.
for urban development), and recommend The lobster resource in the southern
remedial measures thorough the National coast has been depleted due to indiscriminate
Wetlands Steering Committee. harvesting of gravid females and juveniles.
Main state institutions involved in While laws are present to prevent such
implementing: activities, their enforcement has to be
strengthened. A study is currently in progress
NARA, CEA, FD, DWLC, MFE, UDA, the to assess the gravity of this problem so that
provincial administration, universities remedial measures may be taken. At present
the export trade in ornamental fish ranks next
to that of prawns and lobsters in terms of
6.3 Coastal and Marine Systems value, and the current levels of ornamental
fish collection for sale and export is widely
Identifying the issues: considered to be unsustainable. Clearly, there
Fisheries is a major activity affecting is need for more data. The selective harvesting
marine biodiversity in the coastal waters of of rare species has caused their depletion, and
Sri Lanka. Fish supply is important in terms the high intensity of collection disturbs the
equilibrium of the reef ecosystem. The corals
of food and income, and it has continued to
themselves are damaged due to the use of
increase in recent years. As a result, many
moxy-nets for collection of reef fish for the
nearshore waters are now over-fished or at
aquarium trade.
their maximum levels of exploitation. Another
development is the increased mechanization and Naturally occurring prawn resources in
modernization of the fishing industry. The the lagoons of the northwest coast are depleted
capture techniques adopted include the use of due to siltation from soil disturbed by
trammel nets and purse seines. There is also agricultural and construction practices and
deforestation inland. Silt smothers coral reefs,
the use of explosives to catch fish, and this
causes a reduction in the depth of water
destroys biodiversity. Bottom-set nets used to
bodies and has a destructive effect on bottom
catch reef fish destroy the habitat, and nylon
dwelling species. For example, the pearl oyster
gill nets used to catch food fish are death beds that supported a lucrative trade up to
traps to turtles and small marine mammals. the 1920s have probably been adversely affected
Blast fishing in particular affects coral reefs. by the silt carried down from rivers. Siltation
62
Box 6.6
DEALING WITH THE BURGEONING TRADE IN MARINE ORNAMENTAL FISH
The marine ornamental fish industry in Sri Lanka has expanded rapidly over the last 20 years
or so. There are between 200 - 300 marine species of fish and invertebrates that are being
exported in the aquarium trade today. There is, however, no monitoring or management of the
trade at present, and reports of over-exploitation and habitat destruction are common.
The Sri Lanka Marine Ornamental Fishery Project, carried out by the National Aquatic
Resources Development Agency (NARA) in collaboration with the Marine Conservation Society
(UK), aims to ensure that, in the long term, the marine ornamental fishery is sustainable and
that the conservation of marine biodiversity is promoted. The project, which is scheduled to run
from 1995 - 1998, includes the following activities:
• surveys of coral reef fish and invertebrate populations to obtain information on abundance,
recruitment and distribution patterns. The conditions of the reefs and associated marine
habitats will also be noted.
• a socio-economic survey of the user communities.
• preparation of illustrated manuals on important ornamental species to assist divers, fishery
field officers and custom officers to identify these species.
• training courses and workshops for those involved in the trade.
• fishery survey and community involvement to increase management options and ensure the
conservation of marine biodiversity in the long term.
The project has been progressing quite smoothly, and, up to June 1997, dive surveys of near-
shore and off-shore reefs had been carried out at approximately 30 sites along the south and
west coasts of Sri Lanka and information gathered on different species in the trade. The socio-
economic survey is currently underway and a large number of collectors/divers have been
registered with NARA. A handbook on protected marine species in Sri Lanka has been
published and two workshops held for those in the ornamental fish trade.
Source: MCS/NARA (1996a,b)
can also be detrimental to fishery that is areas. It is possible that collection may prove
dependent on clear water. Pollution from to be unsustainable, especially when collection
unregulated discharge of sewage, untreated is selective. This is an area where studies are
water from industries, wastes from ships, and needed.
coconut husk retting at some sites along the
coast also cause destruction of coastal The fisheries sector has traditionally
biodiversity. sought to increase productivity without paying
adequate attention to conservation and
Sri Lankan waters have seven species sustainable use of aquatic resources. However,
of edible Holothuria (sea cucumber) out of 20
due to the recent heavy decline of near-shore
edible species found in the Indian Ocean.
fish yields, there is now greater awareness of
While the traditional harvesting of sea cucumber
the need to conserve these resources. This has
was limited to estuarine environments, the
resulted in the new Fisheries and Aquatic
demand for this commodity for export has
Resources Act of 1996 addressing measures
resulted in large numbers being collected,
for "protection of fish and other aquatic
especially in the Kalpitiya and Batticaloa
resources" and for increased concern about the
63
Box 6.7
CORAL MINING
Coral mining has been a traditional occupation for coastal people for generations, mainly along
the south and southwestern coastline of Sri Lanka. Corals are extracted mainly for the production
of lime for building purposes, through a conversion process of heating fragments of the
calcareous corals to produce quicklime and mortar in lime kilns. Corals are mined from inland
fossil resources and from coral rubble on the beach, but the additional and illegal extraction of
sea coral has been a major threat to the reefs of Sri Lanka. The demand and economic incentive
for mining corals is high, and corals supply approximately 90 % of the lime produced. This has
created difficulties in attempting to combat the problem, and reef mining continues to cause
coastal erosion and the loss of habitat and biodiversity. The Coast Conservation Department has
played an important role in addressing this problem through a multitude of strategies covering
legislation to prohibit mining, collecting, processing, storing, burning and transporting corals in the
coastal zone; education programmes for coral miners; and schemes to provide alternative
livelihoods to those dependent on coral mining. These efforts have reduced the sea coral
extraction from 7,659 tonnes in 1984 to 4,020 tonnes in 1994, and there was a corresponding
increase in the inland extraction during the same period from 10,400 tonnes to 15,800 tonnes.
However, reef mining is still a serious problem, and there is need for a vigorous and sustained
campaign to eliminate it.
Source: CCD (1996)
sustainable use of aquatic biodiversity in the tons of coral and coral debris are removed
fishery sector. A sign of the current interest from a 60 km stretch along the south-west
in active management for conservation and coast, and both coral and shells are collected
sustainable use is the identification of fisheries for the tourist industry. Although the removal,
management areas (e.g. the Negombo lagoon), possession and processing of coral is illegal,
and the selection of lobster management areas the destruction of reefs has continued due to
in the southwest followed by the preparation poor law enforcement and the profitability of
of management plans. the lime industry. Attempts have been made to
To remedy the paucity of data on off- provide alternative employment to those
shore fisheries resources, NARA is currently involved, but without much success.
conducting a Fisheries Resources Survey. Conservation and management of coral reefs
NARA has also taken action to promote the is also impeded because some of the largest
survival of lobsters by providing new habitats. and species rich reefs occur offshore, beyond
the coastal zone, and are outside the jurisdiction
A survey of some species of coastal fish is
of the Coast Conservation Department. Coral
also currently being undertaken by NARA to reefs are also damaged by natural factors
determine the status of species harvested for such as the proliferation of the coral predator
the aquarium trade. the Crown of Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster planci)
For centuries the coastal reefs have and the effect of high wave action. Unless
been a valuable resource for the people of Sri stringent conservation action is taken, it is
believed that by the 21st century most near-shore
Lanka, in particular for the coastal
reefs would be adversely affected, and only the
communities. More recently, the export of reefs in protected areas may survive to provide
coral reef organisms has contributed habitats for important and threatened species
substantially to the economy. These reefs are of fauna and to check coastal erosion (see
now severely degraded, especially in the Figure 6.1).
southern region, due mainly to coral mining Reef destruction is very evident in the
for production of lime. Annually, over 7000 marine sanctuary at Hikkaduwa where many
64
coral reefs are dead or dying. Even after The increased allocation of coastal zone
receiving Protected Area status, reef degradation lands, especially in the south and southwest
continues due to damage caused by heavily coast, for hotels is also a serious problem.
loaded glass bottom boats, pollution from There is also a proliferation of slums and
hotels, oil pollution, sedimentation, trampling shanties in certain sections of the coast. With
by divers and collectors of reef organisms, the projected increase of urban populations by
and anchoring of boats. the 21st century, it is evident that most
The action taken hitherto to manage shorelands of the country will be converted to
marine biodiversity, establish marine Protected other uses. Much of the biologically diverse
Areas, and prepare management plans for shorelands are state owned, but inadequacies
important near-shore and off-shore coral reefs in the law and poor enforcement contribute to
is far from adequate. Some proposals for habitat loss. Effluents discharged from urban
environmental management and planning of industries near natural water bodies also destroy
coastal and marine zones in Sri Lanka have biodiversity.
been made by UNEP, CCD, the Department
Brackish water shrimp culture is an
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DFAR),
and CEA but there has been no implementation. industry that earns over a billion rupees in
The Inter-Ministerial Committee on Marine foreign exchange annually. It has, however,
Parks and Sanctuaries set up by NARA in caused considerable loss of coastal wetlands
1982 had identified more than 20 coastal sites since 1980 due to encroachment and pollution
to be declared as marine parks and sanctuaries, by the establishment of mariculture ponds
but only two have so far been declared as covering an area of over 2000 ha. Other
Protected Areas by statute, and management adverse effects are disruption of nutrient chains
plans have been prepared for only one. and increased salinity of waterways, resulting
in biodiversity loss. Abandoned shrimp farms
There are a number of government
in the form of barren land with no topsoil are
organizations that should play a role in the
an eyesore and may become breeding grounds
conservation and management of coral reefs
for disease vectors.
and the implementation of laws that govern
use of marine resources. These include NARA, Mangroves are destroyed for expansion
CCD, CEA, DWLC, and DFAR. While of human settlements (much of it as
conservation and management of coral reefs is encroachments) and for expansion of
considered an urgent issue, implementation aquaculture. Poles and fuelwood for domestic
efforts are impaired due to inadequacies as use and twigs for brushpile fishery are also
regards institutional cooperation, political extracted from the mangroves. The mangrove
commitment and awareness among the public swamps are, therefore, fragmented, heavily
of the importance of this resource. exploited by local people, and degraded by
water pollution and siltation. It is estimated
Most coastal habitats in Sri Lanka are
that the current mangrove habitat will be
limited in extent and vulnerable to degradation.
reduced to half by the year 2001. Despite the
These habitats include biologically productive
efforts taken by NGOs to re-establish mangrove
mangrove systems, estuaries, lagoons and
habitats and to create awareness about this
seagrass beds. Resources within lagoons and
resource, little progress was made in the past to
estuaries have been over-used for fishery and conserve mangroves.
shrimp culture. There is also uncontrolled use
of these sites for anchorages of boats. Sand Recently, the Forest Department has
mining, siltation, as well as dumping urban assumed control of several mangrove areas
wastes and chemical pollutants from agricultural identified for protection, and management plans
farms and industries in estuaries are other are being prepared for them. The management
major problems. Seagrass beds, which support proposals take into consideration socio-economic
a rich flora and fauna and are breeding factors, and, in-keeping with other policy
grounds for marine fish, have been damaged initiatives for coastal resources, promote a
due to destructive fish harvesting techniques. participatory approach.
65
Figure 6.1 Distribution and Condition of Coral Reefs between Tangalle and Kalpitiya
66
Some of the picturesque sandy beaches of alone as the means of curbing adverse activities
Sri Lanka, with their littoral and sandy shore in coastal areas has amply demonstrated the
biodiversity, are being degraded or lost due to need for adopting a participatory approach
extensive coastal erosion which is aggravated by involving the local communities. The need is
coral mining; non-scientifically erected also felt for coastal management to proceed
embankments, rivets and groins; and sand simultaneously at the national, provincial,
mining along the seashore and in rivers. district and local levels, with the collaboration
Although direct removal of sand from the beaches of several state agencies, local entrepreneurs,
has been curbed by the CCD, sand mining in NGOs and communities. At present, activities
rivers continues. at the national level are guided by the CCD
with the support of other relevant state
Ecotourism has much potential in the
agencies. In the future, resource management
coastal areas. Beaches and areas with fringing
efforts for coast conservation need to focus
reefs are favoured sites for tourism. Snorkelling,
on issues within the jurisdiction of the
scuba diving and viewing corals are popular
provinces. This will need considerable
among tourists. The Ceylon Tourist Board has
strengthening of the capacities of provincial
prepared a Master Plan for development of
and local institutions and the preparation of
tourism and there are guidelines for hotel
provincial CZM Plans in consultation with
developers regarding pollution control.
relevant state agencies. The national CZM
Nevertheless, some of the most uniquely diverse
Plan has not yet been translated into provincial
biological habitats in the southern and western
actions, although activities at local level will
coasts have been damaged due to construction
be the ultimate determinants of the sustainability
of "beach hotels" that do not conform to
of coastal resources.
regulations regarding waste disposal,
environmental safeguards, and land use planning Current policies also require that
to protect vulnerable ecosystems. Tourism is work by national and provincial agencies at
an important economic activity in the country the local level in the coastal zone be planned
and it is in the interest of the tourist trade to and managed within geographically distinct
preserve the coastal environment and its sites, through the formulation and
biodiversity. implementation of Special Area Management
(SAM) Plans. These will make it possible for
There is also a proliferation of private
problems and opportunities to be examined
turtle hatcheries along the southwest coast, some
and assessed in a site-specific context. SAM
in collaboration with foreign groups. Although
plans focus on effective devolution of resource
the claim is that these hatcheries are set up for
management to local stakeholders through a
conservation purposes, investigations by NARA
participatory process by creating community-
show that most are profit-motivated and tourist
based management groups. SAM Plans have
oriented, and that the practices adopted by the
already been prepared for Rekawa and
hatcheries may be detrimental to the survival
Hikkaduwa and implementation has commenced.
of the young.
Twenty other coastal sites have been identified
Several incentives available for economic for similar planning and management.
activities in the coastal and marine region tend
With the multiplicity of organizations
to adversely affect biodiversity due to
involved in different activities within the coastal
inadequate attention being paid to environmental
zone, a strong co-ordinating mechanism
conservation. These activities include: expansion
becomes necessary. Co-ordination is not
of shrimp farming, export of marine fauna
effective at present, and there is a clear need
and flora, environmentally detrimental fishing
for a review of this function which at
practices, ad hoc land reclamation, the putting
presents rests with the CCD.
up of unauthorized constructions and other
infrastructures, and the proliferation of industries Objectives:
that release effluents.
1. To promote the conservation of coastal
The ineffectiveness of law enforcement and marine habitats of the country such
67
Box 6.8
SAM: SPECIAL AREA MANAGEMENT IN SRI LANKA
Special Area Management can be defined as a collaborative, adaptive and flexible approach to
planning resource management within a defined geographic area. It assumes that residents of a
local community and the local government have both the incentives and the knowledge of the
resources and resource-use problems to act collectively in ways that ensure that resources are
used sustainably. A key aspect of the SAM approach is that even during planning,
implementation of small projects can proceed.
Two areas have since 1991 been pilot testing sites for SAM planning: Rekawa and Hikkaduwa.
The Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP) has been acting as facilitator in the
processes, through emphasis on data collection and analysis and education and organisation of the
local communities. The two pilot areas are characterised by a varied set of management issues.
Rekawa is a lagoon area with a low income community, in which 80 percent have earnings
below the poverty line (Rs 1,500 per month). The use of natural resources for the livelihood of
the local community has surpassed sustainable limits and caused environmental degradation. The
Rekawa Special Area Management Coordinating Committee, composed of central and local
government officials and also representatives of key community groups, has with the participation
of the general Rekawa community defined a set of objectives and developed strategies and action
plans with the overall goal of protecting and managing the coastal resources. Some of the most
critical issues of concern identified during the management process is the reduced flow of both
freshwater and seawater into the Rekawa lagoon, increased sedimentation, unsustainable fishing
methods, coral mining, sea turtle egg poaching, and the poverty of the people.
Hikkaduwa and its Marine Sanctuary is the most popular beach resort area in the country. As
a consequence of overuse of the coastal resources in the area, resources are degrading rapidly.
The community with the assistance of CRMP has established the Hikkaduwa Special Area
Management/Marine Sanctuary Coordinating Committee, which coordinates the development and
implementation of the SAM plan. Some important management issues are the degradation of the
coral reef ecosystem, deterioration of the coastal water quality, lack of alternative forms of
income generation for the local people, increasing traffic congestion and noise, and conflicts
between economic interests, especially tourism and fisheries.
The SAM concept is strongly advocated in the revised Coastal Zone Management Plan (1996).
Five potential sites for future SAM planning have been identified as having high priority:
Arugam Bay; Bar Reef; Beruwela/Bentota; Negombo Lagoon and Unawatuna Bay. These new
sites have been rated through a set of criteria, covering severity of issues, biodiversity, and
economic significance.
Source: CCD (1996); CCD, NARA & MTEWA (1996a,b)
as the coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal and marine bioresources in the
mangroves, lagoons, estuaries, salt fisheries and tourist industries.
marshes.
4. To strengthen current government
2. To promote the conservation of threatened initiatives to increase stakeholder
marine species (e.g. marine mammals) as participation in the conservation of coastal
well as other species which are subject and marine resources.
to exploitation for food, for the aquarium
5. To increase collaborative participation
trade, etc.
among stakeholders with regard to policies
3. To promote sustainability in the use of and programmes that affect coastal and
68
marine biodiversity and initiatives that important marine systems to identify a

support conservation, such as research. minimum network of marine reserves to
Recommended action: conserve the totality of marine
biodiversity based on principles similar to
1. Strengthen and enhance current efforts
the National Conservation Review of
to conduct a comprehensive fish resource
forests.
assessment in Sri Lankan marine waters
and an assessment of sustainable levels 10. In collaboration with relevant state
of harvesting for the food fishery. agencies, user groups and communities,
prepare management plans for identified
2. Promote the preparation of management
marine protected areas to conserve
plans for the sustainable use of the
biodiversity, and strengthen capabilities
fisheries resource, taking into consideration
for management.
the establishmen of fisheries reserves where
necessary and regeneration of the 11. Prepare and implement management plans
nearshore fishery resource. and strengthen capability among
stakeholders for conservation and
3. Promote research programmes to determine
management of mangrove areas using a
the sustainable levels of fish catches.
participatory approach.
4. Monitor the extent and sustainability of
12. Examine and monitor effects of fishing
harvesting coastal resources such as
methods that may have adverse effects
ornamental fish, sea-cucumber, molluscs,
on biodiversity, and take appropriate
sponges, beche-de-mer, and other species
action.
with a market demand.
13. Enforce, strictly, the current laws against
5. Initiate and strengthen research for ex
the use of explosives, illegal types of
situ cultivation of economically important
fishing gear and harvesting of juvenile
coastal and marine species and identify
and gravid lobsters in the sea.
alternatives to selectively exploited species
where possible; disseminate results to 14. Strengthen capabilities to enforce existing
the industrial sector through seminars, regulations against the slaughter of small
workshops and training programmes. cetaceans and turtles (including
harvesting of their eggs), and provide
6. Initiate a comprehensive programme to
better protection for feeding, breeding
study wild stocks of marine mammals in and nesting grounds of marine species,
Sri Lankan waters, the catch estimates including licensing and state monitoring
and the feasibility of alternative income of turtle hatcheries.
generation through eco-tourism, and 15. Control the expansion of prawn farms
carry out an islandwide awareness into mangrove areas and salt marshes to
campaign to stop the killing and sale prevent excessive biodiversity loss, and
of flesh of these species. preserve all biodiversity rich areas as
7. Preserve seagrass beds and encourage habitats for aquatic fauna and flora.
sustainable use of resources via proper 16. By prohibition or strict regulation of
in situ culture and harvest practices collection from the wild and other active
among local communities and measures, promote the conservation of
entrepreneurs. coastal and marine species of fauna and
flora of species under threat.
8. Strengthen and enhance current efforts 17. Increase institutional capability for strict
to map the biological resources, including enforcement of laws against sand and
corals, seagrass beds etc. in the coastal coral mining.
waters of Sri Lanka based on
18. Promote policy incentives for the use
Geographical Information Systems.
(including the import) of substitutes for
9. Carry out scientific biodiversity coral based lime in the building industry.
assessment of coral reefs and other
69
19. Carry out research in collaboration with "Coastal 2000" and the CZM Plan of
universities and the private sector to 1996, and extend the programmes to
produce alternative materials to replace other coastal sites as necessary.
marine coral-based lime for the building
Main state institutions involved in
industry and to promote designing that
implementing:
obviates the use of lime plaster.
CCD, NARA, DFAR, DWLC, FD, CEA
20. Develop capacity among entrepreneurs
NARESA, and the provincial administration
and guidelines for aquaculture that take
into account preservation of the natural
environment.
21. Initiate and promote research programmes
6.4 Agriculture Systems
to determine the effects of sea level rise Identifying the issues:
on marine and coastal habitats.
Much of the agricultural land in the
22. Establish a strong and effective co- country, mainly the rice paddies, home gardens
ordinating mechanism to secure the and some crop plantations, is privately owned.
collaboration of all the concerned
State land has also been given to farmers for
institutions in the effective management
of the coastal zone. cultivation on permits or grants under the
Land Development Ordinance.
23. Initiate action in collaboration with
agricultural and irrigation authorities and An aspect of agricultural land use that
provincial/regional bodies to prevent has a direct bearing on the status of
siltation of lagoons, estuaries and biodiversity, particularly in the non-plantation
marine ecosystems due to soil erosion sector, is that the cultivator is often not the
inland. owner or permit holder or grant holder of the
24. Develop capacity for eco-tourism in land he cultivates. In many such cases, the
selected coastal areas, with the tenant farmers use the land for one or few
participation of communities and local seasons on his agreeing to pay a rental in the
entrepreneurs, for viewing coral life, form of a share of the produce. As a result,
watching marine mammals, etc. the farmer has no long-term interest in the
25. Enlist support of NGOs and rural land and will not be encouraged to adopt
communities to establish woodlots in multi-cropping or to invest in land management
sand dunes adjoining mangroves, with practices to ensure sustained productivity.
fast growing fuelwood trees such as The Paddy Lands Act of 1958 and
Casuarina, to ameliorate pressure on the Agrarian Services Law of 1979 were
mangrove vegetation.
introduced with a view to rectifying this
26. Develop and apply feasible methods for shortcoming by restricting the rights of the
waste disposal from industries, tourist landlord to evict tenant farmers, fixing the
hotels and households in the coastal crop share to be paid by the tenant, and
zone, through surveys, research and permitting more flexibility for tenants to transfer
community projects. user rights. These regulations, however, have
not had the desired effect of increasing crop
27. Commence awareness programmes for productivity. Even today, as much as 11 per
different target groups to mitigate adverse cent of farmers are landless and 38.5 per
effects of pollution, coral reef damage cent possess only home gardens of which the
and over-harvesting of species from
average size is around 0.4 ha. Thus about
coastal and marine ecosystems.
half the farming community is not in control
28. Strengthen and expedite the preparation of sufficient land to produce a marketable
and implementation of the special area surplus, let alone engage in multi-cropping to
management programmes identified in enhance biodiversity. In would be difficult,
70
therefore, to induce these resource-poor farmers some of the tea soils almost barren of soil
to adopt sustainable agricultural practices to fauna, resulting in an imbalance in the faunal
protect ecosystems and biodiversity. diversity in those areas. By and large, the
adoption of resource conservation practices in
A positive factor is that about five per
the plantation sector has been neglected in the
cent of the holdings are around 2.8 ha each.
past due to fluctuating commodity prices and
These holdings total 283,000 ha. Increasing
low profitability, particularly in tea and rubber.
the biodiversity of such farms through
multicropping may be feasible. On the other The agriculture sector is largely
hand, in the plantation sector where tea, serviced by the Department of Agriculture
rubber, coconut and sugarcane are grown, (DOA). This department was established in
mono-cropping is the accepted practice, and 1912 primarily to develop peasant agriculture,
this does not promote the maintenance of but it has focused its attention on domestic
biodiversity. However, it is encouraging to food production since 1940. The broad
objectives of the DOA today are to increase
note that some plantations have recently turned
agricultural productivity and farming incomes,
to multi-cropping.
to generate employment and to promote the
With the Land Reform Law setting a conservation of the resource base.
ceiling on the size of an individual’s land
To date, considerable work has been
holding, the Land Reform Commission acquired
carried out on varietal improvement of rice.
over 400,000 ha or nearly 30 per cent of the
As a result, the national average yields have
arable land in the country. This brought in its increased five-fold from 0.65 tonnes per hectare
wake several problems such as reduction in in the 1940s when only the traditional varieties
soil fertility through neglect and fragmentation were grown to 3.5 tonnes in the 1980s due
of agricultural land for other uses. A common to the use of new improved varieties. Since
problem in the agriculture sector is the then rice yields have remained virtually static
occurrence of disputes over inheritance of despite the release of more versatile breeds of
private land among small holders, particularly rice. As a result of the switch over to high
in the wet zone. As a result, a high proportion yielding varieties, there has been a sharp drop
of land in these areas remains uncultivated or in the cultivation of traditional varieties.
neglected. Indigenous varieties exhibit a wide
The area under plantation crops has range of genetic characteristics among which
gradually declined during the last decade are resistance or tolerance to biotic and
primarily due to the use of agricultural lands abiotic stresses and to varying agro-ecological
for settlements and infrastructural development. conditions. While strengthening efforts to
The current policies and trends, however, conserve this germplasm, the farmers must be
informed of how they could access the seed
favour increased production, both through
material for cultivation.
increasing productivity and by increasing the
area under cultivation. The incentives for The traditional homegardens have been
expanding the tea areas in the low country the repository of germplasm of numerous
would certainly result in a move to convert species used as food items, spices and
forest land in the southwest to tea, and this medicinal plants over the ages. In recent
would exert pressure on the already vulnerable years, the homegarden system suffered a set
wet zone forests. back due to land fragmentation and population
increase. These gardens play a vital role in
Inadequate management of tea lands the in situ conservation of germplasm selected
and vegetable gardens in the hill country has by farmers over generations, and every effort
also brought in its wake soil erosion and land must be made to encourage and sustain the
degradation. The loss of top soil and the multi-cropping practices in homegardens.
absence of organic matter coupled with Research in the agricultural sector is
excessive use of agro-chemicals have made funded mainly through individual departmental
71
budgets. Some funding is also provided through Objectives:
the Council for Agricultural Research Policy 1. To adopt policies and programmes for
and the Natural Resources, Energy and Science the conservation of Sri Lanka’s
Authority. Notable deficiencies in the research
agricultural biodiversity.
sector are inadequacy of research on captive
breeding of important domesticated animals, ex 2. To adopt agricultural and crop plantation
situ conservation of traditional cultivars of practices that will enhance the
crops, and mixed cropping. conservation of biodiversity.
The application of plant tissue culture 3. To promote among farmers and other
for the conservation and improvement of land owners practices for the conservation
germplasm of tea, rubber, coconut and sugar of biodiversity.
cane is being carried out by the respective Recommended action:
research institutes. However, these
programmes are constrained by limitations of 1. Promote the leasing of suitable state
funds and facilities, and they warrant support land for agroforestry and mixed cropping
and strengthening. on the traditional home garden pattern.
The agricultural sector is also 2. Improve co-ordination and provision of
responsible for another important aspect of institutional support for home-gardens,
biodiversity conservation, namely, the prevention which would include credit and technical
of the entry of alien species to the country. assistance.
The Plant Protection Ordinance makes provision 3. Facilitate access (by farmers) to seed
for preventing the introduction of weeds, pests material of indigenous varieties.
and diseases which would pose a threat to
plants in Sri Lanka, particularly the crop 4. Secure ownership of the land for farmers
species. All imported plants and animals, or and leaseholders who demonstrate their
their parts, have to be declared at the point commitment to conservation of biodiversity
of entry to the country and be subject to in their landholdings.
quarantine regulations. Imported seed has to 5. Provide economic incentives for the
be certified by the Seed Certification and popularization of conservation farming;
Quarantine Division prior to release or use these could include fiscal measures,
within the country. The Plant Protection provision of services, improvements in
Ordinance does not specifically cover the land and tree tenure, training and
import of living modified organisms (LMOs), awareness creation, etc.
and the law has to be amended to remedy
this. The Animal Diseases Act and the 6. Provide incentives and technical and other
Fauna and Flora Ordinance should also assistance for integrated farming in
be reviewed in the context of the import coconut, and support research on such
of LMOs. activities under rubber and tea.
During recent years, the government’s Main state institutions involved in

policies, for good reasons, have been directed implementing:
towards increasing exports which include DOA, DEA, FD, Department of Animal
traditional agricultural exports as well as Production and Health, Mahaweli Authority,
newly developed agriculture based products. TRI, CRI, RRI, MAL, Tea Small Holdings
Export-oriented enterprises involving live plants Development Authority, Rubber Development
and animals include the export of ornamental Authority, Coconut Cultivation Board.
plants and fish. This is an aspect requiring
very close scrutiny and stringent controls as
there is a direct threat to biodiversity through
the unchecked collection of organisms from
their natural habitats. Such activities would
undoubtedly endanger the survival of wild
stocks.
72
6.5 Priority Action for Selected 6.6 Ex situ Conservation

Bioregions Identifying the issues:
Identifying the issues: The conservation of biodiversity has to be
done mainly within natural habitats, i.e. in situ
Given the situation that the resources
. However, ex situ conservation, or conservation
available in Sri Lanka for biodiversity
outside the natural habitat, is also considered
conservation, as for other socio-economic
important. In today’s context, despite efforts at
development activities, will continue to be
in situ conservation, species may still be
limited in the foreseeable future, it was
lost in the wild, and ex situ collections may
considered necessary to develop a scheme that
turn out to be the only surviving germplasm
will provide a basis for prioritizing action. A
of the species. Also, unpredictable events
conceptual framework for dividing the country, could occur resulting in the destruction of
including its coastal and marine areas, into natural habitats and the extinction of rare
bioregions and for prioritizing the regions in species. Ex situ conservation, however, should
terms of the need to take biodiversity not be considered as a substitute for in situ
conservation action was developed. For conservation, but as a complementary strategy.
prioritizing, an integrative approach was
adopted that recognizes both the ecological Ex situ conservation is carried out
sensitivity of the region and the pressures they only in a very limited way in Sri Lanka. The
are subject to from human activities. Fifteen Plant Genetic Resources Centre at Peradeniya
bioregions were recognized, and it is is the only institution with facilities for the
recommended that bioregions 4,5 and 6 inland cryo-preservation of germplasm, and, as at
and 11, 13 and 14 in the coastal and marine present, only a fraction of the range of the
region be accorded high priority for biodiversity agricultural germplasm found in the country is
conservation action. stored at this center. (See Table 3.3). The
three botanical gardens at Peradeniya, Hakgala
Objective: and Henarathgoda house 4800, 100 and 500
To ensure that the bioregions requiring species of plants, of which 99, 60 and 38
the most urgent attention for biodiversity respectively are endemics, 81, 20 and 10 are
conservation are accorded high priority in the orchid species, and 300, 40 and 60 are
conservation programmes. medicinal plants. The National Zoological
Garden houses 103 species of mammals of
Recommended action: which three species are endemic; 119 species
1. The National Steering Committee, Task of birds of which three are endemic; 37
Forces, and the Biodiversity Secretariat species of reptiles of which three are endemic;
(see Chapter 8) to place special emphasis 34 species of freshwater fish of which 11 are
on plans and programmes for biodiversity endemic; and ten species of butterflies of
conservation in the high priority which two are endemic.
bioregions (4, 5, 6, 11, 13 and 14), The Department of Animal Production
and ensure that they are adequately and Health and its research arm the Veterinary
resourced. Research Institute, though mandated to improve
2. All government organizations to accord and ensure the proper utilization of domesticated
high priority to biodiversity programmes animals such as cattle, pigs and poultry, do
targeting the conservation and sustainable not have organized programmes for germplasm
use of biodiversity in the high priority conservation.
bioregions. Through the medicinal plant gardens
Main state institutions involved in coming under its purview, the Department of
implementing: Ayurveda carries out the ex situ conservation
of some species of medicinal plants. Some
MFE, FD, DWLC, Department of Ayurveda,
CEA, CCD, MAL, Mahaweli Authority, Provincial Councils also maintain herb gardens
provincial administration affiliated to their ayurvedic hospitals. The
73
Department of Town and Country Planning, Production and Health, and the research
under its Urban Park Development Project, institutes dealing with plantation crops, the
maintains a medicinal plants garden at need to establish and sustain wide germplasms
Kataragama, and the NGO Ritigala Community- of the species they are responsible for was
Based Development and Environmental emphasized. The Department of Animal
Management Foundation, at Ritigala, carries Production and Health was concerned about the
out the cultivation of medicinal plants. absence of accurate, scientific characterization
As regards indigenous wild fauna, the of local breeds of domesticated animals. It
also showed its interest in the cryo-preservation
role of the National Zoological Gardens for
of animal germplasm.
the ex situ conservation of germplasm is very
limited. There are no scientifically managed Currently, all the research institutes
captive breeding programmes for threatened maintain field collections of the varieties,
animals, though captive breeding has been cultivars and clones that are being used, but
found to be successful with certain species strengthening their capabilities, particularly to
like the elephant and leopard. apply modern biotechnological methods for
germplasm conservation, is warranted. The
Regarding aquatic biodiversity, the Department of Export Agriculture showed an
National Aquatic Resources Research and interest in characterizing its crop species and
Development Agency (NARA) has conducted preparing plant descriptors under the guidelines
successfully some programmes on the ex situ of the International Plant Genetic Resources
cultivation of corals and the breeding of some Institute. With regard to medicinal plants, the
indigenous varieties of ornamental fish in current efforts at ex situ conservation are grossly
captivity. There have also been a few other inadequate in the context of the diminishing
attempts at ex situ conservation of endangered habitats of these species. It is expected that
species. Out of some 70 species of Holothuria the field conservation of germplasm will be
(sea cucumber) found in the Indian Ocean, greatly expanded once the proposed medicinal
about 20 are edible, and out of those, seven plants project is implemented.
species are known to be found in the Sri The expansion of field gene banks is
Lankan marine waters. The NARA Regional constrained by the shortage of personnel and
Center at Kalpitiya, in its efforts to save the funds. The maintenance of live gene banks or
species Holothuria spinifera which is selectively field collections of some of these crops
and intensively harvested in the northwestern (particularly those susceptible to cross
coast, has demonstrated that all seven species pollination) is complicated by the necessity for
available in these waters are of comparable artificial selfing, emasculation, and other
quality, and that there is no necessity to techniques to prevent cross-breeding which will
harvest exclusively only one species. result in the dilution and genetic mixing of
Scathophagus argus and Monodactylus argentium pure lines. This warrants the use of trained
are two wild species of brackish water field personnel and the placing of the
ornamental fish, currently in demand for export. field gene banks under the supervision of
The NARA Regional Research Center at mandated, competent institutions.
Kadolkele, Negombo, has recently commenced To alleviate the problem of resource
scientific research on captive breeding of these limitations, it should be possible to adopt
two threatened species of brackish water fish innovative approaches for ex situ conservation.
in order to ensure their sustenance and survival. For example, gardens of chilli plants (which
These efforts, though commendable, fall far may have over 50 cultivars), coconut cultivar
short of what is required in terms of ex situ gardens, or root tuber crop cultivar gardens
conservation and sustainable use of Sri Lanka’s can be set up to make them attractive to
aquatic fauna. tourists and so bring in revenue. Such gardens
In discussions held with Departments would also serve for education and for
of Agriculture, Export Agriculture, and Animal stimulating public awareness. NGOs showing
74
an interest in such activities could provide left to the institutions to manage as best as
support to the government institutions they can with the limited resources at their
concerned. disposal. An umbrella scientific organization
A number of animal species indigenous like NARESA is well placed to take on the
to Sri Lanka, including certain endemic species, role of stimulating interest at the policy level
are threatened with extinction. The ornamental for promoting the allocation of resources for
fish trade has recently made significant demands addressing ex situ conservation in a
on tropical species which are harvested and meaningful way.
exported indiscriminately. It has therefore Objectives:
become necessary to launch a programme of
ex situ conservation, including captive breeding 1. To develop a national policy on ex situ
to protect certain species of animals. The germplasm conservation.
Zoological Gardens, though mandated to 2. To develop and implement programmes
perform this function, faces several limitations for the ex situ preservation of the
to implement such a programme. It is germplasm of indigenous species of useful
recommended that the Zoological Gardens be plants, animals and microorganisms, and
provided with additional personnel, facilities identified species under severe threat.
and funds to formulate and launch a captive
breeding programme for endangered species of Recommended action:
animals. In drawing up such a programme, 1. Formulate and implement a national
expertise should be obtained from the policy for germplasm conservation.
universities, NARA and the Department of
2. Strengthen the capacity and scope of the
Wildlife Conservation, and from competent
Plant Genetic Resources Centre as a
persons located in Sri Lanka and abroad. The
national centre for germplasm
functions of the Zoological Gardens should be
expanded to act as a repository of genetic conservation.
material from wild, indigenous species of 3. Strengthen the facilities of the three
animals. botanic gardens to enable them to expand
There is no centralized repository for their ex situ conservation activities.
microbial germplasm conservation, and a few 4. Improve the facilities available at the
research groups attached to universities and National Zoological Gardens so that it
certain research institutes maintain their own will serve as a repository of genetic
culture collections. There is, therefore, an material for all indigenous wild animal
urgent need to have a centralized repository species.
for the vast array of useful microorganisms
that are used in medicine, agriculture, food 5. Improve facilities at NARA for the ex
processing and industry, particularly in view situ conservation of indigenous ornamental
of their extensive application in modern fish species.
biotechnology. 6. Establish a gene bank for all indigenous
Overall, it is evident that the important domesticated animal species at the
role that ex situ conservation has to play in Veterinary Research Institute.
safeguarding Sri Lanka’s biodiversity, though
7. Initiate scientifically managed captive
understood by the implementing institutions, is
breeding programmes for endemic and
not recognized adequately at higher policy
threatened animal species.
making levels. Consequently, except for the
setting up of the Plant Genetic Resources 8. Survey and collect germplasm of local
Centre (which is the only institution with fruit trees and medicinal plants and
facilities for the cryo-preservation of germplasm establish arboreta.
in Sri Lanka) as a ”one off” exercise, all
9. Compile a directory of all institutionally
other measures for ex situ conservation are
75
and privately held collections of species. From the 1960s, with the department’s
reforestation programme expanding sharply, the
10. Monitor and support local community
resources provided for research (trained
and NGO efforts to establish and maintain manpower and funds) began to decline. The
seed banks. low priority given to research continued until
11. Monitor and support the efforts of private recent times. In recent efforts to resuscitate
establishments to propagate commercially the research division of the Department, several
important indigenous threatened plant measures were adopted, among which was the
species, utilizing biotechnology. setting up of a National Forestry Research
Committee, with the Conservator of Forests as
12. Identify suitable centres and provide Chairman, and with members from other
adequate resources for the conservation organizations including the universities. This
of microbial germplasm. initiative must be accompanied by a
13. Establish urban and rural parks and strengthening of the research capacity of the
field gene banks of selected species and, department to build within it a core of
researchers on different aspects of forest
where possible, develop these as centres
science. Even with the additional strengthening,
for promoting education and creating
the department should always recognize, as it
awareness among the public.
does now, that a great deal of forestry research
Main state institutions involved in implementing should continue to be done at the universities,
: and this must be given every encouragement.
DOA, DEA, Department of Animal Production As regards research on biodiversity,
and Health, TRI, RRI, CRI, RRI, VRI, the Forest Department has, through its National
Botanical gardens, Zoological gardens, NARA, Conservation Review, gathered valuable data
NARESA on biodiversity in the natural forests of the
country in relation to plants (woody species)
6.7 Research and animals (vertebrates, molluscs and
Identifying the issues: butterflies). The Department, through its normal
research programme, is also carrying out some
Most of the government organizations research on the regeneration of indigenous
that deal with the conservation and use of woody species. Research projects on forest
biodiversity have a section within their biodiversity have been carried out by some
institutions devoted to research. These include members of the teaching staff of the universities
the Forest Department, Department of in areas of particular interest to them, and
Agriculture, Department of Export Agriculture, these are mostly related to the distribution of
Department of Animal Production and Health, plant species and animal species of selected
Department of Ayurveda, and the NARA. taxa. Subjects such as conservation and
Notably, however, the Department of Wildlife reproductive biology, which are important in
Conservation does not have a research section. the context of sustainable use of biodiversity,
Some state organizations are exclusively devoted are poorly researched. All the current research
to research activities such as the TRI, CRI on biodiversity does not add up to the level
and RRI. The universities too play a significant of research that is necessary to support an
role in the national research efforts on effective programme for the conservation and
biodiversity, and many of their research projects sustainable use of forest biodiversity and is, at
are being carried out in collaboration with any rate, quite inadequate for a country with
foreign scientific institutions. NARESA supports such a wealth of biodiversity and endemism
research on biodiversity by providing grants. among its indigenous fauna and flora. Further
The Forest Department’s research research in biodiversity should therefore be
section was created over 60 years ago, and in promoted. Collaboration with centres of
the early days its activities were focused on excellence abroad should be encouraged in
silvicultural and timber utilization research. order to strengthen national research capabilities;
76
but in so doing adequate safeguards should be on flora received much more attention than on
taken to ensure that access to Sri Lanka’s fauna, and scant attention was accorded to
genetic resources and related information is the in situ management of threatened faunal
provided only on binding conditions that will species. There was no research on captive
ensure that any benefits derived from the use breeding with the aim of subsequent re-
of such resources or information are equitably introduction to the wild.
shared with this country. Objectives:
Research on bioactive substances 1. To evolve mechanisms for coordination
obtained from diverse bioresources, including and consolidation of research efforts in
medicinal plants, is being conducted by biodiversity conservation and its
researchers in the universities, the Medical sustainable use.
Research Institute and the Ceylon Institute of
2. To promote research on subjects relevant
Scientific and Industrial Research. This, together
to the conservation and sustainable use
with other areas of biodiversity research, would
of indigenous species of fauna and
have to be strengthened in the context of the
flora, particularly those under threat.
provisions of the Convention on Biological
Diversity regarding access to genetic resources, 3. To establish and support programmes to
access to and transfer of technology, and collect, collate and document scientific
technical and scientific cooperation. data on Sri Lanka’s biodiversity.
On aquatic fauna, research in Recommended action:
biodiversity overall is inadequate. NARA has 1. Institutionalize and strengthen current
been carrying out research on some marine programmes of research on biodiversity
and brackish water species, and there have and document qualitative, quantitative and
been a few research projects carried out by distributional data on animals, plants
university staff. A great deal more has to be and microorganisms of Sri Lanka.
done to provide the scientific information for
2. Review all on-going and past research
the conservation of aquatic fauna, particularly
on biodiversity conservation and
of threatened species.
sustainable use, and identify gaps,
An interesting study was carried out institutions and scientific resources for
by IUCN Sri Lanka in collaboration with future research.
WCMC on Investments on Biodiversity
3. Provide financial resources for research
Conservation in Sri Lanka in the period 1991
on identified high priority areas pertaining
to 1994. This study revealed that, for
to the conservation and sustainable use
biodiversity conservation work, over 90 per
of components of biodiversity, particularly
cent of the funds come from external agencies,
digenous species under threat and those
mainly through bilateral arrangements. With
of potential economic value.
regard to biodiversity conservation research,
many small to medium scale projects were 4. Extend the NCR to cover gaps in
undertaken by researchers in the universities. knowledge on the existence and
The total funds received by the universities distribution of non-vascular plants,
for research on biodiversity conservation was, invertebrates and microorganisms
however, less than a tenth of the total funding 5. Mobilize resources and expertise for
received for all aspects of biodiversity biodiversity research in Sri Lanka.
conservation work in the country from external
as well as from internal sources. The study 6. Develop and introduce regulations to
also revealed that, with respect to research, ensure that, if access to Sri Lanka’s
the main focus was on systematics and genetic resources and related information
inventory and on basic studies relating to is granted through collaborative research
species and ecosystems. Biodiversity research arrangements to non-national organizations
or individuals, adequate safeguards are
77
taken to ensure that any benefits derived training in effective teaching methods; shortage
from such resources or information are of equipment and teaching aids; social
shared equitably with this country. constraints to the introduction of practical
7. Promote collaborative research aimed at aspects of environmental education; the
strengthening Sri Lanka’s research examination oriented teaching practices expected
capability in biodiversity related work, of teachers by senior school administrators,
with adequate safeguards as specified students and parents; and the lack of support
under 6 above. from school administrators for departing from
the conventional approach to environmental
Main state institutions involved in education.
implementing:
A few organizations have attempted to
NARESA, CARP, FD, MFE, NM and address the problem of resource constraints
universities
faced by teachers. March for Conservation
(MfC), a national NGO which specializes in
environmental education, prepared a set of
6.8 Education and Awareness innovative environmental education aids for
Identifying the issues: years six, seven and eight, and tested them
among teachers and students from about 100
In the sphere of education, biodiversity
conservation rarely figures as a subject by schools in selected districts. The teachers
itself and is often included as a part of responsible for environmental education in these
environmental curricula. This is not surprising schools were also trained to supplement their
as, in the current context, concern for the class room teaching with these teaching aids,
loss of biodiversity is still an emerging issue. using novel teaching techniques. Several other
In the school curriculum of the national NGOs carry out programmes related to
education system, environmental education is strengthening awareness on biodiversity among
included from the primary grades. At secondary school children. These include Worldview and
school level, aspects of environmental education the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society.
are included in the subjects science, social NARESA carried out a project in
studies and health studies. At pre-university collaboration with MfC to carry out training
level, aspects of biodiversity are included in programmes for teachers in field sites and to
the subjects botany, zoology and geography. produce supplementary reading material and
The National Institute of Education is posters (tropical rain forests and coral reefs)
the main institution concerned with curriculum for secondary schools. It is at present engaged
development within the school system. Although in producing a set of scientific pictorial books
sound curricula have been developed, there on mammals, birds, the Sinharaja forest,
are, as the Institute itself acknowledges, several medicinal plants and coastal resources. Posters
deficiencies in the imparting of environmental and other educational material on aspects of
education. This is mainly because the teachers, biodiversity are being produced by other
for the most part, use only conventional government organizations too, e.g. the Forest
classroom lectures to teach environmental Department, MFE, Coast Conservation
subjects, and they lack the motivation and Department, CEA, DWLC and NARA, and
technical capacity for effective teaching of the these organizations also conduct seminars for
relevant subject components. Teachers are school children and the public. All these
particularly weak in promoting environmental activities by both the governmental and non-
consciousness among students. While some governmental organizations are insufficient by
teachers are decidedly innovative, they form a themselves to make a significant national impact
small minority. The constraints identified by on improving the standard of teaching of
teachers as barring effective teaching of biodiversity and its conservation at the school
environmental topics were: lack of access to level. A concerted national effort is needed to
current literature on topical matters; lack of
78
give appropriate training to the teachers and understanding of biodiversity is required in all
to provide the necessary teaching aids. sectors of government to ensure that biodiversity
concerns are recognized in the course of
At the university level, biodiversity is
implementing development projects. NARESA
covered in many undergraduate courses in the
has initiated a programme to address this
biological sciences, but is absent in the
need; such programmes should be expanded
veterinary science degree course. At the
and replicated. In the private sector too a
postgraduate level, for masters degrees by
knowledge of biodiversity is necessary in sectors
course work, biodiversity is included in the
like trade, commerce and building construction.
relevant curricula at the Universities of
Colombo, Peradeniya and Sri Jayewardenepura, A project for enhancing biodiversity
and at the Open University. A significant gap skills among professionals in both the
at the postgraduate level is that only a few governmental and non-governmental sectors was
students opt to specialize in taxonomy which started in 1995 by MfC in collaboration with
is essential for biodiversity survey and MFE and IUCN Sri Lanka. There is every
assessment. reason to justify the continuation of this project
and to upgrade it into a continuing programme.
Many of the activities which deal with
education and awareness relating to biodiversity Objectives:
conservation are carried out by NGOs. 1. To enhance knowledge, skills, attitudes
At present there are over 360 NGOs and values relating to biodiversity and
involved in such activities, from the national its conservation and sustainable use,
level right down to the village community through formal and non-formal education.
level. Many of these activities are being 2. To enhance knowledge on biodiversity
managed on ”shoe string” budgets. The Wildlife and the need to conserve it, among
and Nature Protection Society, an NGO of professionals in the governmental and
over 100 years standing, is coordinating and non-governmental sectors.
assisting the activities of a network of nature
clubs covering 300 schools in the Island. 3. To increase awareness and concern among
Many other NGOs are spreading the message the public of the need to conserve Sri
of biodiversity conservation through seminars, Lanka’s biodiversity.
workshops, and the radio and print media. 4. To increase resources for education,
Notwithstanding the many activities that training and awareness activities in relation
are being carried out to promote awareness to biodiversity.
among school children and the general public Recommended action:
of the importance of conserving biodiversity
and using it sustainably, they are slow to 1. Improve the quality of school curricula
make an impact. One reason is that these to make the learning and teaching of
activities target only small sections of the biodiversity more effective.
population. Another is that they are very 2. Review, select and make available in
poorly funded, which means that they are adequate numbers supplementary
severely restricted in term of materials and educational materials that have already
manpower. been developed, for use in primary and
A serious deficiency in implementing secondary schools.
biodiversity conservation measures is the non- 3. Produce new educational material on
availability of the requisite information needed biodiversity issues not adequately covered
by professionals. For example, law enforcement at present and, in the nature of case
agencies like the Customs and the Police do studies, on new emerging conditions
not have access to information on identifying relating to biodiversity.
plant and animal species commonly smuggled
4. Organize training courses for teachers on
out of the country. Indeed, a good general
the use of practical and field oriented
methods of teaching biodiversity, with an
79
emphasis on different location-specific awareness creation activities on
situations, giving due recognition to the biodiversity conservation.
proposals and recommendations made by
15. Publish a low-cost newsletter particularly
teachers at various fora.
for use by teachers and media personnel
5. Formulate a scheme for nominating regarding biodiversity issues of topical
motivated school teachers to follow interest.
overseas courses in biodiversity teaching
methods and to serve as master teachers 16. Promote the publication of biodiversity
on their return. information in established newspapers that
target the school going population.
6. Activate the existing field centres (at
Horana, Palabaddala, Kurulukele, etc.) Main state institutions involved in
for practical work related to biodiversity, implementing:
and open more centres where appropriate, NIE, UGC, CEA, FD, CCD, NARESA, MFE,
ensuring that the bioregions are Ministry of Education and Higher Education
adequately represented.
6.9 Biodiversity Information
7. Introduce aspects of biodiversity into
undergraduate courses in agriculture, Identifying the issues:
veterinary science, engineering, Although there is a sizeable volume of
architecture, commerce and the social information on Sri Lanka’s biodiversity - in the
sciences. form of bibliographic collections, specimen
lists, maps, reports, GIS holdings, and digital
8. Promote, by offering grants and by databases - much of it is scattered in
other means, postgraduate specialization governmental, semi-governmental, non-
in biodiversity fields, e.g. taxonomy of governmental, project, and academic institutions,
plants and animals. or is in the custody of individual scientists.
9. Increase support for NGOs with Its existence, however, remains largely unknown
demonstrated capability, to carry out to would-be users, including policy makers.
awareness programmes on biodiversity. A good deal of information on Sri Lanka’s
species is also found in institutions abroad
10. Support the production of biodiversity where types specimens are lodged and where
oriented feature films; such videos could the scientific papers are published. Among
be marketed locally and internationally. local scientists, only a few have the means of
getting access to this information. A user’s
11. Formulate a comprehensive countrywide
inability to obtain specific information may
awareness programme through the print
either be due to its non-existence or to
and audio-visual media, and seek private difficulties of access, the latter because of the
support for the programme. lack of established measures to classify and
12. Institutionalize the Biodiversity Skills provide information to different categories of
Enhancement Project, and secure funding users which is a constraint that is applicable
for its continuation; replicate such mainly to state institutions.
programmes. A national survey of biodiversity
information was conducted in 1996 as part of
13. Increase media capability by organizing
the BCAP preparation process. The primary
short training courses on the production
purpose of the survey was to develop a
of audio-visual programmes which "metadatabase" (defined as data that describe
promote biodiversity conservation other data) of biodiversity related information.
(documentaries, discussions, news Evidence from the survey suggests that
clippings, etc.). information managers were well trained, but
14. Mobilize funding for education and in fields that do not prepare them to take
advantage of modern technology. For instance,
80
about a quarter of the "information management found in scientific papers published abroad,
specialists" have post graduate training, but very and few people in Sri Lanka other than the
few have had any training in computer hardware authors know of the existence of these
maintenance, analysis of computerized spatial publications. Clearly there is a need for
data, or systems analysis. By contrast, library collation of the biodiversity related information,
science is the most common area of training and this should be done as a continuation of
within this group. the exercise which has already commenced at
About 80 per cent of biodiversity MFE in compiling a metadatabase.
information management institutions regularly An important data-set that has
use Database and Graphics software, but less contributed immensely to the information base
than 15 per cent use GIS software. State on forest biodiversity has been developed
institutions had the best equipment for through the NCR. However, this information is
information management, but it was little used restricted to woody plants among the flora and
for this purpose. to vertebrates, molluscs and butterflies among
Although nearly 50 per cent of information the fauna. Information on herbaceous flora has
management institutions have access to e-mail, not been collected in this survey. Another area
of these, less than half have access to full where forestry information is inadequate is on
the characterization of medicinal plants and of
Internet facilities such as the File Transfer
different ecotypes of useful species. On non-
Protocol, Worldwide Web, Gopher, etc.
timber uses of forests, the recently carried out
Academic institutions constitute the group that survey on traditional uses of forests provides
is best served with full Internet connections, very useful basic information, but this has to
while government institutions are the least. be followed up by more detailed studies. A
Among biodiversity information data- related area is the human-forest relationship,
sets, information concerning gene banks on where much of the available information is
plants, animals and micro-organisms were anecdotal.
poorly represented. While a large number of Several important data-sets are available
data-sets had information on ecosystems, there on coastal and marine resources, but are not
were relatively few on protected areas. Although readily accessible to researchers and planners.
a fair number included socio-economic Examples are data on mangroves, coral mining,
information, few had information on legal fishery practices, ornamental fish exports, etc.
issues or land tenure and property rights. Information on habitats and ecosystems in the
Nearly all data-sets have English as one of coastal and marine areas is sparse. The wetland
their operational languages, but only about a site reports provide a nucleus of information
quarter are operational in Sinhala and about and they could be used as a model where
six per cent in Tamil. rapid collection of data on biodiversity is
In the course of BCAP preparation, necessary. On marine invertebrates, identification
several working groups were set up to identify and characterization is inadequate, particularly
the issues and the actions needed for improving in the context of the growing economic
the status of biodiversity information in Sri importance of these species for export. With
Lanka and providing better access to it. Their regard to water quality, apart from NARA’s
findings are briefly reported below. surveys and reports of some years back and
limited monitoring by the National Water Supply
There is much information on forests, and Drainage Board and the University of Sri
including protected areas, but this is not Jayewardenepura, there are no other sources of
readily accessible to those who need it. In information.
part, this is because the institutions and
individuals concerned do not make widely In the area of agriculture, biotechnology
known the published and unpublished and genetics, many institutions possess
information they possess. Often, the unpublished specialised data-sets on focused topics, but the
information remains in files as raw data and custodians of the information do not readily
may eventually be lost. Some information is make it known that such information is
available.
81
On faunal species, much information is information and guidelines to assist
available but is difficult to access. Many custodial institutions to formulate
faunal species, especially invertebrates, collected individual information access policies for
in Sri Lanka have been identified and in-country and external would-be users.
characterized outside the country, and few
2. Establish mechanisms at MFE for
people in Sri Lanka have access to this
regularly maintaining and updating the
information. Data on animal husbandry are
meta-databases on biodiversity now being
notably sparse. On micro-organisms, Sri Lanka
established, and for setting up of a
has no institutionalized database, and, given
meta-database on indigenous biodiversity
the commercial significance of micro-organisms
information held outside Sri Lanka.
today, this is considered a serious deficiency.
There is also a marked absence of information 3. Identify a state institution to deal with
on biosafety measures. biodiversity information management and
access issues and to facilitate the
An important information resource in
continued maintenance of biodiveristy
Sri Lanka is the indigenous knowledge on
meta-databases.
biodiversity and its use in farming, ayurvedic
medicine, home remedies, etc. Some of the 4. Increase capacity of individual custodial
information on medicine is documented in ola institutions to collate and analyse
leaves, but much of the information is in the biodiversity data using current computer
memory of old medical practitioners, farmers, technology and software through training
priests, and village elders, and this information and review of staff requirements; and
is passed down through an oral tradition increase capacity for the operational
from one generation to the next. This language of databases to be expanded to
information must be compiled, documented and cover Sinhala and Tamil where relevant.
archived. In so doing, it is important to see 5. Promote measures to enhance technical
that this traditional knowledge is adequately capacity for information exchange and
safeguarded, and that it is made accessible establish mechanisms for the collation of
only if measures are taken to ensure that any information on Sri Lanka’s biodiversity
benefits derived from its use are equitably available within and outside the country
shared by this country. and store such data in the relevant
Objectives: custodial institutions.
1. To ensure that the sources of all the 6. Extend the coverage of biodiversity data
information on Sri Lanka’s biodiversity collection to include non-woody and non-
are centrally documented. vascular flora, invertebrate fauna, micro-
organisms and marine fauna and flora,
2. To formalize and regulate access to
and store such information in the
information on biodiversity.
custodial institutions.
3. To strengthen the information base on
7. Strengthen information collection in the
biodiversity, and to ensure that major
following areas: uses of forest resources
gaps in biodiversity information are
other than timber and fuelwood, functional
identified and addressed through targeted
aspects and dynamics of ecosystems and
investments.
habitats, and human-resource relationships.
4. To archive indigenous knowledge and
8. Collate data on hydrology and water
legalize mechanisms to protect it.
quality and store data in relevant custodial
Recommended action: institutions.
1. Formulate a national policy on 9. Strengthen the database relating to the
information management that includes the characterization of indigenous plant
identification of criteria for collection, species in use for medicine and food.
management and storage of biodiversity
10. Gather information on the benefits as
82
well as risks associated with the arrest the adverse trends in biodiversity loss.
application of modern biotechnology in Another reason, and a major one at that, is
the conservation and use of biodiversity. that the provisions available in the existing
laws for protecting the biodiversity of the
11. Launch a special programme for the
country are defective in certain respects and
collection and archiving of data on
inadequate for fulfilling their purpose. For
indigenous knowledge pertaining to
example, there is now a lucrative export trade
biodiversity and institutionalize the
in the export of live ornamental fish and
process giving due regard to the need
plants, and collection in the wild and export
for controlling and regulating access to
in large numbers poses a serious threat to
this information.
many indigenous species. The laws relating to
12. Identify and provide support to selected these activities must be reviewed and revised.
"centres of excellence" for collating and
In certain statutes there is overlap and
managing data sets on aspects of
sometimes, conflict. What is strictly regulated
biodiversity.
and controlled by one Act may be permitted
13. Provide support to identified NGOs for more freely under another. A notable case is
assisting in research and collection of the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance and
field data on biodiversity. the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act in
Main state institutions involved in respect of the import and export of fish and
implementing: other aquatic organisms.
MFE, MAL, Ministry in charge of ayurvedic As regards the management of protected

medicine, Ayurveda Department, DOA, DWLC, areas and other state forests, the statutes
FD, NARA, NARESA, CEA, universities. covering this activity are generally replete
with acts that are prohibited and the penalties
for infringement - the command and control
concept. There is very little room for
6.10 Legal Measures
participation of stakeholders in the management
Identifying the issues: of these areas. The rights that communities
In Sri Lanka, the different laws in living adjacent to forests have enjoyed for
force today relating to environmental generations is not duly recognized in these
protection, many of which directly or indirectly ordinances. With regard to the state’s
relate to the conservation of species and obligations, except for the Coast Conservation
ecosystems, add up to around 80. The most Act and the National Wilderness Areas Act,
often cited ones are the Forest Ordinance, the there is no direction to the implementing
Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, National agencies as to their responsibility for the
Environmental Act, National Heritage proper management of the areas under their
Wilderness Areas Act, Felling of Trees jurisdiction.
(Control) Act, Botanic Gardens Ordinance, The Plant Protection Ordinance and
National Aquatic Resources Research and the Animal Diseases Act, dealing with the
Development Agency Act, Fisheries and Aquatic import of plant and animal species respectively,
Resources Act, Plant Protection Ordinance, are intended to prevent the introduction of
Animal Diseases Act, and the Customs pests, diseases and invasive organisms.
Ordinance. However, with changing perceptions in science
Despite this large body of statutes, it where micro-organisms are not considered to
could be said that there are many activities belong either to the plant or the animal
taking place today which are seriously eroding kingdom, and with advances in science and
the biodiversity resources of the country. One technology bringing into being a new breed of
clear reason for this is poor law enforcement, organisms, namely, living modified organisms,
since even with the existing laws, despite the statutes must be amended and updated to
deficiencies, much more could be done to recognize these changes. At present, when
micro organisms are to be imported to Sri
83
Lanka, it is not clear whether it is the its biodiversity. Sovereign rights of the state
Department of Agriculture or the Department over its biological diversity have to be
of Animal Production and Health that has to recognized by law. Laws and regulations
grant the relevant authority, or whether any should be enacted to control access to the
approval at all is necessary. country’s genetic resources and traditional
The Convention on Biological Diversity knowledge and to ensure that there is equitable
(CBD) is the major international legal sharing of benefits from the use of these
instrument for the conservation of the world’s resources. Action must be taken to incorporate
biodiversity. It has been ratified by over 165 "prior informed consent" and "mutually agreed
countries as of March 1997. Sri Lanka ratified terms" in agreements covering the export of
the Convention in March 1994. Besides the germplasm, the sharing of traditional knowledge,
CBD there are other international conventions and the carrying out of joint research .
dealing with biodiversity, and notable among Objectives:
these are the Ramsar Convention on wetlands
1. To develop sound legislation to ensure
and the CITES Convention on trade in
the conservation and sustainable use of
endangered species.
the country’s indigenous biological
The CBD has introduced many new diversity, particularly the components
areas of concern in international relations under threat.
regarding the conservation of biological 2. To enforce the legislation pertaining to
diversity. These include the transfer of genetic the conservation of biodiversity.
material from one country to another, the use
of traditional knowledge of one country for 3. To provide for the fair and equitable
technological development in another, the sharing of benefits by resource owners
equitable sharing of benefits derived from the and users arising from the utilization of
use of genetic resources, and collaboration in genetic resources and indigenous
specialized knowledge.
research between developed and developing
countries. These concerns are strongly voiced Recommended action:
in developing countries which are richly 1. Provide legal recognition to the sovereign
endowed with genetic resources but are often right of the state over its biological
relatively weak in their science and technology resources, including genetic resources.
capacity. These countries are also heirs to a
rich store of germplasm selected through 2. Establish a legal framework for the
centuries for particular desirable characters control and regulation of access to genetic
and cultivated in situ, and of traditional resources, collaborative research using
knowledge in the use of biological diversity indigenous biodiversity, and bio-
prospecting.
for food and medicine. The countries are
concerned that the developed countries may, 3. Establish a legal framework and
through provisions in the CBD, gain access to regulatory mechanism for controlling
these resources and use their superior research in, and the release of, genetically
technological skills for product development, modified organisms.
while not compensating the country from where 4. Review the legislation pertaining to the
the resource originally came. Many developing import and export of living organisms
countries do not have the legal mechanisms (including genetic resources) and amend,
in place to safeguard their genetic resources as necessary, to remove anomalies and
from such exploitation. This is precisely where strengthen where necessary, so as to
Sri Lanka is placed. provide adequate protection to indigenous
Legislative or quasi-legislative measures, biodiversity.
as appropriate, must be adopted in the 5. Clarify legal issues relating to the import
context of the CBD to safeguard Sri Lanka’s of a all organisms, including
interests regarding the conservation and use of microorganisms and living modified
organisms.
84
Box 6.9
VALUATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The economic values attributed to biodiversity may be categorized according to different types of uses
as follows.
Direct Use This might be the use of a forest, wetland or other ecosystem for timber extraction,
collecting non-timber products, fishing, and so on.
Indirect Use This refers to the benefits deriving from ecosystem functions such as flood control,
storm protection, soil conservation, water recharge, nutrient recycling, carbon storage, etc.
Option Value This a potential use in the future i.e. based on opting to conserve biodiversity
with the hope that in the future it could be used directly or indirectly e.g. as a source
of genetic material, for pharmaceuticals, etc.
Bequest value This measures the benefit accruing to any individual from the knowledge that
others might benefit from the conserved resource in the future.
Existence value This is the value placed on biodiversity purely based on its continued existence,
irrespective of whether or not it will ever be used.
Source: Pearce and Moran (1994)
6. Control and regulate the export of all 12. Draft legally binding regulations to
organisms, particularly threatened ensure that research on any component
organisms. of indigenous biodiversity carried out by
7. Provide a legal framework for the non-nationals of Sri Lanka is only done
recognition and protection of indigenous on the basis of an agreement with a
knowledge of the country by petty patents local institution and in close collaboration
or such other similar systems irrespective with Sri Lankan scientists, and that the
of time limitations. outcome of such research, including
information that is generated, is made
8. Provide a legal framework to enable the
available to Sri Lankan scientists and
implementation of the CITES convention
institutions.
with regard to the protection of
endangered species. Main state institutions involved in
implementing:
9. Take remedial measures for the protection
of species that are presently being subject MFE, MAL, Legal Draftsman, AG’s
to illegal trade. department, FD, DWLC, Department of
Ayurveda, Registrar of Patents and Trademarks
10. Draft regulations in terms of section 38,
of the Fauna and Flora Protection
Ordinance regulating the release of
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish
6.11 Institutional Support
or invertebrates. Identifying the issues:
11. Draft regulations in terms of section 24, A survey of the institutions in both
of the Forest Ordinance, as amended by state and non-state sectors revealed that there
the Forest (amendment) Act, No. 3 of are numerous organizations which are
1995 for the import and export of stakeholders in biodiversity conservation. Among
timber and seeds of forest tree species these, there are several lead organizations
and other forest produce. whose activities will determine the successful
implementation of the Biodiversity Conservation
85
Action Plan (BCAP). These organizations need also, as timber and other forest products are
to be proactive to BCAP challenges. They harvested from the forests under its charge.
will have to lead and enthuse other The universities are engaged, to varying
organizations and chart the future course of degrees, in carrying out research which provides
the BCAP. Capacity building efforts should be basic data for the conservation and management
directed primarily towards these institutions in of biodiversity.
the expectation that such efforts would have Many non-governmental organizations
the desired multiplier effect on other relevant play a significant role in the conservation of
institutions. In addition, there are also many Sri Lanka’s biodiversity, both at national and
state organizations which are important users grass roots level. The key NGOs concerned
of bioresources as well as a large number of with biodiversity are regularly consulted by
institutions, both in the state and private the relevant government organizations on
sector, whose activities can have an adverse research and management activities, formulation
impact on biodiversity. The activities of some of environmental policy, and promotion of
research institutions, universities, NGOs and environmental education both at school and
private entrepreneurs can also exert a community level.
considerable influence on the biodiversity of
the country. Efforts focused on promoting At the national policy level, the
conservation and sustainable use of biological ministries in charge of the subjects of
resources should be directed towards these environment, agriculture, lands, forests,
organizations and institutions. plantations, fisheries, livestock, indigenous
medicine, science and technology, education
A survey on institutional capabilities and defence, and the Provincial Councils have
has revealed a variety of organizational, a vital role to play in the conservation and
managerial and structural deficiencies in addition sustainable use of biodiversity.
to a gross shortfall in physical, financial, and
human resources that would be needed for the In order to co-ordinate activities related
effective implementation of the Biodiversity to biodiversity conservation, MTEWA set up
Conservation Action Plan. a Biodiversity Co-ordinating Group with
representatives from ministries, departments,
The biological resources of the country corporations and the NGO sector. In addition,
are administered by many state institutions - the ministry has set up an Experts Committee
under the purview of the central government on biodiversity whose main function is to
and the provincial administrations. Natural advise the ministry on matters relating to the
forests come under the jurisdiction of several implementation of the Convention on Biological
state agencies, chiefly the Forest Department Diversity. Besides the above two bodies, the
and the Department of Wildlife Conservation. ministry has set up networks of organizations
Other institutions that have a role in the involved in the use or conservation of
conservation and management of biological biodiversity or whose activities have an impact
resources are the Department of Coast on biodiversity. The formation of these bodies
Conservation; the National Aquatic Resources are useful first steps in enthusing the
Research and Development Agency; the "constituency" as a whole to recognize the
Zoological Gardens; the National Botanical importance of conserving biological diversity
Gardens; the research institutes under the and using it sustainably. But to work
Ministry of Plantation Industry; the Natural effectively, bodies created by the ministry in
Resources, Energy and Science Authority; the charge of the environment must be adequately
Central Environmental Authority; and the resourced in terms of skilled manpower and
Mahaweli Authority. In addition, the provincial funds. This is what is lacking now and it
ministries of the environment should have a must be remedied as soon as possible.
responsibility for biodiversity conservation at
the regional level. There are several other The principal state organizations
government organizations whose activities mandated for environmental protection and
involve the consumptive use of biological biodiversity conservation have developed plans
diversity. These are, notably, the Departments such as the Forestry Sector Master Plan, the
of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Ayurveda. The National Environmental Action Plan, and the
Forest Department falls into this category Coastal Conservation Master Plan. Within the
86
umbrella of these sectoral plans, several action function relates to the use of biodiversity.
plans have been prepared. Notable amongst
3. Catalyze international collaboration in
those concerned with biodiversity conservation
relevant areas of research on biodiversity
is the dozen or so management plans for
conservation forests and the plan for the Peak and biotechnology where local expertise
Wilderness Sanctuary. If these sectoral and and facilities are limited.
departmental plans are implemented, they would 4. Develop plans for international projects
make a huge impact on the conservation of on marine biodiversity in collaboration
the nation’s biodiversity. But here again, the with NARA and the universities.
resource constraint is the impediment, and
progress in implementation is slow at best. 5. Take adequate steps to strengthen the
research capabilities of universities,
Much has been done to awaken research institutes and the botanical and
government organizations and the general zoological gardens, particularly in modern
public (many for which the concept of techniques of biotechnology for taxonomy
biodiversity as now understood was entirely and germplasm conservation.
novel) to a realization that the country’s
biodiversity is a national treasure that had to 6. Take steps to modernize the storage and
be conserved. This has been done primarily maintenance capacity of "custodial
through the efforts of the ministry in charge institutions of information on biodiversity"
of the environment and other organizations to ensure confidentiality and efficiency.
including NGOs. The time is now ripe to 7. Enhance the knowledge of law
declare a national policy on biodiversity, the enforcement and preventive officers
adoption of which will give an impetus to the (including the police, customs and
implementation of biodiversity conservation quarantine) and provide the necessary
programmes. material to enable them efficiently to
Objectives: stem unauthorized transactions in
biodiversity.
1. To develop an effective system to
coordinate and monitor activities for the 8. Provide manpower training and facilities
conservation and sustainable use of to implement recommended actions.
biodiversity. Main state institutions involved in
2. To ensure that institutional arrangements implementing:
are in place, with adequate resources and Ministry in charge of wildlife, Ministry of
manpower, in all the government Finance, MFE, MAL, FD, DWLC, DFAR,
organizations concerned for the Department of Ayurveda, Botanical and
conservation and sustainable use of Zoological Gardens, CEA, NARA, NARESA,
biological diversity. research institutes, universities, provincial
3. To ensure that all government administration, police, customs and quarantine.
organizations that have an impact on
biological diversity recognize the need to
6.12 Valuation of Biodiversity
conserve this resource and take Identifying the Issues:
appropriate action to do so.
Biodiversity and the manifold processes
Recommended action: that go with it form the basis of life in the
1. Provide the needed resources to the biosphere. Biological diversity, therefore, has
departments in charge of biodiversity immense value because of its ecological
conservation for capacity building - staff functions.. It also has social, ethical and
recruitment and training and infrastructural cultural values, and this has been recognized
support. from the earliest days of human history. With
mankind’s survival and well-being so heavily
2. Provide the needed resources to the dependent on it, biodiversity must certainly
Department of Ayurveda whose main
87
also have considerable economic value. biodiversity values can be incorporated into
However, conventional principles of economic the process of decision making on investment
analysis demand that a resource be used for it projects. In Sri Lanka, there is currently a
to acquire value. In other words, a standing lack of expertise to carry out environmental
tree can only be valued in terms of the price valuation, and the relevant expertise must be
it would fetch in the market place as timber. developed. This is a matter that should receive
New approaches to economic assessment are the urgent attention of MFE (as the focal
required in order to ensure that economic point for biodiversity and the environment),
values incorporate both monetary and non- the ministry in charge of policy planning, and
monetary expressions of preference. Assigning academia.
these qualitative and quantitative values could In carrying out valuation studies, it is
provide justification for increased action in necessary to emphasize the importance of
conserving biodiversity. adopting appropriate criteria and methodologies
In Sri Lanka, calculations of the and focusing on values that are of relevance
contribution of the forestry sector to the GDP to Sri Lanka. Grant funding should be made
take into account only the marketed timber available to encourage researchers to take to
and fuelwood. In the case of fuelwood, a this field of study. Failure to address this
good part of what comes from the forest is in issue will mean that biodiversity will continue
fact not marketed. The numerous biodiversity to be undervalued, and public investments on
values, which could be several times the value biodiversity will continue to be
of the marketed wood, are not taken into disproportionately low.
account. The very presence of the biodiversity
Objectives:
rich forests in the wet zone, situated as they
are on the mountain slopes, serve a critically 1. To develop methodologies and expertise
important hydrological function. By regulating for the proper valuation of the country’s
water discharge, they provide benefits to biodiversity.
agricultural systems, hydropower schemes, and
2. To develop mechanisms to incorporate
the living environment. There are other benefits
biodiversity values into national accounting
that are easier to quantify, but still not
and decision making at different levels.
adequately recognized in assessing the value of
the country’s biodiversity. These are the Recommended Actions:
multitude of non-timber products which 1. Undertake policy studies on the general
the forests provide such as fuelwood (the impacts of economic policy on
large quantities collected directly from the biodiversity.
forest by rural house-holds), medicinal plants,
food items, cane, rattan, etc. A country’s 2. Develop appropriate methodologies and
biodiversity also serves as a gene pool of apply them for carrying out studies to
make realistic valuations of Sri Lanka’s
considerable potential value. Wild species, or
biodiversity, and apply the results in
genetic material derived from them, have from
national planning, national accounting,
time to time yielded benefits of immense value and decision making at different levels.
in the spheres of food and medicine. Here, in
Sri Lanka, a case in point is the development 3. Gather information on indigenous
of cultivated varieties of rice which are knowledge on the use of plants for medicine,
resistant to certain pests and diseases by and carry out vertical integration in biodiversity
crossing with wild varieties that are naturally prospecting, i.e. take the utilization of
resistant. Wild species, particularly wild relatives bioresources for ayurvedic medicine beyond the
of cultivated plants, are a resource of basic level of direct use to the preparation of
considerable potential economic value, but the the marketable finished products.
value of this resource cannot be estimated
until it is used. Finally, an important value of Main state sector institutions involved in
biodiversity that goes unrecognized as such in implementing:
national accounting is its aesthetic value.
MFE, Ministry in charge of planning, Ministry
The methodologies for valuing of Finance, Ministry in charge of Ayurveda,
biodiversity are still evolving, but studies have academia.
been made elsewhere in the world on how
88
Integrating National Efforts for

Biodiversity Conservation
7.1 The Role of Government
In relation to biodiversity conservation,

The stakeholders of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity are there are a number of policies and plans that have
many. The State, as the custodian and trustee of a bearing on national planning. These include the
the major portion of the land, is the most important following.
stakeholder. The government, through its
departments and other institutions, carries out many
activities which have a significant impact on
biodiversity. There are three key departments whose
• The relevant provisions of the Constitution
of the Republic of Sri Lanka, and the policies
mandates are heavily weighted towards the
of the government.
conservation of biodiversity. They are the Forest
Department, the Department of Wildlife • The National Conservation Strategy and the
Conservation, and the Department of Coast National Environmental Action Plan.
Conservation. The policies and programmes of these • The Food and Nutrition Strategy, and the
three departments are crucial to the conservation group of policies relating to self sufficiency
and sustainable use of biological diversity. Besides in food and productivity and profitability of
these, there are a large number of departments and agricultural production systems.
other statutory bodies whose activities affect
biodiversity. They can be broadly classified into
• The National Policy Framework for
Agriculture and the National Agricultural
those that use, protect, or whose activities have an
Research Plan.
impact on, biodiversity.
• The group of policies on land use and the
National and sectoral planning policies and proposed action plan on land use in the
strategies provide the environment within which agricultural sector.
the national planning process is initiated and carried
out. Down the line, this process involves several • The National Forestry Policy and the Sri
types of studies, some of which constitute situation Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan,
analysis reports, project reports, evaluation studies, including the recently formulated Five-Year
etc. These studies provide the basic data and Implementation Programme in Forestry.
information to guide the divisional or departmental • The National Wildlife Policy.
planning officials in preparing their programmes,
projects and budgets, which is done through • Coastal 2000 - The Resource
supportive consultations involving decision makers ManagementStrategy for Sri Lanka’s coastal
on the one hand, and those responsible for region and Coastal Zone Management Plan.
implementation on the other. • Policies and plans on the conservation of
wetlands.
Where national policies have been followed
up with strategies or action plans, the planning Besides the above, there are the statutory
process proceeds to incorporate relevant components provisions and the policies relating to the devolution
of such strategies and plans in the national of power to the provincial governments.
development plan and the national investment Action for integrating biodiversity
programmes. The national development plan considerations into national planning could be said
generally covers a period of four to six years, and to have started with the preparation of the National
is often subjected to annual review and revision. Report for the United Nations Conference on
89
Environment and Development in 1992. Following in one region may not necessarily succeed in another,
the ratification of the Convention on Biological even within the same country.
Diversity by Sri Lanka in 1994, the ministry in
As a pre-requisite for any community based
charge of the subject of environment carried out
resource management project, a proper assessment
several activities to promote the implementation of
of the biodiversity resource has to be carried out
the Convention, culminating in the current exercise
paying special attention to its dynamics (degradation
of preparing the national Biodiversity Conservation
or improvement), in order to determine sustainable
Action Plan.
harvest levels. Based on data on the demography
The BCAP is expected to lead to an and cultural and economic features, the community
integration of biodiversity conservation stakeholders have to be categorized and their
considerations into national development planning. corresponding roles in the management process
Since national planning adopts a sectoral approach, identified. Enabling institutional and legal
a convenient pathway for integration is through the frameworks have to be established for co-
sectoral plans and projects. In the implementation management, user rights, tenureship, etc. A
of projects, it is important to ensure that biodiversity harmonious relationship between community
considerations are duly recognized. This could be development and long term resource management
addressed through the "initial environmental has to be established. Above all, the organization
examination report" or the "environmental impact and the mobilization of the community is of vital
assessment report" which, according to the current
importance.
environmental law, has to be prepared in respect of
certain categories of projects before approval is Initial access to local communities is best
granted for their implementation. The project mediated through village elders who command
approving agencies should pay special attention to respect, such as temple head priests and other clergy,
see that proposed projects avoid causing serious native physicians, senior school teachers, social
adverse impacts on biodiversity. MFE and its workers, etc. It is advisable to avoid politically
implementation arm the CEA have a special affiliated individuals and government officials. The
responsibility to ensure that these conditions are community should recognize the importance of bio-
observed. resources in relation to the common problems
The government is the trustee of the encountered by the community, e.g. water shortage
nation’s biodiversity and hence holds the ultimate due to denudation of forests; siltation of reservoirs
responsibility for its conservation. While ensuring as a result of soil erosion. Through processes of
that policies, plans and programmes will recognize dialogue and discussion, the community should be
the need to protect and nurture this important motivated to conserve biodiversity. During these
national heritage, the government should provide initial activities, individuals with leadership potential
sufficient financial resources in the annual budgets should be identified and gradually nurtured to take
of the relevant institutions to enable them to take over responsibilities. Throughout this exercise, due
measures for the conservation of biodiversity. care should be taken to let the community nominate
organizers voluntarily. Very often the first attempt
may not capture the best leader and sometimes it
7.2 Community-based Resource may not be successful even after second or third
Management attempts. Patience and forbearance is required in
large measure during these formative steps. The
Among direct users of biological diversity, selected leaders should be provided with basic
the communities living within or on the fringes of management training relevant to the projects at hand,
critical ecosystems constitute the most conspicuous together with basic knowledge of maintaining
interest group. It is important to involve these records, book keeping and banking (if handling of
communities in the management of the ecosystems, funds is required). It is important, as an initial
and the principle of community-based resource exercise, to give basic training on biodiversity skills
management (CBRM) is now widely accepted. to village based officials such as Grama Niladharis
However, there is no simple prescription for and agriculture, veterinary and fisheries extension
practising CBRM, and a model found successful personnel.
90
Disbursement of funds as hand outs should how and material support for the cultivation of
be avoided, as this becomes a negative inducement medicinal plants, (vi) assisting in establishing small
for motivated participation in the long run. Provision to medium scale industries, (vii) assisting in
of funds (when necessary) has to be done as "seed obtaining credit facilities, (viii) assisting in
money" or "soft loans" that would enable the marketing of agricultural and industrial products,
initiation of a project which could eventually (ix) assuming leadership and guiding community
generate its own funds. Participants in community- based rural development activities, (x) acting as
based projects should be made stakeholders so that link agencies between the communities and the key
they may develop a sense of ownership of the interest groups (including state agencies), (xi)
carrying out operational research in collaboration
resource they help to conserve.
with relevant state agencies, (xii) collecting data
In order to prevent the protected and information for the purpose of evaluating and
bioresources turning into marketable tourist monitoring of activities, and (xiii) assisting and
products, community based conservation projects co-operating in law enforcement in protected areas
for "eco-tourism" have to be developed and managed and sites such as multiple use natural forests.
with due care. If such products enter the market,
adequate measures for ex-situ propagation should
be taken to ensure the conservation of the original 7.4 The Role of the Private Sector
resources.
Through dialogue and dissemination of
Once a community is well organized and information, the private sector should be made
its confidence has been won over for a particular aware of the fact that biodiversity conservation
biodiversity conservation activity, technical and should be a matter of concern to them and that
other assistance should be made available through contributing towards achieving conservation
public sector agencies and NGOs. objectives is in their long term interest. A policy
framework has to be formulated to promote their
participation, for example by providing incentives
7.3 The Role of Non-governmental for investment on conservation programmes. On
Organizations the subject of biotechnology, while accepting the
beneficial aspects of its application, awareness
One of the major problems in involving should be created among the private sector of the
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in dangers of indiscriminate use of genetically modified
biodiversity conservation and other similar activities organisms, or living modified organisms (LMOs)
is inadequate institutional capability. Although it which have not been adequately tested and
is widely recognized that NGO participation can authenticated. This should apply to organisms as
substantially enhance natural resources well as their products such as live vaccines.
management, unless their institutional capability is In consultation with the private sector,
strengthened and they are provided with more schemes have to be worked out for bio-prospecting
resources they would not be able to realize their combined with ex situ conservation (including
full potential. NGOs should play both a the use of tissue culture and captive breeding) for
complementary as well as a supportive role, and in indigenous bioresources having a good export
order to do so effectively their activities should be market.
supported with clear policy initiatives and legal Enabling legislative and leasehold
back up. mechanisms should be formulated to attract private
Possible roles for NGOs (including sector participation in eco-tourism, establishment
community based organizations often referred to of biofuel forests and multiple use wood lots, etc.
as CBOs) include (i) mobilization of village Tax concessions and other incentives should
communities and organizing community action be given to obtain private sector participation in
groups, (ii) awareness creation and skills sponsoring biodiversity conservation oriented
development, (iii) establishment of forest plantations activities, such as awareness programmes, skills
and nurseries, (iv) promoting the conservation of enhancement, mass media events and TV
coastal and marine biodiversity, (v) providing know- programmes.
91
Where private sector organizations are traditional species, (v) minimal use of toxic
involved in collecting fauna and flora from the wild agro-chemicals, and (vi) setting examples
for commercial purposes, and if such an activity is to others through demonstrations and
allowable in the context of biodiversity conservation, models in the use of environment friendly
regulations should be formulated to ensure that the
technologies in agriculture (e.g. the SALT
state which is the custodian of the nation’s
technology).
biodiversity is adequately compensated. A part of
these funds could be channeled to NARA, the 3. Prepare (or amend), in consultation with
universities, the botanical and zoological gardens, national experts, regulations and guidelines
etc. for research programmes on biotechnology, for controlling and regulating (i) inward and
tissue culture, aquaculture and captive breeding. outward flow of biological material, (ii)
standards and certification of planting
It is necessary to establish a system whereby
material, (iii) use of biotechnology in
the relevant government organizations and the
developing genetically engineered
provincial authorities are empowered to charge in organisms, (iv) import and distribution of
advance the estimated cost of ecological restoration transgenic biological material (including
prior to the issuing of permits for timber extraction, viruses, bacteria and other microorganisms),
gemming and prawn culture. (v) reformulation and distribution of agro-
The following actions are recommended to chemicals not certified by the Department
bring in the private sector as active partners in of Agriculture, and (vi) imports and exports
biodiversity conservation. of indigenous and threatened species.
1. Develop a policy and legal framework to 4. Provide enabling policy and legislative
facilitate the active involvement of the private mechanisms to support leasehold forestry
sector in biodiversity conservation. systems.
2. Provide enabling mechanisms (e.g. tax 5. Provide tenurial rights, planting material
rebates) for plantation companies to engage and other resources to sustain home gardens.
in (i) protection of river catchment areas and 6. Support and make provision for awareness
clusters of existing forests, (ii) establishment creation in the trade and commerce sector
of plantation forests, (iii) adoption of multiple as well as in the construction industry, on
cropping, (iv) establishment of field gene the significance of, and measures for,
biodiversity conservation (e.g. the
banks preferably including indigenous and
Biodiversity Skills Enhancement Project
undertaken by MfC).
92
Implementation
The overall responsibility for implementing the • Monitor the implementation of
BCAP will devolve on the Ministry in charge recommendations in the BCAP, and take
of the subject of environment (ME), which is appropriate corrective action where
the national focal point for the Convention on necessary;
Biological Diversity. Once the BCAP is
accepted by the Cabinet of Ministers, it is • Initiate action on cross sectoral activities
recommended that the government issues a identified in the BCAP;
policy statement on the conservation and • Organize meetings of the National
sustainable use of biological diversity in Sri Steering Committee (NSC) and the Task
Lanka. ME will then initiate action for Forces (TF);
implementing the BCAP, and the following
institutional arrangements are proposed to enable • Prepare documents for, and maintain
it to take on the overall responsibility for records of, all meetings of NSC and
ensuring that the BCAP is implemented. TFs; and
Biodiversity Secretariat: • Attend to the day- to-day administration
It is necessary to establish a of all activities of ME dealing with
Biodiversity Secretariat in ME, mandated to biodiversity.
coordinate and promote the implementation of The Secretariat should also be the
all projects and programmes under the BCAP. body to liaise with the Secretariat to the
It is recommended that the present "Biodiversity Convention on Biological Diversity and be
Cell" of ME be elevated to a "Biodiversity responsible for preparing documentation in
Secretariat" with enlarged functions and
connection with Sri Lanka’s participation at
additional staff. In order to avoid duplication
meetings of the Conference of the Parties
of work and to use the existing institutional
(CoP) and other Convention-related meetings.
structures1, the Biodiversity Secretariat will be
placed in the Environment Division of the The Biodiversity Secretariat will thus
Ministry under the Director, Natural Resources. be the implementation arm of the ME that
The core staff in this unit include an already will ensure that the Ministry fulfills all its
functioning Deputy Director and an Assistant functions, obligations and responsibilities as
Director who will be appointed in 1998. The the focal point of the Government of Sri
Biodiversity Secretariat will have support staff Lanka on the conservation and sustainable
from the Environment Division. As the utilization of biodiversity. In carrying out its
Secretariat develops its activities, staff may be
functions, the Secretariat will be guided by
appropriately increased.
the National Steering Committee and the Task
The Secretariat’s main functions are to: Forces. The recommended organizational
• Liaise with sectoral agencies for framework for implementation and co-ordination
identifying priorities and developing of activities under the BCAP is depicted in
mechanisms to incorporate the Fig. 8.1.
recommended actions in BCAP into their The Biodiversity Secretariat must
implementation plans;
become fully operational within six months of
• Liaise with governmental organizations a proposed two-year inception phase for the
and the provincial administration in the implementation of the BCAP. It should initiate
preparation of project proposals under action leading up to the early setting up of
the BCAP;
93
the National Steering Committee and the Task and Technology, and Education; Lands;
Forces. Power, Energy and Irrigation; Indigenous
Medicine
The Secretariat should also complete
the following activities on a priority basis, • Three experts on biodiversity-related areas
within the first year of its operation: • One representative from the NGO
• set up a biodiversity information community
management system, including • One representative from the private sector
conditions for access and exchange;
The suggested Terms of Reference for
• complete the setting up of the meta- the National Steering Committee are as follows.
database on biodiversity;
(a) Provide policy guidelines to the ME for
• draw up terms and conditions for access translating the recommendations of the
to genetic resources; BCAP into an implementation programme,
• develop modalities for scientific and and coordination of such activities at
technical cooperation including terms and the national level
conditions for sharing results of research (b) Provide policy guidelines to the ME on
and development in a fair and equitable the Convention on Biological Diversity,
manner; and Conferences of the Parties, Subsidiary
• develop modalities for effective Body for Scientific, Technical and
participation in biotechnological research Technological device, and the Global
including establishment of national Biodiversity Forum
guidelines and regulations for safe (c) Identify priority areas in the BCAP
transfer, handling and use of LMOs. requiring the attention of the government
(d) Provide guidance and advice to the ME,
National Steering Committee on Biological and through it to the Biodiversity
Diversity: Secretariat, for overall coordination of
biodiversity conservation activities
It is proposed that the highest level of identified in the BCAP
coordination be exercised by a National Steering
Committee (NSC) on Biological Diversity, (e) Periodically review the biodiversity
appointed by the Minister in charge of the implementation plan
subject of environment, and chaired by the The Director, Natural Resources of
Secretary of the Ministry. This committee will the Environment Division shall function as the
be the apex body for policy formulation and Convenor/Secretary of the NSC.
policy decisions on the overall implementation This committee will meet at least
of the BCAP. twice a year; once primarily to finalize and
It is recommended that the NSC be decide on plans and programmes to be
composed of 14 members, as follows. implemented and the financial requirements
which can be incorporated into the budget
• Secretary of the Ministry in charge of estimates of the corresponding ministries, and
the subject of environment (Chair) again to review progress and make necessary
• Eight Secretaries chosen to represent the adjustments.
following key sectors: Finance and Task Forces:
National Planning; Agriculture, including Many of the recommendations for
plantations and livestock; Forests, Wildlife, action in the BCAP will involve a co-
Zoological Gardens and Botanical ordinated effort by several government agencies
Gardens; Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, including provincial councils, non-governmental
Coast Conservation and Tourism; Science organizations, and the private sector. The
94
Biodiversity Secretariat would require expert place, and if one or both are considered
guidance to translate the recommendations in redundant they should be dissolved.
the BCAP into implementation programmes,
and it is proposed that this be achieved Time Frames for Achievement of Results:
through the appointment of Task Forces for For the implementation strategy to be
identified key areas. The Task Forces will effective, it is necessary to set time frames
consist of representatives of the main for achieving results. The following time frames
implementing agencies and other experts in the have been worked out on the presumption that
respective fields. The number of Task Forces, the Biodiversity Secretariat together with the
the activity areas to be covered by each, and
allied entities will be in place as stipulated
the personnel to be included will be decided
and would have completed its initial tasks
by the Secretary of the ministry in charge of
environment and will be subject to ratification within the two-year inception phase. The
by the Minister. targeted time frames have been worked out
from the end of the inception phase.
To ensure effective coordination with
the devolved administration of the provinces, it It is expected that, within five years
is proposed that the Task Forces also include of completing the inception phase, Sri Lanka
representatives of the Provincial Councils, should have:
especially those Councils within whose • a more complete inventory of its
jurisdiction the high priority bioregions fall.
bioresources, and a Metadatabase on
The basic function of the Task Forces Biodiversity;
will be as follows.
• well formulated, forest management plans
(a) Study the BCAP recommendations for being implemented with the active
action participation of stakeholder groups and
(b) Evaluate the current related activities in communities;
relation to these recommendations • local communities more amenable and
(c) Identify priority areas for action, and to motivated to protect and rehabilitate
work out a programme of action forests, wetlands and coastal and marine
assigning responsibilities for habitats;
implementation • some eco-tourism activities that strengthen
(d) Provide expert advice to the NSC on the conservation of forests, wetlands and
matters of relevance to their subject areas, coastal and marine ecosystems;
as and when necessary • significant reduction in illegal activities
such as unauthorized logging, gemming,
(e) Critically examine papers and
coral and sand mining, collection of
recommendations prepared by experts in
protected species of fish and other fauna
relation to identified issues, for the
for trade, slaughter of small cetaceans
National Steering Committee
and turtles, and use of illegal fishing
(f) Regularly monitor and review performance gear and poaching;
in relation to implementation
• protective and rehabilitation programmes
(g) Undertake any other activities specified being actively implemented in the six
by the NSC prioritized biodiversity regions;
The roles of the current committees : • some operational units set up under
NARA for the ex situ conservation of
The Coordination Group on Biological
marine bioresources;
Resources and the Experts’ Committee on
Biodiversity will have to be evaluated in the • wetlands, salt marshes and mangroves
context of the new implementation and protected from unauthorized expansion of
monitoring structure that would be put in prawn farming;
95
• strengthened "field gene banks" of selected cultivated woodlots that could minimize
crops; the pressure on natural ecosystems for
this resource;
• institutionalized botanical, zoological and
microbial surveys; • well developed education and eco-tourism
enterprises such as wetland and coastal
• an institution conducting biodiversity skills
and marine parks; arboreta; forest
enhancement programmes;
gardens; biodiversity conservation centres;
• more research activities on biodiversity and crop, horticultural and flower
related issues; gardens that would strengthen the
• well formulated, effective legislation for biodiversity conservation efforts;
protecting biodiversity; archiving and • alternative sources for coral lime that
safeguarding indigenous knowledge; could mitigate the destruction of this
regulating the import and export of bioresource;
GMOs, LMOs and their products;
• marine and coastal conservation areas
implementing articles of CITES;
managed with the participation of local
incorporating of EIA procedures for
communities;
recognizing biodiveristy concerns;
• a better understanding of the status of
• enabling legislation for land alienation
marine bioresources that would enable
for home gardens and conservation
the development of more sustainable
farming; active participation of NGOs,
harvesting strategies;
CBOs, communities and the private sector
in the management of biodiversity and • well established programmes for the ex
natural habitats; and providing fiscal, situ conservation of endangered freshwater
financial and other incentives for and marine flora and fauna;
biodiversity conservation and sustainable
• well maintained biodiverse home gardens
use;
having a multitude of indigenous plant
• strengthened capabilities among officers species;
engaged in the prevention of illegal
• significant replacement of chena cultivation
transactions in biodiversity; and
by eco-friendly conservation farming
• a proper basis for the government to systems;
make budgetary provision of funds for
• a higher level of multi-cropping in the
biodiversity conservation and related
perennial plantation sector, particularly
activities.
under coconut;
It is expected that, ten years after the
• well formulated ex-situ biodiversity
inception phase, Sri Lanka should have:
conservation programmes such as animal
• a well established protected area network germplasm conservation, and captive
system of forests and wetlands, having breeding, and the widespread application
adequate representation of the diverse of modern biotechnology (including tissue
range of biodiversity found in the culture) for conservation and propagation;
country;
• comprehensive surveys providing valuable
• well managed and rehabilitated wetlands, data on bioresources and facilities for
protected from urban development preservation and storage of useful
activities, and free of industrial pollution germplasm including microorganisms;
and urban solid waste;
• biodiversity included in the primary and
• a comprehensive database on the status secondary school curricula and taught in
and distribution of forest biodiversity and university undergraduate courses in
its utilization; agriculture, veterinary science, architecture,
engineering, management studies and
• alternative sources of fuelwood including
96
social sciences; education because of the lack of appropriate

• postgraduate courses oriented towards employment opportunities. It has been claimed
specialized training in ecology and that even in institutions such as the botanical
environmental management, including gardens, where a knowledge of taxonomy
conservation of biodiversity; should be at a premium, there is no provision
to give preference to graduates specialized in
• well organized research programmes, taxonomy in the recruitment procedures for
including programmes on the application curators. Action must be taken at the highest
of modern biotechnology in the levels to rectify this anomalous situation.
conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity; Funds. The National Steering Committee should
formulate a clear policy and a strategy to
• a high percentage of the population raise funds, both local and foreign, for
aware of the value and importance of biodiversity-related activities. The possible areas
biodiversity and concerned about its for fund raising include: licensing fee for
conservation for the benefit of future exports and imports, income generation through
generations; eco-tourism, biodiversity centres, nature films,
• a high level of involvement of NGOs, etc. Fund generation from the private sector
CBOs, communities and the private sector should be promoted through tax rebates for
in biodiversity conservation efforts, contributions to biodiversity conservation
working in close collaboration with state activities.
sector agencies; Where international funding is involved,
• a private sector playing an active role care should be exercised to prevent exploitation
in conservation and rehabilitation efforts of biological resources contrary to the provisions
and in the use of biodiversity in a in the Convention on Biological Diversity.
sustainable manner; and In order to reflect the commitment of
• a government that is aware of the true the country and its people to biodiversity
value of the country’s biodiversity, which conservation, it is recommended that the
would therefore allocate a proportional government provides a line item in its budget
quantum of funding for the conservation estimates to ME for biodiversity related
of this valuable resource. activities.
Resource Needs: International collaboration. This should be
sought particularly in areas where there is a
Manpower training. Specialized training of dearth of national expertise, facilities and
selected personnel will be necessary in certain equipment. Regional cooperation with countries
areas such as underwater and marine research, having similar biodiversity would be a profitable
modern biotechnology, bio-safety procedures, approach. International funding earmarked for
etc. Due to economic constraints such training such regional cooperative efforts should be
will have to be sought through bilateral and explored. Bilateral and international funding
international programmes. On the other hand, should be solicited through the Department of
universities and certain research institutes in External Resources, from countries and agencies
the country do have some trained staff and committed to environmental protection and
their expertise should be utilized to a maximum. nature conservation. Universities and research
Obtaining locally available expertise should be institutes would have to be given all the
given priority over the commissioning of foreign encouragement, information and support to
consultants. prepare good research proposals and compete
for international research funding.
Taxonomy is a vital scientific discipline
In organizing collaborative programmes
in biodiversity and its related activities.
with foreign organizations, due care has to be
However, it has been noted that increasingly
taken to ensure that there is "prior informed
lesser numbers enter this field of tertiary
97
consent" and "mutually agreed terms" for
receiving an equitable share of benefits derived
from the use of the country’s biodiversity and
traditional knowledge.
Monitoring of progress. The Task Forces,
with the assistance of the Biodiversity
Secretariat, should develop a set of indices for
the continual monitoring of the progress of
plan implementation using the targeted time
frames as guidelines.
Fig. 8.1 Organizational Structure for

Implementing BCAP
ME
NSC
TFs
Biodiversity
Secretariat
Implementing
Agencies
– State Institutions
– Provincial Councils
– NGOs/CBOs
98
The BCAP Preparatory Process

The BCAP preparatory process commenced with the assembling of a consultancy team made up of several subject
matter specialists (some as part time consultants) in various fields concerned with biodiversity conservation
The consultancy team comprised:
Prof. S A Kulasooriya (Team Leader), Mr M A T de Silva (Asst. Team Leader), Ms J D S Dela (Biodiversity Plans
and Programmes), Mr H A Weerasinghe (Resource use), Dr A L Herath (Socio economic impacts), Prof. C V S
Gunatilleke (In situ conservation), Dr S Miththapala (Ex situ conservation), Mr A Nanayakkara (Legal aspects), Dr
D Wesumperuma (Institutional and Manpower Development), Ms S Blok (Education and awareness).
Prof. M U Jayasekera functioned as Team Leader in November and December 1996, during the absence of Prof.
S A Kulasooriya. The Natural Resources and Environmental Policy Project of the MTEWA carried out the consultancy
on biodiversity information management and valuation of biodiversity. The BCAP preparatory process received
inputs from IUCN consultants Mr Jeremy Carew-Reid and Mr Jeffrey McNeely during short-term international
consultancies. Ms Nagis Umagiliya assisted with data collation on Education. The Ministry of Environment provided
guidelines for the framework in Chapter 8.
The members of the consultancy team met with a large number of stakeholders (including NGOs) representing a
broad spectrum of interests and incorporated their views in their respective thematic reports. Ms J D S Dela
of the IUCN staff prepared a thematic report on education. The reports submitted by the consultants, and other
additional information collated during discussions were consolidated into a comprehensive report by Prof. S
A Kulasooriya and Mr M A T de Silva. This included recommendations and a draft implementation plan.
Based on the consolidated report, and with additional inputs, the BCAP was prepared by Mr L C A de S Wijesinghe
and Ms J D S Dela, supported by Ms C Wickramasinghe. The document was edited by Mr L C A de S Wijesinghe.
The preparation of the BCAP was monitored by a Management Committee Chaired by Ms Chandra Amerasekera
(Addl. Secretary, MTEWA), and comprising Mr S Sapukotana (Senior Consultant, NAREPP), Mr Gamini Gamage
(Deputy Director, MTEWA), Prof. S A Kulasooriya (BCAP Team Leader), Mr M A T de Silva (BCAP Asst.Team
L e a d e r ) ,
Mr L C A de S Wijesinghe (Country Representative, IUCN Sri Lanka), Mr Kapila Fernando (Director Programme,
IUCN Sri Lanka), Ms J D S Dela (Programme Officer, IUCN Sri Lanka and team member), and Dr Sumith
Pilapitiya (World Bank Representative). MTEWA’s link with the BCAP preparation was maintained through repre-
sentation in the management team.
In order to make the BCAP preparation a widely participatory process, a large number of stakeholders, including state
institutions and NGOs representing a broad spectrum of interests, were consulted through round-table discussions,
brain-storming sessions, seminars, workshops and discussion groups. Individuals with specialized knowledge on
different aspects of biodiversity conservation were also consulted. Meetings were held with key personnel in
selected government departments and institutions that are directly involved in biodiversity related activities. The
preparatory process benefitted from these meetings in clarifying issues, identifying solutions, and arriving at a
consensus regarding outputs and activities. Table A 1.1 sets out the different meetings that were held during
the preparatory stage, the participants, and the specific purpose of each meeting. Table A 1.2 sets out
meetings that were held to review and refine the BCAP.
The BCAP preparatory process and review of drafts benefitted from the inputs of the following, either as representa-
tives of their organisations or in their individual capacity.
Dr A S Abeyratne ( Director, DAPH ); Mr S D Abeywardena ( FD ); Prof. B A Abeywickrama ( Univ. of Colombo
); Dr S L Amarasiri ( Director General, DOA ); Ms Chandra Amerasekera (Addl. Secretary, MTEWA); Prof. F P
Amerasinghe (Univ. Of Peradeniya); Dr U S Amerasinghe (Univ. of Kelaniya); Dr A R Attapattu (Director, DFAR):
Mr P R Attygalle ( MASL); Dr K D Arudpragasam (NEC); Mr H M Bandaratilleke (Conservator of Forests); Ms
Hestor Basnayake (UDA); Mr Gamini Batuwitage (IIMI); Prof. Uma Coomaraswamy (OUSL); Prof. M D Dassanayake;
Dr Pauline Dayaratne (NARA); Mr Philip J DeCosse (NAREPP); Mr G W S K De Silva (Ministry of Public
Administration, Home Affairs Plantation Industries and Parliamentary Affairs ); Mr Gunaratne De Silva (Ayurveda
Department); Dr Jayanthi de Silva (Univ. of Colombo); Dr M P Dhanapala (Director, RRDI); Mr A M U Dissanayake
(Director, Agricultural Statistics Division, Dept. of Census and Statistics ); Mr N W Dissanayake (Director, DWLC)
Dr S U K Ekaratne (Univ. of Colombo); Dr S Epitawatta (USJ); Dr M H J P Fernando (Director, Seed Certification
and Plant Protection, Department of Agriculture); Mr Sarath Fernando (FD); Mr Gamini Gamage (MTEWA); Prof.
I A U N Gunatilleke (Univ. of Peradeniya); Mr Nalaka Gunawardena (Free lance Journalist); Mr H S Hathurusinghe
99
(Wildlife and Nature Potection Society); Mr H M B C Herath (DWLC); Mr J P Herath (NIE); Mr T Hewage
(Director, FSDD); Mr Lal Hewapathirana (Worldview Sri Lanka); Mr J Jayasinghe (Head, Land Use Planning and
Policy Division); Dr J M P Jayasinghe (NARA); Dr A H M Jayasuriya (Director, PGRC); Mr Avanti Jayatilleke
(USAID); Dr G Jayawardena (Director, HORDI); Prof. J Jinadasa (USJ); Mr A W Kalupahana (VRI) ; Dr S K
Kathirgamathaiyah (Director, DEA); Dr D Kirthisinghe (Executive Director, CARP); Dr A O Kodituwakku (Deputy
Director, DAPH); Dr H B Kotagama (Univ. of Peradeniya); Mr C Kudagamage (HORDI); Kaushallya Kurukulasuriya
(Sri Lanka Environmental Journalists Foundation); Harsha Liyanage (Sarvodaya Foundation); Dr M Liyanage
(Director, CRI); Mr Sunil Liyanage (FD); Dr R Mahindapala (Executive Director, CARP); Dr H Manthrithillake
(MASL); Mr S Medawewa (FDED); Dr W Modder (Director, TRI); Ms N Mohottala (MTEWA); Ms Madhivi
Obaddage (Univ. of Colombo); Dr U K G K Padmalal (OUSL); Mr Alex Perera (National NGO Council); Mr A R
Perera (Ministry of Foreign Affairs); Dr U Pilapitiya (Director BMARI); Mr S P Premadasa (ORDE); Mr W R A K
J S Rajapaksha (VRI); Mr Arjan Rajasuriya (NARA); Dr Hemantha Ranasinghe (USJ); Dr S S E Ranawana (VRI);
Dr S Ratnaweera (Acting Director, SRI) ; Dr P K Samarajeewa (PGRC); Dr Jayampathy Samarakoon (Consultant,
WCP); Mr R A D B Samaranayake (CCD); Prof. V K Samaranayake (Director,Institute of Computer Technology);
Mr S Sapukotuna (MTEWA); Prof. Y D A Senanayake (Director, PGIA) ; Ms Iranganee Serasinghe (Ruk
Rekaganno); Dr Palitha Serasinghe (Univ. of Colombo); Dr B M P Singhakumara (USJ); Mr K P Sri Bharathie;
Mr D B Sumithraarchchi (Director, National Botanical Gardens); Ms Manel Tampoe (Neo synthesis Research
Centre) ; Prof. Rohana Ulluvishewa (USJ); Mr S I Vitarana (TR); Mr Hemantha Vithanage (Environmental
Foundation Ltd); Ms Kamini Vitharana (Ruk Rekaganno); Mr M Watson (NARESA); Dr R H Wickremasinghe
(International Tropical - Environment Society); Mr Harsha Wijayawardena (Univ. of Colombo); and Dr N Yogaratnam
(RRI).
Contributions were made by the following NGOs, through their representatives, during group meetings and work-
shops or by a review of sections of the drafts:
Agriculture & Environmental Development Foundation (Mr S G Siriwardena); Arunodhaya Environmentalists (Mr T
R Stanley); Bambaragama Environmental Conservation Board (Mr D K Piyasena Senadheera); Biyagama Environ-
mental Protection Organisation (Mr L Somapala ); C T B Organisation (Mr P P Siriwardena); Diyawannaoya
Farmers Environmental Society (Mr G D T Wijesinghe); Environment and Natural Resources Protection Organiza-
tion, Matale (Mr G A B Dissanayake); Environmental Foundation Ltd (Mr Ravi Algama, Ms Mihiri Gunawardena,
Mr Hemantha Vithanage); EMACE Foundation of Sri Lanka (Mr E M Abeyratne); Gal lena Vihara Environmental
Foundation (Mr U G N M Wimalasiri); Gampaha Environmental Foundation (Mr S A M A R D Senaratne);
Gemiseva Sevana, Galaha (Mr L D Samaranayake); Indigenous Medicinal Plants & Environmental Conservation
Society (Dr P J Withana); Integrated Development Society, Kandy (Mr S Wanigadeva); Kandurata Sobadaham
Rakshitha Hawula (Mr J Ekanayake); Keethigama Vegetable & Fruit Producing Committee (Mr E M Chandrasekera);
March for Conservation (Dr Nirmalee Pallewatte); Nation Builders Association (Mr M B Adikaram, Mr M Weerakoon)
: NATMACO, Waikkal (Mr S M Fernando); Nature Conservation Group (Mr S S S Jasinghe); Neo synthesis
Research Centre (Ms Manel Tampoe); Pavana Environmental Organisation ( Mr H W Wijesinghe); RITICOE (Mr P
Gunetillake); Ruhunu UNESCO Organisation (Mr C A Samaradivakara); Ruk Rekaganno (Ms Iranganee Serasinghe);
Sama Sevaya (Mr S Jayasinghe); Sarvodaya Foundation (Mr Harsha Liyanage); Sarvodaya Women Movement (Ms K
U De Silva); Saviya Development Foundation (Mr C Seneviratne); Seethawaka Environmentalists (Mr K P Yasapala);
Sevashrama Environmental Circle(Mr D N Welikala); Social Development Association, Panadura (Mr P M K De
Silva); Social Development Society (Mr D A D N C Wimalaratne); Society for Environment & Social Protection (Mr
G A Gunawardene); Sri Bodhirajasthama Society (Ven. K Wimaladhamma Thero); Sri Lanka Environmental
Congress (Mr S Gunasekera); Sri Lanka Environmental Journalists Forum (Mr Piyal Parakrama); Sri Lanka Environ-
mental Protection Society (Mr M Gunaratne) Sri Lanka Youth Exploration Society (Mr L Senadheera); Tharuna
Sithivili Samajaya (Mr G B R Hurikaduwa); The League of Swans (M N Gunasiri); Vayamba Udanaya (Mr W M T
Bandara); Veerya Seva Movement (Ms N Kumar); Wildlife and Nature Protection Society (Dr Ranjen Fernando, Mr
H S Hathurusinghe); and Worldview Sri Lanka (Mr Lal Hewapathirana)
In addition to those mentioned earlier, the following members of the IUCN staff made contributions as indicated
against their names. Mr Kapila Fernando (review of drafts); Dr Ranjith Mahindapala (review of drafts), Ms Sonali
Senaratne and Mr Torben Berner (text boxes on coastal and marine issues); and Ms Padmi Meegoda (word process-
ing and formatting).
100
Table A 1.1 Special meetings organised by IUCN with stakeholders during the
BCAP preparation process
Meeting/activity Participants
Round table meeting with representatives of Representatives of WNPS, NSRC, EFL, Ruk Rekaganno, ITES with some
national NGOs BCAP consultants and
8 Aug 1996 Senior IUCN staff
A brainstorming workshop to identify key issues to be addressed in the Members of the National Experts Committee on Biodiversity, relevant govern-
BCAP ment officials, NGO invitees, selected subject specialists, MTEWA officials
15 Aug 1996 a n d
BCAP consultants
Meeting to identify sectoral issues and options with regard to animal The Director of DAPH, Deputy Director - Research VRI and other officials of
production and health the DAPH with BCAP
11 Oct 1996 consultants
Meeting to identify issues and recommendations for the Agricultural sector The Directors of HORDI, RRDI, PGRC and Botanical Gardens with Team
21 Oct 1996 Leader and other consultants
Meeting with the Standing Committee on Science of the UGC to apprise

them of the BCAP Members of the Standing Committee on Science, the BCAP Team Leader, and
24 Oct 1996 Asst. Team Leader
Meeting to identify issues and needs to be addressed in the plantation

research sector Directors of TRI, RRI, SRI and Director General Plantation Industries Divi-
31 Oct 1996 sion, Ministry of Plantation Industries, and consultants
Meeting to identify specific issues and options to enhance BDC in export Director and relevant officials of the Dept. of
crops Export Agriculture with BCAP consultants
1 Nov 1996
Brainstorming workshop for grassroot level NGOs to review issues identified Country-wide representatives of NGO organizations (43), subject specialists,
by BCAP consultants on BD MTEWA officials and BCAP consultants
impacts and users; research; in situ and ex situ
conservantion, information and valuation
4 Nov 1996
Manager Coast Conservation Project of the CCD
Meeting to identify issues and identification of specific needs for BDC in the programme and BCAP consultants
coastal sector
20 Nov. 1996
Scientific staff of NARA and BCAP consultant.
Meeting to identify current initiatives and issues connected with marine and
inland aquatic biodiversity 20 Nov. 1996
Meeting to identify issues and options to be addressed in the Forestry Sector Addl. Conservator of Forests (Research) Deputy
27 Nov 1996 Conservator of Forests (Research), Asst. Conservator of Forests (Environment
Management), and BCAP
consultants
Meeting to discuss current initiatives for land use planning and mapping
27 Nov 1996 Head, Land Use Planning and Policy Div. of MALF, and BCAP consultants
National seminar on biodiversity information

3 Dec 1996 Representatives of key state institutions dealing with BDC, subject area special-
ists NGO representatives,
MTEWA officials, NAREPP officials and BCAP
consultants
Meeting to discuss current programmes and future directions and needs in the
wildlife sector, with emphasis on protected area management Director and Deputy Director of DWLC with BCAP consultants
Meeting to discuss the legal aspects to be addressed in the BCAP

27 Feb 1997 Chairman and two members of EFL and BCAP
consultants
Meeting to discuss past and present initiatives for education and awareness on
BDC
28 Feb 1997 General Coordinator MfC and BCAP consultants
101
Table A 1.2 Meetings held to review and refine draft BCAP
Meeting/activity Participants
Meeting with representatives of key state Officials from FD, CCD, DFAR, NIE, MTEWA,
institutions concerned with BDC to review first Addl. Secretary MTEWA, IUCN Country Repre-
draft sentative, IUCN Director Programme, and con-
10 April 1997 sultants
Meeting with representatives of key state institu- State officials and scientific persons whose work
tions concerned with BDC and subject matter is related to aspects of biodiversity conservation,
specialists to examine and review second draft Addl. Secretary MTEWA, IUCN Country Repre-
16 May 1997 sentative, IUCN Director Programme, and con-
sultants
Meeting with represenatives of national NGOs
to examine and review third draft NGO representatives, Addl. Secretary MTEWA,
3 June 1997 IUCN Country Representative, IUCN Director
Programme, and consultants
Meeting with National Experts Committee on
Biodiversity to review third draft Members of the National Experts Committee,
10 June 1997 IUCN Country Representative
102
Provisional List of Threatened Species of Vascular Plants in Sri

Lanka1
(The names of endemic species are denoted by#)
PTERIDOPHYTES
Equisetaceae Aspleniaceae
Equisetum debile Asplenium disjunctum #
A. longipes #
Isoetaceae
A. nitidum
Isoetes coromandelina A. obscurum
Lycopodiaceae A. pellucidum
Lycopodium carolinianum Cyatheaceae
L. ceylanicum # Cyathea hookeri #
L. clavatum C. sinuata #
L. hamiltonii
Dennstaedtiaceae
L. phlegmaria
Microlepia majuscula #
L. phyllanthum Lindsaea repens var. pectinata
L. pinifolium
L. pulcherrimum Dryopteridaceae
L. serratum Deparia polyrhizon #
Diplazium cognatum #
L. squarrosum
D. paradoxum #
L. wightianum
D. zeylanicum #
Psilotaceae Polystichum anomalum #
Psilotum nudum Pteridrys syrmatica
P. zeylanica
Selaginellaceae
Tectaria thwaitesii #
Selaginella calostachya #
S. cochleata # Grammitidaceae
S. praetermissa # Ctenopteris glandulosa #
S. wightii C. repandula #
C. thwaitesii #
Adiantaceae Grammitis wallii #
Actiniopteris radiata Scleroglossum sulcatum
Cheilanthes thwaitesii Xiphopteris cornigera #
Idiopteris hookeriana
Hymenophyllaceae
Pellaea boivini
Trichomanes exiguum
P. falcata T. intramarginale
Pteris argyrea T. motleyi
P. confusa # T. nitidulum
P. gongalensis # T. pallidum
P. praetermissa # T. saxifragoides
P. reptans # T. wallii #
103
Lomariopsidaceae Schizaeaceae
Bolbitis appendiculata Schizaea digitata
Teratophyllum aculeatum Thelypteridaceae
Marattiaceae Amauropelta hakgalensis #
Marattia fraxinea Ampelopteris prolifera
Christella meeboldii
Ophioglossaceae C. subpubescens
Botrychium daucifolium C. zeylanica
B. lanuginosum Pronephrium gardneri #
Helminthostachys zeylanica Sphaerostephanos subtruncatus
Ophioglossum costatum Thelypteris confluens
O. gramineum Trigonospora angustifrons
O. nudicaule T. calcarata
O. pendulum T. ciliata
O. petiolatum T. glandulosa #
O. reticulatum T. obtusiloba
Osmundaceae T. zeylanica #
Osmunda collina
Polypodiaceae
Belvisia mucronata
Leptochilus wallii #
Microsorium dilatatum
Pleopeltis macrocarpa
GYMNOSPERMS
Cycadaceae
Cycas circinalis
ANGIOSPERMS
Acanthaceae Cyathula ceylanica #
Andrographis macrobotrys
Anacardiaceae
Barleria nitida
Semecarpus moonii #
Gymnostachyum thwaitesii #
S. obovata #
Strobilanthes caudata
S. parvifolia #
S. gardnerana #
S. nigrescens # Annonaceae
S. nockii # Alphonsea hortensis #
S. punctata # A zeylanica #
S. rhytisperma # Anaxagorea luzonensis
S. stenodon # Artabotrys hexapetalus
S. thwaitesii # Goniothalamus thomsonii
S. zeylanica # Miliusa zeylanica
Synnema uliginosum Orophea polycarpa
Amaranthaceae Phoenicanthus coriacea #
Achyranthes bidentata Polyalthia moonii #
A. diandra # P. persicaefolia
Centrostachys aquatica Uvaria cordata
104
U. semecarpifolia # T. zeylanica
Xylopia nigricans #
Balanophoraceae
Apocynaceae Balanophora fungosa
Anodendron rhinosporum
Hunteria zeylanica Balsaminaceae
Rauvolfia serpentina Impatiens janthina #
Vallaris solanacea leucantha #
Willughbeia cirrhifera I. repens #
Wrightia flavido-rosea I. subcordata #
I. taprobanica #
Apostasiaceae I. walkeri #
Apostasia wallichii
Begoniaceae
Araceae R Begonia dipetala
Arisaema constrictum # B. subpeltata
Cryptocoryne spiralis B. tenera #
C. thwaitesii #
Rhaphidophora decursiva Bombacaceae
R. pertusa (Adansonia digitata, introduced to Sri Lanka,
Typhonium flagelliforme but needs protection for historical reasons)
Araliaceae Boraginaceae
Polyscias acuminata Cordia subcordata
Heliotropium supinum
Asclepiadaceae Rotula aquatica
Bidaria cuspidata #
Brachystelma lankana # Burmanniaceae
Caralluma adscendens Burmannia championii
C. umbellata Thismia gardnerana #
Ceropegia candelabrum Campanulaceae
C. elegans var. gardneri Campanula canescens
C. parviflora # C. fulgens
C. taprobanica # Capparidaceae
C. thwaitesii Cadaba fruticosa
Cosmostigma racemosum Capparis divaricata
Cynanchum alatum C. floribunda
Dischidia nummularia C. tenera
Gymnema rotundatum # Cleome chelidonii
Heterostemma tanjorense
Hoya ovalifolia Caryophyllaceae
H. pauciflora Stellaria pauciflora
Marsdenia tenacissima Celastraceae
Oxystelma esculentum Celastrus paniculatus
Taxocarpus kleinii Euonymus thwaitesii #
Tylophora fasciculata Glyptopetalum zeylanicum
T. multiflora Kokoona zeylanica
T. pauciflora Maytenus fructicosa #
105
Combretaceae Carex breviscapa
Lumnitzera littorea C. taprobanensis #
Commelinaceae Cyperus articulatus
Cyanotis obtusa # C. cephalotes
Eleocharis confervoides
Compositae E. lankana #
Adenostemma angustifolium Fimbristylis zeylanica #
Anaphalis fruticosa # F. monticola
A. pelliculata # Hypolytrum longirostre #
A. thwaitesii # Mapania immersa #
Blepharispermum petiolare M. zeylanica
Blumea angustifolia # Mariscus compactus
B. aurita Pycreus stramineus
B. barbata Rhynchospora gracillima
B. crinita # Scirpodendron ghaeri
B. lanceolaria Scleria pilosa #
Glossogyne bidens Tricostularia undulata
Gynura hispida #
G. zeylanica # Dilleniaceae
Notonia grandiflora Acrotrema dissectum #
N. walkeri A. lyratum #
Senecio gardneri # A. thwaitesii #
Sphaeranthus amaranthoides Dioscoreaceae
Vernonia anceps # Dioscorea trimenii #
V. pectiniformis Dipterocarpaceae
V. thwaitesii # Cotylelobium scabriusculum #
Xanthium indicum Hopea cordifolia #
Connaraceae Shorea disticha #
Ellipanthus unifoliatus S. ovalifolia #
Convolvulaceae Stemonoporus affinis #
Argyreia choisyana S. bullatus #
A. hancorniifolia # S. lanceolatus #
A. pomacea S. moonii #
A. splendens S. nitidus #
Bonamia semidigyna S. oblongifolius #
Ipomoea coptica S. petiolaris #
I. jucunda # S. reticulatus #
I. staphylina S. rigidus #
I. wightii Vatica obscura #
Crassulaceae Ebenaceae
Kalanchoe laciniata Diospyros acuta #
D. albiflora #
Cucurbitaceae D. atrata #
Kedrostis rostrata D. attenuata #
Melothria leiosperma D. chaetocarpa #
Cyperaceae D. ebenoides #
Baeothryon subcapitatum D. koenigii #
106
D. moonii # Chirita moonii #

D. opaca # C. walkeri #
D. oppositifolia # Didymocarpus floccosus #
D. quaesita D. zeylanicus #
Elaeocarpaceae Epithema carnosum
Elaeocarpus ceylanicus # Goodeniaceae
E. montanus # Scaevola plumieri
Eriocaulaceae Guttiferae (= Clusiaceae)
Eriocaulon fluviatile # Calophyllum cordato-oblongum #
E. longicuspis # C. cuneifolium #
E. luzulifolium C. trapezifolium #
E. philippo-coburgi Mesua stylosa
E. walkeri #
Haloragidaceae
Euphorbiaceae Laurembergia indica #
Antidesma thwaitesianum # L. zeylanica
Bridelia stipularis (= B. scandens )
Hippocrateaceae
Chaetocarpus pubescens # Hippocratea arnottiana
Chrozophora rottleri H. macrantha
Cleidion javanicum
C. nitidum Hydrocharitaceae
Cleistanthus collinus Nechamandra alternifolia
Croton moonii # Icacinaceae
Dalechampia indica Pyrenacantha volubilis
Drypetes lanceolata #
Labiatae (= Lamiaceae)
Euphorbia cristata
Anisochilus paniculatus
Glochidion nemorale #
Coleus elongatus
Mallotus distans
Leucas longifolia
Phyllanthus affinis #
Plectranthus capillipes #
P. anabaptizatus #
P. glabratus
P. hakgalensis #
P. subincisus
P. longiflorus
Scutellaria robusta #
P. rotundifolius
Putranjiva zeylanica # Lauraceae
Sauropus assimilis # Actinodaphne albifrons #
S. retroversus # Cassytha capillaris
Trigonostemon diplopetalus # Cinnamomum capparu coronde #
C. citriodorum #
Flacourtiaceae
C. litseifolium
Hydnocarpus octandra #
Cryptocarya membranacea #
Gentianaceae Litsea nemoralis #
Exacum sessile L. undulata #
Crawfurdia championii
Leguminosae (= Fabaceae)
Geraniaceae Acacia ferruginea
Geranium nepalense Adenanthera bicolor
Gesneriaceae Albizia amara
Aeschynanthus ceylanica Alyssicarpus longifolius
107
Bauhinia scandens Lentibulariaceae
Cassia italica Utricularia scandens (= U. capillacea )
C. senna Liliaceae
Caesalpinia crista Chlorophytum heyneanum
C. digyna Dipcadi montanum
C. hymenocarpa Urginea rupicola
C. major
Crotalaria berteroana Loranthaceae (See also Viscaceae)
C. linifolia Barathranthus mabaeoides
C. montana Dendrophthoe lonchiphyllus
C. mysorensis Helixanthera ensifolia
C. triquetra Macrosolen barlowii
C. wightiana Tolypanthus gardneri
C. willdenowiana Malvaceae
Crudia zeylanica # Abutilon pannosum (= A. muticum )
Cynometra ripa Dicellostyles axillaris #
Desmodium gangeticum Julostylis angustifolia #
D. jucundum # Pavonia patens (= P.glechomifolia )
D. zonatum Thespesia lampas
Dioclea javanica
Melastomaceae
Dunbaria ferruginea
Medinilla cuneata #
Eleiotis monophylla
M. maculata #
Eriosema chinense
Memecylon ellipticum #
Galactia striata
M. gracillimum #
Indigofera constricta
M. grande
I. glabra
M. leucanthum #
I. parviflora
M. macrocarpum #
I. trifoliata
M. orbiculare #
I. wightii
M. ovoideum #
Mucuna gigantea
M. phyllanthifolium #
M. monosperma
M. revolutum #
Pericopsis mooniana
M. rotundatum
Rhynchosia acutissima
Sonerila brunonis
R. densiflora
S. cordifolia #
R. nummularia
S. firma #
R. suaveolens
S. gardneri #
Sesbania sericea
S. lanceolata #
Smithia conferta
S. pilosula #
Sophora violacea #
S. robusta #
S. zeylanica #
S. tomentella #
Strongylodon siderospermus
S. wightiana #
Tephrosia hookerana
T. senticosa Menispermaceae
T. spinosa Coscinium fenestratum
Lemnaceae Menyanthaceae
Lemna gibba Nymphoides aurantiaca
108
Moraceae O. recurva
Broussonetia zeylanica # O. scyllae #
Dorstenia indica O. wallie silvae #
Ficus costata O. weragamensis #
F. trimenii Peristylus plantagineus
Maclura cochinchinensis Phaius luridus #
Myrtaceae Phreatia elegans
Eugenia amoena # Pteroceras viridiflorum
E. cotinifolia # Rhynchostylis retusa
E. fulva # Robiquetia gracilis
E. glabra # Sirhookera latifolia
E. mabaeoides # Taeniophyllum gilimalense #
E. rivulorum # Vanda thwaitesii #
E. rufofulva # Orobanchaceae
E. terpnophylla # Aeginetia pendunculata
Syzygium lewisii # Cambellia aurantiaca #
Ochnaceae Christisonia thwaitesii #
Ochna rufescens Palmae
Olacaceae Areca concinna #
Ximenia americana Nypa fruticans
Oleaceae Piperaceae
Jasminum bignoniaceum Peperomia wightiana
Olea paniculata Podostemaceae
Orchidaceae Dicraea stylosa
Agrostophyllum zeylanicum # Polygalaceae
Bulbophyllum crassifolium # Polygala leptalea
B. purpureum # Portulacaceae
B. tricarinatum # Portulaca wightiana
Coelogyne zeylanica #
Corymborchis veratrifolia Proteaceae
Dendrobium maccarthiae # Helicia ceylanica #
Diplocentrum recurvum Rhizophoraceae
Eria tricolor # Ceriops decandra
Galeola javanica
Rosaceae
Gastrodia zeylanica #
Alchemilla indica
Goodyera fumata
Rubus glomeratus
Habenaria virens
Sanguisorba indicum #
Liparis barbata #
L. brachyglottis # Roxburghiaceae
Malaxis densiflora Stemona minor
M. lancifolia # Rubiaceae
M. purpurea Byrsophyllum ellipticum
Oberonia claviloba # Canthium macrocarpum #
O. dolabrata # Dichilanthe zeylanica #
O. fornicata # Gardenia turgida
O. quadrilatera #
109
Hedyotis cyanescens # Sonneratiaceae
H. cymosa # Sonneratia apetala
H. evenia # Sterculiaceae
H. gardneri # Pentapetes phoenicea
H. inamoena # Pterygota thwaitesii #
H. quinquenervia # Sterculia guttata
H. rhinophylla #
Stylidiaceae
Lasianthus rhinophyllus #
Stylidium uliginosum
L. thwaitesii #
Nargedia macrocarpa # Symplocaceae
Neurocalyx gardneri # Symplocos diversifolia
Oldenlandia trinervia S. elegans #
Ophiorrhiza pallida # S. kurgensis
Psychotria glandulifera # Symphoremaceae
P. longipetiolata # Symphorema involucratum
P. moonii # Taccaceae
P. plurivenia # Tacca leontopetaloides
P. stenophylla #
Theaceae
Saprosma indicum
Gordonia speciosa #
S. scabridum #
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Thymelaeaceae
Scyphostachys pedunculatus # Phaleria capitata
Tricalysia erythrospora # Tiliaceae
Rutaceae Corchorus tridens
Atalantia racemosa Grewia asiatica
Glycosmis cyanocarpa G. hirsuta
Naringi crenulata Triumfetta glabra #
Zanthophyllum caudatum Triuridaceae
Hyalisma janthina
Sapindaceae
Sciaphila erubescens #
Cardiospermum corindum
S. inornata #
Euphoria gardneri #
S. secundiflora #
Thraulococcus simplicifolius #
Umbelliferae
Sapotaceae Peucedanum ceylanicum
Madhuca clavata # Sanicula elata
M. moonii #
Palaquium canaliculatum # Urticaceae
P. thwaitesii # Elatostema acuminatum
E. walkerae #
Scrophulariaceae Lecanthus peduncularis
Adenosma subrepens #
Vahliaceae
Lindernia viscosa
Vahlia dichotoma
Verbascum chinense
Verbenaceae
Simaroubaceae Premna divaricata
Suriana maritima
110
P. purpurascens #
P. thwaitesii #
Priva cordifolia
Svensonia hyderabadensis
Violaceae
Hybanthus ramosissimus #
Viscaceae
Ginalloa spathulifolia #
Korthalsella japonica
Notothixos floccosus #
Viscum ramosissimum
Zingiberaceae
Alpinia fax #
A. rufescens #
Amomum acuminatum #
A. benthamianum #
A. graminifolium #
A. hypoleucum
A. trichostachyum #
Curcuma albiflora #
Provisional List of Threatened Animal Species in Sri Lanka

(The names of endemic species are denoted by #
The species denoted by * are those that are included
in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals)
INSECTS
Lepidoptera
Atrophaneura jophon # * - The Sri Lanka rose
Troides helena - The common bird wing
Papilio polymnestor - The blue mormon
P. helenus - The red helen
P. crino - The banded peacock
Graphium antiphates - The five bar swordtail
G. nomius - The spot swordtail
Hasora badra - The Ceylon awl
Bibasia sena - The orange tail awl
B. oedipodea - The banded orange awlet
Choaspes benjaminii - The Indian awl king
Gangara thyrsis - The giant redeye
G. lebadea - The banded red eye
111
Tagiades japetus - The Ceylon snow flat
Tapena thwaitesi - The black angle
Gomalia elma - The African marbled skipper
Caprona alida - The Ceylon golden angle
Pratapa deva - The white royal
Suastus minuta - The Ceylon palm bob
Udaspes folus # - The grass demon
Halpe decorata # - The decorated ace
H. homolea - The rare ace
Baoris farri - The paint brush swift
Potanthus pseudomaesa - The common dart
Tajuria jehana - The plains blue royal
Horaga albimacula - The brown onyx
Catapaecilma major - The common tinsel
Rapala iarbus - The Indian red flash
R. lankana - The malabar flash
Jamides coruscans # - The Ceylon cerulean
J. lacteata # - The milky cerulean
Celastrina singalensis - The Sinhalese hedge blue
C. akasa - The white hedge blue
C. lilacea - Hampson’s hedge blue
C. lanka # - The Ceylon hedge blue
Spindasis nubilus - The clouded silverline
Azanus ubaldus - The bright babul blue
Nacaduba ollvetti - Woodhouse’s four lineblue
N. calauria - The dark Ceylon six lineblue
N. noreia - The white tipped lineblue
Iraota timoleon - The silver streak blue
Arhopala abseus - The aberrent bushblue
A. ormistoni # - Ormiston’s oakblue
Virachola perse - The large guava blue
V. isocrates - The common guava blue
Hypolycaena nilgirica - The nilgiri tit
Bindahara phocides - The plane
Tarucus sylvia - The striped pierrot
Euthalia lubentina - The gaudy baron
E. evelina - The red spot duke
E. nais - The baronet
Parthenos sylvia - The clipper
Neptis hordonia - The common lascar
Hypolimnas bolina - The great eggfly
H. misippus - The danaid eggfly
Precis lintingensis - The yellow pansy
Vanessa indica - The Indian red admiral
V. canace - The blue admiral
Charaxes polyxena - The tawny rajah
112
C. solon - The black rajah

Murwareda athamas - The common nawab
Limenitis procris - The commander
Vindula erota - The cruiser
Phalanta alcippe - The small leopard
Byblia ilithyia - The joker
Cethosia nietneri - The tamil lace wing
Doleschallia bisaltide - The autumn leaf
Libythea lepita - The beak
L. myrrha - The club beak
Discophora lepida - The southern duffer
Idea lynceus - The Ceylon tree nymph
Danaus fumata # (= Parantica taprobana) - The Ceylon tiger
Euploea phaenareta - The great crow
Kallima philarchus - The blue oak leaf
Lethe dynsate - The Ceylon forester
L. daretis - The Ceylon tree brown
Mycalesis rama # - The Cingalese bushbrown
Elymnias singala - The Ceylon palmfly
Huphina nadina - The lesser gull
Appias indra - The plain puffin
Prioneris sita - The painted saw tooth
Hymenoptera
Aneuretus simoni # - Sri Lankan relict ant
SPIDERS
Arachnida
Chilbrachys nitelinus
Plesiophrictus tenuipes
Poecilotheria bara
P. faciata
P. uniformis
P. ornata
P. subfusa
Scalidognathus oreophilus
S. radialis
Plagiobothrus semilunaris
Aprusia strenuus
Obrimona tennenti
Phricotelus stelliger
Atimiosa quinquemucronata
113
CRUSTACEANS
Cladocera
Ghardaqlaia ambigua
Stenocypris fernandoi
Chrissa ceylonica
C. halyi
Centrocypris viridis
Darwinuka lundi
Decapoda
Caridina singalensis #
C. pristis #
C. fernandoi #
C. zeylanica #
C. costai #
Macrobrachium srilankanse #
Ceylonthelphusa rugosa #
C. soror #
C. inflatissima #
Oziothelphusa minneriyensis #
Hymenocera elegans - Painted shrimp
Stenopus hispidus - Boxing shrimp
Lysmatha debelius - Asoka/Scarlet shrimp
L. amboinensis - Peppermint shrimp
Panulirus versicolor - Painted spiny lobster
P. homarus - Scalloped spiny lobster
P. longipes - Long legged spiny lobster
P. ornatus - Ornate spiny lobster
P. pencilliatus - Prong horned spiny lobster
P. polyphagus - Mud spiny lobster
MOLLUSCS
(Land and freshwater molluscs)
Acavus haemastoma # R. irridians #
A. phoenix # Beddomea albizonatus #
A. prosperus # B. ceylanicus #
A. fastosus # B. intermedius #
A. roseolabiatus # Corilla adamsi #
A. superbus # C. beddomeae #
Oligospira waltoni # C. carabinata #
O. skinneri # C. colletti #
Rachis adumbratus # C. erronea #
Aulopoma grande # C. fryae #
A. helicinum # C. gudei #
Ratnadvipia edgariana # C. humberti #
114
Cryptozona ceraria # Macrochlamys kandiensis #

C. novella # M. nepas #
Cyclophorus ceylanicus # M. perfucata #
Digoniaxis cingalensis # M. tratanensis #
Ena panos # M. umbrina #
E. proletaria # Microcystina bintennensis #
E. stalix # M. lita #
Euplecta binoyaensis # Nicida ceylanica #
E. colletti # N. lankaensis #
E. concavospira # N. pedronis #
E. gardneri # Opeas layardi #
E. hyphasma # O. mariae #
E. isabellina # O. prestoni #
E. laevis # O. pussilus #
E. layardi # O. sykesi #
E. prestoni # Phaedusa ceylanica #
E. rosamonda # Philalanka circumsculpta #
E. trimeni # P. depressa #
E. turritella # P. lamcabensis #
E. verrucula # P. liratula #
Eurychlamys regulata # P. mononema #
Glessula ceylanica # P. secessa #
G. collettae # P. sinhila #
G. fulgens # P. thwaitesi #
G. inornata # P. trifilosa #
G. lankana # Pterocyclus bifrons #
G. layardi # P cingalensis #
G. nitens # Pupisoma longstaffae #
G. pachycheila # P. miccyla #
G. prestoni # Pyramidula halyi #
G. punctogallana # Ruthvenia biciliata #
G. reynelli # R. caliginosa #
G. serena # R. clathratula #
G. sinhila # Satiella membranacea #
G. veruina # Scabrina brounae #
Hemiplecta chenui # Sitala operiens #
H. juliana # S. phyllophila #
Japonia binoyae # S. pyramidalis #
J. occulta # Streptaxis cingalensis #
J. vesca # S. gracilis #
Kaliella colletti # S. layardinaus #
K. delectabilis # Cyathopoma ceylanicum #
K. leithiana # C. leptopornita #
K. salicensis # C. ogdeniamum #
Leptopoma apicatum # C. perconoideum #
L. taprobanensis # C. serendibense #
Leptopomoides conulus # C. uvaense #
L. orophilus # C. turbinatum #
115
Theobaldius bairdi # T. haemastoma #
T. liliputianus # T. marginata #
T. cadiscus # T. nietneri #
T. parapsis # T. sykesi #
T. thwaitesi # T. unicolor #
T. loxostoma # Trochomorpha galerus #
T. annulatus # T. hyptiocyclos #
Thysanota elegans # Truncatella ceylanica #
T. eumita # Viginulus maculautus #
T. eumita # V. templetoni #
Tortulosa aurea # Ravana politissima #
T. austeniana # Bulimus inconspicua #
T. blanfordi # Paludomus chilinoides #
T. cumingi # P. sulcatus #
T. decora # P. regalis #
T. pyramidata # P. tanschauricus #
T. recurvata # P. palustris #
T. templemani # P. bicinctus #
T. rugosa # P. loricatus #
T. greeni # P. decussatus #
T. congener # P. nigricans #
T. connectens # P. neritoides #
T. eurytrema # P. solidus #
(Marine molluscs)
Charonia tritonis - Triton’s trumpet
Chicoreus ramosa
C. palmarosa
Murex ternispina
Cypracassis rufa - Helmet shell
Lambis scorpius
L. chiragra
L. crocata
L. lambis
Tibia delicatula
Conus textile - Textile cone
C. geographus
C. aulicus
C. litteratus
C. episcopas
Tridacna squamosa
Cypraea tigris - Tiger cowry
C. talpa
C. argus
C. nivosa
Exabranchus sanguinea - Spanish dancer
116
ECHINODERMS
Protoreaster linki
Fromia elegans
F. monilis
Heterocentrotus mammaliatus - Slate pencil urchin
Toxopneustes pileolus
Asthenosoma varium
FISHES
(Freshwater fishes)
Cypriniformes
Puntius titteya # - Cherry barb
P. cumingii # - Cuming’s barb
P. nigrofasciatus # - Black ruby barb
P. srilankensis # 3 - Blotched filamented barb
P. pleurotaenia # - Black lined barb
P. bimaculatus # - Redside barb
P. asoka # - Asoka barb
P. bandula # * - Bandula barb
P. martenstyni # * - Martenstyn’s barb
Rasbora vaterifloris # - Golden rasbora
R. wilpita # * - Wilpita rasbora
Labeo fisheri # * - Green labeo
L. lankae # *
Garra ceylonensis - Stone sucker
G. phillipsi # - Phillip’s garra
Schistura notostigma # - Banded mountain loach
Acanthocobitis urophthalmus # - Tiger loach
Horadandia atukorali # - Green carplet
Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi # * - Jonklaas’ loach/spotted loach
Danio pathirana # * - Barred danio
Perciformes
Sicyopus jonklaasi # - Lipstick goby
Schismatogobius deraniyagalai # - Redneck goby
Sicyopterus griseus
S. halei # - Red tailed goby
Kuhlia marginata - Spotted flagtail
Malpulutta kretseri # - Ornate paradise fish
Belontia signata # - Combtail
Channiformes
Channa orientalis # - Smooth-breasted snakehead
Cyprinodontiformes
Aplocheilus dayi # - Day’s killifish
A. werneri # - Werner’s killifish
Siluriformes
Heteropneustes microps # * - Stinging catfish
117
(Marine fishes)4
Perciformes
Acanthurus leucosternon - Powder-blue surgeon-fish
Paracanthurus hepatus - Wedge-tailed blue tang
Chaetodon falcula - Saddle back butterfly-fish
C. lunula - Racoon butterfly-fish
C. auriga - Thread fin butterfly-fish
C. citrinellus - Speckled butterfly-fish
C. collare - Collare butterfly-fish
C. triangulum - Triangular butterfly-fish
C. madagascariensis - Madagascar butterfly-fish
C. meyeri - Meyer’s butterfly-fish
C. ornatissimus - Ornate butterfly-fish
C. oxycephalus - Spot-naped butterfly-fish
C. octofasciatus - Eight banded butterfly-fish
C. plebeius - Blue-spot butterfly-fish
C. unimaculatus - Tear drop butterfly-fish
C. xanthocephalus - Yellow-head butterfly-fish
C. ephippium - Saddled butterfly-fish
C. rafflesi - Latticed butterfly-fish
C. guttatissimus - Spotted butterfly-fish
C. semeion - Dotted butterfly-fish
C. benneti - Bennett’s butterfly-fish
Cheilinus undulatus * - Humphead wrasse
Thunnus maccoyii * - Southern bluefin tuna
T. obesus * - Bigeye tuna
Pseudochromis pesi *
Anthias evensi
Forcipiger flavissimus - Long nosed butterfly-fish
Parachaetodon ocellatus - Ocellate coral-fish
Hemitauricththys zoster - Black pyramid butterfly-fish
H. pleurotania - Indian banner-fish
Oxycirrhites typus - Long snouted hawk-fish
Paracirrhitus arcuatus - Hawk fish
Nemateleotris menateleotris - Fire blenny
Plectorhynchus obscurus
Gaterin albovittatus
Labroides bicolor - Bi-coloured cleaner wrasse
L. dimidiatus - Cleaner wrasse
Coris formosa - Queen rainbow-fish
Bodianus diana - Diana’s hog-fish
Lutjanus sebae - Emperor snapper
Pomacanthus annularis - Blue-ringed angel-fish
P. semicirculatus - Koran angel-fish
118
P. imperator - Emperor angel-fish

Centropyge eibli - Eibl’s pigmy angel-fish
Apolomichthys trimaculatus - Three spot angel-fish
Amphiprion clarkii - Clark’s anemone-fish
A. nigrepes - Maldive clown-fish
Pterois volitans - Red turkey-fish
P. antennata
P. radiata - Clear fin turkey-fish
Dendrochirus zebra - Dwarf lion-fish
D. brachypterus - Short fin turkey-fish
D. biocellatus
Epinephelus flavocaeruleus - Blue grouper
E. lanceolatus * - Giant grouper
Plectropomus laevis - Black saddled coral trout
Variola louti - Lunar tailed grouper
Zanclus cornutus - Moorish idol
Tetradontiformes
Oxymonocanthus longirostris - Beaked leatherjacket
Paraluteres prianurus
Balistoides conspicillum - Clown trigger-fish
Pseudobalistes fuscus - Jigsaw trigger-fish
Canthigaster benneti - Bennett’s puffer
C. valentini - Black saddled puffer
Ostracion cubicum - Blue-spotted box-fish
Lactoria cornuta - Long horned cow-fish
L. fornasini - Ceylon cow-fish
Diodon hystrix - Porcupine puffer fish
Lophiiformes
Histrio histrio - Sargassum fish
Anguilliformes
Echidna nebulosa - Starry moray eel
E. zebra - Zebra moray eel
Rhinomuraena quaesita - Ribbon moray eel
Myrichthys maculosus - Spotted snake eel
M. colubrinus - Striped snake eel
Cypriniformes
Plotosus lineatus - Striped catfish
Syngnathiformes
Hippocampus aimei *
H. borbonensis *
H. brachyrhynchus *
H. camelopardalis *
H. coronatus *
H. erinaceus *
H. fuscus *
H. histrix *
119
H. horai *
H. japonicus *
H. jayakari *
H. kuda * - Spotted sea horse
H. longirostris *
H. novaehebudorum *
H. planifrons *
H. raji *
H. sindonis *
H. spinosissimus *
H. taeniops *
H. takakurae *
H. trimaculatus * - Three-spotted sea horse
Gasterosteiformes
Pegasus laternarius *
Hexanchiformes
Hexanchus griseus * - Bluntnose sixgill shark
Lamniformes
Carcharias taurus * - Sand tiger shark
Carcharodon carcharias * - Great white shark
Lamna nasus * - Probeagle
Carchariniformes
Carcharhinus limbatus * - Blacktip shark
C. obscurus * - Dusky shark
C. plumbeus * - Sandbar shark
Squaliformes
Dalatias licha * - Kitefin shark
Pristiformes
Pristis pectinata * - Smalltooth sawfish
AMPHIBIANS
Anura
Bufo kelaarti # - Torrent toad
B. atukoralei # - Atukorale’s dwarf toad
Rana greenii # (=Limnonectes greeni) - Sri Lanka reed frog
R. corrugata # (=L. corrugata) - Wrinkled frog
Rana gracilis # - Slender wood frog
R. aurantiaca # - Lesser wood frog
Nannophrys guentheri # - Guenther’s cliff frog
N. ceylonensis # - Sri Lanka cliff frog
N. marmorata # - Marbled cliff frog
Tomopterna breviceps #
T. rolandae #
Polypedates cruciger # - Greater hourglass tree frog
120
P. eques # - Montane hourglass tree frog

P. longinasus # - Sharp nosed tree frog
Philautus nasutus # - Lesser sharp nosed bush frog
P. hypomelas #
P. temporalis #
Theloderma schmarda # - Wrinkled tree frog
Ramanella palmata # - Montane ramanella
R. obscura # - Red ramanella
Microhyla zeylanica # - Montane narrow mouthed frog
Rhacophorus cavirostris #
R. fergusonianus #
R. macropus #
R. reticulatus #
R. microtympanum # - Small-eared tree frog
Apoda
Ichthyophis glutinosus # - Lesser yellow banded caecilian
I. pseudangularis # - Yellow banded caecilian
I. orthoplicatus # - Brown caecilian
REPTILES
Testudinata
Dermochelys coriacea * - Leathery turtle
Lepidochelys olivacea * - Olive-backed ridley turtle
Caretta caretta * - Loggerhead turtle
Eretmochelys imbricata * - Hawksbill turtle
Chelonia mydas * - Green turtle
Melanochelys trijuga - Hard-shelled terrapin
Lissemys punctata - Soft-shelled terrapin
Testudo elegans - Star tortoise
Crocodylia
Crocodylus porosus - Estuarine crocodile
C. palustris * - Marsh crocodile
Squamata
Cnemaspis podihuna # - Lesser diurnal gecko
C. jerdoni #
Gymnodactylus frenatus # - Jungle gecko
Geckoella triedrus # - Devil gecko
G. yakhuna # - Devil gecko
Hemidactylus depressus # - Jungle gecko
H. triedus
Calodactylodes illingworthi # - Great rock gecko
Calotes liocephalus # *
C. ceylonensis # - Sri Lanka lizard
C. liolepis #
C. nigrilabris # - Black-lipped lizard
121
C. calotes - Green garden lizard
Otocryptis wiegmanni # - Earless lizard
Cophotis ceylanica # - Pigmy tree lizard
Ceratophora stoddarti # - Rhino-horned lizard
C. tennentii # * - Tennent’s leaf-nosed lizard
C. aspera # - Rough-nose horned lizard
Lyriocephalus scutatus # - Hump-nose horned lizard
Chamaeleo zeylanicus - Chamaeleon
Mabuya macularia # - Spotted skink
M. bibroni
Dasia haliana - Haly’s skink
Sphenomorphus megalops #
S. striatopunctatus #
S. dorsicatenatus #
Lankascincus taprobanensis # - Smooth skink
L. deignani #
L. fallax # - Brown skink
L. taylori #
L. deraniyagalae #
L. gansi #
Riopa singha #
Chalcidoceps thwaitesi # - Four-toed snake skink
Nessia burtoni # - Three-toed snake skink
N. didactyla # - Two-toed snake skink
Evesia monodactyla # - Toeless snake skink
Bipodes sarasinorum # - Sarasin’s snake skink
B. smithi # - Smith’s snake skink
Anguinicephalus deraniyagalae # - Deraniyagala’s snake skink
A. layardi # - Layard’s snake skink
A. hikanala # - Shark-headed snake skink
Cabrita jerdoni - Lesser grass lizard
C. leschenaulti - Grass lizard
Typhlops mirus #
T. ceylonicus #
T. malcolmi #
T. violaceus # All the Typhlops species
T. lankaensis # and Typhlina bramina
T. veddae are referred to as
T. tenebrarum # blind snakes
T. porrectus
T. leucomelas # - Pied typhlops
Typhlina bramina
Uropeltis melanogaster #
U. phillipsi #
U. ruhunae #
Pseudotyphlops philippinus # - Large shield-tail snake
122
Rhinophis blythi #
R. drummondhayi # All Uropeltis
R. porrectus # Rhinophis, Pseudotyphlops and
R. punctatus # Platiplectrurus species
R. philippinus # are referred to as rough-tails or
R. oxyrhynchus # shield-tails
R. trevelyanus #
R. dorsimaculatus #
R. tricolorata #
Platyplectrurus madurensis
Cylindrophis maculatus # - Sri Lankan pipe snake
Oligodon sublineatus # - Dumeril’s kukri snake
O. calamarius # - Kukri snake
O. taeniolatus - Variegated kukri snake
Lycodon osmanhilli # - Taylor’s wolf snake
Dendrelaphis oliveri # - Oliver’s bronze back
D. caudolineatus - Gunther’s bronze back
Macropisthoden plumbicolor - Green keelback
Leopeltis calamaria - Reed snake
Dryocalamus nympha - Bridal snake
D. gracilis - Scarce bridal snake
Cercaspis carinatus # - Sri Lanka wolf snake
Balanophis ceylonensis # - Blossom krait
Aspidura copei # - Cope’s roughside
A. trachyprocta # - The common roughside
A. drummondhayi # - Drummond-Hay’s roughside
A. brachyorrhus b # - Boie’s roughside
A. guentheri # - Guenther’s roughside
A. deraniyagalae #
Haplocerus ceylonensis # - The black spined snake
Chrysopelea taprobanica #
C. ornata - Gold and black tree snake
Dryophis pulverulentus - Brown speckled whip snake
Boiga barnesi # - Barne’s cat snake
Xenochrophis asperrimus # - The common pond snake
Gerarda prevostiana - Gerard’s water snake
Bungarus ceylonicus # - Sri Lanka krait
Hypnale hypnale - Merrem’s hump-nosed viper
H. nepa # - Montane hump-nosed viper
H. walli # - Gloyd’s hump-nosed viper
Trimeresurus trigonocephalus # - Green pit viper
Calliophis melanurus - Slender coral snake
Acrochordus granulatus - Wart snake
Python molurus - Rock python
Eryx conicus - Sand boa
123
BIRDS
Pelecaniformes
Phalacrocorax carbo - Indian comorant
Pelecanus philippensis * - Spot-billed pelican
Ciconiiformes
Egretta gularis schistacea - Indian reef heron
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus - Black-necked stork
Plegadis falcinellus - Glossy ibis
Leptoptilos javanicus * - Lesser adjutant
Anseriformes
Sarkidiornis melanotos - Comb duck
Falconiformes
Aviceda jerdoni - Legge’s bazza
Spizaetus nipalensis - Mountain hawk eagle
Hieraaetus kienerii - Rufous-bellied hawk eagle
Ictinaetus malayensis - Black eagle
Falco peregrinus - Peregrine falcon
F. tinnunculus - Indian kestral
Pernis ptilorhynchus - Crested honey buzzard
Galliformes
Francolinus pictus - Painted partridge
Galloperdix bicalcarata # - Sri Lanka spurfowl
Gallus lafayettii # - Jungle fowl
Gruiformes
Rallus striatus - Blue-breasted banded rail
Porzana fusca - Ruddy crake
Charadriiformes
Dromas ardeola - Crab plover
Cursorius coromandelicus - Indian courser
Vanellus gregarius * - Sociable lapwing
Rostratula benghalensis - Painted snipe
Eurynorhynchus pygmeus * - Spoon-billed sandpiper
Columbiformes
Treron phoenicoptera - Yellow-legged green pigeon
Columba torringtoni # * - Sri Lanka wood pigeon
Cuculiformes
Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus * - Red-faced malkoha
Centropus chlororhynchus # * - Green-billed coucal
Strigiformes
Tyto alba - Barn owl
Phodilus badius - Bay owl
Otus scops - Little scops owl
Bubo nipalensis - Forest eagle owl
Glaucidium cuculoides # - Chestnut-backed owlet
124
Caprimulgiformes
Batrachostomus moniliger - Frogmouth
Trogoniformes
Harpactes fasciatus - Ceylon trogon
Coraciiformes
Alcedo meninting - Blue-eared kingfisher
Ceyx erithacus - Three-toed kingfisher
Halcyon pileata - Black-capped purple kingfisher
Eurystomus orientalis - Broad-billed roller
Ocyceros gingalensis # - Ceylon grey hornbill
Piciformes
Chrysocolaptes festivus - Black-backed woodpecker
Picus xanthopygaeus - Scaly-bellied green woodpecker
Xantholaema rubricapilla - Ceylon small barbet
Passeriformes
Sturnus senex # - Sri Lanka white-headed starling
Gracula ptilogenys # - Sri Lanka hill mynah
Cissa ornata # - Sri Lanka blue magpie
Irena puella - Fairy blue bird
Pycnonotus penicillatus # - Yellow-eared bulbul
Turdoides rufescens # - Sri Lanka rufous babbler
Garrulax cinereifrons # * - Ashy-headed laughing thrush
Muscicapa sordida # - Dusky-blue fly catcher
Bradypterus palliseri # - Sri Lanka warbler
Ficedula subrubra * - Kashmir flycatcher
Myiophonus blighi # * - Arrenga/Ceylon whistling thrush
Zoothera wardii - Pied ground thrush
Z. spiloptera # - Spotted-winged ground thrush
Z. dauma - Sri Lanka scaly thrush
Dicaeum vincens # - Legge’s flower pecker
Lonchura kelaarti - Hill munia
MAMMALS
Insectivora
Feroculus feroculus # * - Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew
Suncus zeylanicus # * - Ceylon jungle shrew
Suncus etruscus *5 - Sri Lanka pygmy shrew
S. murinus *6 - Sri Lanka highland shrew
Crocidura miya # * - Ceylon long-tailed shrew
Solisorex pearsoni # * - Pearson’s long-clawed shrew
125
Chiroptera
Kerivoula picta - Painted bat
K. hardwickei - Malpas bat
Hipposideros galeritus - Dekhan leaf-nosed bat
Myotis hasselti - Van Hasselt’s bat
Murina cyclotis - Ceylon tube-nosed bat
Tadarida aegyptiaca - Indian wrinkled-lipped bat
Primata
Loris tardigradus * - Slender loris
Trachypithecus vetulus # * - Purple-faced leaf monkey
Rodentia
Petaurista petaurista - Large flying squirrel
Petinomys fuscocapillus - Small flying squirrel
Funambulus layardi - Flame-striped jungle squirrel
F. sublineatus - Ceylon dusky-striped jungle squirrel
Mus fernandoni # - The Ceylon spiny-mouse
Rattus montanus # * - Nillu rat
Coelomys mayori # - Bicoloured spiny-rat
Srilankamys ohiensis # - Ceylon bicoloured spiny-rat
Vandeleuria nolthenii # * - Ceylon highland long-tailed tree mouse
Ratufa macroura * - Sri Lanka giant squirrel
Cetacea
Balaenoptera musculus * - Great blue whale
B. borealis * - Sei whale
B. physalus * - Fin whale
B. edeni - Bryde’s whale
Megaptera novaeangliae * - Hump-backed whale
Physeter catodon * - Sperm whale cachalot
Stenella longirostris - Spinner dolphin
Carnivora
Lutra lutra nair - Ceylon otter
Melursus ursinus * - Sloth bear
Paradoxurus zeylonensis # - Golden palm-civet
Herpestes vitticollis - Striped-necked mongoose
Felis rubiginosa - Rusty Spotted cat
F. chaus - Jungle cat
F. viverrina - Fishing cat
Panthera pardus - Leopard
Proboscidea
Elephas maximus * - Elephant
Sirenia
Dugong dugon * - Dugong
Artiodactyla
Tragulus meminna - Mouse-deer
Cervus porcinus - Indian hog-deer
126
Glossary
accession A sample of crop variety collected at a buffer zone The region bordering a protected area
specific location and time; may be of any size. where restrictions are placed upon resource use or
special development measures are undertaken to
avifauna The birds which live naturally in a certain
enhance the conservation value of the protected
area.
area.
alien species (Non-native, non-indigenous, foreign,
chena (= shifting cultivation) Probably the oldest
exotic) is a species, subspecies, or lower taxon
form of agricultural practice in Sri Lanka,
occurring outside of its natural range and dispersal
widespread in the country until recently, but now
potential (i.e. - outside the range it occupies
confined largely to the dry zone. This involves
naturally or could not occupy without direct or
clearing of a forest area for cultivation which may
indirect introduction or care by humans) and
continue for two to three years after which it is
includes any part, gametes or propagule of such
abandoned for a new site.
species that might survive and subsequently
reproduce. climax vegetation The plant community which
would finally develop in an area in the absence of
biodiversity (= biological diversity) The definition
human intervention.
given by Article 2 of the Biodiversity Convention
is "The variability among living organisms from conservation of biodiversity This covers human
all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine actions ranging from totally preserving any
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological component of biodiversity to using biological
complexes of which they are part; this includes resources provided that such use is within
diversity within species, between species and of sustainable limits and does not cause erosion of
ecosystems". A simpler definition is the total range biological diversity. In the Convention on Biological
of the variety of life on earth or any given part of Diversity and in the BCAP, the expression
it. ”conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity” is frequently used to give emphasis to
Biodiversity Convention See Convention on
the aspect of conservation that includes the wise
Biological Diversity.
and sustainable use of the components of
biodiversity hotspot A term introduced to describe biodiversity.
a location that features an exceptional concentration
continental shelf Sri Lanka is surrounded by a
of species with exceptional levels of endemism and
seaward extension of the adjacent continent, from
faces exceptional degrees of threat.
the shoreline to the line called the shelf edge beyond
biogeography The scientific study of the geographic which there is a marked increase of slope. The
distribution of organisms. continental shelf surrounding Sri Lanka is on
bioregion A territory defined by a combination average 20km in width and 20-65m in depth.
of biological, social and geographic criteria, rather Convention on Biological Diversity This
than geopolitical considerations; generally, a system Convention was signed by over 150 countries at
of related, interconnected ecosystems. the Earth Summit (The United Nations Conference
bioresources (= biological resources) Those on Environment and Development) in Rio in 1992.
components of biodiversity of direct, indirect, or The objectives of the Convention are the
potential use to humanity. conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable
use of its components and the fair and equitable
Biosphere Reserve An area of terrestrial or sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation
coastal/marine ecosystem, or a combination thereof, of genetic resources.
which is internationally recognised within the
framework of UNESCO’s programme on Man cryo-preservation A method of preserving living
and the Biosphere (MAB). tissue by freeze-drying.
127
demographic Pertaining to the science of vital flash floods A sudden and destructive rush of
and social statistics as of the births, deaths, water down a narrow gully or over a sloping
marriages, etc. in human populations. surface.
deniya Water-logged valley bottoms situated in the flood plains A nearly flat plain along the course
wet zone. of a stream or river that is naturally subject to
flooding.
dunes Wind blown accumulations of sand distinct
from adjacent land forms such as beaches or salt fossorial Digging or burrowing.
marshes; found along portions of the northern, gene bank A facility established for the ex situ
southern and northwestern coasts of Sri Lanka. conservation of individuals (seeds), tissues, or
ecosystem A community of interdependent reproductive cells of plants or animals.
organisms and the environment they inhabit. genome The set of chromosomes found in each
ecotourism As defined by IUCN’s ecotourism nucleus of a given species.
programme: "Environmentally responsible travel genotype The genetic constitution of an organism.
and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas,
in order to enjoy and appreciate nature that germplasm The protoplasm of germcells
promotes conservation, has low visitor impact and containing the units of hereditary, the chromosomes
provides for beneficially active socio-economic and genes.
involvement of local populations. Global Environment Facility A fund set up in
edaphic Environmental conditions that are 1992 and managed by the World Bank, UNDP and
determined by the physical, chemical and biological UNEP to assist developing countries to address
characteristics of the soil. issues relating to the conservation of biodiversity,
EIA This refers to an environmental impact climatic change, ozone depletion and international
assessment of the possible effects of development waters.
projects on the environment. habitat The natural dwelling place of an
endemic Restricted to a specific locality, or country. individual or group of organisms.
estuaries A semi-closed coastal body of water home gardens A traditional system of perennial
which has a free connection with the sea, and within cropping that uses a range of economically valuable
which sea water is immeasurably diluted by plant species producing fruits, spices, medicinal
freshwater derived from land drainage. products, timber, etc. It offers a highly diversified
and economically viable form of land use found
ethnobotany The study of the relationships around a house.
between people and plants in the broadest sense. It
requires a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating in situ conservation The conservation of
anthropology and ethnology, botany, linguistic, and ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance
in some cases economics, pharmacology, medicine and recovery of viable populations of species in
and agronomy. their natural surroundings and, in the case of
domesticated or cultivated species, in the
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Part of the
surroundings where they have developed their
offshore area of a country where the country has
distinctive properties.
exclusive rights in respect of all economic resources
of the water column, underlying seabed and subsoil. kalle korales Forest officers, who in former times
were appointed by kings, whose duties included
eutrophication Enrichment of water by nutrients
prevention of poaching and protection of forests
which results in the production of very large
and trees set aside by royal decree.
populations of plant life that rapidly die and deplete
oxygen during their putrefaction. kitul tapping An important traditional activity
ex situ conservation Keeping components of of the rural communities of Sri Lanka. The phloem
biodiversity alive outside of their original habitat sap obtained by the tapping of the young
or natural environment. inflorescence of the kitul palm (Caryota urens) is
used to produce treacle, jaggery (a locally used
fen A wetland of high nutrient status resulting from sweetener) and an alcoholic beverage.
inputs via flowing water.
128
lagoon Coastal bodies of water containing brackish phylogenetic Pertaining to the evolutionary history
water, which are permanently separated from the of a particular group of organisms.
sea, or connected to the sea only during part of the
protected area An area of land (and/or sea)
year.
especially dedicated to the protection and
lewaya A depression in the coastal sand belt, maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural
with highly saline soil. and cultural resources, and managed through legal
liana A woody climbing plant. or other effective means.
littoral zone Shallow water region with light Ramsar site A site designated as a wetland of
penetrating to the bottom, typically occupied by international importance under the Convention of
rooted plants. Wetlands of International Importance Especially
as Waterfowl Habitat.
Mahawansa Chronicle of Sri Lanka’s history
covering the period 6th century BC to 4th century Red Data Books Catalogues published by IUCN
AD. the World Conservation Union, or by national
authorities listing species which are rare or in danger
mangroves Salt-tolerant, woody, seed-bearing
of becoming extinct globally or nationally.
plants ranging in size from small shrubs to tall
trees. Sanctuary A category of protected area in Sri
Lanka, that may contain both state and private
meta-data Data about data. A second level of
land.
information about other data sources. Thus, a
dictionary of all those who hold datasets on different salt marshes Marshy area subject to frequent
aspects of biodiversity would be called a meta- inundation by sea water and containing herbaceous,
database. salt-resistant plants.
montane Mountainous area. seagrass beds Composed of rooted, seed-bearing
marine plants that occur as submerged meadows
National Conservation Review (NCR) A sample
within estuaries and lagoons and near-shore coastal
survey of biodiversity covering woody plants,
vertebrates, butterflies and molluscs, and a waters which are sheltered from highwave energy.
hydrological assessment of the natural forests of seed bank A facility designed for ex situ
Sri Lanka, carried out for designing an optimum conservation of individual plant species and varieties
protected areas system for the country’s natural through seed preservation and storage.
forests. slash and burn See chena.
National Park In Sri Lanka, a category of sustainable development Development that meets
protected area, designated under the Fauna and the needs and aspirations of the current generation
Flora Protection Ordinance. It falls within the IUCN without compromising the ability of future
Protected Area Management Category II - a natural generations to meet their needs.
area of land and/or sea, designated to (a) protect
the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems taxa The classification units to which individuals,
for present and future generations, (b) exclude or sets of species, are assigned.
exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes The Earth Summit The United Nations
of designation of the area, and (c) provide a Conference on Environment and Development held
foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational and in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
visitor opportunities, all of which must be villu Wet grassland in the dry zone.
environmentally and culturally compatible.
World Heritage Site. A site designated under
patanas A local term used for the montane the 1972 Convention on the Protection of the World
grasslands. Cultural and Natural Heritage.
129
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Chapter 43
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Abbreviations
AG Attorney General
BCAP Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan
BD Biodiversity
BDC Biodiversity Conservation
BMARI Bandaranaiyake Memorial Ayurvedic Research Institute
CARP Council for Agricultural Research Policy
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBO Community-Based Organization
CBRM Community-Based Resource Management
CCD Coast Conservation Department
CEA Central Environmental Authority
CISIR Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora
CRI Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka
CZMP Coastal Zone Management Plan
CZM Coastal Zone Management
DEA Department of Export Agriculture
DOA Department of Agriculture
DAPH Department of Animal Production and Health
DFAR Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
DWLC Department of Wildlife Conservation
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EFL Environmental Foundation Limited
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FD Forest Department
FDED Forestry Development and Environmental Division
FSDD Forestry Sector Development Division
GIS Geographical Information System
GNP Gross National Product
GMO Genetically Modified Organism
HORDI Horticultural Crops Research and Development Institute
IIMI International Irrigation Management Institute
ITES Institute of Tropical Environmental Studies
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources - The
World Conservation Union
KDN Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya
LMO Living Modified Organism
MAL Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, functioning as such from 10 June 1997
MALF Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Forests; functioned as such until 9 June 1997.
Since then subjects have been reallocated to the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands
(MAL) and Ministry of Forestry and Environment (MFE)
MASL Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka
MCS Marine Conservation Society
ME Ministry in charge of the subject of Environment. Up to 9 June 1997, this was
MTEWA or the Ministry of Transport, Environment and Womens Affairs; from
10 June 1997 it has been theviiMinistry of Forestry and Environment ( MFE )
134
MfC March for Conservation

MFE Ministry of Forestry and Environment, functioning as such from 10 June 1997.
MTEWA Ministry of Transport, Environment and Women’s Affairs; functioned as such
until 9 June 1997.
NARA National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency
NAREPP Natural Resources and Environmental Policy Project
NARESA Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka
NCR National Conservation Review
NCS National Conservation Strategy
NEAP National Environmental Action Plan
NEC National Education Commission
NGO Non Governmental Organization
NIE National Institute of Education
NM National Museum
NSC National Steering Committee
NSRC Neo-synthesis Research Centre
NWP National Wetland Policy
NWSC National Wetlands Steering Committee
OUSL Open University of Sri Lanka
PGIA Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture
PGRC Plant Genetic Resources Centre
RITICOE Ritigala Community based Development and Environmental Management Founda-
tion
RRDI Rice Research and Development Institute
RRI Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka
SALT Sloping Area Land Technology
SAM Special Area Management
SRI Sugarcane Research Institute of Sri Lanka
TF Task Force
TRI Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka
UDA Urban Development Authority
UGC University Grants Commission
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USJ University of Sri Jayewardenepura
VRI Veterinary Research Institute
WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre
WCP Wetland Conservation Project
WNPS Wildlife and Nature Protection Society
135
viii

Bioregions of Sri Lanka

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Bioregions of Sri Lanka

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Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka

A Framework for Action

APPROVED BY THE CABINET OF MINISTERS ON 27 AUGUST, 1998

© Ministry of Forestry and Environment

Message of the Hon. Minister of Forestry and Environment

** In the text where the abbreviation ME is used, it refers to the Ministry

Sri Lanka and its Biodiversity - an Overview

2.1 Physical Features red-yellow podzolic soils (lateritic red loams) in

Source: Tammita Delgoda (1997)

WU - Wet Zone Up Country

Each of the above zone contains several

Source : C R Panabokke and P Ratnaseeli Kannangara

WU2 >75 J1/2 F 1

WU3 >55 J1/2 F 1

WM1 >125 J1/2 F • • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils; Red-Yellow Steeply dissected

WL3&4 >60 J1/2 F 1

IU2 >55 • F1/2 1

IM1 >55 • • M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug 1

IL2 >45 • F1/2 M My1/2 Jun Jul Aug 1

DL1 >30 J1/2 F 1

DL3&4 >23 J1/2 F M My Jun Jul Aug 1

DL5 >20 J1/2 F M My Jun Jul Aug 1

J1/ 2 = denotes 2nd half of January

Figure 2.2 Soil Map of Sri Lanka

Reddish Brown Earths

Red-Yellow Podzolic soils

Source: Irrigation Department (1988)

Main source: WCMC (1992)

Sources: IUCN (1994a); WCMC (1992); Beazley, M (1993)

The Major Ecosystems

Sri Lanka has a long history of protection of wildlife

Figure 3.1 Sri Lanka Forest Cover in 1956 and 1992

FOREST COVER - 1956

Source: Adapted from Wijesinghe et.al., (1993)

tropical moist evergreen forests

Table 3.1: Areas of natural forest remaining in 1992, by forest type

Forest type Total forest area (ha) % of total land area

Montane forest 3,108 0.05

Moist evergreen forest 243,886 3.69

Mangrove forest 8,688* 0.13

Total extent of "closed canopy"

Total forest cover in the country: 2,043,296 30.89

What the NCR Reveals

Protected Areas under Department of Wildlife

Strict Natural Reserve

JAFFNA Nature Reserve

Locations of smaller Sanctuaries

Protected Areas under Forest Department

International Biosphere Reserve

NUWARA ELIYA BADULLA

Figure 3.3 Sri Lanka's River System

Source: Adapted from NARESA (1991)

Departments of Forestry, Agriculture, Irrigation,

Figure 3.4 Distribution of Basin Estuaries and Lagoons

Lunawa Lagoon Okandawara Bay

Source: CCD (1996)

Crop Group Number of Percentage

Rice 2 3809 34.0

TABLE 4.1 THE BIO-REGIONS - BASIC INFORMATION

Bio- Identification of regions Key climatic and biological

ranges from about 1500 m to 2500 m, in the wet

Figure 4.1 Bioregions of Sri Lanka

Principles, Goal and Broad Objectives