De L.Ch. - Commercial Orchids PDF

Lakshman Chandra De, Promila Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K.
Rajeevan
Commercial Orchids
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Download Date | 4/5/15 10:48 AM
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Lakshman Chandra De, Promila
Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K. Rajeevan
Commercial
Orchids
Managing Editor: Magdalena Golachowska
Language Editor: Emefa Monu
Unauthenticated
Published by De Gruyter Open Ltd, Warsaw/Berlin
Part of Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Munich/Boston
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 license,
which means that the text may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided credit is given to the
author. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.
Copyright © 2014 Lakshman Chandra De, Promila Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K. Rajeevan
ISBN (paperback): 978-3-11-042638-0

ISBN (hardcover): 978-3-11-042638-0
e-ISBN: 978-3-11-042640-3
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche National-

bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data
are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
Managing Editor: Magdalena Golachowska

Language Editor: Emefa Monu
www.degruyteropen.com
Cover illustration: © Lakshman Chandra De
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Contents
1 Introduction  1
2 Global Orchid Industry  13

2.1 Global Orchid Trade  13
2.2 Trend in Growth  16
2.2.1 Cymbidium  16
2.2.2 Dendrobium  16
2.2.3 Phalaenopsis  17
2.2.4 Other Tropical Orchids  18
3 Biodiversity, Conservation and Bio-piracy

of Genetic Resources in India  20
3.1 Region Wise Distribution of Orchids  20
3.1.1 Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern India  20
3.1.1.1 Endemic Orchids  20
3.1.2 North-Western Himalayas  22
3.1.3 Peninsular India  23
3.1.4 Andaman & Nicobar Islands  29
3.2 Conservation of Orchid Genetic Resources  29
3.2.1 Legislative Measures of Conservation  29
3.2.2 In Situ Conservation  30
3.2.2.1 Biosphere Reserve  30
3.2.2.2 National Parks  31
3.2.2.3 Sacred Groves  31
3.2.2.4 Gene Sanctuary  31
3.2.2.5 Individual Trees  31
3.2.3 Ex situ Conservation  33
3.2.3.1 Field Gene Banks  34
3.2.3.2 Botanical Gardens  34
3.2.3.3 Herbal Gardens  34
3.2.3.4 Orchid Seed Gene Bank  34
3.2.3.5 In vitro Conservation  35
3.2.3.6 Cryo-preservation  35
3.3 Bio-piracy  35
3.3.1 Legal Regime Pertaining to Biodiversity and Bio-piracy  36
3.3.1.1 International Law  36
3.3.1.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (1994)  36
3.3.1.3 Cartagena Protocol (2003)  37
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3.3.1.4 Nagoya Protocol (2010)  37
3.3.1.5 CITES 1972  37
3.3.2 Traditional Knowledge (TK) Bio-piracy  37
3.3.2.1 Collection and Use  37
3.3.2.2 Patenting  38
3.3.3 Genetic Resource Bio-piracy  38
3.3.3.1 Collection and Use  38
3.3.3.2 Patenting  38
3.3.4 Measures of Bio-piracy in Some Orchids  38
4 Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Valuable species  40

4.1 Cymbidium, Dendrobium and Vanda  40
4.1.1 Subject  40
4.1.2 Plant Material Required  40
4.1.3 Conduct of Tests  41
4.1.4 Methods and Observations  41
4.1.5 Grouping of Varieties  42
4.1.6 Characteristics and Symbols  42
4.1.7 Explanations on the Table of Characteristics  53
4.2 Phalaenopsis (PVJ, Nov, 2012)  53
4.2.1 Subject  53
4.2.3 Conduct of Test  54
4.2.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics  78
4.2.7.1 Guidelines for Recording the Observations of Vegetative and Flowering
Characteristics  78
4.2.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics  78
4.3 Cattleya Lindl. (PVJ, Nov, 2012)  83
4.3.1 Subject  83
4.3.3 Conduct of Test  83
4.3.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics  97
Characteristics  97
4.3.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics  97
4.4 Molecular Characterization of Valuable Species  100
4.4.1 Isozyme Analysis  100
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4.4.2 DNA Finger Printing  100
4.4.2.1 Classical Hybridization Based Finger Printing  100
4.4.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Based Finger Printing  100
4.4.2.2.1 RAPD (Randomly Amplified Polymorhic DNA)  101
4.4.2.2.2 SPAR (Single SSR Primer Amplification Reaction)  101
4.4.2.2.3 DAF (DNA Amplification Fingerprinting)  101
4.4.2.2.4 AP-PCR (Arbitrary Primed Polymerase Chain Reaction)  101
4.4.2.2.5 RAMPO (Randomly Amplified Microsatellite Polymorphisms)  101
4.4.2.2.6 AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism)  101
4.4.2.2.7 ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeat Markers)  101
4.4.2.2.8 Mitochondrial Analysis  102
4.4.2.3 Uses of DNA Finger Printing  102
5 Breeding Approaches for Improved Genotypes  103

5.1 Cytogenetics  103
5.2 Pollination and Fertilization  103
5.3 Natural Hybridization  104
5.4 Artificial Hybridization  105
5.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids  105
5.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids  106
5.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids  107
5.4.4 Pentageneric Hybrids  107
5.4.5 Hexageneric Hybrids  107
5.5 Mutagenesis  107
5.6 Breeding Objectives  108
5.7 Selection of Parents  108
5.8 Compatibility Analysis  109
5.9 Breeding of Hybrids  109
5.9.1 Cattleya  109
5.9.2 Cymbidium  110
5.9.3 Dendrobium  111
5.9.4 Odontoglossum  112
5.9.5 Oncidium  112
5.9.6 Paphiopedilum  113
5.9.7 Phalaenopsis  113
5.9.8 Vanda  114
5.10 Polyploidy Breeding  115
5.11 Genetic Engineering  116
6 Production of Quality Planting Materials  118

6.1 Division  118
6.2 Back Bulbs  118
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6.3 Cuttings  118
6.4 Air layering  119
6.5 Keiki  119
6.6 Aerial Shoots  120
6.7 Tubers  120
6.8 Tissue Culture  120
6.8.1 Shoot Tip Culture  121
6.8.2 Meristem –tip Culture  121
6.9 Seed Culture  121
6.9.1 Flasking and Reflasking of Protocorms  122
6.9.2 Composting and Repotting Seedlings  123
6.10 Production of Disease Free Planting Materials Through Micro-
Propagation  123
7 Physiology of Temperate and Tropical Orchids  124

7.1 Leaves  124
7.2 Stem and Roots  125
7.2.1 Monopodial  125
7.2.2 Sympodial  125
7.2.3 Terrestrial orchids  125
7.3 Flower  125
7.4 Pollination  126
7.5 Fruits and Seeds  127
7.6 Photosynthesis  127
7.6.1 C3-Photosynthesis  127
7.6.2 C4-Photosynthesis:  127
7.6.3 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)  127
7.7 CO2 Enrichment and Orchid Growth  128
7.7.1 Practical Aspects of CO2 Enrichment  128
7.8 Growth Physiology Stages in Cymbidium Orchids  129
7.8.1 Stage I: Flower Bud Initiation in the New Growth  129
7.8.2 Stage II: Flower Spike Initiation  130
7.8.3 Stage III: Spike Elongation and Blooming  131
7.9 Conclusions & Extensions  131
7.10 Orchid Pseudobulbs – A Genuine Importance in Orchid Growth and
Survival  132
7.10.1 Pseudobulbs – As Water Storage Organs  132
7.10.2 Pseudobulbs – As Mineral Storage Organs  133
7.10.3 Pseudobulb Photosynthesis  133
7.10.4 Pseudobulbs – as Carbohydrate Storage Organs  134
7.10.5 The Absence of a ‘Flag’ Leaf’ – an Apparent Anomaly Due to the
Pseudobulb  135
7.10.6 Pseudobulbs and Myrmecophily  135
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8 Climate Change and its Impact on Orchid Productivity  138
8.1 Impact of Climate Change (Mitchell and Tanner, 2006)  138
8.1.1 Agriculture  138
8.1.2 Water Resources  138
8.1.3 Forests  139
8.1.4 Biodiversity  139
8.1.5 Weather Extremes  139
8.1.6 Sea Levels and Coastal Areas  139
8.1.7 Human Population  139
8.1.8 Human Health  139
8.2 Actions  140
8.3 Challenges  141
8.3.1 Biodiversity and Conservation  141
8.3.2 Genetic Improvement  142
8.3.3 Frontier Science Technologies In Orchid Research and
Development  142
8.3.4 Management of Natural Resources  143
8.3.5 Post Harvest and Value Addition  143
8.3.6 Bio-Risk Management  143
8.3.7 Policies  144
8.3.8 Transfer of Technology  144
8.4 Impact Assessment  144
9 Production Technology of Commercial Epiphytic

Orchids for Cut flowers  149
9.1 Cymbidium (Orchidaceae)  149
9.1.1 Introduction  149
9.1.2 Botanical Description  149
9.1.3 Classification  150
9.1.4 World Scenario  150
9.1.5 Importance and Uses  151
9.1.5.1 Cut flowers  151
9.1.5.2 Potted Plants  151
9.1.5.3 Hanging Baskets  152
9.1.5.4 Herbal Medicines  152
9.1.5.5 Stylish Packaging  152
9.1.6 Varieties (De, 2014)  152
9.1.7 Growing Requirements  153
9.1.7.1 Light  153
9.1.7.2 Temperature  153
9.1.7.3 Propagation  153
9.1.7.4 Watering  154
9.1.7.5 Relative Humidity  154
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9.1.7.6 Air Circulation  154
9.1.7.7 Feeding  154
9.1.7.8 Potting and Repotting  154
9.1.7.9 Planting  155
9.1.7.10 Training  155
9.1.7.11 Harvest  155
9.1.8 Insects Pests and Diseases  155
9.1.8.1 Insect Pests  155
9.1.8.2 Diseases  156
9.1.9 Post-harvest Management  157
9.1.9.1 Stage of Harvest  157
9.1.9.2 Grading  157
9.1.9.3 Packing  158
9.1.9.4 Storage  158
9.1.9.5 Floral Preservatives  158
9.2 Dendrobium (Orchidaceae)  158
9.2.2 Botanical Descriptions  158
9.2.4 Hybrids (De, 2014)  160
9.2.5 Growth and Physiology  161
9.2.6 Cultivation  161
9.2.6.2 Light  162
9.2.6.4 Atmosphere  162
9.2.6.5 Fertilization  162
9.2.6.6 Potting Mixture  163
9.2.6.7 Watering and Humidity  163
9.2.6.8 Repotting  163
9.2.6.9 Application of Growth Regulators  164
9.2.7.1 Harvest  164
9.2.7.2 Pre-cooling  164
9.2.7.3 Pulsing  165
9.2.7.4 Bud Opening  165
9.2.7.5 Preservatives  165
9.2.7.6 Grading  166
9.2.7.7 Packaging  166
9.2.7.8 Storage  167
9.2.8 Value addition  167
9.2.8.1 Tinting  167
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9.2.8.2 Preparation of Bouquet  168
9.3 Phalaenopsis (Orchidaceae)  168
9.3.4 Hybrids (De, 2014)  169
9.3.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids  170
9.3.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids  170
9.3.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids  170
9.3.4.4 Pentageneric Hybrids  170
9.3.4.5 Natural Hybrids  170
9.3.4.6 Inter-specific Hybrids  170
9.3.4.7 Inter-varietal Hybrids  170
9.3.4.8 Variety-species Hybrids  171
9.3.5 Climatic Requirements  171
9.3.5.1 Light  171
9.3.5.3 Humidity  172
9.3.5.4 Ventilation and Air Circulation  172
9.3.6 Growth and Flowering  172
9.3.6.1 Vegetative Phase  173
9.3.6.2 Flowering Phase  173
9.3.7 Propagation  173
9.3.7.1 Division/ Cuttings  173
9.3.7.2 Tissue Culture  174
9.3.8.1 Plant Material  174
9.3.8.2 Potting  174
9.3.8.3 Containers  175
9.3.8.4 Potting Media  175
9.3.8.5 Repotting  175
9.3.8.6 Watering  176
9.3.8.7 Fertilizers:  176
9.3.8.8 Flower Production  177
9.3.8.8.1 Premature Flowering  177
9.3.8.9 Training of Spike  177
9.3.8.10 Harvest and Yield  177
9.3.9.1 Vase life  177
9.3.9.2 Pulsing  178
9.3.9.3 Storage  178
9.3.9.4 Packaging  178
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9.4 Cattleya (Orchidaceae)  178
9.4.4 Hybrids (De, 2014)  179
9.4.4.1 Parents for Large Blue Cattleya Hybrids  179
9.4.4.5 Intervarietal Hybrids  180
9.4.4.6 Inter- specific Hybrids  180
9.4.4.7 Variety Species Hybrids  180
9.4.4.8 Blue Cattleya Hybrids  180
9.4.5.2 Light  181
9.4.5.3 Water and Humidity  181
9.4.5.4 Feeding  181
9.4.5.5 Potting Mix and Repotting  181
9.4.6 Pests and Diseases  182
9.4.7.2 Storage  182
9.4.7.3 Vase life  182
9.5 Oncidium (Orchidaceae)  183
9.5.3 Species & Hybrids (De, 2014)  183
9.5.3.4 Interspecific Hybrids  184
9.5.3.6 Variety-Species Hybrids  184
9.5.3.7 Colmanara Hybrids  185
9.5.3.8 Medicinal Oncidium  185
9.5.4.2 Light  185
9.5.4.3 Water and Humidity  185
9.5.4.4 Feeding  186
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9.5.4.5 Potting Mix and Repotting  186
9.5.5 Pests and Diseases  186
9.5.6.2 Storage  187
9.5.6.3 Vase life  187
9.6 Paphiopedilum (Orchidaceae)  187
9.6.3 Hybrids  188
9.6.3.3 Parents for Primary Hybrids  188
9.6.3.4 Parents for Mottle Leaf Hybrids  188
9.6.3.5 Parents for Maudiae Hybrids  188
9.6.3.6 Parents for Smallest Paphiopedilums  188
9.6.3.7 Parents for Multi-stemmed Flower  188
9.6.3.8 Multi-floral or Strap Leafed Paphiopedilums  189
9.6.3.9 Fragrant Slipper Orchids  189
9.6.3.10 Hybrid Phragmipediums  189
9.6.3.11 Interspecific hybrids  189
9.6.3.13 Species-varietal Hybrids  189
9.6.4.1 Light  189
9.6.4.2 Ventilation and Humidity  190
9.6.4.4 Containers and Compost  190
9.6.4.5 Repotting  191
9.6.4.6 Watering  191
9.6.5 Pest and Diseases  192
9.6.6 Post-Harvest Management  193
9.7 Vanda (Orchidaceae)  193
9.7.3 Hybrids (De, 2014)  195
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9.7.3.5 Pentageneric Hybrids  196
9.7.3.6 Vanda Hybrids  196
9.7.3.7 Aranda Hybrids  196
9.7.3.8 Ascocenda Hybrids  196
9.7.3.9 Mokara Hybrids  196
9.7.3.10 Kagawara Hybrids  197
9.7.3.11 Vascostylis Hybrids  197
9.7.3.12 Aeridovanda Hybrids  197
9.7.4.1 Light  197
9.7.4.4 Watering  197
9.7.4.6 Potting Media  198
9.7.5 Insect -pests and Diseases  198
9.7.6 Post-harvest Management (Bhattacharjee and De, 2005)  199
9.7.6.1 Stage of harvest:  199
9.7.6.2 Storage  199
9.7.6.3 Vase life  199
10 Production Technology of Commercial Terrestrial

Orchids for Cut Flowers  200
10.1 Introduction  200
10.2 Calanthe  201
10.2.1 Genetic Resources (De, 2011)  201
10.2.2 Hybrids  202
10.2.3 Uses  203
10.3 Eulophia  203
10.3.1 Genetic Resources  203
10.3.2 Hybrids  204
10.3.3 Medicinal Eulophia  204
10.4 Phaius  205
10.4.2 Commercial Hybrids  206
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10.4.3 Herbal Medicines  206
10.5 Pleione  206
10.5.2 Hybrids  207
10.5.2.3 Variety – species Hybrids  207
10.5.3 Medicinal Pleione  207
11 Orchids for Pot Culture/ Hanging Baskets/ Tree Mounting  208

11.1 Agronomic Management  208
11.1.1 Humidity  208
11.1.2 Light  208
11.1.3 Temperature  209
11.1.4 Atmosphere  209
11.1.5 Propagation  209
11.1.6 Pots and Potting Media  210
11.1.7 Watering  211
11.1.8 Nutrition  211
11.1.9 Repotting  211
11.2 World Production Scenario of Potted Orchids  212
11.3 Description and Culture  212
11.3.1 Aerides  212
11.3.1.1 Genetic Resources  212
11.3.1.2 Intergeneric Hybrids  213
11.3.1.3 Common Commercial Hybrids  213
11.3.1.4 Uses  213
11.3.1.5 Cultivation  213
11.3.2 Anoectochilus  214
11.3.2.2 Uses  214
11.3.3 Arachnis  215
11.3.3.2 Inter-generic Hybrids  215
11.3.3.4 Uses  216
11.3.4 Ascocentrum  216
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11.3.4.2 Hybrids:  217
11.3.4.2.1 Bigeneric Hybrids  217
11.3.4.2.2 Trigeneric Hybrids  217
11.3.4.2.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids  217
11.3.4.2.4 Pentageneric Hybrids  218
11.3.4.2.5 Common Commercial Hybrids  218
11.3.4.3 Uses  218
11.3.5 Bulbophyllum  218
11.3.5.2 Hybrids  220
11.3.5.2.1 Common Commercial Hybrids  220
11.3.5.3 Medicinal Bulbophyllums  220
11.3.5.4 Uses  221
11.3.6 Coelogyne  221
11.3.6.2 Hybrids  223
11.3.6.2.1 Inter-specific Hybrids  223
11.3.6.2.2 Variety-species Hybrid  224
11.3.6.3 Coelogyne for Hanging Baskets  224
11.3.6.4 Coelogyne for Herbal Medicines  224
11.3.7 Doritis  224
11.3.7.1 Primary Hybrids  224
11.3.7.3 Commercial Uses  225
11.3.8 Epidendrum  225
11.3.8.6 Epilaelia Hybrids  227
11.3.8.7 Epilaeliocattleya Hybrids  227
11.3.8.8 Epicattleya Hybrids  227
11.3.8.9 Medicinal Epidendrum  228
11.3.8.10 Edible Epidendrum  228
11.3.9 Gastrochilus  228
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11.3.9.2 Uses  229
11.3.10 Laelia  229
11.3.10.6.1 Laelia  231
11.3.10.6.2 Laelio-cattleya  231
11.3.10.7 Medicinal Laelia  231
11.3.11 Miltonia  232
11.3.11.6 Interspecific Hybrids  233
11.3.12 Odontoglossum  234
11.3.12.7 Variety –Species Hybrid  236
11.3.13 Renanthera  236
11.3.13.4 Renanthera Hybrids  237
11.3.13.5 Renanstylis Hybrids  237
11.3.13.6 Renantanda Hybrids  238
11.3.13.7 Renanthopsis  238
11.3.13.8 Renanapsis  238
11.3.13.9 Uses  238
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11.3.13.10 Cultivation  238
11.3.14 Rhyncostylis  238
11.3.14.2 Common Uses  239
11.3.14.5 Rhynchorides Hybrids  239
11.3.14.6 Rhynchostylis Hybrids  240
11.3.14.7 Rhyncholaeliocattleya Hybrids  240
11.3.14.8 Rhynchosophrocattleya Hybrids  240
11.3.14.9 Rhynchovola Hybrid  240
11.3.14.10 Rhyncattleanthe Hybrids  240
11.3.14.11 Rhynchovanda Hybrids  240
11.3.14.12 Rhyncattleya Hybrids  240
11.3.14.13 Rhyncobrassoleya Hybrids  241
11.3.14.14 Medicinal Rhyncostylis  241
11.3.14.15 Cultivation  241
11.3.15 Zygopetalum  241
11.3.15.2 Intergeneric Hybrids  242
11.3.15.3 Common commercial Hybrids  242
12 Medicinal and Aromatic Orchids  243

12.1 Medicinal Orchids  243
12.1.1 Pharmacological Profile of Orchids  246
12.2 Aromatic Orchids (De, 2014)  247
12.2.1 Scent Production  248
12.2.2 Other Examples of Aromatic Orchids  249
13 Post–harvest Management of Cut Flowers of Commercial Orchids  250

13.2 Hybrids and Varieties for Cut flower  250
13.3 Physiology of Cut Flowers  253
13.3.1 Cellular Structural Changes  254
13.3.2 Biochemical and Structural Molecular Changes  254
13.4 Pre-harvest Factors  255
13.4.1 Varietal Differences  255
13.4.2 Light Intensity  257
13.4.4 Humidity  258
13.4.5 Nutrition  258
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13.5 Harvest Factors  258
13.5.1 Time of Harvest  258
13.5.2 Method of Harvest  259
13.5.3 Stage of Harvest  259
13.6 Post-Harvest Factors  259
13.6.2 Light  260
13.6.3 Humidity  260
13.6.4 Water Quality  260
13.6.5 Ethylene  260
13.6.6 Diseases and Insect- pests  261
13.7 Treatments for Improving Longevity of Cut Orchid Flowers  261
13.7.1 Physical Treatments  261
13.7.1.1 Pre-cooling  261
13.7.1.2 Vase Life of Cut Flowers as Affected by Stem Cut Ends  262
13.7.2 Chemical Treatments  262
13.7.2.1 Conditioning  262
13.7.2.2 Impregnation  262
13.7.2.3 Pulsing  262
13.7.2.4 Bud Opening  263
13.8 Grading and Packing  266
13.9 Packaging in Orchids  267
13.10 Storage of Cut Flowers  268
13.11 Transport  269
14 Value Addition in Orchids  270

14.2 Orchids - A Component Adapted to the Diversified Climate  271
14.3 Orchids-organically Viable  271
14.4 Landscaping with Orchids  271
14.5 Colour Scheme with Orchids  272
14.5.1 Winter Flowering Orchids  272
14.5.2 Spring Flowering Orchids  272
14.5.3 Summer Flowering orchids  272
14.6 Orchids in Balcony Gardens  272
14.7 Orchid Tree  272
14.8 Orchids – Genetic Materials for Breeding and Species Trade  273
14.9 Orchid Species and Hybrids for Cut flower  274
14.10 Orchids – as Potted plants/Hanging Baskets/ Trays  274
14.11 Orchids – as Herbal Medicine and Aromatic Products  274
14.12 Fragrant Orchids  276
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14.13 Orchids – as Source of Phytochemicals  276
14.14 Orchids – Used as Foods  277
14.15 Orchids – a Special Item for Value Addition  278
14.16 Orchids – for Festivals and Special Uses  278
14.17 Orchids for Dry Flowers  278
14.18 Orchid Flower Arrangements  279
14.19 Other Uses  279
15 Marketing  280
15.2 Marketing Channels  280
15.3 Capital Investments in the Nursery Development  281
15.4 Marketing of Plants from Nurseries  281
15.5 Government Regulations and Support Nursery  281
15.6 Support for Nurseries under National Horticulture Mission
(NHM)  282
15.7 Nursery Expenditure, Income and Profit Analysis  283
15.8 Expenditure Estimate in Nursery  283
15.9 Nursery Income  283
15.10 Maintenance of Records for Sale and Income  283
15.11 Profit Analysis and Financial Ratios (De, 2013)  284
15.12 Entrepreneurship Development through Nursery  285
15.12.1 Role of Nursery Entrepreneurship  285
15.12.2 Risk Analysis in Nursery Enterprise  285
15.12.3 Profitability in a Nursery Enterprise  286
15.13 Export Market Views of Orchids  286
15.14 Development of International Orchid Market  287
15.15 Domestic Orchid Market  289
References  291
List of Figures  299
List of Tables  300
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1 Introduction
Orchidaceae are cosmopolitan, occurring in almost every habitat apart from deserts
and glaciers, although they are mostly found in the tropics, particularly Asia, South
America and Central America. They are distributed above the Arctic Circle, in south-
ern Patagonia and even in Antarctica.
The following list gives a rough overview of their distribution:
Tropical America: 300 to 350 genera
Tropical Asia: 250 to 300 genera
Tropical Africa: 125 to 150 genera
Oceania: 50 to 70 genera
Europe and temperate Asia: 40 to 60 genera
North America: 20 to 30 genera
Orchids comprise the largest family of flowering plants with 25,000 to 35,000
species belonging to 600-800 genera and cover 10% of the flowering plants. They
are prized for their incredible diversity in size, shape and colour and attractiveness of
their flowers and high keeping qualities even up to 10 weeks. Most orchids originated
in the tropical humid forests of Central and South America, India, Sri Lanka, Burma,
South China, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, New Guinea and Australia. Brazilian
Cattleya, Mexican Laelia and Indian Cymbidium, Vanda and Dendrobium have played
a major role in developing present day beautiful hybrid orchids, which number more
than 200,000. In international trade, among the top ten cut flowers, orchids rank
as sixth and among orchids Cymbidium claims the first position, accounting for 3%
of the total cut flower production in floricultural crops. Orchids are found in nearly
every environment in the world starting from tropical and subtropical to alpine zones,
both epiphytically and terrestrially.
Epiphytic orchids like Thunia, Coelogyne, Cattleya, Laelia, Dendrobium, Calanthe,
Bulbophyllum, Aerides, Phalaenopsis, Aranda and Aranthera with thick leaves and
succulent stems have Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) and are drought tolerant
with higher water use efficiency. Orchids are organically viable and easily grown in
locally available media including fir bark, coconut husk, sphagnum moss, tree fern
fibres, coco peat, saw dust and perlite, and frequently a mixture of two or three of these
materials. Several local species of Vanda, Cymbidium, Ascocentrum, Bulbophyllum,
Coelogyne, Renanthera, Rhyncostylis, Paphiopedilum, Calanthe, Dendrobium etc. are
in great demand in international market for breeding materials. Among the cut flower
crops, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Odontoglossum, Oncidium, Cattleya,
Paphiopedilum, Vanda, Aeridovanda, Aranda, Mokara, Arachnis, Vascostylis, Renan-
thera, Rhyncicentrum, Rhyncovanda etc. are important. Important orchid genera used
as potted plants in the international market are Phalaenopsis, Oncidium, Miltonia,
Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Dendrobium, Cattleya, Ascocenda, Vanda, Brassia, Milto-
nia and Epidendrum. The origin and distribution of these and other types of orchid
species are given in Tab. 1.1. Tribal people of the North eastern hill region of India use
© 2014 Lakshman Chandra De, Promila Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K. Rajeevan
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License.
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2 Introduction
wild orchids for a variety of folk medicine, as orchids are rich in alkaloids, flavonoids,
glycosides, carbohydrates and other phytochemicals. Leaves, tubers and pseudobulbs
of several species are used for edible purposes. Vanilla, a major spice crop and source
of vanillin, comes from Vanilla planifolia. Anoectochilus leaves are used as vegetables
in Indonesia and Malayasia. Pseudobulbs of Cymbidium maladimum and Dendrobium
speciosum and tubers of Microtis uniflora and Caladenia carnea are eaten. Orchids
can be considered as an item for value addition like ‘Cilindra’ (a gift of a glass flute
containing a flowering mini Cymbidium) and ‘Stylish Setting’ (a festive packaging for
special occasions such as Birthdays).
In India, orchids are comprised of 158 genera and 1331 species which grow at up to
an elevation of 5000 m. Indian terrestrials are commonly located in humus rich moist
earth under tree shades in North Western India. Western Ghats harbour the small
flowered orchids. Epiphytic orchids are common in North eastern India which grow at
up to an elevation of 2000 m from sea level. Indian orchid species with high ornamental
values and used as breeding materials are Aerides multiflorum, Aerides odoratum,
Arundina graminifolia, Arachnis, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe masuca, Coelogyne elata,
Coelogyne flavida, C. corymbosa; Cymbidium aloifolium, Cym. lowianum, Cym. devoni-
anum, Cym. hookerianum, Cym. lancifolium,; Dendrobium aphyllum, Den. nobile, Den.
chrysanthum, Den. farmeri, Den. densiflorum, Den. moschatum, Den. fimbriatum, Den.
jenkinsii; Paphiopedilum venustum, P. spicerianum, P. hirsutissimum, P. insigne, Phaius
wallichii, Pleione praecox, Renanthera imschootiana, Rhyncostylis retusa, Thunia alba,
Vanda cristata, Vanda coerulea and Vanda coerulescens.
In India, some of native genera like Cymbidium, Renanthera, Paphiopedilum,
Vanda, Arachnis and Dendrobium are cultivated on a large scale for cut flower pro-
duction. The Cymbidium is mainly grown in NEH Region, Sikkim, Darjeeling hills,
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Tropical orchids are cultivated in Kerala and some
parts of Tamil Nadu. We should choose those species that flower during winter and
spring months to export to temperate regions from December to May. The orchids have
taken a significant position in cut flower industry due to its attractiveness, long shelf
life, high productivity, right season of bloom, easy in packing and transportation.
Ten orchid species under Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (Schedule VI, Sec.2)
– Paphiopedilum charlesworthii (Rolf.) Pfitz.
– Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.)
– Paphiopedilum fairrieanum (Lindl.)
– P. hirsutissimum (Lindl.) Stein
– Paphiopedilum insigne (Wall ex Lindl.)
– Paphiopedilum spicerianum (Rchb.f.ex Mast & Moor)
– Paphiopedilum villosum (Lindl.)
– Paphiopedilum wardii (Summerh)
– Vanda coerulea Griff. Ex Lindl)
– Renanthera imschootiana (Rolfe)
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Tab. 1.1: Origin and habit of different types of orchid species
Category Genera Species Description Habitat

European Ophrys, Orchis, Ophrys apifera A new shoot grows from each underground tuber during the Suited for hot and dry in
open habitat Serapias, Aceras, Ophrys fusca autumn to form rosette of leaves in winter or early spring summer, and cooler and
orchids Gymnedia damper in autumn and
winter. 12 cm plastic pots
filled up with old and
fresh compost (leaf mold
and bark) are useful.
European Epipactis, Cypripedium calceolus Summer flowering, die down in winter and do not form tubers A compost mixture
Woodland Cephalenthera, with extra leaf mold
Orchids Listera, Cypripedium and more frequent
watering in summer.
African Disa, Stenoglottis, Disa corunata, Disa produces tall racemes of many bright coloured flowers Disas grow near streams
Terrestrials Eulophia D. kewensis, D. uniflora, S. fimbriata bears basal rosette of spotted leaves. S. longifolia or in damp grass lands at a
D. cardinalis produces a tuft of fresh green strap shaped leaves with white or lilac minimum night temperat-
Stenoglottis fimbriata, flowers with pink spots and 70 cm tall spikes. S. woodii have white ure of 11°C or in a potting
S. longifolia or pink flowers in short spikes. E. petersii have hardy fleshy leaves, mixture of equal parts of
S. woodii flowers loosely spaced along a spike and white lips. E. guineen- peat and perlite. Steno-
Eulophia petersii sis bears large flowers with pale pink lips. E. streptopetala bear glottis grows terrestrially
pseudobulbs which produce soft broad leaves and tall flower spikes. or on mossy rocks.
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Flowers are bright yellow with brown spotted greenish sepals.
African Bulbophyllum, Bulbophyllumpurpure- B. purpureorachis bear leathery leaves. Flower spikes are dark All tropical bulbophyl-
Epiphytes Polystachya, Ansellia, orachis, B. falcatum, purple knife blades that are spirally twisted and individual flowers lums grow on cork bark
Microcoelia, Aerangis, B. buntingii, B. barbigerum are purple. B. falcatum has a flattened yellow green rachis with two in a humid semi-shaded
Angraecum, Cyrtorchis, Polystachya virginea rows of tiny red and yellow flowers along its midrib. B. buntingii location where the tem-
Mystacidium, P. lawrenceana, P. bella has 12 cm tall spikes, leathery leaves and cream coloured fragrant perature range is 15-27°C.
Introduction
Rangaeris, Tridactyle, Ansellia africana, flowers. B. barbigerum with red hairy lips. P. virginea is 20 cm tall Polystachyas grow on cork
Taeniophyllum, Aerangis verdickii, bearing helmet shaped white flowers. P. lawrenceana forms a small oak bark or in a small pot
Polyrhizza A. mystacidi, Angraecum hummock of fresh green strap shaped leaves over which hang with epiphytic compost.
infundibulare, grayish green and pink flowers. P. bella has erect stems with 20 A minimum night temper-
A.distichum, A. erectum gold or orange nodding flowers. A. africana bears highly scented ature of 15°C is needed.

spotted flowers borne in panicles from the apex of the mature canes.
A. verdickii is a vigorous plant bearing 12 flowers on a raceme.
3
4
continued
Introduction
Madagascar Angraecum, Eulophiella, Angraecum sesquipedale Angraecum sesquipedale has leathery leaves and silvery blooms. Angraecums grow on
orchids Cymbidiella, Aeranthes A. eburneum A. eburneum are 2 m tall with a clump of green strap shaped leaves coarse compost with
A. compactum and 1 m long spikes bearing 20 flowers of whitish green colour. high humidity.
Eulophiella roempleriana A. compactum has fleshy leaves and star shaped white flowers. Aeranthes are grown in a
Cymbidiella flabellata E. roempleriana a rhizomatous clump forming large plant bearing shady humid location with
Aeranthes caudata 25 pink colored flowers. C. flabellata has grassy foliages and a winter night temperature
Aeranthes grandiflora yellowish green flowers with purplish black spots. A. caudata has of 16°C in hanging baskets.
Aeranthes ramosa pale green flowers with long graceful petals and sepals. A. gran-
diflora with large white translucent flowers having pale green
tips to the petals. Aeranthes ramosa bears pale green flowers.
Australian Pterostylis, Diuris, Pterostylis angusta, Pterostylis species are tuber propagated and characterized Australian temperate
Temperate Caladenia, Corybas P. nutans, P. baptistii, by the presence of a hood which is formed by the fusion of terrestrials grow in a
Terrestrial P. vittata, Diuris palustris the dorsal sepals and lateral petals of the flower. The hood symbiotic relationship with
is usually green, streaked with white, red or brown. a mycorrhizal fungus which
obtain organic matter from
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the compost. Diuris palus-

tris grows in marshy areas.
Australian Phaius, Calanthe, Phaius tankervilleae P. tankervilleae bears 2 m tall spikes bearing white flowers on Tropical terrestrials grow
terrestrial Malaxis Phaius australis the outside and is gingery brown, except for the lip which is in hot, wet summer and
orchids var. bernaysii pale on the outside and rose-pink within. Phaius australis var. rest during the winter.
Calanthe triplicata bernaysii has yellow and white flowers. Calanthe triplicata They require humus
Malaxis latifolia bears deep green ribbed leaves with protruded white flowering rich rain forest soils.
spikes. Malaxis latifolia has handsome foliage and a raceme
of tiny pale green flowers which turn purple in a few days
continued

Australian Cymbidium, Cymbidium madidum C. madidum has glossy green stout leaves and fleshy, yellow brown Being a large plant
Epiphytes Bulbophyllum, C. canaliculatum to green long lasting flowers borne on pendulous spikes. C. can- C. madidum grows in a
Dendrobium, C. suave aliculatum with thick, fleshy, grey green leaves and brown and 30 cm pot under shady loc-
Sarcochilus Bulbophyllum baileyi red flowers through purple to green. C. suave with a soft grassy ation at a night temperature
Dendrobium bigibbum foliages and a longer slender stem and greenish, scented flowers. of 16°C. C. canaliculatum
D. discolor B. baileyi is the largest species with solitary flowers (4 cm diameter) requires sufficient sunlight
D. tetretifolium that are white or yellow with purple spots. D. bigibbum (floral with a night temperature
D. tetragonum emblem of Queensland) has 45 cm tall pseudobulbs with a tuft of of 18°C. C. suave grow well
D. speciosum leaves at the top. D. discolor forms multistemmed, less vigorous in hollow logs in a cooler
D. delicatum and 30 cm long arching racemes. The petals and sepals are brown glass house. Bulbophyllums
Sarcochilus ceciliae, and yellow, twisted and curled. D. teretifolium bears small white grow on slabs of cork oak
Sarcochilus falcatus, flowers each winter. D. tetragonum has square pseudobulbs with bark in a shady location
S. hartmannii, a tuft of dark green leaves at the end of each one. The flowers are with a night temperature
Phalaenopsis amabilis yellow and brown or green and white. D. speciosum has long spikes of 15°C. D. tetretifolium
var papuana of densely packed cream coloured flowers. D. delicatum has pink and D. tetragonum grows
or white flowers. S. ceciliae with compact foliages and racemes of in shadier, cooler green
pink flowers. S. falcatus has pure white flowers with with yellow houses with a winter night
and orange striped lips. P. amabilis var papuana has pendulous temperature of 16°C. D. spe-
leaves and 5 to 10 white flowers borne on arching inflorescence. ciosum grow well in a cooler
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glass house with a winter

night temperature of 14°C.
P.amabilis var papuana
grow in a shady and very
humid location with a winter
night temperature of 18°C.
Introduction

5
6
continued
Introduction
Asian Pleione, Paphiopedilum, Pleione praecox, P. praecox bears slightly scented pink flowers with a darker frilled lip. Pleiones grow in the mats
terrestrials Acanthephippium, P. maculata, P. lagenaria, P. maculata has smaller pink or white flowers whereas P. lagenaria of moss and fallen leaf litter
Ludisia, Tainia, P. humilis has a deep pink colour with a mauve flush down the centre of each that accumulate in cracks
Anectochilus, Macodes Ludisia discolor sepal and purple streaks on the lip. P. humilis has pale pink sepals among rocks and on moun-
Macodes cominsii and petals and a white frilled lip with reddish brown streaks and tain slopes. They prefer
Tainia hookeriana a conical pointed pseudobulb. P. formosana has rosy pink sepals a bark based compost.
Acanthephippium and petals and a white lip with raised yellow markings and orange Autumn flowering species
sylhetense blotches. L. discolor has redish green leaves overlaid with bronze require warmer conditions
Calanthe vestita and velvety white blooms. M. cominsii has a fleshy heart shaped leaf while spring flowering
C. rubens with green purple veins and markings. T. hookeriana has petiolate species are kept in a cold
C. arisanense C. discolor leaves and 1 m tall flower spikes carrying 25 flowers marked with greenhouse. Anectochilus,
P. rothschildianum brown lines and a white lip. A. sylhetense has bold plicate leaves Ludisia and Macodes need
P. delentii arising from stout conical pseudobulbs and waxy scented, cup warm temperature with a
Paphiopedilum fairreanum shaped and creamy flowers with purple markings. C. vestita has winter night temperature
P. insigne vigorous leaves and 1.5 m long flower spikes bearing white flowers of 16°C, shade from direct
P. micranthum with a crimson lip. C. rubens bears dark pink flowers with a pinkish sunlight and a high relative
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P. wardii lip. C. arisanense has white flowers with a hint of mauve. C. discolor humidity. T. hookeriana
P. philippinense is purple with a pale pink lip. Paphiopedilums are recognized by grows in a semishaded
P. concolor their basal fans of leaves from the centre from which flower scape position with a winter night
P. insigne emerges. P. rothschildianum has long, strap shaped, uniform deep temperature of 18°C and
P. fairrieanum green leaves with creamy maroon dorsal sepals whereas P. wardii a high relative humidity.
and P. delentii have shorter, dark green mottled, light green or silver Deciduous calanthes grow
leaves and slipper shaped lip and staminode column. P. micranthum in a sunny position with a
has dark green leaves, delightful flowers, short, rounded petals and winter night temperature
pale green sepals tinged with pink and veined with maroon. The lip is of 18°C and a high relative
very large, spherical, and white with rosy pink blush. P. philippinense humidity. Evergreen calan-
has several flowers in each inflorescence with pale purple and green thes require a semishaded
petals, white dorsal sepals with purple markings and a yellow- location with a minimum
ish green lip with purple veins. P. concolor has rosette of mottled night temperature of 13°C
leaves, attractive creamy flowers and rounded petals and sepals and a relative humidity
marked with purple spots. P. insigne has pale narrow leaves, a broad of 75%. They are heavy
pale brown lip and pale brown petals with wavy edges. The dorsal feeders and prefer leaf
sepal is white and green and heavily marked with purple blotches. mould. P. fairreanum and
P. fairrieanum has a white petals boldly marked with maroon veins P. insigne bloom at a winter
and hairs; the petals turn backwards at their tips. The dorsal sepal night temperature of 13°C
is white with a network of maroon veins and the lip is pale green. and need a potting mixture
of bark, peat and charcoal.
continued

Asian Taeniophyllum, Paphiopedilum Taeniophyllum has diminutive pin headed flowers. Microcoelia has Taeniophyllums and
Epiphytes Microcoelia, parishii, P. lowii small brown scales and photosynthesizes in the roots. Phalaenopsis Microclelias grow upon the
Phalaenopsis, Vanda, Taeniophyllum amabilis has 1 m long inflorescence with 20 flowers of whitish yellow twigs of rain forest trees.
Aerides, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis amabilis lips and red markings. P. stuartiana and P. schilleriana have narrow Phalaenopsis requires
Cymbidium P. stuartiana deep green leaves marbles with silver. P. stuartiana has white flowers epiphytic composts, a shady
P. schilleriana marked with yellow on the lip and peppered with maroon spots. warm green house with a
P. mannii P. schilleriana has pale pink flowers with yellow markings and red spots minimum night temperat-
P. gigantea on the lip. P. mannii has plain green leaves and a short inflorescence ure of 16°C and frequent
Vanda coerulea with star shaped six pale yellow flowers with brown bars across the watering and misting.
V. tessellata segments. P. gigantea are waxy, grey green coloured hanging like a Vandas and Aerides need
V. tricolor bunch of grapes underneath the foliage. Flowers are pale yellow or pink a lot of sunlight to induce
V. lamellata and ground obscured by heavy brown blotches. V. coerulea has white flowering, a coarse epiphytic
Aerides falcata or blue flowers with bold network of royal purple markings. V. tessel- compost, and a winter
A. houlletiana lata has pale green flowers tessellated with pale brown markings. night temperature of 18°C.
Dendrobium discolor V. tricolor var. suavis has white flowers marked with magenta blotches. D. discolor, D. lasianthera
D. lasianthera V. lamellata has slender flowers of pale lemon colours with red streaking and D. antennatum grow
D. antennatum on the lateral sepals. Aerides bear waxy flowers clustering short and well in green houses with
D. noblie pendulous rachis. A. falcata has white flowers marked with striking a lot of warmth and light,
D. farmeri magenta spots. A. fieldingii has purple flowers with white markings. and a winter night minimum
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D. primulinum A. houlletiana has brown yellow flowers with orange markings at the temperature of 18°C and
D. alaticaulinum tip of each segment. Dendrobium discolor produces 2 m tall canes and a high relative humidity.
D. subuliferum 30 cm long inflorescences. The flowers are cream, gold or brownish and They require clay pots filled
D. simplex petals with wavy margins. D. lasianthera produces taller inflorescences with broken crocks and
D. cuthbertsonii with 20 bronze flowers with purple markings on the lip. D. anten- coarse epiphytic composts.
Cymbidium ensifolium natum has densely crowded pseudobulbs with light green lanceolate D. noblie
C. eburneum leaves, 30 cm long arching inflorescences bearing 12 white flowers D. farmeri and
C. lowianum and pink markings in the lip. D. noblie has 60 cm tall pseudobulbs and D. primulinum grow in
Introduction
C. finlaysonianum deciduous leaves. The older canes remain leafless at any time of the a light airy green house
C. aloifolium year. The flowers are fragrant, long lasting, white with magenta tips to with a night minimum
C. insigne each tepal and a deep purple blotch in the throat. D. farmeri has 4 cm temperature of 15°C and in
C. traycyanum diameter pale pink flowers with a soft yellow lip. D. primulinum has a small clay pots of medium
C. faberi pendulous habit and flowers on leafless canes. Flowers are white tinged epiphytic composts.

C. devonianum with pink and a pale yellow lip. D. subuliferum has fine grassy foliage D. alaticaulinum
C. dayanum with white flowers. D. alaticaulinum has intense orange colour at the D. subuliferum
7
C. elegans tips, D. simplex are white dotted with purple on the outside and pale D. simplex and
green inside. D. cuthbertsonii has pink. Orange and scarlet flowers. D. cuthbertsonii
8
continued
Introduction
Cymbidium ensifolium has Inflorescence bearing 8-10 small green require cool house with a
flowers with streaked red and white lip. C. eburneum has fragrant, minimum temperature of
white to ivory colour flowers with deep yellow lip. C. lowianum has 14°C, 80% relative humidity
tall arching flower spikes of long lasting qualities with 30 apple and a good air circulation.
green flowers. C. finlaysonianum has clumps of hard, leathery, Cymbidium ensifolium
dark green, strap shaped foliage and 1.5 m long pendulous flower C. eburneum and
spikes carrying yellowy green flowers with purple markings on the C. lowianum require cool,
lip. C. aloifolium has shorter leaves and a 60 cm long flower spike light and airy conditions.
bearing pale green flowers with brown markings down the middle of C. aloifolium and C. fin-
the segment and red brown lip. C. insigne has an erect flower spike, laysonianum need a warm
1.5 m tall with 12 flowers at the top. Flowers are white suffused with humid climate, quite light
palest pink and lip marked with deeper pink blotches. C. tracyanum with a night minimum
has an arching flower spike, 1.5 m long densely crowded with temperature of 18°C and a
large pale browny yellow flowers having deep red markings on the coarse epiphytic compost.
petals and lip. C. faberi has slender grassy foliage with 30 cm tall C. insigne
spikes bearing pale green flowers with red markings and a deep C. traycyanum
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green lip with crimson streaks. C. devonianum has rounded leaves C. faberi
and pendulus flower spikes bearing pale yellow flowers thickly C. devonianum
streaked with purple. C. dayanum holds the flowers on short spikes C. dayanum and
close to the base of the leaves. The flowers are star shaped and C. elegans grow well under
pale cream in colour with bold red line along the centre of each cool climate with a minimum
petal and sepal and red lip with yellow markings. C. elegans bears temperature of 11°C and
many flowered racemes of pale yellow, funnel shaped flowers. good air movement.
continued

American Peristeria, Peristeria elata Peristeria elata, the national flower of Panama has robust Peristeria elata grow in a
Terrestrials Phragmipedium Phragmipedium schlimii plants with flat round pseudobulb and the deciduous plicate semi-shaded location with
P. longifolium leaves. Flowers are white, cup shaped and scented. a winter night minimum
P. caudatum Phragmipedium schlimii has grassy leaves and 30 cm tall spikes temperature of 18°C and
bearing white flowers with a deep pink lip. P. longifolium has glossy in shallow clay pans filled
dark green foliage and pale apricot flowers with green vein. with broken crocks and leaf
P. caudatum has greenish yellow long petalled flowers with mould. Phragmipedium
dark green veins and a red hairy margin to the petals. schlimii and P. caudatum
grow in a semi-shaded
position in a cool intermedi-
ate glasshouse with a night
minimum temperature of
14°C and plenty of ventila-
tion. P. longifolium grow in
warm humid conditions with
a minimum night temper-
ature of 14°C and medium

grade epiphytic compost.
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Introduction

9
10
continued
Introduction
American Cattleya, Laelia, Cattleya bowringiana Cattleya bowringiana has an arching spikes bearing 10 flowers, rosy Cattleyas require a great
Epiphytes Stanhopea, Gongora, C. skinneri mauve with darker markings on the lip and a white throat. C. skin- deal of sunlight and
Oncidium, C. mossiae neri, a summer flowering species. C. mossiae, a spring flowering medium to coarse compost.
OdotoglossumLembo- C. percivaliana species has a large pale pink flower with a splash of orange and Brazilian and Mexican
glossum, Osmoglos- C. maxima deep pink veining on the lip. C. percivaliana has narrower petals laelias grow at lower
sum, Rossioglossum, C. warscewiczii with deep pink lip. C. maxima has weak stems with intricate pattern temperature under bright
Miltonia, Epidendrum, C. tricolor of deep pink veins along the lip. C. warscewiczii has pale pink sun light and in shallow,
Encyclia, Mesdavallia, Laelia rubescens flowers with a darker pink lip. C. tricolor has long, narrow and open slatted wooden baskets.
Dracula, Cypripedium L. gouldiana petals, golden colour with a creamy lip outside and bright gold with Stanhopeas and gongoras
L. anceps red markings inside. Laelia rubescens bears cluster of upto seven are grown in a semi-
Stanhopea ecornuta flowers produced at the each end of each one. The flowers are white shaded location with a
S. tigrina through pink and lavender to mauve. L. anceps is characterized by winter minimum night
Gongora galeata one leaved, angled pseudobulbs and one metre long flower spikes. temperature of 16°C and
G. quinquenervis Flowers are one to many, rosy pink, rich pink inside the velvety lip high relative humidity.
Oncidium parviflorum and with deeper coloured veins and a yellow callus. L. gouldiana has A medium grade epiphyte
O. cheirophorum pseudobulbs bearing two to three leaves and rounded flowers. This compost is ideal for them.
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O. splendidum species is a natural hybrid between L. anceps and L. autumnalis. Oncidiums require high
O. cocciferum Petals are rosy pink with a dark pink strike at the down the centre, humidity and high light
O. papilio while the lip is dark pink with darker veins and a central yellow spot. levels. Odontoglossum
Lemboglossum cervantessi Stanhopea ecornuta has creamy yellow flowers with purple spots. alliances require a cool
L. bictoniense S. wardii has cream coloured waxy flowers with red spots. S. tigrina and airy location and a
L. maculatum bears cream coloured flowers obscured by the large red blotches winter night minimum
Rossioglossum splendens all over the flower. Gongora galeata is pale brown colour with vivid temperature of 14°C and
Epidendrum difforme brown lip. G. quinquenervis has scented yellow flowers covered in grown as potted orchids
E. ciliolare a profusion of red spots. Oncidium parviflorum has 1 m long spike using a medium epiphytic
Encyclia fragrans bearing pretty small flowers. O. cheirophorum is equipped with 6 cm compost. Masdevallia and
E. cochleata long leaves and 20 cm long arching flower spikes bearing tiny, frilly Dracula require a night
E. citrine and yellow scented flowers. O. splendidum has thick hard leaves temperature of 14°C and
Dracula chimaera and a tall branching flower spikes carrying red and yellow flowers. a fine epiphytic compost
Dracula bella O. cocciferum, a small plant with tall flower spikes bearing small and liberal watering.
Masdevallia coccinea reddish brown flowers with yellow tips to each sepal and petal.
M. angulata O. papilio has a slender stem with attractive red and yellow lip
M. barlaeana and sepals. Lemboglossum cervantessi has white and pink flowers
M. macrura with concentric circle of maroon bars around the column. L. bic-
toniense has a broad pink lip with green ad red mottled sepals.
continued

L. maculatum have red petals and white petals spotted with red.
Rossioglossum splendens has flowers of a blazing orange colour
with a yellow lip marked with red spots. Epidendrum difforme are
30 cm tall, fleshy and translucent and bears pale green flowers.
E. ciliolare are arranged with lime green star flowers and white lip
with a shaggy fringed margin. Encyclia fragrans is scented, with
whitish green flowers and violet striped lip. E. cochleata has pale
green, slender and reflexed sepals and petals and shiny dark maroon
lip stands over the column like a hood. E. citrina is distinguished with
its pendent, grey green pseudobulbs and foliage. Flowers are yellow
and buttercup sizes. Dracula chimaera has white sepals blotched
with white and red lip. The sepals are dotted with short white hairs.
Dracula bella has yellow sepals with deep red spots and long trailing
tails at the tip of the sepal. Tip is white. Masdevallia coccinea with
white, yellow and magenta flowers. M. angulata has tubular olive
green flowers with deep red blotches. M. barlaeana is vivid magenta
coloured. M. macrura has orange flowers with red spots and long
twisty yellow tails. Cypripedium reginae forms splendid clumps of
stem with attractive pink and white flowers. C. acaule has a large
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pink lip and smaller brownish sepals and petals. C. calceolus has
bright yellow lip and yellow, green and brownish sepals and petals.
Introduction

11
12 Introduction
Tab. 1.2: Present status of orchid distribution in India (Hajra and De, 2010)
Region States Genera Species
Eastern Himalayas and Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, 159 870

North Eastern India Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim
and Tripura
North-Western J& K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand 75 288
Himalayas
Peninsular India M.P., Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, 89 379
Central India, Eastern Ghats and
Western Ghats
Andaman and 319 Islands and islets in the Bay of 53 115
Nicobar Islands Bengal
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2 Global Orchid Industry
Floriculture has emerged as an immense entrepreneurial opportunity for small and mar-
ginal farmers and a way forward to earn foreign exchange. Floriculture business deals
with cut flowers, pot plants, cut foliages, seeds, bulbs, tubers, rooted cuttings and dried
flowers or leaves. Major floricultural crops traded internationally include roses, carna-
tions, chrysanthemums, gerberas, gladiolus, gypsophilas, liatris, nerines, orchids,
achillea, anthuriums, tulips and lilies. With the increase demand for flowers, floriculture
has become one of the important commercial trades in Indian Agriculture. Therefore,
commercial floriculture has emerged as a high–tech activity taking place under con-
trolled environments inside greenhouses. Indian floriculture is now viewed as a high
growth industry, particularly as the liberalization of industrial and trade policies have
paved the way for development of export oriented floriculture. The floral industry is a
highly dynamic business. The characteristics of varieties, the origin of production, pro-
duction technologies, markets and retailing systems as well as individual products are
all undergoing continuous change, while challenging the adaptive capacity of the actors
involved. In a slowly but steadily growing world market, new developing country export-
ers are increasing market share at the expense of existing producers. These producers
try to remain ahead by increasing productivity and through diversification and innova-
tion. Kenya, Ecuador and Zimbabwe, the rapidly rising exporters of the last decade, have
become established suppliers to their ambitious new competitors including China, India,
The Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Malawi, Mexico, Palestine, Peru, South Africa and
Zambia. India is the world’s fastest growing destination for tourism. Flower consump-
tion growth rises by up to 30% per annum and numerous festivals, along with increasing
modernization and per capita income, make India a floral super power of the future. Our
country is emerging as the world’s fastest growing flower and gardening market.
About 190 thousand ha area has been brought under flower cultivation during
2011-12. During 2010-2011, the production of flowers was estimated to be 870.4 metric
tons of loose flowers and 43417.5 million of cut flowers. The government of India has
considered floriculture as a sunrise industry and accorded it 100% export oriented
status. The country has reached the ability to export 30926023 metric tons of floricul-
ture products to the world for the worth of Rs. 365.32 crores in 2011-12. USA, Germany,
UK, Japan, Canada and UAE were the major consumers of Indian floriculture. While
the Indian floriculture industry is likely to reach the Rs. 8000 crore mark by 2015, it
currently stands at about Rs. 3700 crores with the share of 0.65% in the international
floriculture sector which is likely to reach 0.89% by 2015.
2.1 Global Orchid Trade
Imports and exports of floriculture products from all round the world are increasing
year by year because industry professionals in India are always seeking new products,
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techniques and devices that are effective and economic. As a result, floriculture trade
is flourishing and research centres and species nurseries have turned into a promising
business. In addition, India has the advantage of favourable agroclimate, low cost
labour, arable land, skilled manpower, proximity to emerging floriculture markets such
as Japan, Australia and the Middle East, and conducive growing weather during the
peak time of worldwide demand in November - March in the northern plains as well as
mild climate in the southern part of India throughout the year for tropical flowers. The
recent export situation of orchids focusing on India is given below (Tab. 2.1)
Tab. 2.1: Export of orchids from India (Rs. in lacs & quantity in MT)
Country 2010-2011 2011-12 2012-13
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value

Bahrain 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 1.43
Maldives 0.04 0.18 0.13 0. 56 0.27 0.96
Kenya 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.09
Sri Lanka 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.05
Quatar 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00
Singapore 4.77 3.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
UAE 0.04 0.06 0.20 0.35 0.00 0.00
Source: DGCIS Annual report
The orchid has taken a significant position in the cut flower industry due to its attract-
iveness, long shelf life, high productivity, right season of bloom, ease of packing and
transportation. Orchids account for a large share of global floriculture trade both as
cut flowers and as potted plants and are estimated to comprise around 10% of the
international fresh cut flower trade. The average trade value of fresh cut orchids and
buds trade during 2007-2012 was US$ 483 million. In 2012, there were more than 40
and 60 exporting and importing orchid countries, respectively around the world, and
the total size of the global trade was US$ 504 million (Tab. 2.2).
Tab. 2.2: Value of fresh cut orchids and buds global trade (2007-2012) (Unit: Million US$)
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Import 233,734,023 252,647,645 232,568,129 251,445,523 265,702,077 267,196,847

Export 230,470,421 238,702,950 217, 781, 745 227,389,789 244,996,271 237,543,797
Total 464,204,444 491,350,595 450,349,874 478,835,312 510,698,348 504,740,644
Source: Department of Foreign Trade, Thailand (2013)
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Global Orchid Trade 15
The Netherlands is the top orchid exporting country in the world (39.67% of world
orchid market) followed by Thailand (28.41%), Taiwan (10%), Singapore (10%) and
New Zealand (6%). Importing countries are mainly Japan (30%), UK (12%), Italy (10%),
France (7%) and the USA (6%). The total orchid cut flower trade of the world mostly con-
sists of 85% Dendrobium species and 15% Phalaenopsis and Cymbidium species, and
Asia is the main source of orchid to enter the world market (Cheamuangphan et al, 2013)
Major markets for orchids in Asia are occupied by Japan and Singapore. The total
imports of orchids by Japan accounted for US$ 57.4 mn in 2008 making it the largest
importer of orchids in the world. The main sources for these imports include Thai-
land, Taiwan, New Zealand and Malayasia which together account for as much as
96.5% of the total orchids imports by Japan in 2008. Imports by Singapore of fresh
orchids amounted to US$ 6.5 mn in 2007 with Malayasia, Thailand and Taiwan being
the main sources of imports for the country. In contrast, imports of fresh orchids by
Singapore from India were only US$ 1379.3 representing a share of 0.02% of the coun-
try’s total imports of the product in 2007 (Tab. 2.3). This clearly indicates that there
are vast possibilities for increasing India’s exports to Singapore particularly consider-
ing the proximity of the country and India’s East Policy.
Tab. 2.3: Imports of orchids by Singapore (2007)
Country Value (US$) Share (%)
Malayasia 5422069.0 83.03

Thailand 520699.7 7.97
Taiwan 307596.2 4.71
Mauritious 149655.2 2.29
Indonesia 117241.4 1.90
Netherlands 8275.9 0.13
New Zealand 2758.6 0.04
India 1379.3 0.02
China 699.7 0.01
Total imports 6530344.8 100.00
Source: International Enterprise Singapore
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2.2 Trend in Growth
2.2.1 Cymbidium
Cymbidiums are among the most popular winter and spring blooming semi-terrestrial
orchids originating from tropical and subtropical Asia; covering North Eastern India,
China, Japan, Malayasia, the Philippines, the Borneo islands and North Australia,
usually grown in cooler climates at high elevations. Cymbidiums are highly valued for
genetic resources, cut flowers, hanging baskets, potted plants and herbal medicines.
Cymbidium has been considered the top commercial orchid in Europe for many years.
They fetch the highest price in the international markets of which major destination
include Asian markets of Singapore and Japan or the Dutch market. Cymbidiums
imported from the Netherlands fetched as much as US$ 11.18 per stem in Singapore
and those imported by Japan from New Zealand fetched US$ 3.33 per stem. As far as
the Dutch Auction market is concerned, the cymbidiums fetched the highest value,
averaging Euro cents 331 per stem during 2003-2007 (Tab. 2.4).
Tab. 2.4: Average annual prices at Netherlands auction (2003-2007) (Euro cents /stem)
Orchids 2003 2005 2007 Average price
Phalaenopsis 38 46 37 40
Cymbidium (Big bud) 330 334 329 331
Cymbidium (Small bud) 138 148 140 142
Paphiopedilum 58 52 63 58
Source: CBI Market Survey, The Cut Flowers and Foliage Market in the EU
In India, the Arunachal hills, Sikkim and Darjeeling hills with cool summer nights
and monsoonal summer rain are ideal for cymbidium cultivation. The growth of
orchid exports from the north eastern hill region, especially Sikkim, would provide
opportunities for employment as well as the development of supporting industries
like packaging, cold storage and transportation. East Sikkim has been declared an
Agri Export Zone exclusively for production of cymbidium orchids. In Sikkim, more
than 250 hybrids of cymbidium orchids are commercially cultivated in and around
25 ha of land and about 5 lakhs spikes are produced annually.
2.2.2 Dendrobium
Dendrobiums are popular flowering potted plants and cut flowers around the world
due to their floriferousness, wide range in flower color, size and shape, year round
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Trend in Growth 17
availability and lengthy vase life. Hawaii, California and Florida are major potted
Dendrobium growing regions in the United States. The wholesale value of sales
for this commodity in Hawaii has been established for several decades and sales
increased from US $ 2.4 million in 1991 to US$ 5.6 million in 2000 (Tab. 2.5).
In the Netherlands, production of potted orchids is now 40 to 50 million units
with Dendrobium increasing in popularity. Imports from Thailand, the worlds largest
exporter of tropical cut orchids and second largest supplier to the EU, accounted for
22% of supplies to the EU. Thailand holds a particularly strong position in Dendrobium
orchids.
Tab. 2.5: Quantity of consumption and wholesale value of sales of potted Dendrobium in Hawaii
(Johnson, 1999).
Year Number of pots sold Value (US $) Number of growers
1985 0.2 millions 1.1 million 88

1991 0.4 millions 2.4 million 47
2000 1.0 million 5.6 million 69
Tab. 2.6: Orchid price in Singapore (US$)
Product details Origin Price /stem
Orchid Cymbidium Malaysia 1.97

Orchid Cymbidium Netherlands 11.18
Orchid Cymbidium Taiwan 5.26
Orchid Dendrobium XL Thailand 0.46
Orchid Dendrobium L Thailand 0.39
Orchid Dendrobium M Thailand 0.33
Orchid Dendrobium S Thailand 0.26
Orchid Oncidium XL Malaysia 0.72
Orchid Oncidium L Malaysia 0.59
Orchid Oncidium M Malaysia 0.39
Source: Market News Service-Week 14, 2009, ITC
2.2.3 Phalaenopsis
Phalaenopsis is the second most valuable and popular flowering potted plant and cut
flower around the world due to their easy cultural practices, diversity in flower colour,
size and shape, year round availability, delicacy and longer vase life. It is commer-
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cially grown in Germany, Japan, The Netherlands, Taiwan and United States. In the
United States, 75% of all orchids purchased are phalaenopsis and about 13,500,000
phalaenopsis were sold in 2005 in United States. The export value of phalaenopsis
from Taiwan to the United States increased from $8 million in 2005 to $13 million in
2006. Worldwide turnover of Taiwanese phalaenopsis increased from $27.5 million to
$35.4 million from 2005 to 2006.
2.2.4 Other Tropical Orchids
Vanda is widely distributed throughout Australasia from China through the Philip-
pines, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Guinea and Australia, Myanmar, Thailand, India
and Sri Lanka. In the world tropical orchid trade, Dendrobium is the most dominant
crop in addition to Mokara, Oncidium, Aranthera, Aranda, Vanda, Arachnis, Renan-
thera, Ascocenda, Phalaenopsis, Cattleya and Paphiopedilum which are being grown
as cut flowers and potted plants. Thailand is the largest world exporter of tropical
orchids. China is the largest consumer of orchid cut flowers (7,493 tons from Thailand)
followed by Japan, USA, Italy, India, Taiwan, Vietnam and the Netherlands at 4,407,
2892, 2395, 1830, 983, 793 and 689 metric tons, respectively. Other significant orchid
genera being exported from Thailand were Mokara, Aranthes, Aranda, Oncidium,
Vanda, Arachnis and Ascocenda with market shares of 3.69, 0.52, 0.48, 0.44, 0.13, 0.01
and 0.01% of total export value respectively (Tab. 2.7).
Tab. 2.7: Orchid export from Thailand in 2009 (% share of total export value)
Cut orchid Orchid plant
Orchid genera (20) Value shared (%) Orchid genera (211) Value shared (%)
Dendrobium 94.73 Dendrobium 51.4
Mokara 3.69 Phalaenopsis 25.5
Aranthera 0.52 Vanda 8.9
Aranda 0.48 Mokara 3.7
Oncidium 0.44 Oncidium 3.1
Vanda 0.13 Cattleya 2.7
Arachnis 0.01 Ascocenda 1.2
Ascocenda 0.01 Epidendrum 0.6
Cymbidium 0.3
Rhyncostylis 0.3
Spathoglottis 0.3
Paphiopedilum 0.2
Others 1.8
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Trend in Growth 19
Considering the import value of orchid plants, Japan was also the largest importer
of Thai orchid plants at US$ 2.4 million worth followed by the Netherlands, USA,
Germany, Rep. of Korea and Vietnam with values of 1.6, 1.4, 1.0, 0.9 and US$ 0.9 million
respectively. In 2009, Thailand exported 211 genera of orchid plants. Dendrobium and
Phalaenopsis plants were the most important orchid genera for exports with market
shares of 51.4 and 25.5%, respective. Other important orchid genera exported from
Thailand were Vanda, Mokara, Oncidium, Cattleya and Ascocenda with market shares
of 8.9, 3.7, 3.1, 2.7 and 1.2% of total export value, respectively (Lekawatana, 2010).
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3 Biodiversity, Conservation and Bio-piracy
of Genetic Resources in India
Biodiversity, especially species diversity, indicates the number of species of plants
and animals present in a region. Maintaining a wide diversity of species in each eco-
system is necessary to preserve the web of life that sustains all living things.
Orchids, believed to have evolved in this region, form a very noticeable feature of
the vegetation here. There are about 25,000 species of orchids estimated to occur in
the world. In India, about 1350 species belonging to 186 genera represent approxim-
ately 5.98% of the world orchid flora and 6.83% of the flowering plants in India. The
Eastern Himalayas and North Eastern; North West Himalayas; Peninsular India; and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands are the major orchid regions of India.
3.1 Region Wise Distribution of Orchids
3.1.1 Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern India
This region includes the Darjeeling district of West Bengal and other North-eastern
states, i.e., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Sikkim and Tripura. This region is relatively warmer with high humidity and heavier
precipitation in comparison to western Himalayan region and endowed with 870
species in 159 genera constituting 72.8% of the total orchid species in the country.
A state wise analysis indicates that Arunachal Pradesh has the highest number of
orchid species (622) followed by Sikkim (543 species) and Meghalaya with 389
species. Among the other states of this region, Assam accounts for 290, Nagaland for
246, Mizoram for 234, Manipur for 215 and Tripura for 57 species (Hajra and De, 2010).
3.1.1.1 Endemic Orchids

Orchids are distributed from tropical to alpine zones in forest trees, secondary veget-
ations, river banks, bamboo and palm thickets, forest floor, grassy slopes and rocky
areas and are considered an element in Farming System Research (Chowdhery, 1998,
2001). It is to be noted that there are some orchid species which are endemic not only
to this region, but also to the home states in which they are distributed in Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh Himalayas, the Naga and Manipur hills, the Lusai-Mizo hills and
Khasi –Jaintia hills (Nayar, 1996).
These are:
– Dendrobium spatella, Dendrobium parciflorum and Luisia macrotis from Assam.
– Vanda coerulea and Dendrobium palpebrae from Arunachal Pradesh.
– Renanthera imschootiana and Cymbidium tigrinum from Nagaland.
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Region Wise Distribution of Orchids 21
– Anoectochilus crispus, Cymbidium eburneum, Habenaria khasiana, Liparis delicu-

lata, Paphiopedilum venustum, Taeniophyllum khasianum and Tainia khasiana
from Meghalaya.
– Renanthera imschootiana from Tripura.
– Dendrobium palpebrae from Mizoram.
– Ascocentrum ampullaceum var. auranticum, Epidendrum radicans and Vanda
stangeana from Manipur.
– Calanthe whiteana, Cymbidium whiteae and Vanda pumila from Sikkim (Nayar,
1996)
North East India has the highest flora of monotypic orchid genera (Tab. 3.1) (Tandon
et al, 2007).
Tab. 3.1: Some monotypic orchid genera of North East India
Anthogonium Wall. Ex Lindl. Arundina Bl.

Acrochaene Lindl. Bulleyia Schltr.
Cremastra Lindl. Cleisocentron Bruhl
Dickasonia L.O. Williams Diglyphosa bl.
Eriodes Rolfe Herpysma Lindl.
Jejosephia A.N. Rao & Mani Mischobulbum schltr.
Myrmechis (Lindl.) Bl. Neogyne reichb.f.
Ornithochilus (Lindl.) Wall. Ex Benth. Risleya King & Pantl.
Renanthera Lour. Tipularia Nutt.
North East India is reported to harbour a large number of valuable threatened orchids
(Tab. 3.2).
Tab. 3.2: Some threatened orchids of North East India (Tandon et al, 2007)
Acanthephippium sylhetense Bulleyia yunnanensis

Cymbidium eburneum Cym. devonianum
Cym. tigrinum Dendrobium chrysotoxum
Den. densiflorum Den. falconeri
Eria fragrans Paphiopedilum fairreanum
P. insigne P. venustum
P. villosum Renanthera imschootiana
Vanda coerulea Vanilla pilfera
Vanda pumila Epigeneium rotundatum
A state wise distribution of orchid species of North Eastern states of India is listed in Tab. 3.3.
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22 Biodiversity, Conservation and Bio-piracy of Genetic Resources in India
Tab. 3.3: Distribution of major orchids in North East States (Chowdhery, 2001, 2009; Nayar and
Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1997-1998, 1999)
State Orchid species
Arunachal Cymbidium ensifolium, C. grandiflorum, Dendrobium aphylla, D. chrysanthum,

Pradesh D. gibsonii, D. nobile, Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, P. venustum, P. spicerianum,
Calanthe masuca, Rhyncostylis retusa
Assam Arundina graminifolia, Eulophia mannii, Goodyera procera, Calanthe angusta,
Rhyncostylis retusa, Aerides multiflora, Aerides odorata, Acampe papillosa,
Cymbidium aloifolium, Dendrobium aphyllum, D. acinaciforme
Manipur Ascocentrum ampullaceum, Paphiopedilum spicerianum, Vanda amsiana,
Vanda stangeana, Vanda coerulea
Meghalaya Paphiopedilum insigne, P. venustum, R. retusa, Coelogyne corymbosa, Phaius
tankervilliae, Dendrobium devonianum, Cymbidium elegans, Vanda coerulea
Mizoram Vanda coerulea, Renanthera imschootiana, Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum,
P. villosum
Nagaland Goodyera viridiflora, Liparis caespitosa, Luisia trichorrhiza, Malaxis latifolia,
Oberonia pyrulifera, Spiranthes sinensis
Sikkim Alpine zone(2500-3000 m): Orchis, Habenaria, Tipularia, Satyrium, Cypripe-
dium
Temperate & Sub-temperate zone(1850-3500 m): Goodyera, Calanthe, Pleione
humilis, Cymbidium hookerianum, C. devonianum, C. longifolium, Coelogyne
cristata, Dendrobium hookerianum
Subtropical zone(850-1250 m): Anoectichilus, Calanthe, Phaius, Eulophia,
Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, P. venustum, Dendrobium, Bulbophyllum, Coelo-
gyne, Arachnis.
Tropical Zone (250-850 m): Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium, Aerides, Vanda,
Arundina graminifolia
Tripura Dendrobium (14 spp.), Vanda teres, V. coerulea, Renanthera imschootiana
3.1.2 North-Western Himalayas
This region covers the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and
Uttarakhand. The Western Himalayan region is large and blessed with higher eleva-
tions, cooler drier climate and a wide mountain mass. The pre-dominant forest flora
are pine, deodar, fir etc. In all, 288 species under 75 genera are found to occur in this
region, constituting 24.1% of the total Indian orchids.
Four species of ground orchids found mainly in this region, viz., Platanthera
edgeworthii, Habenaria intermedia, Crepidium acuminatum and Malaxis muscifera
form important constituents of Astavarga (a group of eight herbs used in preparation
of Chyavanprash).
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Among the epiphytes, Dendrobium Sw. and Bulbophyllum Thouars. are the largest
genera comprising of 16 and 12 species, respectively whereas, among the terrestrial
orchids, Habenaria Willd. is the largest group with 13 species. 34 species of Orchids
are represented by single species in western Himalaya. Eleven species are found to be
endemic to this region: namely Dendrobium normale, Eria occidentalis, Flickingeria
hesperis, Gastrochilus garhwalensis, Herminium kumaunensis, Neottia mackinnonii,
Neottia nandadeviensis, Peristylus duthiei, Peristylus kumaunensis, Peristylus fallax
and Ponerorchis renzii (Jalal et al, 2009a, 2009b, 2010a, 2010 b).
3.1.3 Peninsular India
This region comprises Madhya Pradesh, parts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, the
extra peninsular region of Central India and Gangetic plains along with Eastern and
Western Ghats. Western Ghats harbours dense forests with high humidity and rainfall
and the vegetation is rich in scrub jungles, moist and dry deciduous forests, trop-
ical evergreen forests and montane grasslands containing huge numbers of orchid
species. Eastern Ghats consists of broken hills. Orchid diversity in Eastern Ghats is
poor as compared to that in Western Ghats; the region is enriched with 379 species
belonging to 89 genera constituting 31.72% of the total Indian orchid flora.
Predominant terrestrial orchid species available in Western Ghats are Acanthep-
hippium bicolor Lindl., Aenhanhreya rotundifolia Blatt., Anoectochillus elatus Lindl.,
Calanthe masuca Lindl., Calanthe triplicata Willemet, Eulophia epidendrea Koenig.,
Epipogium roseum D.Don, Geodorum densiflorum Lamk., Habenaria longicorniculata
Grah., H. longicornu Lindl., H. multicaudata Sedgw., H. roxburghii Nicolson, Liparis
atropurpurea Lindl., Malaxis versicolor Lindl., Nervilia aragona Gaud., Paphiopedilum
druryii Bedd., Tainia bicornis Lindl., Vanilla walkeriae Wight., Zeuxine gracilis Breda.
and Z. longilabris Lindl (Sharief, 2011). Some rare and endemic epiphytic species from
Western Ghats are Aerides ringens Fischer, Bulbophyllum aureum Hook.f., B. fuscopur-
pureum Wight, B. fimbriatum Lindl., B. fischeri Seid, B. tremulum Wight., B. neilgher-
rense Wight., Coelogyne breviscapa Lindl., C. nervosa A. Rich., Cottonia peduncularis
Lindl., Cymbidium bicolor Lindl., Dendrobium aqueum Lindl., D. crepidatum Lindl.,
D. herbaceum Lindl., D. microbulbon A. Rich, D. ovatum Lindl., Diplocentrum recurvum
Lindl., Eria nana A. Rich, E. pseudoclavicaulis Blatt., Flickingeria nodosa Daiz., Liparis
elliptica Wight., L. viridiflora Bl., Luisia zeylanica Lindl., Oberonia brunoniana Wight.,
Papilionanthe subulata J. Koen., Pholidota imbricata Hook., Rhyncostylis retusa Bl.,
Sirhookeria lanceolata Wight., Taeniophyllum alwisii Lindl., Trias stocksii Benth.,
Vanda testacea Lindl. and Xenikophyton smeeanum Reich.
Orchids distributed in Eastern Ghats are given in Tab. 3.4.
Unauthenticated
Tab. 3.4: Orchid flora of Eastern Ghats of India
Name of species Habit Flowering time Remarks

Acampe carinata Epiphyte October– Flowers light yellow with maroon
January blotches on sub-umbellate raceme
A. ochracea Epiphyte December–Feb Flowers light yellow with maroon
markings on lax panicle
A. praemorsa Epiphyte Flowers small creamy yellow with
maroon transverse bands clustered
on compact corymbose cyme
A . rigida Epiphyte August– Flowers pale yellow on sub-
September corymbose raceme
Acanthephippium bicolor Terrestrial May Flowers yellow specked with red
Epiphyte June Flowers mild violet on axillary spread-
Aerides maculosa ing raceme
Epiphyte June-July Flowers purple on long axillary pen-
A .multiflora dulus floral axis
A . odorata Epiphyte June-july Flowers white, lemon scented on
extra axillary, deflexed raceme
A . ringens Epiphyte June -August Flowers white on axillary,
sub-erect second raceme
Bulbophyllum crassipes Tropical Octo–Nov. Flowers small, yellow maroon,
epiphyte densely spirally arranged in catkin
like raceme
B. umbellatum Epiphyte April–May Flowers pale yellow with purple spots
on umbellate raceme
Calanthe sylvatica Terrestrial July Flowers large, purple coloured
Cleisostoma Epiphyte August-October Flowers pale yellow on recurved
appendiculatum raceme
Coelogyne breviscopa Epiphyte April Flowers white raceme with scarious
bract, lip 3-lobed
Cottonia peduncularis Tropical March–June Flowers dark purple on long and
epiphyte branched raceme with a bee like lip.
Cymbidium aloifolium Epiphyte April-June Flowers pale yellow with purple centre
on long pendulus raceme
C. bicolor Epiphyte Feb–April Flowers pale yellow at base and
maroon towards top borne on lax
raceme
Dendrobium aphyllum Tropical Feb–April Flowers pale purple, translucent with
epiphyte sub-panduriform, fenely dendate lip
D. aqueum Epiphyte Sept–Nov Flowers showy white. Lip faintly
yellowish
D. bicameratum Epiphyte August Flowers pale yellow, crowded on
sub-terminal capitate raceme.
Unauthenticated
continued

D. cathcartii Tropical March–April Flowers yellow-ochre on leaf opposed
epiphyte fascicles of 2-3 flowers.
D. crepidatum Tropical Feb–April Flowers white with a large yellow spot
epiphyte on the lip, 1-3 on very short bracteate
peduncle from the swollen nodes of
the leafless stems.
Epiphyte April Flowers golden yellow. Lip orbicular,
D. fimbriatum fimbriate.
D. formosum Tropical May-June Flowers white with bright yellow
epiphyte patch on lip, on subterminal racme.
D. herbaceum Epiphyte Feb–March Flowers greenish white on subter-
minal condensed racemes.
D. macrostachyum Tropical May-July Flowers lemon green, 1-4 in cymes.
epiphyte
D. moschatum Epiphyte May–June Flowers large, spreading, peach col-
oured, musk scented on a spreading
raceme from a node near to apex.
D. regium Tropical April–June Flowers magenta coloured with yellow
epiphyte throat on sub-terminal raceme.
Diplocentrum recurvum Epiphyte April–August Flowers small in long racemes, pink to
rose or pink or brownish tinged with
pink. Lip sessile.
Eria bambusifolia Epiphyte Dec–Jan Flowers pale brown on axillary lax
raceme
E . lasiopetala Tropical March-April Flowers greenish yellow, lip light
epiphyte maroon, on axillary racemes.
E. pauciflora Epiphyte Aug–Sept 1-2 white flowered inflorescence
E. reticosa Epiphyte Single flowered
Eulophia epidendraea Terrestrial Dec–Jan Scape laxly many flowered. Flowers
green white purple.
E. graminea Terrestrial Jan–May Inflorescence 1-3 per plant, lax
flowered produced from the nodes.
Flowers inodorous, leaf-green with
maroon veins.
E. pulchera Terrestrial May–July Flowers in few-many flowered
raceme, greenish purple.
E. spectabilis Tropical May -June Flowers greenish white or purple, lax
terrestrial racemes; lip crenate and crisped.
Flickingeria macraei Epiphyte July–Sept Flowers cream with a pale yellow lip,
solitary on top of the pseudobulb.
Unauthenticated
continued

Gastrochilus acaulis Epiphyte March–April Flowers pale yellow, lip white with
violet blotch, on axillary corymb;
hypochile cup-shaped
Gastrochilus Tropical June–Sept Flowers greenish purple on a con-
inconspicuum epiphyte densed spike, hypochile cup-shaped
Geodorum densiflorum Terrestrial July–Aug Flowers pinkish white on decurved
racemes, lip sub-panduriform.
G. recurvum Tropical May–June Flowers white, inodorous on long
terrestrial slender decurved corymbose raceme.
Goodyera procera Terrestrial March–May Flowers minute, white; lip saccate at
base.
Habenaria commelinifolia Terrestrial Aug–oct Flowers greenish white, inodorous on
long dense spike with a long curved
spur.
H. digitata Terrestrial July Flowers greenish white with sickle-
shaped flower petals.
H. furcifera Terrestrial Aug–Sept Flowers green on long and stout
peduncle
Terrestrial July–Aug Flowers green, foul scented, on lax
H. gibsoni var. foetida raceme
H. longicorniculata Terrestrial August Flowers greenish white faintly
scented on long peduncled raceme.
H. longicornu Terrestrial Aug–Sept Flowers white, about 8 on lax raceme
Sept–oct Flowers yellow on many flowered lax
H. marginata raceme
Terrestrial Aug-Oct Flowers green. Side lobes of lip
H. ovalifolia linear-lanceolate, midlobe inflexed,
ovate-oblong
H. panigrahiana Terrestrial Oct–Dec Flowers green on lax racemes, sweet
scented at night
H. rariflora Terrestrial Aug–Sept Flowers white with bipartite petals
H. reniformis Terrestrial July–Sept Flowers green on lax spike
H. roxburghii Terrestrial August Flowers white, mildly fragrant on
densely many flowered spike
H. stenopetala Terrestrial Oct–Dec Flowers grayish green with brown lip
on densely many flowered raceme.
H. virens Terrestrial July–Oct Flowers white, lip scabrid-pilose,
3-furcate
Kingidium deliciosum Epiphyte May–Sept Flowers pale yellow and purple
Liparis nervosa Terrestrial May–Aug Flowers purple or green tinged with
pink on long spikes.
Unauthenticated
continued

L. paradoxa Terrestrial July Flowers small, pale yellow to maroon
in terminal raceme
L. viridiflora Epiphyte Nov–Dec Flowers pale yellow on slightly
recurved, dense flowered raceme
Luisia abrahami Epiphyte March–May Flowers pale green flushed with pale
purple
L. birchea Epiphyte Throughout the Flowers stray coloured, thick. Lip
year sessile, dark purple.
L. trichorhiza Epiphyte March–July Flowers maroon on extra axillary,
condensed raceme
L. zeylanica Epiphyte Feb–March Flowers green and dark purple on
extra-axillary condensed raceme
Micropera pallida Epiphyte June–Sept Flowers light yellow on leaf opposed
decurved raceme
Nervilia aragoana Terrestrial May–July Flowers many in lax, slightly droop-
ing, nodding, light green in colour
N. crociformis Terrestrial May-July Flowers greenish white, single on top
of the peduncle
N. infundibulifolia Terrestrial June Flowers maroon green on one solitary
flowered, pale maroon peduncle
N. plicata Terrestrial May–June Flowers two on top of the peduncle,
dull brownish green and white
Oberonia brunoniana Epiphyte Sept–Oct and Flowers large, brown
Feb-March
O. ensiformis Epiphyte Oct–Nov Flowers minute, greenish-yellow on
sigmoid curved spiciform raceme
O. falconeri Epiphyte Sept–Oct Flowers minute; in whorls, greenish
yellow on densely flowered curved
raceme
O. mucronata Epiphyte Sept-Nov Flowers are minute, greenish yellow
at decurved, spiciform raceme
O. proudlockii Epiphyte February Flowers yellowish, partly sunk in pits
of the rachis
Odisha cleistantha Terrestrial October Flowers verdant green, inodorous
Papilionanthe cylindrica Epiphyte Feb–June Flowers showy, fragrant, white. Lip
3-lobed yellow at the tip, pink with
white spot below.
Pecteilis gigantea Terrestrial August–Sept Flowers are large, snow white, fra-
grant in terminal raceme
Pelatantheria insectifera Epiphyte Oct–Dec Flowers greenish yellow with deep
brown streaks lip purple on extra-
axillary corymb
Unauthenticated
continued

Peristylus constrictus Terrestrial June- July Flowers white, fragrant, dense
flowered on long terminal spikes
P. goodyeroides Terrestrial July Flowers greenish white, sub-secund
on dense flowered spike
P. lawii Terrestrial June–July Flowers minute, white on slender,
terete peduncle
P. plantagineus Terrestrial Sept Flowers greenish white on many
flowered spike
Phaius tankervilleae Terrestrial Feb–March Flowers large, downwardly faced,
mildly scented, Silvery on the outside
having yellow throats.
Pholidota imbricata Epiphyte July–Sept Flowers small, cream or pale yellow
on drooping racemes arising from the
base of the petiole
Polystachya concreta Epiphyte July Flowers pale greenish yellow, on
terminal raceme
Pomatocalpa decipiens Tropical Jan–march Flowers yellow with reddish blotches
epiphyte on extra-axillary spikes
Robiquetia josephiana Epiphyte Aug–Dec Inflorescence pendulous of few
flowered raceme. Flowers inodorous,
white, small
Seidenfia versicolor Terrestrial or July–Aug Flowers minute, light yellow or
Lithophyte maroon
Smitinandia micrantha Epiphyte April -June Flowers minute, waxy white, faintly
scented, small on densely flowered
raceme
Spathoglotis plicata Terrestrial Throughout Flowers racemed, reddish violet, pink
the year or rarely white
Staurochilus ramosus Epiphyte April–May Flowers pale yellow, mildly scented
on paniculate raceme
Taprobanea spathulata Epiphyte March–Septem- Flowers large, golden yellow in
ber raceme
Thunia bracteata Epiphyte August Flowers nodding, large pinkish white
on compressed racemes
Tropidia angulosa Terrestrial July Inflorescence terminal, very short,
slender with a few crowded small
white flowers
Vanda tessellata Epiphyte March–May & Flowers greenish yellow with brown-
Sept-Dec ish tessellations, on axillary, zigzag
racme, lip purple
Vanda testacea Epiphyte April Flowers light yellow on axillary
raceme
Zeuxine longilabris Terrestrial Jan–Feb Flowers small, brownish and white
Unauthenticated
Conservation of Orchid Genetic Resources 29
3.1.4 Andaman & Nicobar Islands
The A & N islands are a group of about 319 islands and islets in the Bay of Bengal. The
South East monsoon governs the climate of these islands. Heavy mist over the forests
in morning, high rainfall from May to November and constant sea currents keep the
forest moist through out the year. This type of climate provides congenial habitats
for luxuriant growth of unique orchid flora in the area. This region is home to 115
species belonging to 53 genera. Genera like Grosourdya, Plocoglottis and Vrydagzynea
are confined only to this region (Singh et al, 2001).
Some orchid genera of Andaman and Nicobar islands are listed in Tab. 3.5.
Tab. 3.5: Orchid genera of Andaman and Nicobar islands
Name of species Habit Categories
Bulbophyllum protractum Epiphyte Rare

Dendrobium tenuicaule Epiphyte Endangered
Habenaria andamanica Terrestrial Rare
Malaxis andamanica Terrestrial Endangered
Malleola andamanica Epiphyte Rare
Phalaenopsis speciosa Epiphyte Rare
Taeniophyllum scaberulum Epiphyte Vulnerable
Zeuxine andamanica Terrestrial Rare
3.2 Conservation of Orchid Genetic Resources
There are three prominent methods of conservation of genetic resources of orchid

species, namely:
– Legislative measures
– In -situ conservation in Sanctuaries /Reserves
– Ex-situ conservation in Orchidaria /Botanic gardens by cultivation (Hedge, 2012).
3.2.1 Legislative Measures of Conservation
Vanda coerulea (Blue Vanda) and Renanthera imschootiana (Red Vanda) are now
included in schedule VI of the Wild Life Protection Act 1972 of Government of India as
amended in 1992. As a result, all orchids are protected under the Wild Life Protection Act.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has a Species Survival
Commission (SSC) with a well defined preservation program for the Convention on
Unauthenticated
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). Under
this provision, orchids are treated as protected species. In India, three genera and
eleven species are being treated as protected under Schedule-VI of Wild Life Pro-
tection Act of 1972 and simultaneously under CITES Appendix-I. All other species of
orchid in India have been included in Appendix–II of CITES. The following species
have been kept under CITES Appendix-I and Schedule–VI of Wild Life Protection Act
of Govt. of India.
Paphiopedilum charlesworthii, P. fairrieanum, P. hirsuitissimum, P. spicerianum,
P. insigne, P. venustum, P. wardii, P druryii, Renanthera imschootiana and Vanda
coerulea. However, excepting P. druryii which is reportedly from the state of Kerala,
all other species of Paphiopedilum belong to North East India.
As per law, no wild orchids can be traded with and so, plants listed above can
not be allowed for export. However, under CITES rules and regulations, whenever
CITES Appendix-I species are cultivated, these can be allowed for export subject to the
condition that proper permits for possessing and growing these scheduled plants are
obtained from the concerned State, provided the nursery is registered under Wild Life
Preservation Office, Government of India.
Appendix-I includes threatened and extinct species. In fact, no trade of wild
plants is allowed. Trade is allowed in cultivated and artificially propagated plants
subject to licensing.
Appendix-II covers species which may be threatened unless trade is strictly regu-
lated. Orchidaceae is listed on Appendix-II. Trade in wild and propagated specimens
is allowed, subject to licensing. Further, all cultured orchid seedlings in flasks or
those aseptically cultured from seeds and tissues are now exempt from CITES control
w.e.f. 16th April, 1993.
These legislations have helped to check illegal collection of orchids from the wild,
as no importing countries accept plants of wild origin. In this regard, the Proceedings
of the Seminar on CITES Implementation for Plants (1997), illustrates the method of
recognizing and procedure for dealing with the wild plants at the port.
3.2.2 In Situ Conservation
This term refers to the maintenance of the germplasm in its natural habitat, allowing
continual adaptation to the environment without any human interference.
3.2.2.1 Biosphere Reserve

These are versatile protected areas established to preserve the genetic diversity in
the representative ecosystem, and are internationally recognized. The proposal for
development of biosphere reserves was initiated by UNESCO in 1971 under the ‘Man
& Biosphere’ (MAB) programme. The first biosphere reserve in the world was estab-
Unauthenticated
lished in 1979. To date, 564 biosphere reserves have been developed in 109 countries
across the world. India has 17 biosphere reserves, namely Achanakamar-Amarkantak,
Agasthymalai, Cold Desert, Dihang-Dibang, Dibru Saikhowa, Great Nicobar, Gulf of
Mannar, Kachchh, Khangchendzonga, Manas, Nanda Devi, Nilgiri, Nokrek, Pach-
marhi, Seshachalam Hills, Simlipal and Sunderbans for conservation of endemic,
endangered and vulnerable orchid species.
3.2.2.2 National Parks

These are areas of adequate natural biological and geomorphological interest owned
by a sovereign state having one or several ecosystems where conservation of wild life
(both flora and fauna) is practiced along with educative and recreative interest; and
are designated, created and protected by legislation. Hailey National Park, presently
known as Jim Corbett National Park was the first developed National Park in India in
1936. Presently, there are 98 National Parks in India. Two examples are the Simlipal
National Park of Orissa where 96 different species of orchids are found, and the Buxa
Tiger Reserve of West Bengal with 150 different species of orchids.
3.2.2.3 Sacred Groves

A sacred grove is a special type of area where all forms of life, particularly the sacred
tree species related to any particular culture, are protected by a particular human com-
munity, race or tribe in the name of their respective deity. Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Chhattishgarh are very prom-
inent states for sacred grooves. About 13928 sacred grooves presently exist in India. This
may be an important area for in situ conservation of orchids of that particular locality.
3.2.2.4 Gene Sanctuary

A gene sanctuary is a protected area where a broad spectrum of genetic variability is
conserved to act as a reserve for future use and crop improvement. At present, India
has 480 wildlife gene sanctuaries. The Sessa Orchid Sanctuary of Arunachal Pradesh
with 100 Sq. kilometer area conserves about 200 species of orchids. Similar types of
sanctuaries have also been created in Sikkim at Deorali and Singtam.
3.2.2.5 Individual Trees

The epiphytic orchid species are conserved on tree species in their natural habitat. In
their natural habitat, they attach themselves to the bark of trees, or the surface of other
plants (Tab. 3.6). Their thick, white roots are specially adapted to absorb moisture and
dissolved nutrients. Because these tropical orchids usually grow high in the trees, rather
than on the forest floor, they are accustomed to good air circulation and plenty of light.
Unauthenticated
Tab. 3.6: Host – tree and orchid species specificity (De et al, 2011)
Common trees Botanical name Orchid species
Angeri Lyonia ovalifolia Bulbophyllum viridiflorum, Chiloschista usneoides,

Coelogyne corymbosa, Coel. cristata, Coel. ovalis,
Cym. elegans, Cym. iridioides, Den. aphyllum,
Den. chryseum, Den. denudans, Den. eriiflorum,
Den. heterocarpum, Den. longicornu, Gastrochilus
calceolaris, Kingidium taenialis, Oberonia acaulis,
Pleione hookeriana, Vanda cristata
Ban Litchi Benthamidia capitata Den. aphyllum, Den. longicornu
Banjh Quercus leucotricha Bulbophyllum viridiflorum, Coelogyne corymbosa,
Coel. cristata, Cym. elegans, Cym. iridioides, Den.
aphyllum, Den. chryseum, Den. denudans, Den.
eriiflorum, Den. heterocarpum, Den. longicornu,
Gastrochilus calceolaris, Kingidium taenialis,
Oberonia acaulis, Pleione hookeriana, Vanda
cristata, Cleisostema spp.
Chiuri Diploknema butyracea Aerides multiflora, Aerides odorata, Coelogyne
flaccida, Coel. ovalis, Den. aphyllum, Den. hetero-
carpum, Den. longicornu, Gastrochilus calceolaris,
Oberonia acaulis, Rhyncostylis retusa, Vanda
cristata, Oberonia spp.
Chutro Berberis asiatica Chiloschista usneoides, Den. denudans, Den.
eriiflorum, Gastrochilus calceolaris, Kingidium
taenialis
Kaphal Myrica esculenta Coelogyne corymbosa, Coelogyne flaccida, Coel.
ovalis, Cym. iridioides, Den. aphyllum, Den.
denudans, Den. eriiflorum, Den. longicornu,
Gastrochilus calceolaris, Oberonia acaulis, Vanda
cristata
Katush Castanopsis indica Bulbophyllum viridiflorum, Chiloschista usneoides,
Coelogyne corymbosa, Coel. cristata, Coel. ovalis,
Cym. iridioides, Den. aphyllum, Den. chryseum,
Den. denudans, Den. eriiflorum, Den. hetero-
carpum, Den. longicornu, Gastrochilus calceolaris,
Kingidium taenialis, Oberonia acaulis, Pleione
hookeriana, Vanda cristata
Kaulo Persea odoratissima Aerides odorata, Chiloschista usneoides, Coelogyne
corymbosa, Coel. cristata, Coelogyne flaccida,
Coel. ovalis, Den. aphyllum, Den. denudans, Den.
eriiflorum, Den. heterocarpum, Den. longicornu,
Oberonia acaulis, Pholidota spp., Vanda cristata
Khote Salla Pinus roxburghii Den. aphyllum, Den. denudans, Den. longicornu,
Rhyncostylis retusa
Unauthenticated
continued
Tab. 3.6: Host – tree and orchid species specificity (De et al, 2011)
Common trees Botanical name Orchid species
Lali Gurans Rhododendron Bulbophyllum viridiflorum, Chiloschista usneoides,

arboreum Coel. cristata, Coelogyne flaccida, Coel. ovalis,
Cym. elegans, Cym. iridioides, Den. aphyllum,
Den. chryseum, Den. denudans, Den. eriiflorum,
Den. heterocarpum, Den. longicornu, Gastrochilus
calceolaris, Kingidium taenialis, Oberonia acaulis,
Pleione hookeriana, Vanda cristata
Lek Chutro Berberis cristata Chiloschista usneoides, Den. aphyllum, Den.
denudans, Den. eriiflorum, Den. longicornu,
Kingidium taenialis, Vanda cristata
Mauwa Engelhardia spicata Aerides multiflora, Aerides odorata, Coelogyne
flaccida, Coel. ovalis, Den. aphyllum, Den. erii-
florum, Den. heterocarpum, Den. longicornu, Den.
nobile, Gastrochilus calceolaris, Oberonia acaulis,
Rhyncostylis retusa, Vanda teres, Epidendrum radic-
ans, Pholidota spp.
Mayal Pyrus pashia Chiloschista usneoides, Den. aphyllum, Den. longi-
cornu, Kingidium taenialis, Vanda cristata
Sal Shorea robusta Aerides multiflora, Aerides odorata, Coelogyne
flaccida, Den. aphyllum, Den. eriiflorum, Den.
heterocarpum, Gastrochilus calceolaris, Oberonia
acaulis, Rhyncostylis retusa
Pashi Mioromeles Rhyncostylis retusa, Epidendrum radicans, Den.
rhamnoides heterocarpum
Utis Alnus nepalensis Den. nobile, Coelogyne flaccida, Epidendrum,
Vanda cristata, Thunia alba,
Wild Cherry Prunus cerasus Aerides multiflora, Epidendrum radicans, Coelogyne
flaccida, Vanda tessellata, Rhyncostylis retusa,
Vanda cristata
3.2.3 Ex situ Conservation
This refers the preservation of germplasm outside the natural habitat. In India, the Botan-
ical Survey of India maintains three National Orchidaria and Experimental Gardens;
one each at Yercaud (Tamil Nadu), Howrah (West Bengal), and Shillong (Meghalya)
where representative species of the region are cultivated. Similarly, Arunachal Pradesh
State Forest Research Institute is maintaining large number of orchid species at Orchid
Research Centre, Tipi, Itanagar, Sessa, Dirrang, Jenging and Roing as a measure of ex
situ conservation of orchids. In Karnataka, three ex situ conservation Centers have been
established: one in Kodagu, another in Kudremukh and the third in Dhandeli (Rao and
Unauthenticated
Sridhar, 2007). A natural Orchidarium for the conservation of orchid germplasm has
also been planned in Bangalore within Lal Bagh Botanical Garden.
3.2.3.1 Field Gene Banks

In this area, germplasm are collected from natural habitats or from other sources
including commercial houses and nurseries and maintained in field or protected
structures. The Centre for Orchid Gene Conservation of the Eastern Himalayan region
at Hengbung of Senapati district of Manipur, the country’s first orchid gene bank, has
already been established to conserve orchids as well as to facilitate research work.
In the field gene banks of TBGRI, Trivandrum, 600 different species and 150 hybrids
of orchids are maintained. Orchids of 90 different genera and a number of hybrids of
commercial orchids are also maintained at NRC for Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim.
3.2.3.2 Botanical Gardens

These are protected areas where living plant specimen are conserved in fields or in
protected structures provide significant information regarding mode of perpetuation,
reproductive biology, taxonomical characters and propagation technique. At present,
there are 13 botanical gardens in India maintaining a number of orchid species. About
43 species of orchids are collected and displayed in the orchid house of Lloyd Botan-
ical garden, Darjeeling, West Bengal.
3.2.3.3 Herbal Gardens

In these areas, medicinal plant genetic resources are reared in a protected area to
maintain them generation after generation. The Government of India sanctioned
funds for development of herbal gardens in 16 SAU’s and research institutions in
different agro-climatic regions of the country to conserve and maintain regional
medicinal plants and endangered species (Gupta, 1993). In India, a network among
the herbal gardens has already developed at DMAPR where 83 such gardens are
registered, along with details of the species they house.
3.2.3.4 Orchid Seed Gene Bank

Million of seeds are produced in a single capsule of orchid. However, they lack the
functional endosperm and require specific mycorrhizal association for germination
under natural conditions and, consequently, the percentage of germination is low.
Many orchids have been germinated through an asymbiotic technique, where the rate
of germination can reach as high as 90%. The seeds of orchids are orthodox in nature
and provide a great scope for long term storage through low temperature.
Unauthenticated
Bio-piracy 35
3.2.3.5 In vitro Conservation

This technique can be used for the revitalization of orchid germplasm affected by
virus and virus-like diseases through apical meristem culture. As a matter of fact,
orchids were the first plants to be tissue cultured (Pritchard, 1989). There is a need
for studies on genetic stability to avoid the soma-clonal variants, and slow growth
cultures for longer storage duration to avoid frequent transfers.
3.2.3.6 Cryo-preservation
Cryo-preservation means long term storage or conservation of plant parts and repro-
ductive materials at a very low temperature under laboratory conditions either in
liquid (-196°C) or vapour phase (-150°C) nitrogen. Tissues/ explants of orchids can
be cryo-preserved in liquid nitrogen cylinders as a long term storage procedure after
proper treatment of cryo-protectants and Plant Vitrification Solutions. In our country,
NBPGR has created a cryobank facility where 2.5 lakhs of germplasm lines can be
stored (Singh, 2005).
3.3 Bio-piracy
Bio-piracy defines the gaining of exclusive monopoly rights over the biological mater-
ial of one country by individuals, institutions or companies of other countries that
ultimately leads to the denial of the rights of the country of origin. Several objectives
of bio-piracy are (Akurugoda, 2013):
– Introduction of new plant varieties
– Introduction of new living organisms
– Production of pharmaceuticals
– Privatization of traditional knowledge
Further, bio-piracy is also known as the stealing of knowledge from traditional and indi-
genous communities or individuals. The term also means to suggest a breach of a con-
tractual agreement on the access and use of traditional knowledge to the detriment of
the provider, and bio-prospecting without the consent of the local communities. Accord-
ingly, it can be suggested that bio-piracy is a twofold phenomenon, which includes tra-
ditional knowledge bio-piracy and genetic resources bio-piracy. As such ‘bio-piracy’ has
been labelled as a term to describe the ways that corporations from the developed world
claim ownership of, take a free ride on, or otherwise take unfair advantage of, the genetic
resources and traditional knowledge and technologies of developing countries.
Bio-piracy has many negative effects on biodiversity such as extinction of
endemic genotypes, genetic erosion of biodiversity and privatization of bio-treasures
of the country. Further, this practice impairs the economy of the country – bio-piracy
is an extremely lucrative business and as a result most racketeers tend to exploit the
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bioresources of developing countries and obtain patents for these uses. The emer-
gence of monopolies over seeds and medicines through patents is becoming a major
threat to farmers, livelihoods and public health.
3.3.1 Legal Regime Pertaining to Biodiversity and Bio-piracy
3.3.1.1 International Law

Before 1994, the legalities of obtaining samples of plant, microbes and animals were
straightforward. Anyone including researches, scientists and tourists could simply
reach a field site, collect samples and take them home because living species were
regarded as the common heritage of mankind. On that basis, as common resources,
private companies and individuals could take and use the resources without stating
valid justifications or giving compensation. But, after the implementation of the Con-
vention on Biodiversity (CBD), principles have been set in order to strengthen the
national protection against bio- piracy.
3.3.1.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (1994)

Under Article 038 of the CBD, a sovereign nation has national rights over biological
resources. This principle allows developing countries to get better benefits from their
biological resources, and the traditional knowledge pertaining to them. Further, accord-
ing to Article 01 of the CDB the main objectives of the convention are: conservation of bio
diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the equitable sharing of the bene-
fits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Under Article 8(j), the CBD needs
each state party to respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and prac-
tices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for
the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The CBD commits member
countries to conserve and develop biological resources for sustainable use. Sustainable
use of biological resources includes finding new drugs, crops and industrial products,
while conserving the resources for future generation. Since the CBD recognizes the
sovereign rights over biological resources it establishes the concept of bio-prospecting
under article 15(5) which can be read with 15(7) and 19 of the CBD. According to article
15(5), access to genetic resources shall be subject to prior informed consent of the con-
tracting party providing such resources, unless otherwise determined by that party.
Further, article 15(7) provides that each contracting party shall take legislative,
administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, and in accordance with Articles 16
and 19 and, where necessary, through the financial mechanism established by Articles
20 and 21 with the aim of sharing in a fair and equitable way, the results of research
and development and the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization
of genetic resources with the Contracting Party providing such resources. Such sharing
shall be upon mutually agreed terms. Further, under CBD, it is expected that develop-
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Bio-piracy 37
ing countries should receive a share in the benefits from biotechnology. Hence, state
parties must take all practicable measures to promote and advance priority access, on a
fair and equitable basis, to the results and benefits arising from biotechnologies based
upon genetic resources. It can be argued that under the CBD, prior informed consent is
the standard for ensuring a fair and equitable access and benefit sharing agreement.
3.3.1.3 Cartagena Protocol (2003)

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an
international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use
of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may
cause adverse effects on biological diversity, also taking into account human health
hazards. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September
2003. The Protocol contains reference to a precautionary approach and reaffirms the
precaution language in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Devel-
opment.
3.3.1.4 Nagoya Protocol (2010)

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological
Diversity is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising
from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, by appropriate
access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies. It
takes into account all rights over those resources and technologies, and by appropri-
ate funding, thereby it contributes on the conservation of biological diversity and the
sustainable use of its components.
3.3.1.5 CITES 1972

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora is an international agreement between governments. It ensures that interna-
tional trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
Bio-piracy is understood at two levels:
3.3.2 Traditional Knowledge (TK) Bio-piracy
3.3.2.1 Collection and Use

Different types of TK bio-piracy: the un-authorised use of common TK; The unau-
thorised use of TK only found among one indigenous group; the unauthorised use
of TK acquired by deception or failure to fully disclosure the commercial motive
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behind the acquisition; the unauthorised use of TK acquired on the basis of a trans-
action deemed to be exploitative; the unauthorised use of TK acquired on the basis
of a conviction that all such transactions are inherently exploitative (“all bio-pro-
specting is bio-piracy”); and the commercial use of TK on the basis of a literature
search.
3.3.2.2 Patenting
Paten claim under TK: the patent claims TK in the form in which it was acquired; the
patent covers a refinement of the TK; patent covers an invention based on TK and
other modern/traditional knowledge.
3.3.3 Genetic Resource Bio-piracy
3.3.3.1 Collection and Use

The unauthorised extraction and use of widespread resources; the unauthorized
extraction and use of resources that can be found in one location; the unauthor-
ised extraction and export of resources in breach of ABS regulations of the relevant
country; the unauthorized extraction and export of resources in countries lacking
ABS regulations; the authorized extraction of resources on the basis of a transaction
deemed to be exploitative; and the authorized extraction of resources on the basis of
a conviction that all such transactions are inherently exploitative.
3.3.3.2 Patenting
The patent claims the resource itself; the patent claims a purified version of the
resource; and the patent covers a derivative of the resource and/or is based on more
than one resources.
3.3.4 Measures of Bio-piracy in Some Orchids
The species of Paphiopedilum, a genus first described by E. Pfitzer in 1886 (Chow-

dhery, 1998), are commonly known as ‘Lady’s or Venus’s Slipper’ orchids. These
plants are characterized by their luxuriant and multi-coloured flowers with shoe-
shaped labellum or synsepalum, a structure unique to orchids that is formed by the
fusion of two lateral sepals. The flowers have long vase life, and they remain on the
plant for 60-90 days (Rao, 2006). The beautiful and long-lasting flowers of Paphio-
pedilum species are among the most expensive and horticulturally important orchid
flowers (Rao, 2006). The genus is native to south-east Asia, northern India, southern
China, Myanmar, Thailand and New Guinea, with 80 species distributed worldwide
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Bio-piracy 39
(Chung et al, 2006). Out of the nine species of Paphiopedilum occurring in India, one
(P. druryii) is endemic to South India, and the remaining eight species are found in
different parts of north-east India, viz. Sikkim, Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal
Pradesh (Chowdhery, 1998). All species of Paphiopedilum are highly endangered and
are currently listed in Appendix I of CITES (http://www.cites.org; Sun et al, 2011). Con-
sequently, the international trade of these naturally occurring wild species is strictly
prohibited (http://www.cites.org). Many hybrids of Paphiopedilum with complex par-
entage exist in the international orchid markets (Sun et al, 2011). It is fairly easy to
identify these species at the flowering stage, but very difficult in vegetative stage or
as fragments. Moreover, it is difficult to differentiate their inter-species hybrids from
the endangered Paphiopedilum species morphologically, especially in their vegetative
stage. Hence, the illicit trade of the endangered species cannot be easily checked.
The efficacy of DNA barcoding with matK is considered as the signature sequence
for the identification of closely related endangered species of Indian Paphiopedilums
and also in elucidating the parentage of their inter-specific hybrids. The uniqueness
of the generated matK sequences of the investigated species as evidenced by the
BLAST results further confirms their species discrimination capability. This approach
could be used for generating DNA barcoding for all other endangered Paphiopedilum
species. These barcodes, once developed, could become potent tools in the hands of
enforcement agencies entrusted with the responsibility of checking illicit trade. An
effective check on the collection of these plants from wild, in turn, would help in their
conservation in situ.
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4 Morphological and Molecular Characterization
of Valuable species
Plant patent is usually granted for newly invented asexually propagated plants which
provides protection for 20 years. In 1930, the Plant Patent Act was enacted for the pro-
tection of vegetatively propagated plants, covering fruits and ornamental plants, and
the U.S. was the only country to issue plant patents. During 1961, the Association of
Plant Breeders for the protection of plant varieties (ASSINSEL) led to an ‘International
Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants at the Paris to address the pro-
tection of rights of Plant Breeders and farmers and to encourage the development of
new plant varieties. This in turn led to the development of the International Union for
the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, UPOV, an inter-governmental organization
with headquarter in Geneva, Switzerland, which was constituted at the Paris Conven-
tion of 1961, to set the basic rules and principles for plant variety protection. It also
provides the general principles for the examination of plant varieties and sets specific
guidelines for some 160 genera and species. Currently, DUS (Distinctiveness, Uniform-
ity and Stability) testing is used as an effective system of plant variety protection, with
the aim of encouraging the development of new varieties of plants and for the benefit of
society. It protects rights for breeders to exploit or develop new plant varieties, to allow
access to foreign varieties with wider gene pools, to promote intensive breeding activ-
ities and to prevent unauthorized varieties genetic degradation (Gautam et al, 2012)..
4.1 Cymbidium, Dendrobium and Vanda
4.1.1 Subject
The Test Guidelines (DUS) apply to all vegetatively propagated varieties of Cymbidium Sw.,
Dendrobium Sw. and Vanda Jones ex R.Br. of the family Orchidaceae (PVJ, October, 2011).
4.1.2 Plant Material Required
– The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority (PPV & FRA)
shall decide when, where and in what quantity and quality the plant material
are required for testing of a variety denomination for registration under the Pro-
tection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV & FR) Act, 2001. Applicants
submitting such plant material from a country other than India shall make sure
that all customs and quarantine requirements stipulated under relevant national
legislations and regulations are complied with.
– For all varieties, only 20 full grown plants (10 for each Centre) previously not
flowered shall be required for DUS testing.
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Cymbidium, Dendrobium and Vanda 41
– The plant material supplied should be visibly healthy, not lacking in vigour or
affected by any pests or diseases or mechanical damage.
– Plant material shall not have undergone any chemical or bio-physical treatment
unless the competent authority allow or request such treatment. If it has been
treated, details of the treatment must be given.
4.1.3 Conduct of Tests
– The test should normally be conducted for two growing seasons.

– Tests should normally be conducted at two places. If any essential characteristics
of the variety are not expressed during visual observations at these places, the
variety shall be considered for further examination at another appropriate test
site or under special test protocol at the expressed request of the applicant.
– The tests should be carried out in the greenhouse under conditions ensuring
normal growth for the plant concerned. The size of the pots/ containers should be
such that plants or parts of plants may be removed for measurement and count-
ing without prejudice to the observations, which must be conducted up to the end
of the growing period. Each test should include a total of 10 plants.
– Tests should be done only in pots of prescribed size. The pots should be kept at a
standard spacing recommended for each type or at the spacing specified by the
applicant.
– Additional tests for special purposes may be established.
– Normally growth regulators should not be used.
4.1.4 Methods and Observations
– The characteristics described in the Table of characteristics (Tab. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3)
shall be used for the testing of varieties for their DUS.
– For the assessment of Distinctiveness and Stability, all observations shall be
made on 10 plants or parts taken from each of 10 plants.
– For the assessment of Uniformity, a population standard of 1% and an accept-
ance probability of at least 95% shall be applied. In the case of a sample size of
10 plants, the maximum number of off-types allowed would be 1.
– All observations of the pseudobulbs shall be made on the flowering pseudobulb.
– All observations on the leaf shall be made on the longest leaf of a flowering
pseudobulb.
– All observations on the inflorescence and the flower shall be made at the time
when 50% of the flowers on the inflorescence have opened, and the observation
should be made on the most recently fully opened flower on the inflorescence
before fading of colour.
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42 Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Valuable species
– All observations on the length and width of the flower and parts of the flower
shall be made on the spread out positions.
– All observations on the colour of sepal, petal, lip and column shall be made both
on the inner and outer sides.
– For the assessment of colour characteristics, the Royal Horticultural Society
(RHS) colour chart shall be used.
4.1.5 Grouping of Varieties
The candidate hybrids for DUS testing were divided into groups to facilitate the
assessment of Distintiveness. Characteristics which are known from experience not
to vary, or to vary only slightly within a species, and which in their various states are
fairly evenly distributed across all species in the collection are suitable for grouping
purpose (Henke, 2008). Out of 66 characteristics, the following characteristics were
used for grouping of Cymbidium hybrids (Tab. 4.1):
(a) Pseudobulb shape, (b) Leaf shape, (c) Inflorescence type, (d) Inflorescence length,
(cm), (e) Inflorescence: number of flowers, (f) Flower width (cm), (g) Flower duration
(days), (h) Flower predominant colour, (i) Lip ornamentation and (j) Flowering season
4.1.6 Characteristics and Symbols
– To assess Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability, the characteristics and their

states as given in the Table of characteristics shall be used.
– Notes (1-9) (Table 4.1) shall be used to describe the state of each character for the
purpose of electronic data processing.
– Legend: (*) = Characteristics that shall be observed during every growing season
for all varieties and hybrids shall always be included in the description of the
varieties and hybrids, except when the state of expression of any of these charac-
ters is rendered impossible by a preceding phenological characteristic or by the
environment conditions of the testing region. Under such exceptional situation,
adequate explanation shall be provided. (+) = See explanations on the Table of
characteristics.
– Characteristics denoted with symbols QL, QN and PQ in the first column of the
Table of characteristics shall be indicated as:
QL: Qualitative characteristic QN: Quantitative characteristic PQ: Pseudo-qualitative

characteristic
– (a)-(e): see 4.1.7 for explanation
– Type of assessment of characteristics indicated in column six of the Table of char-
acteristics are as follows:
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MG: Measurement by a single observation of a group of plants or parts of plants

MS: Measurement of a number of individual plants or parts of plants
VG: Visual assessment by a single observation of a group of plants or parts of plants
VS: Visual assessment by observations of individual plants or parts of plants
Tab. 4.1: Characteristics for DUS Test guidelines in Cymbidium
Sl. Characteristics States Notes Example Varieties /hybrids Type of

No. Assessment
1. Pseudobulb Narrow 1 VG
* shape
Round 3 Cym. ‘Lucky Rainbow
(+)
PQ Ovoid 5 Cym. ‘Soul Hunt ’, Cym. ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob
(a) Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym. ‘Winter Beach Sea Green’,
Cym. ‘Madrid Forest King’, Cym. ‘Show Girl’,
Cym. ‘Sleeping Nymph’
Conical 7 Cymb. ‘Luna Pink’
2. Leaf shape Linear 1 Cym. ‘Yankilla’, Cym. ‘Soul Hunt’, Cym. ‘Fire VG
* Storm’, Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym. ‘Winter
(+) Beach Sea Green’, Cym. ‘Madrid Forest King’,
PQ Cym. ‘W.W. Wondrous’, Cym. ’Sleeping Nymph’
(a)
Linear- 3 Cym. ‘Lucky Rain Bow’, Cym. ‘Sainte Lapine’

oblong
Lanceolate 5 Cym. ‘Stanley Fouraker White Magic’
3. Inflorescence Erect 1 Cym. ‘H.C. Aurora’, Cym. ‘Ammesbury’, Cym. ‘Red VG
PQ orientation Imperial Red Tower’, Cym. ‘Hawtescens’, Cym
(b) ‘Jungfrau Snow Queen’, Cym. ’Sleeping Nymph’
Horizontal/ 3 Cym. ‘Yankilla’, Cym. ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob
Arching Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym. ‘Winter Beach Sea Green’,
Cym. ‘Madrid Forest King’, Cym. ‘W.W. Wondrous’
Drooping/ 5
Pendulus
4. Inflorescence Short 3 Cym. ‘Soul Hunt’, Cym. ‘Stanley Fouraker White MS
* length of (<75 cm) Magic’ Cym. ‘Yankilla’, Cym. ‘Ammesbury’, Cym.
QN Standard type ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym. ‘W.W.
(b) Wondrous’, Cym. ‘Sleeping Nymph’
Medium 5 Cym. ‘Hawtescens’, Cym. ‘Winter Beach Sea

(75-90 cm) Green’
Long 7 Cym. ‘Red Star’, Cym. ‘Madrid Forest King’
(>90 cm)
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continued

No. Assessment
5. Number of <12 1 Cym. ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym. VS
* flowers/ ‘Winter Beach Sea Green’, Cym. ‘W.W. Won-
QN inflorescence drous’, Cym. ’Sleeping Nymph’
(b)
12-20 3 Cym. ‘Madrid Forest King’, Cym. ‘Red Star’
>20 5
6. Flower width Narrow 3 MS

* (<4 cm)
QN
(c) Medium 5 Cym. ‘Soul Hunt’, Cym. ‘Yankilla’, Cym. ‘Show
(cm-8 cm) Girl’, Cym. ‘Ammesbury’, Cym. ‘Velvet Green’,
Cym. ‘Takarjoke’, Cym. ’Sleeping Nymph’
Large 7 Cym. ‘H.C. Aurora’ Cym. Tracey Reddaway’, Cym.
(>8 cm) ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym.
‘Winter Beach Sea Green’, Cym. ‘Madrid Forest
King’, Cym. ‘W.W. Wondrous’
7. Flower duration Short 3 VG
* on the plant (<20 days)
QN
Medium 5 Cym. ‘Red Star’
(b)
(20-40 days)
Long 7 Cym. ‘H.C. Aurora’, Cym. ‘Yankilla’, Cym.
(>40 days) ‘Amesbury’, Cym. ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob Marlin
‘Lucky’, Cym. ‘Winter Beach Sea Green’, Cym.
‘Madrid Forest King’, Cym. ‘W.W. Wondrous’,
Cym. ’Sleeping Nymph’
8. Flower Colour White 1 Cym. ‘Takarjoke’, Cym. ‘W.W. Wondrous VG

QL in general
Pink 2
(b) appearance
Yellow 3 Cym. ‘Angelica December Gold’,
Cym. ‘Hawtescens’
Green 4 Cym. ‘Yankilla’, Cym. ‘Winter Beach Sea Green’,
Cym. ‘Madrid Forest King’
Red 5 Cym. ‘Soul Hunt’, Cym. ‘Miss Sanders’, Cym.
‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’
Brown 6 Cym. ‘Tracey Reddaway’
Maroon 7 Cym. ‘Show Girl’, Cym. ‘Ammesbury’
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continued

No. Assessment
9. Inside Lip Absent 1 VG

QL colour pattern
(d)
Spotted 3 Cym. ‘Jungfrau Dos Pueblos’(red purple), Cym.
‘Takarjoke’(red purple), Cym. ‘Fire Storm’(red
purple), Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’(red purple),
Cym. ‘W.W. Wondrous’(red purple), Cym. ‘Winter
Beach Sea Green’(red purple), Cym. ‘Madrid
Forest King’(red purple)
Blotched 5 Cym. ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’(red purple), Cym.
‘H.C. Aurora’, (red purple), Cym. ‘Sun Gold’
(yellow orange), Cym. ‘Jungfrau Dos Pueblos’(red
purple), Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym. ‘Madrid
Forest King’(red purple), Cym. ’Sleeping Nym-
ph’(red purple)
Streaked/ 7 Cym. ‘Winter Beach Sea Green’(red purple), Cym.
Striped ‘Red Star’ (red purple)
10. Outside lip Absent 1 Cym. ‘Jungfrau Dos Pueblos’, Cym. ‘Madrid VG
QL colour pattern Forest King’, Cym. ’Sleeping Nymph’
(d)
Spotted 3 Cym. ‘H.C. Aurora’ (red purple), Cym. ‘Takar-
joke’(red purple), Cym. ‘Fire Storm’(red purple),
Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’(red purple)
Blotched 5 Cym. ‘Fire Storm’ (red purple), Cym. Bob Marlin
‘Lucky’(red purple), Cym. ‘Sun Gold’(yellow
orange)
Streaked/ 7 Cym. ‘Fire Storm’ (red purple)
Striped
11. Flowering Winter 1 Cym. ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’, Cym. VG
(+) season ‘Red Star’, Cym. ‘Soul Hunt’, Cym. ‘Yankilla’,
PQ Cym. ‘Sleeping Nymph’
Spring 3 Cym. ‘Ammesbury’, Cym. ‘H.C. Aurora’, Cym.

‘Red Imperial Red Tower’, Cym. ‘Hawtescens’,
Cym. ‘Fire Storm’, Cym. ‘Bob Marlin Lucky’, Cym.
‘Winter Beach Sea Green’, Cym. ‘W.W. Wondrous’
Summer 5
Rainy 7
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1 3 5 7
Narrow cylindric Round Ovoid Conical
Fig. 4.1: Pseudobulb shape in Cymbidium
1 3 5
Linear Linear oblong Lanceolate
Fig. 4.2: Leaf shape in Cymbidium
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In Dendrobium, out of 62 descriptors, the following characteristics were used for

grouping of Dendrobium hybrids (Tab. 4.2):
Tab. 4.2: Characteristics for DUS test guide lines in Dendrobium

(a) Nature of stem, (b) Inter-node length (cm), (c) Internode number, (d) Inflores-
cence length (cm), (e) Inflorescence number/cane, (f) Flower width (cm) (g) Lip colour,
(h) Lip ornamentation and (i) Flowering season.
Type of
Sl.
Characteristic States Note Example Varieties /hybrids Assess-
No.
ment
1. Nature of shoot Cane (woody) type 1 VG
* at flowering Cane cylindric 3
QN
(+) Cane clavate fleshy 5 Den. ‘Bangkok Blue’, Den. ‘Big
(a) White Jumbo’, ‘ Den. ‘Thongchai
Gold’, Den. ‘Erika’, Den. ‘Triple
Pink’,
Bulbous round 7 Den. ‘Julie’
2. Internode Few (<5) 3 -- VS

* number
QN (flowering
(a) shoot) Medium (5-10) 5 Den. ‘Big White-4N’, Den.
‘Thongchai Gold’, Den. ‘Bangkok
Blue’, Den. ‘Julie’, Den. ‘Erika’,
Den. ‘Earsakul’, Den. ‘Dang
Saard’, Den.‘Madam Pink’, Den.
‘Triple Pink’
Many (>10) 7 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Emma
White’, Den. ‘Big White Jumbo’,
Den. ‘Lervia’, Den. ‘Kating Dang’
3. Internode Small (<2 cm) 3 Den. ‘Abraham,’, Den. ‘Big MS
QN diameter White-4N’, Den. ‘Emma White’,
(a) (widest part Den. ‘Thongchai Gold’, Den.
of shoot) ‘Bangkok Blue’, Den. ‘Big
White Jumbo’, Den. ‘Erika’,
Den. ‘Lervia’, Den. ‘Earsakul’,
Den. ‘Dang Saard’, Den. ‘Kating
Dang’, Den.‘Madam Pink’, Den.
‘Triple Pink’
Medium (2-4 cm) 5 Den. ‘Julie’
Large (>4 cm) 7 --
4. Inflorescence Few (<3) 3 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Big VS
* number/plant White Jumbo’, Den. ‘Erika’, Den.
QN ‘Lervia’, Den. ‘Dang Saard’,
(b) Den. ‘Kating Dang’, Den. ‘Triple
Pink’ Den. ‘Big White-4N’, Den.
‘Madam Pink’
Medium(3-5) 5 Den. ‘Bangkok Blue’, Den. ‘Julie’
Many (>5) 7 Den. ‘Earsakul’, Den.‘Emma
White’ Den. ‘Thongchai Gold’
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continued
Type of
Sl.
No.
ment
5. Inflorescence Short (<20 cm) 3 Den. ‘Thongchai Gold’, Den. ‘Big MS
* Length White Jumbo’
QN Medium 5 Den. ‘Emma White’, Den.
(b) (20-40 cm) ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Big White-4N’,
Den. ‘Emma White’, Den.
‘Bangkok Blue’, Den. ‘Julie’, Den.
‘Erika’, Den. ‘Lervia’, Den. ‘Ear-
sakul’, Den. ‘Dang Saard’, Den.
‘Kating Dang’, Den. ‘Triple Pink’
Long (41-60 cm) 7 Den.‘Madam Pink’
Very long (>60 cm) 7
6. Flower width Narrow (<3.0 cm) 3 MS
* (Tip distance Medium (3.0-6.0 cm) 5 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Emma
QN of two lateral White’, Den. ‘Julie’, Den. ‘Big
(c) petals) White Jumbo’, Den. ‘Erika’, Den.
‘Dang Saard
Broad (>6.0 cm) 7 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Big
White-4N’, Den. ‘Thongchai
Gold’, Den. ‘Bangkok Blue’, Den.
‘Lervia’, Den. ‘Earsakul’, Den.
‘Kating Dang’, Den. ‘Madam
Pink’, Den. ‘Triple Pink’
7. Lip predomin- Green 1 VS

* ant colour
QL (as per RHS White 2 Den. ‘Big White-4N’, Den. ‘Emma
(d) chart) White’, Den. ‘Big White Jumbo’
Yellow 3 Den. ‘Thongchai Gold’
Pink 4
Red 5 Den. ‘Kating Dang’
Purple 6 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Julie’,
Den. ‘Lervia’, Den. ‘Earsakul’,
Den. ‘Dang Saard’, Den. ‘Madam
Pink’
Blue 7 Den. ’Thongchai Blue’
Violet 8 Den. ‘Bangkok Blue’, Den.
‘Erika’, Den. ‘Triple Pink’
8. Lip Colour Uniform 1 Den. ‘Big White Jumbo’ VG
* pattern
QL (Colour as per Mixed 3
(d) RHS chart)
Spotted 5
Striped/shaded 7 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Big
White-4N, Den. ‘Emma White’,
Den. ‘Thongchai Gold’, Den.
‘Julie’, Den. ‘Triple Pink’
Netted 9 Den. ‘Bangkok Blue’, Den.
‘Lervia’, Den. ‘Earsakul’, Den.
‘Dang Saard’, Den. ‘Kating
Dang’, Den.‘Madam Pink’
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continued
Type of
Sl.
No.
ment
9. Flowering Winter 1 Den. ‘Kating Dang’, Den. ’Erika’ VG
* season Spring 3 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Big
PQ White-4N’, Den. ‘Thongchai
Gold’, Den. ‘Bangkok Blue’
Summer 5 Den. ‘Julie’, Den. ‘Big White
Jumbo’, Den. ‘Erika’, Den.
‘Lervia’, Den.‘Dang Saard’
Rainy 7 Den. ‘Abraham’, Den. ‘Kating
Dang’, Den. ‘Madam Pink’, Den.
‘Triple Pink’
Year round 9 Den. ‘Earsakul’, Den. ‘Emma
White’,
1 3 5 7
Cane (woody) Cane cylindric Cane clavate Bulbous (round)
Fig. 4.3: Nature of stem in Dendrobium
In Vanda, out of 66 descriptors, the following characteristics were used for grouping
of Vanda hybrids (Tab. 4.3):
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Tab. 4.3: Characteristics for DUS test guidelines in Vanda

(a) Plant type, (b) Inter-node length (cm), (c) Leaf type, (d) Spike length (cm), (e) Flower
number, (f) Flower colour, (g) Sepal ornamentation, (h) Petal ornamentation, (i) Lip colour,
(j) Lip ornamentation, (k) Spur type and (l) Flowering season.
Type of
S. No. Characteristics States Notes Example Varieties /hybrids Assess-
ment
1. Internode Short (0.5-0.1 cm) 3 Vanda ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Pures Wax’, MS

QN length V. ‘Pakchong Blue’
(a)
Medium (1.0-2.0 cm) 5 V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’, V. ‘RBSD
Black’, V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘Sansai Blue’,
V. ‘Motes Indigo’, V. ‘Roberts
Delight Blue’
Long (>2 cm) 7 V. ‘John Clubb’ V. ‘Miss Joaquim’
2. Leaf type Terete (Round) 1 V. ‘John Clubb’ V. ‘Miss Joaquim’ VG
*
PQ
Semi-terete 3
(+)
Channelled 5
Strap (Flat) 7 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’,
V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD Black’,
V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘Sansai Blue’,
V. ‘Motes Indigo’, V. ‘Pakchong
Blue’, V. ‘Roberts Delight Blue
3. Inflorescence Short (<15 cm) 3 MS
* length Medium (15-30 cm) 5 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’,
QN V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD Black’,
(b) V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘Sansai Blue’
Long (>30 cm) 7 V. ‘Motes Indigo’, V. ‘Pakchong
Blue’, V. ‘Roberts Delight Blue’
4. No. of flowers / Few (<5) 3 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’, VG
* inflorescence V. ‘PAT D’
QN Medium (5-10) 5 V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD Black’,
(b) V. ‘Sansai Blue’, V. ‘Motes Indigo,
V. ‘Pakchong Blue’, V. ‘Roberts
Delight Blue’
Many (>10) 7
5. Flower predom- Red 1 V. ‘RBSD Red’ VS
* inant colour
QL Blue 3 V. „Roberts Delight Blue’, V. ‘Prao
(b) Sky Blue’, V. ‘Sansai Blue’,
V. ‘Pakchong Blue’
Violet 5 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘Motes
Indigo’
Purple 7 V. ‘RBSD Black’, V. ‘PAT D’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
ment
6. Sepal colour Uniform 1 - VG

* pattern
QL
(d) Spotted 3 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD
Black’ V. ‘PAT D’
Blotched 5 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Roberts Delight Blue’
Streaked /Striped 7 -
Tessellated 9 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’,
V. ‘RBSD Black’, V. ‘PAT D’,
V. ‘Sansai Blue’, V. ‘Motes Indigo’,
7. Petal colour Uniform 1 - VG
* pattern (as per
QL RHS colour
(d) chart)
Spotted 3 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD
Black’, V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘Roberts
Delight Blue’
Blotched 5
Streaked/Striped 7
Tessellated 9 V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’ V. ‘KS.SD’,
V. ‘Sansai Blue’, V. ‘Motes Indigo’,
8. Lip colour Single 1 V. ‘KS.SD’, (violet) V. ‘Prao Sky VG
QL Blue’, (violet) V. ‘Pures Wax’,
(d) (violet) V. ‘Motes Indigo’(violet)
Double 3 V. ‘RBSD Black’ (purple & blue)
V. ‘PAT D’, (purple & blue)
V. ‘Sansai Blue’, (purple & violet)
V. ‘Pakchong Blue’(violet & blue)
Triple or more 5 V. ‘Roberts Delight Blue’ (purple,
yellow & blue)
9. Lip colour Uniform 1 VG
* pattern
QL
(d) Spotted 2 V. ‘RBSD Black’, V. ‘Motes Indigo’
Blotched 3
Streaked/Striped 4 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’,
V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD Black’,
V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘Sansai Blue’,
V. ‘Pakchong Blue’, V. ‘Roberts
Delight Blue’
Tessellated 5
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
ment
10. Spur type Saccate 1 - VG

* Conical 3 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’,
PQ V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD Black’,
(+) V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘Sansai Blue’,
© V. ‘Motes Indigo’, V. ‘Pakchong
Blue’, V. ‘Roberts Delight Blue’
Cylindric 5 -
Tubular 7 -
11. Flowering Winter 1 V. ‘Pakchong Blue’ VG
* season Spring 3 V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue’,
PQ V. ‘Pures Wax’
Summer 5 V. ‘Sansai Blue’, V. ‘Prao Sky Blue
Rainy 7 V. ‘Motes Indigo’, V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘RBSD
Black’, V. ‘Roberts Delight Blue
1 3 5 7
Terete semi-terete Channelled Strap
Fig. 4.4: Leaf type in Vanda
Unauthenticated
Phalaenopsis (PVJ, Nov, 2012) 53
1 3 5 7
Saccate Conical Cylindric Tubular
Fig. 4.5: Spur type in Vanda
4.1.7 Explanations on the Table of Characteristics
Guidelines for recording the observations of vegetative and flowering characteristics

Characteristics indicated with (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) in the first column of the Table
of characteristics should be examined as indicated below:
a) Observations on the leaf, shoot and internode length shall be made on the flower-
ing shoot.
b) Observations on the inflorescence and the flower shall be made at the time when
50% of the flowers on the inflorescence have opened and the most recently fully
opened flower on the inflorescence before the color starts to fade.
c) Observations on the length and width of the flower and parts of the flower shall
be made on the spread out positions.
d) Observations on the color of the sepal, the petal and the lip shall be made on
inner side at apex, mid and base portion.
e) Observations on the colour of column shall be made on inner side at apex, mid
and basal region.
4.2 Phalaenopsis (PVJ, Nov, 2012)
4.2.1 Subject
These test guidelines apply to all vegetatively propagated varieties of Phalaenopsis

Blume and alliance of the family Orchidaceae.
Unauthenticated
shall decide when, where and in what quantity and quality the plant material
– For all varieties, 20 flowering size plants (10 for each Centre) shall be required for
DUS testing.
– The plant material supplied should be visibly healthy, not lacking in vigour nor
affected by any pests, diseases or mechanical damage.
unless the competent authority allows or requests such treatment. If it has been
4.2.3 Conduct of Test
– The minimum duration of a test should normally be two similar flowering seasons.
– The test shall normally be conducted at two places. If any essential characteristic
of the variety is not expressed for visual observations at these places, the variety
shall be considered for further examination at another appropriate test site or
under special test protocol on request of the applicant.
– The test should be carried out under greenhouse conditions ensuring satisfactory
growth for the expression of the relevant characteristics of the variety and for the
conduct of the examination.
– The design of the test should be such that the plants or parts of the plants may be
removed for measurement and counting without prejudice to the observations,
which must be made up to the end of the flowering period. Each test should be
designed to result in a total of at least 10 plants.
– Unless otherwise indicated, all observations determined by measuring or count-
ing should be made on 10 plants or parts taken from each of 10 plants.
– Normally, growth regulators shall not be used.
– The characteristics described in the Table of Characteristics (Tab.4.4) shall be

used for the testing of varieties for their DUS.
Unauthenticated

– For the assessment of Uniformity, a population standard of 1% and an acceptance
probability of at least 95% shall be applied. In the case of a sample size of 10
plants, the maximum number of off-types allowed would be 1.
– All observations on the shoot shall be made on the flowering shoot.
– All observations on the leaf shall be made on the longest leaf of a flowering shoot.
when 50% of the flowers on the inflorescence have opened and on the most
recently fully opened flower on the inflorescence before fading of colour.
shall be made in the spread out position.
– All observations on the colour of sepal, petal, lip and column shall be made on
the inner side.
– The selection of varieties of common knowledge to be grown in the trial with the can-
didate varieties and the way in which these varieties are divided into groups to facil-
itate the assessment of distinctiveness is aided by the use of grouping characteristics.
– Grouping characteristics are those in which the documented states of expression,
even where produced at different locations, can be used, either individually or
in combination with other such characteristics (Tab. 4.4) (a) to select varieties of
common knowledge that can be excluded from the growing trial used for exam-
ination of distinctiveness; and (b) to organize the growing trial so that similar
varieties are grouped together.
– The following have been agreed upon as useful grouping characteristics:
– Plant: size (Characteristic 1)
– Flower size: width in front view (Characteristic 15)
– Petal: colour pattern (Characteristic 38)
– Petal: predominant colour (Characteristic 39)
– Lip: colour pattern of apical lobe (Characteristic 50)
– Lip: predominant colour of apical lobe (Characteristic 51)

states as given in the Table of Characteristics shall be used.
Unauthenticated
– Notes 1-9 (numbers) shall be used to describe the state of each character for the
– Legend
(*) Characteristics that shall be observed during every growing season for varieties and
hybrids and shall always be included in the description of the varieties and hybrids,
except when the state of expression of any of these characters is rendered impossible by
a preceding phenological characteristic or by the environment conditions of the testing
region. Under such exceptional situation, adequate explanation shall be provided.
(+) See explanations on the Table of Characteristics
– Characteristics denoted with symbols QL, QN and PQ in the first column of the
Table of Characteristics shall be indicated as:
QL: Qualitative characteristic
QN: Quantitative characteristic
PQ: Pseudo-qualitative characteristic
– (a)-(e) see 4.2.7.1 for explanation
– Type of assessment of characteristics indicated in column six of the Table of Char-
VS: Visual assessment by observations of individual plants or parts of plant
Tab. 4.4: Table of Characteristics of DUS Test Guidelines in Phalaenopsis
Type of
Sl. Character-
States Notes Example Varieties /Hybrids Assess-
No istics
ment
1. Plant: Very small 1 -- MS
(*) size (<3.0)
QN (cm) Small 3 Dtps. ‘Younghome Orange Lip’, Dtps. ‘Acker’s Sweetie’,
(3.0-4.5) Dtps. ‘Big Red Robe’, Dtps. ‘Mount Lip Taisuco’, P. ‘Amabilis’,
Dtps. ‘Tying Shin Zebra’, P. ‘Luchia Pink’, P. ‘Jin Cheng Sun’,
P. ‘Sin Yuan Golden Beauty’, P. ‘Little Gem Stripe’, P. ‘Surf
Song’, Dtps. ‘Lian Her Happy’, P. ‘Timothy Christopher’,
Dtps. ‘Happy UFO’, P. ‘Big White Pink Stripe’, P. Medium
Pink, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory
Pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P.
Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy
‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps.
Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung.
Medium 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, P. Memoria Francis
(4.6-6.0) Hunter, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl
‘Cx#1’, P. Miki Wata Nabe, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
Large 7 Dtps. Shu Long Pearl, P. Taida Salu Red, Dtps.Shih Hua
(>6.0-7.5) Long First Love
Extra large 9 P. Kaleidoscope, P. Strawberry, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune
(>7.5)
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
2. Leaf: Short (<10) 3 P. Big White Pink Stripe MS
(*) length
Medium 5 Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.
QN (cm)
(10-15) Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin
(a)
Zebra, P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, Roxanne,
P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter,
P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little
Caroline, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty.
Long 7 Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata
(>15-20) Nabe, P. Champion Porter, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin
Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen
Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, Dtps. Lian Her
Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, Leodora,
P. Ivory Pearl, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy
‘GL’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’,
Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer,
Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Extra long Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(>20) Lip, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’
3. Leaf: Narrow 1 -- MS
(*) width (cm) (<3.0)
QN Medium 3 P. Amabilis, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen
(a) (3.0-6.0) Magpie, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, Roxanne,
P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps.
Ox Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta
Broad 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(>6.0) Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
P. Champion Porter, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long
First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida
Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun,
P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, Dtps. Lian Her Happy,
P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, Leodora, P. Magic
Kiss, Goldie, P. Ivory pearl, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611,
Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s
Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty
Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl
‘Cx#1, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
4. Leaf: Oblong 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange VG
(*) shape Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
PQ Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
(+) P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih
(a) Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra,
Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin
Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big
White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. P. Magic
Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna,
P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince
Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Shu
Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty
Hsiung, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’ Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, P. Ho’s Little Caroline
Narrow 3 Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond

obovate ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’
Suborbicular 5 --
5. Leaf: Acute 1 P. Memoria Francis Hunter VG
(+) apex Notched 3 Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love
PQ
(a) Obtuse 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, P. Taida
Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P.
Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan
Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe,
P. Surf Song, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher
Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink,
P. Leodora, P. P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory
pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder,
P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy
Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann
Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong
Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
6. Leaf: Absent 1 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. VG
QL anthocyanin Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Champion Porter,
(a) colouration P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Taida Salu
Red, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Little Gem Stripe,
Leodora, Goldie, Roxanne, P. Ivory Pearl, P. Memoria Francis
Hunter, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan
Lin Fairy ‘GL’, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung,
Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond,
Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Present 9 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune,
P. Miki Wata Nabe, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, Dtps.
Tying Shin Zebra, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Sin Yuan Golden
Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Magic Kiss, P. Lucyna,
P. Brother Girl, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P. Chian Xen Pearl
‘Cx#1’ P. Ho’s Little Caroline, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
7. Inflorescence Solitary 1 -- VS
(+) type Raceme 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
PQ Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
(b) Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih
Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra,
Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White
Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. P. Magic Kiss,
P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother
Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder,
P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy
Panicle 5 --
8. Rachis Short 3 Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip MS
(*) length (cm) (<10) Taisuco, P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, Dtps.Shih Hua
(+) Long First Love, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Kaleidoscope,
QN P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, P. Little Gem
(b) Stripe, P. Surf Song, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy
UFO, Leodora, Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother
Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder,
P. Carlotta, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted
Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin
Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun
Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Medium 5 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
(10-20) Taida Salu Red, P. Luchia Pink, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Big
White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie,
Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Taida Salu Red, P. Strawberry, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack
Long (>20) 7 --
9. Inflorescence: Few 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, MS
(*) number of (<5) Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata
QN flowers Nabe, P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, Dtps.Shih Hua
(b) Long First Love, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin
Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem
Stripe, P. Surf Song, Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P.
Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince
Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long
Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty
Hsiung, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty,
P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Medium 5 Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. Strawberry, Dtps. Tying Shin
(5-10) Zebra, P. Luchia Pink, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy
Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, Leodora, P. Magic Kiss,
Goldie, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little
Caroline, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Taida Saln. Red
Many 7 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Big
(>10) White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink.
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
10. Peduncle: Short (<10) 3 -- MS
(*) length Medium 5 Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.
QN (cm) (10-20) Tying Shin Zebra, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Sin Yuan Golden
(b) Beauty, P. Surf Song, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium
Pink, Leodora, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter,
Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little Caroline
Long 7 Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. Cham-
(>20-30) pion Porter, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu,
Dtps. Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Jin Cheng Sun, Dtps. Chian
Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Timothy Christopher
Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Magic Kiss, Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl,
Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu
Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Shulong Sun
Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Taida Saln. Red
Extra long 9 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(>30) Lip, Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Luchia Pink,
Dtps. Lian Her Happy, Goldie, P. Lucyna, P. Carlotta, Dtps.
Shu Long Pearl, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’
11. Peduncle: Thin (<0.3) 3 -- MS
QN thickness Medium 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(b) (cm) (0.3-0.6) Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. P. Magic
Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna,
Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Shu
Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Gan Lin
Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun
Beauty, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Thick 7 Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps.
(>0.6) Sogo Soft, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’
12. Peduncle: Absent 1 Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis, P. Surf Song, P. Big VG
QL anthocyanin White Pink Stripe, P. Leodora, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, Dtps.
(b) colouration Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, Dtps.
Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty
Hsiung, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl.
Present 9 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter,
P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu,
Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleido-
scope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden
Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, Dtps.
Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher, Dtps. Happy UFO,
P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna,
Thunder P. Carlotta, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little
Caroline, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong
Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
13. Flower: Smooth 1 P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, P. VG
QL texture of Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria
(b) the surface Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps.
of sepals Leopard Princess M611, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps.
and petals Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Rough 9 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P.
Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen
Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Leodora,
Goldie, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, P. Ho’s Little Caroline,
Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’,
Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl.
14. Flower: Short 3 -- MS
(*) length in (<4)
(+) front view Medium 5 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune,
QN (cm) (4-8) Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P.
(c) Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps.
Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin
Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Surf Song, P.
Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe,
P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Lucyna,
P. Brother Girl, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P.
Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Long (>8) 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie,
Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Kaleidoscope,
P. Luchia Pink, P. Little Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her Happy,
P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter,
Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Chian
Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung
15. Flower: Narrow (<4) 3 -- MS
(*) width in front
(+) view (cm) Medium (4-8) 5 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune,
QN Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.
(c) Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin
Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty,
Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Surf Song, P. Timothy Chris-
topher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora,
P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Carlotta,
P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Shu
Long Pearl, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611
Broad (>8) 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps.
Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter, P. Kal-
eidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Little Gem Stripe,
Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Roxanne, P.
Ivory Pearl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder,
Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo
Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
16. Flower: Open 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, VG
(*) arrangement Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Big Red
(+) of petals Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion
PQ Porter, P. Amabilis, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu,
(b) Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope,
P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty,
Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song,
Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO,
P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. Magic
Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother
Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard
Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted
Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Touching 3 P. Strawberry, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Shulong Sun
Beauty
Overlapping 5 --
17. Flower: fra- Absent 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange VS
QL grance Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua
Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps.
Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng
Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie,
P. Little Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Chris-
topher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium
Pink, P. Magic Kiss, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna,
Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan
Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline,
Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann
Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun
Present 9 P. Surf Song, P. Leodora, Goldie, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie
18. Dorsal sepal: Short (<3) 3 P. Strawberry, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Leodora, Goldie, P. MS
(*) length (cm) Carlotta, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611
QN Medium 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(c) (3-4) Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco
P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, Dtps. Shih hua long first
love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope,
P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, P. Surf Song,
Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy
UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss,
P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps.
Sogo Soft, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Long (>4) 7 Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Luchia Pink, P. Little
Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory Pearl,
Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Gan
Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty
Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
19. Dorsal sepal: Narrow 3 Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, MS
(*) width (cm) (<2) P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Ho’s Little Caroline
QN Medium 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(c) (2-4) Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua
Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleido-
scope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden
Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf
Song, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps.
Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl,
P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps.
Ox Prince Thunder P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611,
Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo
Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P.
Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl, Taida Salu Red
Broad (>4) 7 --
20. Dorsal sepal: Oblong 1 --
(*) shape
(+) Ovate 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange VG
PQ Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps.
Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter,
White Pink Stripe, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Brother Girl,
P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P. Car-
lotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy
Elliptic 5 Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. Amabilis, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra,
Medium pink, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Lucyna
Obovate 7 --
Round 9 --
21. Dorsal sepal: Incurved 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, VG
(*) curvature of Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Big Red
PQ longitudinal Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Cham-
axis pion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long
First Love, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P.
Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps.
Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, Dtps. Lian
Her Happy, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl,
Thunder, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Shulong Sun
Beauty, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Straight 3 P. Medium Pink
Reflexed 5 P. Taida Salu, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss,
Goldie, P. Lucyna, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’,
P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin
Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan
Lin Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
22. Dorsal Absent 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange VG
(*) sepal: Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps.
PQ undulation Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter,
of margin P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love,
P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red,
P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan
Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe,
P. P. Leodora, P. P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie, P. P. Roxanne,
P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis
Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard
Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted
Lin Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Present 9 Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty
23. Dorsal One 1 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, VG
QN sepal: Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis,
(d) number of P. Luchia Pink, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, P. Memoria
colours Francis Hunter
Two 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie,
Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter,
Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope,
P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, P. Timothy
Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe,
P. Medium Pink, P. P. Leodora, P. P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie,
P. P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, Dtps.
Ox Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611,
P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty
Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong Sun
Three or more 5 Dtps. Lian Her Happy Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long
Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Chian Xen
Magpie
24. Dorsal sepal: Uniform 1 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, VS
QL colour Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis, P. Luchia Pink, P. Ivory
(d) pattern pearl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter
Shaded 2 Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, P. Miki Wata Nabe, Dtps.Shih Hua
Long First Love, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Jin Cheng Sun,
Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Roxanne, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder
Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer,
P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’,
Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Edged 3 Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Strawberry P. Carlotta
Striped 4 P. kaleidoscope
Netted 5 Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty
Spotted 6 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, P. Champion Porter, P. Surf
Song, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Lucyna, Dtps. Gan
Lin Fairy ‘GL’, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Sogo Soft,
Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Mixed 7 P. Big White Pink Stripe (Shaded and striped)
(specify) , P. Taida Salu, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Timothy Christopher
Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Brother Girl, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
(Striped and spotted), P. Medium Pink (Edged and striped)
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
25. Dorsal sepal: Green 1 -- VS
QL dominant White 2 P. Kaleidoscope, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Memoria Francis
(d) colour Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
as per RHS
colour chart Pink 3 --
Yellow 4 Dtps. Taida Salu Red, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih
Hua Long First Love
Red 5 --
Purple 6 P. Strawberry, Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 --
26. Lateral sepal: Short 3 P. Strawberry MS
QN length (cm) (<3)
(c) Medium 5 Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, Dtps.Shih Hua Long
(3-4) First Love
Long 7 P. Miki Wata Nabe, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. Memoria
(>4) Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Chian Xen
Magpie, Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack
27. Lateral sepal: Narrow 3 P. Strawberry MS
QN width (cm) (<2)
(c) Medium 5 Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
(2-4) Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love,
P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps.
Chian Xen Magpie, Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack
Broad (>4) 7 --
28. Lateral sepal: Oblong 1 -- VG
(+) shape Ovate 3 Dtps. Taida Saln Red, P. Strawberry, Dtps. Hsin Yang
PQ Fortune, Dtps. Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Memoria Francis
Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie,
Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack
Elliptic 5 P. Kaleidoscope, P. Miki Wata Nabe
Obovate 7 --
Round 9 --
29. Lateral sepal: One 1 Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis MS
QL Number of Two 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(d) colours Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter,
Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, P. Little Gem Stripe,
P. P. Leodora, P. P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie, P. P. Roxanne,
P. Ivory Pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis
Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard
Princess M611, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty
Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong
Three or more 5 Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu
Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
30. Lateral sepal: Uniform 1 Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco VG
QL colour Shaded 2 Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611,
(d) pattern P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Edged 3 --
Striped 4 --
Netted 5 --
Spotted 6 P. Champion Porter, P. Surf Song, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie,
P. Lucyna, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Mixed 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack (spotted and edged), Dtps.
(specify) Younghome Orange Lip (evenly colored and spotted at the
base), Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie (shaded and spotted), Dtps.
Hsin Yang Fortune (evenly colored and spotted at the base),
Dtps. Big Red Robe (spotted and edged), P. Miki Wata
Nabe (shaded and spotted at the base), P. Amabilis (evenly
colored and spotted at the base), P. Strawberry (edged and
spotted), Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love (one half evenly
colored and other half shaded and spotted), P. Taida Salu
(striped and spotted), Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra (netted and
spotted), Dtps. Taida Salu Red (shaded and spotted), P.
Kaleidoscope (shaded, striped and spotted), P. Luchia Pink
(netted and spotted), P. Jin Cheng Sun (evenly coloured and
shaded at the base), P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty (netted and
spotted), Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie (netted and spotted),
P. Little Gem Stripe (striped and spotted), Dtps. Lian Her
Happy (shaded and spotted), P. Timothy Christopher Dtps.
Happy UFO (striped and spotted), P. Big White Pink Stripe
(shaded, striped and spotted), P. Medium Pink (striped,
spotted and edged), P. Leodora (shaded and spotted),
P. Roxanne (shaded and spotted), P. Ivory pearl (evenly
colored and spotted at the base), P. Brother Girl (striped
and spotted), P. Memoria Francis Hunter (evenly colored
and shaded at the base), P. Carlotta(Edged and spotted),
Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’ (shaded and spotted), P. Shu Long
Spotted Deer (shaded and spotted), P. Ho’s Little Caroline
(shaded and spotted), Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung (shaded
and spotted), Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’(shaded and
spotted), Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond (shaded and spotted),
Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty (shaded and spotted)
31. Lateral sepal: Green 1 -- VG
QL dominant White 2 P. Kaleidoscope, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Memoria Francis
(d) colour as per Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
RHS colour
chart Pink 3 --
Yellow 4 Taida Salu Red, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih Hua
Long First Love
Red 5 --
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
32. Petal: shape Oblong 1 -- VS
(+)
PQ Elliptic 3 --
Ovate 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome
Orange Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe,
Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion
Porter, P. Strawberry, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Taida Salu Red,
P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin
Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little
Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy
Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P.
Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis
Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Gan Lin
Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline,
Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty,
P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Sub-orbicular 7 Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. Amabilis, Dtps. Tying Shin
Zebra, P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Leodora,
P. Lucyna, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Sogo Soft.,
Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love
33. Petal: Short 3 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, P. MS

(*) length (cm) (<3.0) Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Leodora, P. Carlotta,
QN Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little Caroline
(c) Medium 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie,
(3.0-4.5) Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount
Lip Taisuco, P. Champion Porter, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First
Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope,
P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty,
Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian
Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big
White Pink Stripe, P. Roxanne, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl,
Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin
Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Dtps. Sogo Soft, Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty,
Long 7 P. Miki Wata Nabe, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Surf Song, P.
(>4.5) Ivory pearl
34. Petal: Narrow 3 P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Leodora, Dtps. MS
(*) width (cm) (<3.0) Tying Shin Zebra, P. Lucyna, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard
QN Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little Caroline
(c) Medium 5 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune,
(3.0-4.5) Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis,
Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleido-
scope, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, P. Surf
Song, P. Timothy Christopher dtps. happy UFO, P. Big White
Pink Stripe, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Broad 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie,
(>4.5) Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Luchia Pink,
Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her
Happy, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria
Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy
‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung,
Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
35. Petal: Incurved 1 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune Dtps. VG
(*) curvature of Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco,
(+) longitudinal P. Miki Wata Nabe, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Kaleidoscope,
PQ axis P. Little Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Big White Pink
Stripe, P. Ivory pearl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little
Caroline, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Sogo Soft
Straight 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, P. Champion Porter, P. Amab-
ilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps. Shih hua long first love, P. Sin Yuan
Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Luchia Pink, P. Surf
Song, P. Medium Pink, Goldie, P. Roxanne, Taida Salu. Red
Reflexed 5 P. Taida Salu, Taida salu red, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Timothy
Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Magic Kiss, P. Leodora, P.
Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’,
P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung,
36. Petal: undula- Absent 1 Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Tying VG
PQ tion of margin Shin Zebra, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng
Sun, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps.
Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Taida Saln.
Red
Present 9 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco,
P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P.
Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu,
Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps.
Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, Dtps.
Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO,
P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. P. Leodora,
P. P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie, P. P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P.
Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611,
P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Chin Ann
Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen
Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
37. Petal: number One 1 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. VG
QL of colors Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis,
(d) P. Luchia Pink, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, P. Surf Song, P.
Ivory pearl
Two 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie,
P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter, Dtps.Shih Hua
Long First Love, P. Strawberry, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying
Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Jin
Cheng Sun, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Timothy Christopher
P. P. Leodora, P. P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie, P. P. Roxanne, P.
Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611,
P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Chin Ann
Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen
Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Three or more 5 Dtps. Lian Her Happy, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu
Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Gan Lin
Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
38. Petal: color Uniform 1 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, VG
(*) pattern Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. Amabilis, P. Ivory pearl
QL Shaded 2 P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Roxanne, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder,
(d) Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’
Edged 3 P. Strawberry, P. Carlotta
Striped 4 --
Netted 5 P. Luchia Pink, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen
Magpie
Spotted 6 P. Champion Porter, P. Surf Song, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P.
Lucyna, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps.
Shu Long Pearl.
Mixed 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack (shaded and spotted),
(specify) Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie (evenly colored and shaded at the
base), Dtps. Big Red Robe (netted and edged), Dtps.Shih
Hua Long First Love (shaded and spotted at the base and
evenly colored), P. Taida Salu (netted and spotted), Dtps.
Lian Her Happy (shaded and spotted), Dtps. Tying Shin
Zebra (netted and shaded at the base), Dtps. Taida Salu
Red(shaded and spotted), P. kaleidoscope (striped and
netted), P. Jin Cheng Sun (shaded and spotted), P. Little
Gem Stripe (netted and spotted), P. Timothy Christopher
Dtps. Happy UFO (netted and spotted), P. Big White Pink
Stripe (shaded and netted), P. Medium Pink (netted
and edged), P. Leodora (shaded and spotted) P. Brother
Girl (netted, spotted and edged), P. Memoria Francis
Hunter (evenly colored and spotted) Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy
‘GL’(shaded and spotted), P. Shu Long Spotted Deer
(shaded and spotted), P. Ho’s Little Caroline (shaded
and netted), Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung (shaded and
spotted), Dtps. ChinAnn Diamond ‘Alisun’ (shaded and
spotted), Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond (shaded and spotted),
39. Petal: Green 1 -- VS
(*) predominant
QL colour as per White 2 P. Kaleidoscope, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Memoria Francis
(d) RHS colour Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
chart Pink 3 --
Yellow 4 Dtps. Taida Salu Red, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih
Hua Long First Love
Red 5 --
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
40. Lip: length Short 3 -- MG
QN of apical (<1)
(c) lobe (cm) Medium 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(1-2) Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P.
Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua
Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps.
Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin
Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem
Stripe, P. Surf Song, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy
UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora,
P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Lucyna, P. Memoria Francis Hunter,
Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps.
Sogo Soft, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong
Sun Beauty, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl, Taida Saln. Red
Long 7 Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata
(>2) Nabe, P. Luchia Pink, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Roxanne,
P. Ivory pearl, P. Brother Girl, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P.
Carlotta, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’,
P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps.
Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung
41. Lip: width Narrow 3 -- MG
QN of apical (<1)
(c) lobe (cm) Medium 5 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P.
(1-2) Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter, P. Strawberry, Dtps.
Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin
Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Little Gem
Stripe, P. Surf Song, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy
UFO, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie,
P. Roxanne, P. Ivory Pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P.
Memoria Francis Hunter P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess
M611, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Chin
Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps.
Shu Long Pearl
Broad 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie,
(>2) Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Amabilis,
P. Luchia Pink, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen
Magpie, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Big White Pink Stripe,
Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Chian
Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin
Diamond, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung
42. Lip: pres- Absent 1 P. Surf Song, P. Leodora, P. Goldie VG
(+) ence of Present 9 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
PQ whiskers Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
(c) Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian
Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P.
Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink
Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory
pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter,
Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Prin-
cess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted
Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl
‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
43. Lip: length Smaller 3 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange VG
PQ of whiskers Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
(c) relative to Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
length of P. Champion Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih
apical lobe Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra,
Happy, P. Timothy Christopher, Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big
White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. Magic
Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Lucyna, P. Brother Girl,
P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P.
Equal 5 P. Ivory Pearl
Larger 7 --
44. Lip: shape of Ovate 1 P. Ho’s Little Caroline VS
(*) apical lobe Elliptic 2 Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Surf
(+) Song, P. Goldie, P. Carlotta
PQ
Obovate 3 --
Semi-circular 4 --
Deltoid 5 P. Leodora
Obdeltoid 6 P. Champion Porter, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder
Rhombic 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps.
Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Amabilis, Dtps.
Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Taida Salu
Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P.
Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little
Gem Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher
Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Medium
Pink, P. Magic Kiss, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P.
Brother Girl, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin
Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps.
Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’,
Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian
Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl, P. Strawberry
Orbicular 8 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
45. Lip: bump Absent 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, VG
(*) and ridge on Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki
(+) apical lobe Wata Nabe, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Amabilis,
PQ P. Luchia Pink, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Big White Pink
Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps.
Ox Prince Thunder, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Chin
Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Gan
Lin Beauty Hsiung
Present 9 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P.
Champion Porter, P. Strawberry, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying
Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Jin
Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, P. Timothy Chris-
topher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. P. Leodora, P. P. Magic Kiss, P.
Goldie, P. P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother
Girl, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan
Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps.
Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu
Long Pearl
46. Lip: shape Semi-circular 1 P. Leodora VG
(+) of lateral
Oblong 3
PQ lobe
Oblanceolate 5 Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Surf Song
Obtriangle 7 Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P.
Champion Porter, P. Taida Salu, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Little
Gem Stripe, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P.
Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Lucyna, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard
Princess M611, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft
Sub-orbicular 9 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome
Orange Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe,
Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Amabilis,
P. Strawberry, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin
Magpie, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P.
Medium Pink, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Brother Girl,
P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder Dtps.
Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Gan Lin
Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl
‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl.
47. Lip: Slightly 3 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. VG
(+) curvature of incurved Miki Wata Nabe, P. Amabilis, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin
PQ lateral lobe Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Jin Cheng
Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie,
P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory
pearl, P. Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Chian Xen
Pearl ‘Cx#1’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo Soft,
Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung.
Strongly 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie,
incurved Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Champion
Porter, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P.
Luchia Pink, P. Little Gem Stripe P. Lucyna, P. Carlotta,
Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Chin
Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps.
Shulong Sun Beauty, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
48. Lip: size of Smaller 3 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. VS
PQ lateral lobe Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Champion Porter,
(c) relative to P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P.
apical lobe Taida Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P.
Kaleidoscope, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty,
Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song,
Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy
UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss,
P. G oldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P. Brother
Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder P.
Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long
Pearl.
Equal 5 Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Luchia Pink.
Larger 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, P. Medium Pink
49. Lip: number One 1 -- VG
QL of colours Two 3 --
(d)
Three or more 5 Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount
Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Champion Porter, P.
Amabilis, P. Strawberry, P. Taida Salu, Dtps. Taida Salu Red,
P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Surf Song, Dtps. Lian
Her Happy, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big
White Pink Stripe, P. Medium Pink, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P.
Lucyna, Brother Girl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, P. Carlotta,
Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P.
Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Gan
Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’, Dtps.
Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen
Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Young-
home Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih Hua
Long First Love, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, P. Kaleidoscope, P.
Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little
Gem Stripe, P. Leodora, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
50. Lip: color Uniform 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, P. VG
(*) pattern of Champion Porter, P. Strawberry, P. Big White Pink Stripe,
QL apical lobe P. Medium Pink, P. Brother Girl, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Gan Lin
(d) Fairy ‘GL’
Shaded 2 Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune,
Dtps. Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata
Nabe, P. Amabilis, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida
Salu, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra, Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P.
Kaleidoscope, P. Luchia Pink, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan
Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem
Stripe, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, P.
Roxanne, P.Ivory pearl, P. Memoria Francis Hunter, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, P. Shu Long
Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps.
Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian
Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long Pearl
Edged 3 P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO
Striped 4 --
Netted 5 --
Spotted 6 P. Surf Song, Goldie, P. Lucyna, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond
‘Alisun’, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond.
Mixed 7 --
(specify)
51. Lip: pre- Green 1 -- VG
(*) dominant White 2 P. Miki Wata Nabe, P. Miki Wata Nabe
QL colour of
(d) apical lobe Pink 3 --
as per
RHS colour Yellow 4 P. Memoria Francis Hunter
chart Red 5 Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune
Purple 6 Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Strawberry, Dtps.
Shih Hua Long First Love, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, Dtps.
Chian Xen Magpie, Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
52. Lip: colour Uniform 1 -- VG
(*) pattern of Shaded 2 Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pear, P. Memoria
QL lateral lobe Francis Hunter, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps.
(d) Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, Dtps. Sogo
Soft.
Edged 3 --
Striped 4 --
Netted 5 --
Spotted 6 --
Mixed 7 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(specify) Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
Jin Cheng Sun, P. Sin Yuan Golden Beauty, Dtps. Chian
Xen Magpie, P. Little Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, P. Timothy
Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe, P.
Medium Pink, P. Leodora, P. Magic Kiss, Goldie, P. Lucyna,
P. Brother Girl, Dtps. Ox Prince Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps.
Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Gan Lin
Lin Diamond, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu Long
Pearl (Shaded and spotted)
53. Lip: domin- Green 1 -- VS
(*) ant colour of White 2 P. Miki Wata Nabe
QL lateral lobe
as per Pink 3 --
RHS colour Yellow 4 P. Memoria Francis Hunter
chart
Red 5 --
Purple 6 Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Strawberry, Dtps.
Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, Dtps. Plum Rose
x Ox Black Jack
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
54. Lip: Prominent 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange VS
(+) callus Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
PQ Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory pearl, P. Lucyna, P.
Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps.
Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little
Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung,
Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps.
Shu Long Pearl
Flat 9 --
55. Lip: Absent 1 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange VS
PQ pubes- Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
cence Big Red Robe, Dtps. Mount Lip Taisuco, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
Kiss, P. Goldie, P. Roxanne, P. Ivory Pearl, P. Lucyna, P.
Thunder, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Leopard Princess M611, Dtps.
Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little
Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft, Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung,
Dtps. Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps.
Shu Long Pearl
Present 9 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No istics
ment
56. Column: Short 3 -- MS
QN length (cm) (<0.5)
(c) Medium 5 Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack, Dtps. Younghome Orange
(0.5-1.0) Lip, Dtps. Acker’s Sweetie, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.
Mount Lip Taisuco, Dtps. Big Red Robe, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, P. Taida Salu, P. Champion
Porter, P. Amabilis, P. Strawberry, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra,
Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Luchia Pink, P. Sin Yuan Golden
Beauty, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Little
Gem Stripe, P. Surf Song, Dtps. Lian Her Happy, P. Timothy
Christopher Dtps. Happy UFO, P. Big White Pink Stripe,
P. Medium Pink, P. Roxanne, P. Lucyna, Brother Girl,
Leopard Princess M611, Dtps. Gan Lin Fairy ‘GL’, P. Shu
Long Spotted Deer, P. Ho’s Little Caroline, Dtps. Sogo Soft,
Dtps. Gan Lin Beauty Hsiung, Dtps. Gan Lin Diamond, Dtps.
Shulong Sun Beauty, P. Chian Xen Pearl ‘Cx#1’, Dtps. Shu
Long Pearl
Long 7 P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Magic Kiss, P. Leodora, Goldie, P. Ivory
(>1.0-1.5) Pearl, P. Carlotta, Dtps. Chin Ann Diamond ‘Alisun’
Extra long 9 --
(>1.5)
57. Column: Green 1 -- VS
(*) colour as per
QL RHS colour White 2 Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Kaleidoscope, P. Miki Wata Nabe,
(e) chart Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love,
Chian Xen Magpie
Pink 3 --
Yellow 4 --
Red 5 --
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 --
58. Flower longev- Short 3 P. Strawberry, P. Memoria Francis Hunter. VS
QN ity on the (<15)
plant (days) Medium 5 P. Lucyna, Dtps. Younghome Orange Lip, P. Ivory Pearl,
(15-30) Dtps. Plum Rose x Ox Black Jack
Long 7 Dtps.Shih Hua Long First Love, Dtps. Tying Shin Zebra,
(>30) Dtps. Taida Salu Red, P. Timothy Christopher Dtps. Happy
UFO, P. Surf Song, P. Medium Pink, P. Leodora, Dtps. Ox
Prince Thunder, P. Jin Cheng Sun, P. Magic Kiss, P. Little
Gem Stripe, Dtps. Hsin Yang Fortune, P. Kaleidoscope, P.
Miki Wata Nabe, Dtps. Chian Xen Magpie
Unauthenticated
4.2.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics

Characteristics
of Characteristics should be examined as indicated below:
a) Observations on the leaf should made on the longest leaf of the flowering plant.
and basal region.
4.2.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics
1 3 5
Oblong Narrow obovate Suborbicular
Fig. 4.6: Leaf shape
Unauthenticated
1 3 5
Acute Notched Obtuse
Fig. 4.7: Leaf apex
1 3 5
Solitary Raceme Panicle
Fig. 4.8: Inflorescence type
1 3 5
Open Touching Overlapping
Fig. 4.9: Flower arrangement of petals
Unauthenticated
1 3 5 7 9
Linear Ovate Elliptic Obovate Round
Fig. 4.10: Shape of Dorsal sepal (20) and Lateral sepal (28)
1 3 5
Incurved Straight Reflexed
Fig. 4.11: Curvature of Dorsal sepal (21) and petal (35)
1 3 5 7
Oblong Elliptic Ovate Suborbicular
Fig. 4.12: Petal shape
Unauthenticated
Lateral lobe
Callus
Whiskers
Apical lobe
Fig. 4.13: Lip: presence of whiskers (42) and callus (54)
1 2 3 4
Ovate Elliptic Obovate Semi circular
5 6 7 8
Deltoid Obdeltoid Rhombic Orbicular
Fig. 4.14: Lip: shape of apical lobe
Unauthenticated
Bump and ridge
Fig. 4.15: Lip: bump and ridge on apical lobe
1 3 5
Semi circular Oblong Oblanceolate
7 9
Obtriangle Sub orbicular
Fig. 4.16: Lip: shape of lateral lobe
Unauthenticated
Cattleya Lindl. (PVJ, Nov, 2012) 83
3 7
Slightly incurved Strongly incurved
Fig. 4.17: Curvature of lateral lobe
4.3 Cattleya Lindl. (PVJ, Nov, 2012)
4.3.1 Subject
These test guidelines apply to all vegetatively propagated varieties of Cattleya Lindl.
and alliance of the family Orchidaceae.
shall decide when, where and in what quantity and quality of plant material
– For all varieties, 20 plants (10 for each Centre) that are two to three years old with
at least two shoots shall be required for DUS testing.
– The plant material supplied should be visibly healthy, not lacking in vigour nor
affected by any pests or diseases or mechanical damage.
unless the competent authority allow or request such treatment. If it has been
4.3.3 Conduct of Test
– The minimum duration of test should normally be two similar flowering seasons.
– Test shall normally be conducted at two places. If any essential characteristic of
the variety is not expressed for visual observations at these places, the variety
Unauthenticated
shall be considered for further examination at another appropriate test site or

under special test protocol on request of the applicant.
– The test should be carried out under greenhouse conditions, ensuring satisfact-
ory growth for the expression of the relevant characteristics of the variety and for
the conduct of the examination.
– The design of the the test should be such that the plants or parts of the plants
may be removed for measurement and counting without prejudice to the observa-
tions, which must be made up to the end of the flowering period. Each test should
be designed to include results from a total of at least 10 plants.
– Unless otherwise indicated, all observations determined by measuring or count-
ing should be made on 10 plants or parts taken from each of 10 plants.
– Normally, growth regulators shall not be used.
– The characteristics described in the Table of Characteristics (Tab.4.5) shall be

used for the testing of varieties for their DUS.
– For the assessment of Uniformity, a population standard of 1% and an acceptance
probability of at least 95% shall be applied. In the case of a sample size of 10
plants, the maximum number of off-types allowed would be 1.
– All observations on the shoot shall be made on the flowering shoot.
– All observations on the leaf shall be made on the longest leaf of a flowering shoot.
when 50% of the flowers on the inflorescence have opened and on the most
recently fully opened flower on the inflorescence before fading of colour.
shall be made in the spread out position.
– All observations on the colour of sepal, petal, lip and column shall be made on
the inner side.
– The selection of varieties of common knowledge to be grown in the trial with the can-
didate varieties and the way in which these varieties are divided into groups to facil-
itate the assessment of distinctiveness is aided by the use of grouping characteristics.
Unauthenticated
– Grouping characteristics are those in which the documented states of expression,

even where produced at different locations, can be used either individually or in
combination with other such characteristics: (a) to select varieties of common
knowledge that can be excluded from the growing trial used for examination of
distinctiveness; and (b) to organize the growing trial so that similar varieties are
grouped together.
– The following have been agreed as useful grouping characteristics:
– Plant: height (Characteristic 1)
– Leaf: number/pseudobulb (Characteristic 6)
– Flower size: width in front view (Characteristic 17)
– Petal: predominant colour (Characteristic 36)
– Lip: predominant colour (Characteristic 41)
– Lip: colour pattern (Characteristic 43)

states as given in the Table of Characteristics shall be used.
– Notes 1-9 (numbers) shall be used to describe the state of each character for the
– Legend
(*) Characteristics that shall be observed during every growing season for variet-
ies and hybrids and shall always be included in the description of the varieties and
hybrids, except when the state of expression of any of these characters is rendered
impossible by a preceding phenological characteristic or by the environment condi-
tions of the testing region. Under such exceptional situations, adequate explanation
shall be provided.
(+) See explanations on the Table of Characteristics
Characteristics denoted with symbols QL, QN and PQ in the first column of the Table
of Characteristics shall be indicated as:
QL: Qualitative characteristic
QN: Quantitative characteristic
PQ: Pseudo-qualitative characteristic
– (a)-(e) see 4.3.7.1 for explanation
– Type of assessment of characteristics indicated in column six of the Table of Char-
VS: Visual assessment by observations of individual plants or parts of plant
Unauthenticated
Tab. 4.5: Table of Characteristics of DUS Test Guidelines in Cattleya
Type of
Sl. Character-
State Note Example Varieties /hybrids Assess-
No. istic
ment
1. Plant height Small (<15 cm) 3 Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps MS
(*) (From base coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
QN to the tip of Medium 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
the flowering (15-30 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
shoot) Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
Large 7 --
(>30 cm)
2. Nature of Cylindric 1 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’ VG
(*) pseudobulb Clavate 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(+) (at flower- Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging
PQ ing) Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid
Queen’
Globular / 5 Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Ovoid
3. Pseudobulb Short 3 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far MS
QN length (at (<10 cm) Horizon x L. anceps coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad
flowering) Sheikhi’
Medium 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(10-20 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
Beauty Orchid Queen’
Long 7 --
(>20 cm)
4. Pseudobulb Narrow 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Guan- MS
QN breadth at (<1.0 cm) miau City’,
broadest Medium 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, C.
part (1.0-2.0 cm) ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’,
(at flower- Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc
ing) ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea,
Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Broad 7 --
(>2.0 cm)
5. Number of Few 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem VG
QN shoots / (<5) Ann Balmores Convess’,
plant Many 7 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Cather-
(5 or more) ine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’,
Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Horizon x L. anceps coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad
Sheikhi’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
6. Number of One (Unifoliate) 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem VG
(*) leaves/ Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging
QN pseudobulb Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid
(a) Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner
Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad
Sheikhi’
Two (Bifoliate) 9 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’
7. Leaf length Short 3 -- MS
QN (largest leaf) (<10 cm)
(a) Medium 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Cather-
(10-15 cm) ine’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Sheikhi’
Long 7 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(>15 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Chinese
Beauty Orchid Queen’,
8. Leaf width Narrow 3 -- MS
QN (largest leaf) (<2.5 cm)
(a) Medium 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Cather-
(2.5-5.0 cm) ine’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
Broad 7 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(>5.0 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Chinese
Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
9. Leaf shape Narrow oblong 1 Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps VG
(+) (largest leaf) coerulea
PQ Ligulate 3 --
(a) Elliptic 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging
Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid
Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Ahmad
Sheikhi’
Ovate 7 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’
10. Leaf colour Uniformly green 1 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Lc ‘Purple Cascade VG
PQ pattern on both sides Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
(a) Green upside/ 3 Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
purple beneath
Spotted 5 Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’,
Streaked 7 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
11. Inflores- One 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem VG
QN cence: Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
(b) number / Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
pseudobulb Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau
at a time City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps
coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Two or more 5 --
12. Inflores- Short 3 Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps MS
QN cence length (<15 cm) coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
(b) (base of Medium 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
peduncle to (15-30 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
the tip of the Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
flowers) Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
Long 7 --
(>30 cm)
13. Peduncle Short 3 -- MG
QN sheath (<3 cm)
(b) length Medium 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc
(3-5 cm) ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Long 7 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(>5 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging
Queen’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon’ x L.
anceps coerulea
14. Peduncle Short 3 Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon’ x L. anceps MS
QN length (<5 cm) coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
(b) (base of Medium 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
inflores- (5-10 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
cence to the Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
1st Flower) Beauty Orchid Queen’
Long 7 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’,
(>10 cm)
15. Flower Few 3 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc MG
QN number per (up to three) ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
(b) peduncle Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x
L. anceps coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Many 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc
(more than ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’
three)
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
16. Flower Short 3 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’ MS
QN length (<8 cm)
(c) (Tip of dorsal Medium 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem Ann
sepal to tip (8-16 cm) Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging Cather-
of lip) ine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc
‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L.
anceps coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Long 7 --
(>16 cm)
17. Flower width Narrow 3 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’ MS
(*) in front view (<8 cm)
QN (distance Medium 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(c) between tips (8-16 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging
of two lateral Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid
petals) Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner
Sheikhi’
Broad 7 --
(>16 cm)
18. Flower Short 3 -- VG
QN longevity on (<15 days)
(b) the plant Medium 5 Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc
(15-30 days) ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fra-
grant B’, Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’
Long 7 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Cather-
(>30 days) ine’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps
coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
19. Dorsal sepal Short 3 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’ MS
QN length (<5 cm)
(c) Medium 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(5-10 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging
Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner
Sheikhi’
Long 7 --
(>10 cm)
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
20. Dorsal sepal Narrow 3 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc MS
QN width (at (<2 cm) ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
(c) middle) Medium 5 Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
(2-3 cm)
Broad 7 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
(>3 cm) Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Hsinging
Queen’
21. Dorsal sepal Oblong 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc VG
(+) shape ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Ahmad
PQ Sheikhi’
Lanceolate 3 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
Elliptic 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, C.
‘Queen Sirikhit’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x
L. anceps coerulea
Ovate 7 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
22. Dorsal sepal Acute 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem VG
(+) apex Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
PQ Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc
‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x
L. anceps coerulea
Notched 3 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
Obtuse 5 Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
23. Dorsal sepal Incurved 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, C. ‘Queen VG
(+) curvature Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid
PQ Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’,
Straight 3 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
‘Hsinging Catherine’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Reflexed 5 Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
24. Lateral sepal Short 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, C. ‘Queen MS
QN length (<5 cm) Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner
(c) Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
Medium 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
(5-10 cm) ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Long 7 --
(>10 cm)
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
25. Lateral sepal Narrow 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, C. ‘Queen MS
QN width (<2 cm) Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner
(c) Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
Medium 5 Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
(2-3 cm)
Broad 7 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
(>3 cm) ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Orchid Queen’
26. Lateral sepal Oblong 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’ VG
(+) shape Lanceolate 3 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
PQ Elliptic 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x
Ovate 7 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
‘Hsinging Catherine’
27. Lateral sepal Acute 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem MG
(+) apex Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
PQ Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc
‘Guanmiau City’
Notched 3 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Lc ‘Ahmad
Sheikhi’
Obtuse 5 --
28. Lateral sepal Incurved 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem VG
(+) curvature Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
PQ Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc
‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
Straight 3 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Reflexed 5 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
29. Sepal dom- Green 1 -- VG
QL inant colour White 2 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
(d) Pink 3 --
Yellow 4 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Lc
‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Red 5 Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’
Purple 6 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Lc ‘Man-
riner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
30. Sepal colour Uniform 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem MG
QL pattern Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
(d) inside Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Sheikhi’
Mixed 2 --
Spotted 3 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
Blotched 4 --
Shaded / 5 Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’
Striped
Netted 6 --
31. Petal length Short 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, C. ‘Queen MS
QN (<5 cm) Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
(c)
Medium 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
(5-10 cm) ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Long 7 --
(>10 cm)
32. Petal width Narrow 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc MS
QN (at middle) (<2 cm) ‘Guanmiau City’
(c)
Medium 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
(2-5 cm) Horizon x L. anceps coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad
Sheikhi’
Broad 7 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
(>5 cm) ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Orchid Queen’
33. Petal shape Oblong 1 -- VG
(+) Lanceolate 3 --
PQ Elliptic 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Guan-
miau City’, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Ovate 7 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, C.
‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’,
Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc
‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
Round 9 --
34. Petal Incurved 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, C. ‘Queen VG
(+) curvature Sirikhit’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L.
PQ anceps coerulea
Straight 3 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Lc
‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Reflexed 5 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
35. Petal margin Entire 1 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’ VG
(+) Undulate 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Lc ‘Ahmad
PQ Sheikhi’
Undulate 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
crisped ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Orchid Queen’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’
36. Petal Green 1 -- VG
(*) predominant
White 2 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
QL colour
Yellow 3 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
(d)
‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Ahmad
Sheikhi’
Pink 4 --
Red 5 --
Purple 6 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Lc ‘Man-
riner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
37. Petal colour Uniform 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem VG
QL pattern Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
(d) Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Sheikhi’
Mixed 3 --
Striped/ 7 Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’
shaded
Netted 9 --
38. Lip length Short 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’ MG
QN (<4 cm)
(c) Medium 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
(4-7 cm) Orchid Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc
‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea,
Long 7 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
(>7 cm) ‘Hsinging Catherine’
39. Lip width Narrow 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, C. ‘Queen MG
QN (<4 cm) Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
(c) Medium 5 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
(4-7 cm) Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Sheikhi’
Broad 7 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’
(>7 cm)
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
40. Lip shape Oblong 1 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Lc ‘Ahmad VG
(+) Sheikhi’
PQ Lanceolate 3 --
Elliptic 5 --
Ovate 7 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Chinese
Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
41. Lip Green 1 -- VS
(*) predominant White 2 --
QL colour Yellow 3 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, C.
(d) ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Pink 4 --
Red 5 Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’,
Purple 6 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc
‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Guanmiau
City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps
coerulea
Blue 7 --
Violet 8 --
42. Lip colour One 1 -- VS
QL (nos.) Two 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, (white &
(d) purple), C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’(yellow & green),
Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’(yellow & purple),
Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, (red
& purple), Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’ (yellow &
purple)
More than two 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, (green,
yellow & orange), Blc ‘Guanmiau City’,
(yellow, purple & violet), Lc ‘Manriner
Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea (purple,
yellow & green)
43. Lip colour Uniform 1 -- VG
(*) pattern Mixed 3 --
QL Spotted 5 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
(d) Striped/ 7 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem
Shaded Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese
Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc ‘Manriner Far
Netted 9 --
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
44. Lip lateral Oblong 1 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc VG
(+) lobe shape ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’
PQ Lanceolate 3 --
Elliptic 5 --
Ovate 7 --
Round 9 Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
45. Lip lateral Entire 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Lc ‘Ahmad VG
(+) lobe margin Sheikhi’
PQ
Undulate 3 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc
‘Hsinging Catherine’
Undu- 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’
late-crisped
46. Lip mid lobe Oblong 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Lc ‘Ahmad VG
(+) shape Sheikhi’, Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’,
PQ Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’
Lanceolate 3 --
Elliptic 5 --
Ovate 7 --
Round 9 Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Blc ‘Hsinging
Catherine’
47. Lip mid lobe Entire 1 -- VG
(+) margin Undulate 3 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’
PQ Undu- 5 Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’, Blc ‘Mem Ann
late-crisped Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Orchid Queen’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’, Blc
‘Hsinging Catherine’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’
48. Lip surface Glabrous 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem VG
PQ inside Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc ‘Guanmiau
City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps
coerulea
Bump and 3 --
ridged
Pubescent/ 5 C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Cather-
tubercled ine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc
‘Ahmad Sheikhi’
Unauthenticated
continued
Type of
Sl. Character-
No. istic
ment
49. Column Short 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc MS
QN length (<2 cm) ‘Guanmiau City’
Long 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, C.
(2 cm or more) ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’,
Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Lc
‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps coerulea,
50. Column One 1 Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x L. anceps VG
QL colour (nos.) coerulea (white)
(e) Two or more 9 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, (purple &
green), Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’
(yellow & green) C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’(yellow
& green), Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’ (yellow,
green & white), Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
Orchid Queen’, (red, purple & yellow), Blc
‘Guanmiau City’(purple, yellow & white), Lc
‘Ahmad Sheikhi’ (yellow & green)
51. Column Uniform 1 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, C. VG
QL colour ‘Queen Sirikhit’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x
(e) pattern L. anceps coerulea, Lc ‘Ahmad Sheikhi’

Blotched 5 --
Streaked / 7 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Hsinging
striped /shaded Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’
52. Length Short 1 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, C. ‘Queen MS
QN of flower (<5 cm) Sirikhit’, Blc ‘Guanmiau City’
(c) pedicel (with Long 5 Blc ‘Mem Ann Balmores Convess’, Blc
ovary) (5 cm or more) ‘Hsinging Catherine’, Blc ‘Chinese Beauty
53. Flowering Winter 1 Blc ‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’, Blc VG
PQ season ‘Guanmiau City’, Lc ‘Manriner Far Horizon x
Summer 3 --
Rainy 5 Lc ‘Purple Cascade Fragrant B’, Blc ‘Mem

Ann Balmores Convess’, C. ‘Queen Sirikhit’,
Blc ‘Hsinging Catherine’
Year round 7 --
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4.3.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics

Characteristics
of Characteristics should be examined as indicated below:
a) Observations on the leaf should be made on the longest leaf of flowering plant.
and basal region.
4.3.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics
1 3 5
Cylindric Clavate Globular/Ovoid
Fig. 4.18: Nature of pseudobulb
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1 3 5 7
Narrow oblong Ligulate Elliptic Ovate
Fig. 4.19: Leaf shape
1 3 5 7
Oblong Lanceolate Elliptic Ovate
Fig. 4.20: Dorsal sepal shape (21) and Lateral sepal shape (26)
1 3 5
Acute Notched Obtuse
Fig. 4.21: Dorsal sepal apex (22) and Lateral sepal apex (27)
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1 3 5
Incurved Straight Reflexed
Fig. 4.22: Dorsal sepal curvature (23), Lateral sepal curvature (28) and Petal curvature (34)
1 3 5 7 9
Oblong Lanceolate Elliptic Ovate Round
Fig. 4.23: Petal shape (33), Lip lateral lobe shape (44) and Lip mid lobe shape (46)
1 3 5
Entire Undulate Undulate crisped
Fig. 4.24: Petal margin (35), Lip lateral lobe margin (45) and Lip mid lobe margin (47)
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4.4 Molecular Characterization of Valuable Species
Molecular markers are of great importance in identifying new desirable genes for crop
improvement. Marker assisted selection reduces the time of breeding programme. The
utilization of markers also aid in identifying important quantitative trait loci (QTL).
4.4.1 Isozyme Analysis
Proteins are the primary products of structural genes and are very useful for direct
genetic study. Changes in coding base sequences also result in corresponding changes
in the primary structure of proteins. Even a single amino acid substitution could have
significant effects on the migration of proteins under an electric field as in electro-
phoresis. Isozymes are different forms of an enzyme showing the same catalytic activ-
ity but differ in charge and mobility.
4.4.2 DNA Finger Printing
DNA Finger Printing is a technique used to distinguish between individuals of the

same species using only samples of their DNA. DNA profiling exploits highly variable
repeat sequences called Variable Number Tandem Repeats. These loci are variable
enough that two unrelated humans are unlikely to have the same alleles.
Basically there are two types of DNA Finger Printing (Bhattacharjee and De, 2010):
4.4.2.1 Classical Hybridization Based Finger Printing

This technique is practiced by cutting of genomic DNA with a restriction enzyme. In
this method, DNA is digested with the restriction enzymes and DNA fragments are
separated according to their size by electrophoresis on a gel. The gel is southern
blotted in to a membrane and specific fragments are made visible by hybridization
with labelled probes.
RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) analysis is found to be useful
for estimating genetic diversity, and to assist in the conservation of endangered
species and plant genetic resources. It is also used for plant genome mapping.
4.4.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Based Finger Printing

It amplifies the amounts of a specific region of DNA using oligo nucleotide primers
and a thermostable DNA polymerase. The amplified products are separated by elec-
trophoresis on agarose gels and detected with ethidium bromide. This method is
useful for estimating genetic diversity, identification of species or cultivars, genome
mapping, and population genetics etc.
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Molecular Characterization of Valuable Species 101
4.4.2.2.1 RAPD (Randomly Amplified Polymorhic DNA)

This is the efficient method for genome mapping and characterization of genetic
resources. It is based on repeated amplification of DNA sequences using arbitrary
primers to provide DNA fingerprints.
4.4.2.2.2 SPAR (Single SSR Primer Amplification Reaction)

In this case, exponential amplification occurs from the single primer reaction with a
particular SSR and polymorphism is SSR based. So, multiple loci are detected from a
genome using single PCR Reaction.
4.4.2.2.3 DAF (DNA Amplification Fingerprinting)

This technique exploits single arbitrary primers for amplification of DNA based on
PCR. This method is effective for genetic typing and mapping.
4.4.2.2.4 AP-PCR (Arbitrary Primed Polymerase Chain Reaction)

This is one type of RAPD in which discrete amplification patterns are generated
through the employment of single primers of 10-50 bases in length.
4.4.2.2.5 RAMPO (Randomly Amplified Microsatellite Polymorphisms)

The method consists of amplification of genomic DNA using arbitrary (RAPD) primers
followed by separation with electrophoresis and hybridization of dried gel with
micro-satellite oligo-nucleotide probes. It is used in genetic finger printing of closely
related species.
4.4.2.2.6 AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism)

This marker is based on polymerase chain reaction and used for rapid screening of
genetic diversity. AFLP techniques generate hundreds of highly replicable markers
from DNA of any organism and so, allows high resolution genotyping of finger print-
ing quality. It has broad application in systemics, population genetics and mapping
of quantitative trait loci.
4.4.2.2.7 ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeat Markers)

In this case, micro-satellite based primers are used to amplify inter-SSR DNA
sequences. Here, a number of microsatellite anchored at the 3/ end are used for ampli-
fying genomic DNA, which increases their specificity. An unlimited number of primers
are synthesized for various combinations of di-, tri-, tetra- and penta-nucleotides with
an anchor made up of a few bases and has broad range applications in plant species.
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4.4.2.2.8 Mitochondrial Analysis

mtDNA is useful in determining the unclear identities. It is one of the important
molecular techniques used in studying the extent and distribution of variation in gene
pools maintained in various ornamental crops. The marker developed from different
molecular techniques can be combined to obtain DNA finger prints in important orna-
mental corps. DNA finger printing is useful in protecting our indigenous wealth of
ornamental plants or varieties developed in our country. It protects intellectual prop-
erty protection rights of the breeders.
4.4.2.3 Uses of DNA Finger Printing

– To identify misabled plants in the trade.
– Genetic mapping of ornamental plants.
– To assist in cultivar identification, breeding programme and evolutionary
research in commercial ornamentals.
– RAPD (Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA) markers are utilized to determine
the genetic relationship of different cultivars of ornamental crops.
– To analyse rank correlation of results of contributing characters as reported in
carnation.
– To assist in intra- and inter-specific breeding of new cultivars of ornamental
plants through RAPD markers.
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5 Breeding Approaches for Improved Genotypes
Orchids are highly priced in the international market due to their designed spectac-
ular flowers, brilliant colours, delightful appearance, myriad sizes, shapes, forms,
and long lasting qualities. The majesty of nature is represented in the most highly
evolved family among monocotyledons: orchidaceae. The orchids with their 25,000 to
30,000 species in some 700 to 800 genera constitute the largest family among flower-
ing plants, and exhibit almost innumerable hybrids and inexhaustible varieties.
5.1 Cytogenetics
From the beginning of orchid cytology, conceptions of the chromosome numbers in the
family of orchidaceae have changed remarkably. Investigations conducted by Guignard
(1982) and Strasburger (1888) observed that an orchid plant has a constant number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells. They suggested 16 as a common number of chro-
mosomes for orchids found in reproductive cells of Gymnadenia conopsea, Himanto-
glossum hircinum, Listera ovata, Orchis maculata and Paphiopedilum barbatum. Singh
and Prakash (1995) reported that the basic numbers and somatic chromosome number
show wide variation in orchidaceae; the lowest chromosome number is 2n=10 (Oncidium
pusillum) and the highest is 2n=200 (Aeringes spp.). According to Duncan (1959), in dif-
ferent species and hybrids of orchids chromosome number in meristem (2n) varies:
Cypripedium (20-22), Phragmipedium (20-32), Paphiopedilum (26-70), Ophrys (36), Orchis
(20-80), Daclyorchis (20-120), Platanthera (16-126), Gymnadenia (16-80), Habenaria (28-
42), Listera (32-42), Epipactis (24-40), Cephalanthera (32-36), Goodyera (28-42), Liparis
(30-42), Epidendrum (40-160), Cattleya (40-102), Laelia (40-60), Laeliocattleya (40-100),
Brassocattleya (40-80), Dendrobium (38-80), Cymbidium (32-80), Oncidium (28-56),
Aerides (38-40), Vanda (28-95), and Phalaenopsis (38-114).
Triploids are apparently most desirable in commercial Paphiopedilum (Duncan,
1947), Cattleya (Kamemoto, 1950) and Vanda (Storey, 1952). In Cymbidium, triploid
and tetraploid hybrids allow for improved flower quality (Mehlquist, 1952; Meninger,
1954; Wells, 1956). A pentaploid (Wimber, 1954) and several polysomic individuals
(Wimber and Hernlud, 1955) have also been reported in Cymbidium. In Vanda, diploid
and tetraploid species and their hybrids, as well as polyploidy hybrids which have
an origin independent of these species, form a hybridization array which extends
through pentaploidy (Duncan, 1959).
5.2 Pollination and Fertilization
The morphological structure of orchid flower prevents easy fertilization. Moreover, the
lumps of pollen they produce cannot be carried by wind. In nature, insects are usually
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the pollinators of flowers, but birds are involved in some species. Insects such as bees,
moths, butterflies, beetles, ants, flies etc. enter into the lip, search out the nectar,
release the cap and pollen masses and lodge on the head. While visiting another
flower, the pollinia are pressed against the stigmatic surface. The grains germinate:
the pollen tube penetrates the ovary and fertilize the ovules. Male bees are respons-
ible for pollination of many orchids, e.g., Catasetum, Cycnoches, Gongora, Orchis.
Butterflies and moths also help in the pollination process. Epidendrum secundatum
is pollinated by butterflies attracted by the nectar. Moths usually pollinate white or
light coloured flowers which emit strong odours at night (Bose and Bhattacharjee,
1980). Epipactis consmilis is reported to mimic the shape and colour of aphids, which
attracts aphidophagous hoverflies for pollination. Flowers of Oncidium and Ophrys
are attracted and pollinated by territory defending male Centries bees. Flowers of
Cypripedium and Paphiopedilum have pouches, and if by chance insects enter into
the structure, they must disturb the pollens and fertilization occurs before coming
out of the flower. Self pollination occurs in Cypripedium schlmii, Neottia spp., Phaius
grandiflorus etc. because of their inherent structural arrangements which facilitates
pollination and fertilization (Bose, et al, 1999).
5.3 Natural Hybridization
The presence of natural hybrids evolved from crosses between the species in the wild
has been recognized since the early days of orchid collection and cultivation. Phalaenop-
sis intermedia, collected from Philippines, is one of the oldest natural hybrids between
P. aphrodite and P. rosea described correctly by Lindley in 1853. Natural hybridization
within the genus Platanthera in North America occurred between the closely related
species P. dilatata, P. hyperborea, P. limosa, P. sparsiflora and P. stricta. Two Masdevallia
species, M. splendida and M. parlaloreana are recognized as natural hybrids developed
from crosses between M. veitchiana and M. barlaeana which existed in the Andes of
Peru. There are also records of inter-generic hybrids evolved under natural conditions
and Laleliocattleya elegans is one of such examples (Bose et al, 1999).
A natural hybrid population of Oncidium arising out of a cross between Onc. staevi
and Onc. jonesianum has also been reported. Veitch and Sons (1887-1894) described a
complex of natural hybrids among Mexican and Columbian Odontoglossums. At least
four different groups of hybrids viz. the crispo-odoratum group, crispo-lindleyanum
group, crispo-luteopurpureanum group and triumphante-prescatoria group are recog-
nized (Abraham and Vatsala, 1981). Natural interspecific hybrids have been reported
in Cattleya, Laelia, Miltonia etc. Cattleya guatemalensis, collected by Skinner from
Guatemala in 1861, was later found to be a natural hybrid between two species from
different genera. It was developed from a cross between Epidendrum auranticum and
Cattleya skinneri. At present, this natural hybrid is known under the generic name
Epicattleya. In Brazil, Laelio-cattleya elegans came into existence from a natural cross
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Artificial Hybridization 105
between Laelia purpurata and Cattleya guttata, while, Laeliocattleya scilleriana is also
a natural cross between Laelia purpurata and Laelia intermedia. Another interspecific
natural hybrid Cattleya intricata developed from a cross between C. intermedia and
C. leopoldii. One of the most interesting inter-generic natural hybrids spotted in the
wild evolved from a cross between Cattleya warneri and Brassovola tuberculata. Two
natural hybrids are also reported in the genus Ophrys from central Italy. The earliest
known orchid hybrid appears to be Gymnadenia conopsea x Nigritella nigra found in
Alps near Grenoble in 1987 and was described by Villars under the name Orchis sua-
veolens.
5.4 Artificial Hybridization
Orchid growers all over the world have developed crosses between different species
and hybrids with varying degrees of success. Mr. John Dominy was the first successful
orchid hybridist, who made a cross between Calanthe masuca and Calanthe furcata
which flowered in the year 1856 for the first time. The hybrid was named as Calanthe
x Domini in honour of its breeder, the first artificially raised hybrid to flower. William
Herbert, Dean of Manchester, attempted orchid breeding and was the first person to
take a crossed capsule to maturity from a cross between Orchis and Ophrys. He likely
raised few seedlings but they perished after few days (Lenz and Wimber, 1959). John
Dominy, in twenty years after his first success, actively engaged in orchid hybridiza-
tion and was reported to develop at least 25 hybrids. It was only after the discovery of
Professor Knudson that orchid seeds could be germinated in vitro, that production of
orchid hybrids gained its momentum.
The orchid hybrids are offspring derived from the cross between two genetically
non-identical individuals. Intraspecific, intragenic and intergeneric hybrids have been
obtained in this group of plants. These hybrids have been recorded and registered
by Rolfe and Hurst (1909) and by Messers. Sanders (1946 and addenda). Inter-gen-
eric crosses are very common in orchids and a large number of crosses involving two
genera (bi-generic), three genera (trigeneric), four genera (tetra-generic), five genera
(penta generic) hybrids are registered and listed (De and Bhattacharjee, 2011).
5.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids
Aerdachnis = Aerides x Arachnis

Aeridocentrum = Aerides x Ascocentrum
Aredopsis = Aerides x Phalaenopsis
Ansidium = Anselia x Cymbidium
Aredovanda = Aerides x Vanda
Aranda = Arachnis x Vanda
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Aranthera = Arachnis x Renanthera

Ascocenda = Ascocentrum x Vanda
Brassolaelia = Brassovola x Laelia
Doritaenopsis = Doritis x Phalaenopsis
Epicattleya = Epidendrum x Cattleya
Epilaelia = Epidendrum x Laelia
Laeliocattleya = Laelia x Cattleya
Miltonidium = Miltonia x Oncidium
Odontocidium = Odontoglossum x Oncidium
Odontonia = Odontoglossum x Miltonia
Renades = Renanthera x Aerides
Renanopsis = Renanthera x Vandopsis
Renancentrum = Renanthera x Ascocentrum
Renantanda = Renanthera x Vanda
Renanthopsis = Renanthera x Phalaenopsis
Rhynchovanda = Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Sophrocattleya = Sophronitis x Cattleya
Sophrolaelia = Sophronitis x Laelia
Vandoritis = Vanda x Doritis
5.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids
Brassolaeliocattleya = Brassavola x Laelia x Cattleya

Colmanara = Miltonia x Odontoglossum x Oncidium
Dekensara = Brassovola x Cattleya x Schomburgkia
Dialaeliocattleya = Diacrinum x Laelia x Cattleya
Epilaeliocattleya = Epidendrum x Laelia x Cattleya
Hartara = Broughtonia x Laelia x Sophronitis
Laeliocattkeria = Laelia x Cattleya x Barkeria
Laycockara= Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Vandopsis
Lowara = Brassavola x Laelia x Sophronitis
Lyonara = Cattleya x Laelia x Schomburgkia
Mizulara = Cattleya x Diacrinum x Schomburgkia
Moirara = Phalaenopsis x Renanthera x Vanda
Mokara = Vanda x Arachnis x Ascocentrum
Nakamotora = Ascocentrum x Neofinetina x Vanda
Osmentara = Broughtonia x Cattleya x Laeliopsis
Rhyndoropsis = Rhyncostylis x Doritis x Phalaenopsis
Sappanara = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Renanthera
Sophrolaeliocattleya = Sophronitis x Laelia x Cattleya
Trevorara = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Vanda
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Mutagenesis 107
Vascostylis = Vanda x Ascocentrum x Rhyncostylis

Wilsonara = Cochlioda x Odontoglossum x Oncidium
Yapara = Phalaenopsis x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
5.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids
Iwanagara = Brassavola x Cattleya x Diacrinum x Laelia

Kirchara = Cattleya x Epidendrum x Laelia x Sophronitis
Potinara = Brassavola x Cattleya x Laelia x Sophronitis
Recchara = Brassavola x Cattleya x Laelia x Schomburgkia
Withnearara= Aspasia x Miltonia x Odontoglossum x Oncidium
Yamadara = Brassavola x Cattleya x Epidendrum x Laelia
5.4.4 Pentageneric Hybrids
Goodlera = Brassia x Cochlioda x Miltonia x Odontoglossum x Oncidium

Hasegawara = Cattleya x Brassavola x Broughtonia x Laelia x Sophronitis
5.4.5 Hexageneric Hybrids
Brilliabdera = Aspasia x Brassia x Cochlioda x Odontoglossum x Oncidium x Miltonia
It is not possible to make crosses between any two genera, though free breeding is
common in orchids. The majority of the success in orchid breeding was brought out
by the art of patient breeding, intuition and perseverance of the orchid breeders and
on several occasions merely by luck (Arditti, 1992). It requires several years to raise
progeny from seeds to flowering stage. Unlike other crops, orchid seeds can not be
germinated without special facilities. It takes a long time for the seeds to mature.
Moreover, the number of seeds produced in a capsule is so high that to get a represent-
ative sample of the progeny that will be required to draw any valid genetic inferences
will be very large and may be impossible on most occasions. Hence, information on
combining ability and inheritance of characteristics in orchids is scanty.
5.5 Mutagenesis
Hybridization technology has proven very reliable and easy to use and has produced
a wide range of successful cultivars with attractive combinations of spray length, bud
number, flower colour and form, vase life, fragrance, seasonality and compactness.
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By introducing mutagenesis, however, wide variations of flower colours, form, and

size can still be obtained in addition to overcoming incompatibility and sterility. In
addition, complementary use of molecular techniques will allow breeders to target
more specific characteristic changes and cut short breeding time. PCR-based tech-
niques used to analyse the DNA of mutagenic clones found polymorphic fragments
that can be developed as molecular markers (Basiran et al, 2002).
5.6 Breeding Objectives
The breeder’s goal is to produce commercially important hybrids that have market
demand and are liked by the consumers. The concept behind development of hybrids
in orchids may vary according to the genus and species. The generalized objectives as
stated by Bhattacharjee and Das (2008) are given below:
– To breed for better colour, size, and substance of the flower.
– To introduce perfect blending of colours in sepals, petals and lip.
– To create round and full form of sepals and petals with minimum fenestration
and twists.
– To increase the length of inflorescence.
– To increase the number of flowers / inflorescence.
– To achieve compactness in flower facing on the spike.
– To develop hybrids showing correct mode of display.
– To extend blooming period.
– To produce miniature forms.
– To produce fragrant varieties.
– To produce flowers with longer vase life.
– To develop types suitable as pot plants.
– To develop hybrids insensitive to strict climatic regime.
– To develop hybrids resistance to biotic stress like diseases particularly to viruses.
5.7 Selection of Parents
Healthy parent plants are to be selected so that they can produce healthy seed pods with
innumerable seeds. Selection of parents depend upon the aim of breeding and genetic
affinity of the parental lines. Information on whether the parent performs well as pollen
parent or seed parent, as well as the vigour and floriferousness of the parent are required
as pre-breeding criteria. Knowledge of compatibility, chromosome number and beha-
viour of the parents are essential. Known ability of the parents to influence the character
in its progeny will also be helpful. Very young plant or seedlings blooming first time
should not be selected as the mother plant to bear the seed pod. A very healthy and
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Compatibility Analysis 109
vigorous plant can bear two to three seed pods without affecting the normal health of
plant. A cross becomes successful if two different types of orchids are genetically related.
5.8 Compatibility Analysis
A thorough understanding of the compatibility relationships of the genera as well

as species is essential for successful hybrid development. According to Lenz and
Wimbler, 1959, many of the cases of the apparent self-incompatibility and cross steril-
ity commonly encountered among orchid hybrids could be due to either of two causes
hybrid sterility or polyploidy. Duncan and Curtis (1943) observed that the self incom-
patible orchids always have homomorphic, gametophytic and polyallelic incompatib-
ility with stigmatic inhibition of pollen germination. The failure of fruit development
in many reciprocal crosses hints at the operation of an unidirectional incompatibility
in orchids (Devi and Deka, 1992).
5.9 Breeding of Hybrids
Many Indian species have obtained worldwide recognition in breeding programmes

due to their inherent attractiveness coupled with their ability to transmit desirable
characters to hybrids. Some of the leading species are Aerides multiflorum, Cymbidium
devonianum, C. lowianum, C. tracyanum, C. elegans, Dendrobium aggregatum, Den.
chrysotoxum, Den. formosum, Den. nobile, Paphiopedilum venustum, Vanda coerulea
(Bose and Bhattacharjee, 1980).
5.9.1 Cattleya
The cattleya species like aurantiaca, bicolor, bowringiana, dowiana, forbesii, granu-
losa, guttata, intermedia, labiata, loddigesii, luteola, mossaie, triannaei, warneri etc. are
extensively used for hybridization work. Moreover, the Cattleya has also been crossed
with several other genera such as Berkeria, Brassavola, Broughtonia, Diacrinum,
Domingoa, Epidendrum, Laelia, Laeliopsis, Schomburgkia, Sophronitis and produce
multi-generic hybrids. The cattleya cultivars like ‘Bob Betts’, ‘Bow Bells’, ‘Claesiana’,
‘Empress Bells’, ‘Enid’, ‘Estette’, ‘General Patton’, ‘Henrietta Japhet’, ‘Karae Lyn Sug-
iyama’, ‘Margaret Stewart’, ‘Nellie Roberts’, ‘Nigritian’, ‘Pearl Harbour’, ‘ Portica’,
‘Primma Donna’. ‘Vesper Bells’ are considered famous and are proven mother plants
for breeding work. Cattleya dowiana and its variety ‘aurea’ have been of great import-
ance in the development of the beautiful yellow flowered hybrids. In crosses with the
coloured or alba forms of the Cattleya species, the yellow colour of C. dowiana acts as
a recessive trait and does not appear in the first generation, the flower being coloured
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with anthocyanin pigments. In certain F2 populations involving C. dowiana, the plants

segregate to give yellow, cream and white coloured flowers (Fenton, 1951). Mehlquist
(1958) studied the inheritance of white flowers with coloured lip. He suggested a gene
P to be responsible for this type of colouration due to interact with C and R genes.
The Cattleya alliance Laelia and Sophronitis are known for their bright colour con-
tribution. The redness of many of the orchid hybrids were introduced from Sophronitis
grandiflora. The flowers of this Sophronitis species are small and many of the result-
ing Sophrocattleya, Sophrolaelia and Sophrolaeliocattleya have comparatively small
flowers. Northen (1949) observed that the gene for red is dominant, and when present
in a homozygous condition it gives a beautiful clear red colour.
Intergeneric hybrids involving Brassavola give a very attractive fimbriated lip. The
first Brassocattleya was bred as early as 1889 by Maron, in which Brassavola digbyana
was combined with Cattleya, while the first Laeliocattleya was bred by Sanders in
1903 from a cross between Cattleya hardyana and Laelia pumilapratens. The first tri-
generic hybrid Sophrolaeliocattleya was bred by Holfred in 1907 from a cross between
Laeliocattleya Aureole and Sophronitis coccinea. A hybrid genera Potinara (which is
a tetrageneric hybrid combining Cattleya, Laelia, Brassavola and Sophronitis) was
registered for the first time in 1922 (Bhattacharjee and Das, 2008). The introduction
of blue colour in Cattleya breeding was discussed by Granier, 2002. One of the prom-
inent hybrids used extensively for blue Cattleya breeding is Laeliocattleya ‘Canhami-
ana’, a cross between C. mossiae and Laelia purpurea. Among the genus Brassavola,
B. cucullata, B. cordata, B. nodosa and B. perrinii are extensively used in hybridiza-
tion (Mathews, 1996). The large flowered Cattleya hybrids are the results of breed-
ing involving fifteen Cattleya species, two Laelia and Brassavola digbyana (Herman,
1997). In Brassocattleya the varieties ‘Deesse’ and ‘Hortland’ are reported to produce
many hybrids in Cattleya alliance. The trigeneric hybrid Brassolaeliocattleya are also
well known for their varieties like ‘Edwin Chong’, ‘Golden Myth’, ‘Herons Ghyll’, ‘Jane
Helton’, ‘Malvern’, ‘Marjorie Frey’, ‘Mellow Glow’, Molflora’, ‘Norman’s Bay’, ‘Nugget’,
etc which have produced many interesting hybrids. In Laeliocattleya are the varieties
‘Charlesworthii’, ‘Easier Bonnet’, ‘Edgard Van Belle’, ‘Elissa’, ‘Grandee’, ‘Harold J
Peterson’, ‘Ishtar’, ‘Morro Rock’, ‘Nugget’, ‘Pacific’ ‘Paradasio’, ‘Princess Margaret’,
‘S.J. Bracy’, ‘South Esk’, ‘Supervia’, ‘Twinkle Star’, which are famous proven parent
plants for hybridization work.
5.9.2 Cymbidium
Cymbidiums are highly valued as cut flowers as well as pot plants in the interna-
tional florist trade. Innumerable numbers of hybrids have been evolved. The species
like Cymbidium devonianum, C. ensifolium, C. erythrostylum, C. grandiflorum, C.
hoosai, C. insigne, C. madidum, C. pumilum and C. tracyanum are successfully util-
ized for the development of many hybrids. Some of the hybrids like ‘Balkis’, ‘Cleo
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Breeding of Hybrids 111
Sheraton’, ‘Desiree A’logann’, ‘Early Bird’, ‘Joan of Arc’, ‘Kurun’, ‘Lucy’, ‘Lustrous’,
‘Mayfair’, ‘Miretta’, ‘Nam Khan’, ‘October’,’Oiso’, ‘Ortin’, ‘Redwood’, ‘Remus’, ‘Rio
Rita’, ‘Rosanna’, ‘Shiraj’, ‘Stanley Fouraker’, ‘Swallow’ and ‘Vieux Rose’ are outstand-
ing and largely utilized as parent plants for production of many spectacular hybrids.
The species like C. pumilum, C. devonianum and C. ensifolium are small flowered
types and cross easily with the large flowered Himalayan species. Most of the hybrids
in Cymbidium evolved through the utilization eight of the large flowered species viz.
Cymbidium iridioides (syn. C. giganteum), C. eburneum, C. hookerianum (syn. C. gran-
diflorum), C. sanderae, C. lowianum, C. tracyanum, C. insigne and C. erythrostylum).
In the case of Cymbidium ‘Alexanderi’, a cross between C. ‘Eburneo-Lowianum’
and C. insigne, the progenies of the cross were diploid, but the clone of the cross ‘West-
tonbrit’ proved to be tetraploid. In fact this hybrid changed the world of cut flower
cymbidiums. Cymbidium ‘Alexanderi’ was producing everything that was required
where quality was concerned (Keith, 2000). This hybrid became popular because of
its large white flowers and as a parent for pestal coloured popular hybrids.
The Japanese and Chinese species of Cymbidium are utilized for the breeding
of miniature types. Miniature hybrids are good as pot plants and slightly tolerant to
warmer conditions. The first miniature hybrid in Cymbidium evolved in England in
the year 1944, and was a cross between C. ‘Lousie Sander’ x C. pumilum. The variety
‘Lousie Sander’ is a cross between ‘Alexanderi’ x ‘Ceres’. C. munronianum has been
used as parent in several breeding programmes for contributing scent characteristics
to the offspring.
5.9.3 Dendrobium
Dendrobiums are very popular among the orchids throughout the world for higher
productivity and floriferousness. These are well known as cut flowers and potted
plants.
The Dendrobium species like aemulum, affine, aggregatum, aries, canaliculatum,
chrysotoxum, compactum, d’albertisii, dalhousieanum, delicatum, dicuphum, forbe-
sii, formosum, goldiei, gracilicaule, gracillimum, grantii, johnsoniae, kingianum, laxi-
anthera, laxiflorum, leporium, macrophyllum, mirbellianum, nobile, odoardi, ostrino-
glossum, phalaenopsis, primulinum, superbum, taurianum, tetragonum, toftii, tokai,
trilamellatum, undulatum, veratifolum, violaceo-flavens and williamsonii are success-
fully utilized for hybridization programmes and produce many outstanding hybrids
of special merit. Vacherot and Lecouffle of France were the pioneers of Dendrobium
breeding. The nobile type (narrow petals) Dendrobiums of Eastern Himalayas and D.
phalaenopsis (rounded petals) of eastern Asia were the most frequently used parents.
Kuehnle et al (1997) observed that pigments comprised of cyanidin glycosides are
the predominant pigments extracted from the lavender and purple Dendrobium.
Kamemoto and Amore (1990) reported that a dominant gene P is responsible for lip
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colour or the semi-alba trait of white petals and sepals with coloured labellum, based
on crosses between semi-alba D. dicuphum and white D. affine or white D. phalaen-
opsis var. compactum ‘Mauna Kea’. According to Thammasiri et al (1986) yellows and
greens in Dendrobium are due to carotenoids and chlorophylls. Improved yellow cul-
tivars are contributed by triploidy. Kamemoto et al (1999) reported inbreeding depres-
sion, which is expressed as a loss in vigour and pollen degeneration in D. phalaen-
opsis and D. biggibum, but not found in D. antennatum. Several cycles of inbreeding
and selection using an amphidiploid Dendrobium ‘Jaquelyn Thomas’ proved useful
to increase flower size and lighten colour (Bobisud and Kamemoto, 1982). It also pro-
duced valuable stud plants when used subsequently in outcross to restore vigour.
Colour has always been of prime importance in Dendrobium breeding ranging from
chalky white to yellow, brown and intense crimson (Abraham and Vatsala, 1981).
For producing compact hybrids with short pseudobulbs to breed for potted plants
D. carronii, D. canaliculatum, D. phalaenopsis, D. var. compactum, D. bigibbum var.
compactum, Dendrobium ‘Mini Gem’ are suitable (Kuehnle, 2006). Kaiser (1993) sug-
gested one parent of possible interest for breeding fragrant potted plants is D. d’al-
bertisii; and out of the 140 species evaluated, 40 percent produced scents ranging from
floral to fruity to herbaceous. Some of the outstanding varieties of Dendrobium used
in further hybridization program and are recognized as proven parents are ‘Agnes’,
‘Ann’, ‘American Beauty’, Amethyst’, ‘Anouk’, ‘Artur Elle’, ‘Black Bountain’, ‘Caesar’,
‘Carol Ann’, ‘Claire Ayau’, ‘Concert’, ‘Constance’, ‘Dixon’, ‘Endeavour’, ‘Ethreal
Kawamoto’, ‘Ewa’, ‘Gold Flush’, ‘Gold Twist’, ‘Helen Fukumara’, ‘Hula Girl’, ‘Jaquelyn
Thomas’, ‘karen Ono’, ‘Khaw Young Hong’, ‘Lady Fay’, ‘Lady Hamilton’, ‘Lady Nui’,
‘Lim Chong Min’, ‘Lynn Takiguchi’, ‘Maloe Kanya’, ‘Manoa Gold’, ‘Margi Thomas’,
‘Main Beauty’, May Neal’, ‘Mustard’, ‘New Hawaii’, ‘Pale Face’, ‘Pompadour’, ‘Rose
Chong’, ‘Shangrilla’, Ursula’, ‘Valley King’, ‘Vera Patterson’, ‘Yellow Curls’, and
‘Yellow Jacket’.
5.9.4 Odontoglossum
This genus produces the finest flowers of all cool growing orchids. The Odonto-
glossum species like cirrhosum, crispum, hallii, pendulum, pulchellum are used for
hybridization work. There are many hybrids of Odontoglossum on record and a large
number are made with related genera like Aspasia, Cochlioda, Miltonia and Oncidium.
The outstanding hybrids of Odontoglossum widely used as parents for production of
further hybrids are ‘Carroll’, ‘Ismene’, ‘Patnina’ etc. (Bhattacharjee and De, 2003).
5.9.5 Oncidium
The orchid plants under this genus are known as ‘Dancing Ladies’ and ‘Golden
Showers’ because of their showy alternatively shaped blossoms. Large numbers of
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Breeding of Hybrids 113
Oncidium species are utilized for production of spectacular hybrids and most import-
ant species in this respect are henekenii, intermedium, lanceanum, leucochilum, mar-
shallianum, pulchellum, retemeyerianum, splendidum, sylvestre, triquetrum, vericosum
and variegatum. The genus is cross compatible with other genera like Aspasia, Brassia,
Cochlioda, Comparettia, Gomesa, Macradenia, Miltonia, Odontoglossum, Rodriguezia,
Trichocentrum, Trichopilia etc. and hence, many multi-generic hybrids have been
evolved. Some of the outstanding hybrids which have proven worth as parent plants
for production of more and more attractive hybrids are ‘Angnes Ann’, ‘Ann Rosa’,
‘Catherine Wilson’, ‘Delight’, ‘Golden Glow’, ‘Helen Brown’, ‘Lovely’, ‘Organ Moun-
tains’, ‘St. Anne’, and ‘Waikiki Sunset’ (Bhattacharjee and De, 2003).
5.9.6 Paphiopedilum
This is a remarkable genus of a magnificent group of orchids, commonly called

‘Lady’s Slipper’ orchids. The cut flowers remain fresh in plain water for up to six
weeks. Paphiopedilum rothschildianum is one of the most important species and has
produced nearly 200 hybrids. Important species used in hybridization programmes
are bellatulum, godfroyae and niveum. One of the most outstanding hybrids in this
genus is ‘Rolfei’ which is a cross between Paph. rothschildianum and Paph bellatu-
lum. Another important hybrid is Paph. ‘Daisy Barclay’, which was evolved from a
cross between Paph. rothschildianum and Paph. godefroyae. The cross between Paph.
rothschildianum and Paph. niveum created Paph. woluwense. An allelomorph in Paph.
insigne, Paph. spicerianum and Paph. boxalli was reported by Hurst (1925). Rogersen
(1991) has suggested that for breeding white coloured Paphiopedilum, species like
insigne var. Sanderae, bellatulum and godefroyae are important and described the
general principles governing the inheritance of the white flower colour in orchids,
and specifically in the genus Paphiopedilum. Tu-Fu Philip Liu (2000) stated that the
backbone of green and white albino forms was Paphiopedilum callosum var sanderae;
for green breeding, Paph. ‘Desert Spring, for yellow breeding promising clones are
some hybrids of Paph. sukhakulii var. album, such as Paph. fairrieanum var. album; for
white breeding Paph. charlesworthii var. album. Paphiopedilum is a cross compatible
with Selenipedium and Phragmipedium.
5.9.7 Phalaenopsis
Phalaenopsis is highly valued for its long lasting cut flowers, pot plants and hanging
baskets. Several species of Phalaenopsis utilized for the production of outstanding
hybrids are amabilis, amboinensis, boxalli, buyssoniane, cornucervi, denevei, eques-
tris, Esmeralda, fasciata, fimbriata, fuscata, grandiflora, lueddemanniana, lindenii,
mannii, mariae, parishii, schilleriana, serpentilingua, stuartiana and violacea. Hybrid-
ization of Phalaenopsis mainly evolved around the development of pure whites,
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pure pinks and white with pink lips. P. amabilis, P. formosana and P. aphrodite were
extensively used for production of outstanding white hybrids. For development of
pink coloured hybrids like the lueddemanniana, sanderiana and schileriana figured
prominently. White colours with pink lip was achieved in P. intermedia due to natural
hybridization between P. aphrodite and P. equestris. According to Thomas (2001) all
modern white Phalaenopsis are descendents of two species, P. amabilis and P. aph-
rodite. Phalaenopsis ‘Doris’ was bred in 1940 and is one of the most influential white
hybrids. Yellow and red Phalaenopsis breeding started with a cross between P. ‘Doris’,
and P. manni to produce P. ‘Golden Louis’. Red Phalaenopsis breeding is generally
accompanied by problems with fertility, flower size and low flower count. The first
fertile and readily available red Phalaenopsis was ‘Golden Buddha’ (Ginsberg, 2000).
Another recent trend in Phalaenopsis is breeding for blue flowers. The two species that
formed the basis of blue Phalaenopsis breeding are Doritis pulcherrima var. coerulea
and Phalaenopsis violacea var. coerulea (Mountford, 2001). Harper (1993) discussed
the contribution made by Phalaenopsis stuartiana in the development of multiflora
Phalaenopsis hybrids. Thomas (2001) reviewed the requirements for flower forms of
commercial growers like strong self supporting erect inflorescences, long duration
of blooms, compact plant size, wide temperature tolerance, disease resistance, firm
substances and consistency of colours.
Selfing and backcrossing techniques have been found immensely beneficial in
breeding for superior hybrids. The long continued inbreeding of Phalaenopsis sanderi-
ana is a famous example leading eventually to superior clones. Multi-generic hybrids
have been evolved by crossing Phalaenopsis with other genera like Aerides, Arach-
nis, Doritis, Neofinetia, Rhyncostylis, Renanthera and Vanda. Some of the hybrids of
Phalaenopsis which have served as parent plants for production of many more out-
standing hybrids are ‘Aalsmeer Rose’, ‘Ann lovelace’, ‘Aristocrat’, ‘Barbara Bred’, ‘Big
Chief’, ‘Cassango’, ‘Cast Iron Monarch’, ‘Chieftain’, ‘Cindy Brand’, ‘Doreen’, ‘Doris’,
‘Dos Pueblos’, ‘Elinor Shaffer’, ‘Elisa’, ‘Elwy Middleton’, ‘Fairway Park’, ‘Fenton
Davis Slover’, ‘Gladys Red’, ‘Goleta’, ‘Grace Palm, ‘Hollywood’, ‘Hymen’, ‘Intermedia’,
‘Joanna Magale’, ‘ Junita’, ‘Judy Karleen’, ‘Kareen’, ‘Lachesis’, ‘Lakme’, ‘Loius Geor-
gianna’, ‘Louis Market’, ‘Luzon’, ‘Margaret Bean’, ‘Marmouset’, ‘Martha’, ‘Mild Red
Karleen’, ‘Mrs’ J.W. Veitch’, ‘New Horizon’, ‘Palm Beach’, ‘Pasadena’, ‘Pink Vision’,
‘Pink Wave’, ‘Princes Grabce’, ‘Queen Emond’, ‘Radiant Glow’, ‘Reve Rose’, ‘Rosewell’,
Ruby Lips’, Seretiny’, ‘Shivley Temple’, ‘Susan Market’, ‘Texas Star’ and ‘Zada’.
5.9.8 Vanda
This genus bears attractive flowers which are often large, the colour of flower ranges
from pure white to variegated pattern of brown, green, and bright pink to blue and
purple. These are commercially important cut flowers used in international flower
trade. The Vanda species which contributed for production of useful and showy
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Polyploidy Breeding 115
hybrids are amnesiana, batemanni, coerulea, coerulescens, dearci, denisoniana, hook-

eriana, insignis, lamellata, loatica, limbata, liouvillei, luzonica, marvillii, parviflora,
roeblingiana, roxburghii, sanderiana, spathulata, stuavis, sumatrana, teres and tricolor.
The first Vanda hybrid, ‘Miss Joaquim’, which developed from a cross between
V. teres and V. hookeriana (Teoh Eng Soon, 1998). An albino form of Vanda ‘Miss
Joaquim’ was produced by crossing the alba varieties of both the parents. Vanda ‘Miss
Joaquim’ is said to have taken the form of V. hookeriana and the colour of V. teres (Tim
Wing Yam, 2001). Fuchs (1997) reported that Vanda sanderiana and V. coerulea are
the two important vandal species found in the background of most of the vandaceous
hybrids. V. sanderiana gives full form, whereas V. coerulea imparts the rich blue violet
colouration, lobely tessellation as well as the long inflorescence.
The genus Vanda is cross compatible with other allied groups like Aerides, Arach-
nis, Ascocentrum, Doritis, Neofinetia, Phalaenopsis, Renanthera, Trichoglottis and
Vandopsis. Some of the important hybrids of Vanda which contributed as parent
plants for production of many more hybrids are “Amoene’, ‘Betsy Summer’, ‘Bull
Sutton’, ‘Eisenhower’, ‘Ellen Noa’, ‘Emily Notley’, ‘Ernest’, Fujinaga’, ‘Frank Crook’,
‘Haledena’, ‘Helen Reynolds’, ‘Hilo Blue’, ‘Honolulu’, ‘Jennie Hashimoto’, ‘Josephine
Van Bero’, ‘Kapolio’, ‘Manila’, ‘Manisaki’, ‘Miss Joaquim’, ‘Noel’, ‘Nora Potter’, ‘Norbert
Alphanso’, ‘Onomea’, ‘Poepoe’, ‘Rubella’, ‘Ruby Prince’, ‘Tan Chay Yan’, ‘Tatzeri’, ‘Tri-
merrill’, ‘Trisher’, ‘Venus’ and ‘Waipuna’.
5.10 Polyploidy Breeding
Polyploidy and introgressive hybridization played a major role in the development

of orchid hybrids. In some genera like Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis,
Cattleya, Laelia, Sophronitis, polyploidy coupled with intergeneric compatibility
has culminated in the formation of hybrid groups which show both greater size and
hybrid vigour as compared to parental species. Most orchids have two basic sets of
(diploid 2x) chromosomes. The most common form of polyploidy is the doubling of the
chromosome number from diploid (2x) to tetraploid (4x). Tetraploid plants are more
fertile and produce flowers of better texture, bigger size and more intense colouration.
According to Abraham and Vatsala (1981), infertility in polyploids often results from
pairing abnormalities during meiosis. Sterility is most frequently caused by triploidy,
commonly encountered in many of the cultivated orchids. Kamemoto et al (1999) has
described a strategy in which a triploid yellow, D. ‘Mary Mak’ was crossed to a diploid
D. helix. Among a population of mostly aneuploids, several tetraploids were obtained
for use in subsequent breeding.
Hawaiian breeders produced exciting tetraploid clones by repeated selfing of
V. ‘Miss Joaquim’, which is a diploid (2n = 38). The most popular clones produced are
‘Atherton’, ‘Juliet’, ‘Hula Girl’, ‘Wood Lawn’ and ‘Douglas’. Most of the subsequent
V. ‘Miss Joaquim’, hybrids are based on these tetraploids. About 450 hybrids have
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been raised from Vanda, ‘Miss Joaquim’ (Tim Wing Yam, 2001). In Phaius tankervilliae,
treatment of protocorms by colchicine treatment (50ppm) induced polyploidy. Doub-
ling of chromosome number was associated with increased guard cell and stomatal
size and height and weight of plants (Devi and Deka, 2000). According to Hedren et al
(2000) diploid members of the genus Nigritella have sexual reproduction, whereas
polyploidy members are characterized by agamospermy. The AFLP data support the
general picture of polyploidy evolution in Dactylorhiza .i.e. that allotetraploid deriv-
atives have arisen repeatedly as a result of hybridization between the two parental
groups D. incarnata and D. maculata group (Hedren et al, 2001).
5.11 Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering coupled with tissue culture technique provides a useful way
to introduce specific genes into plants as evidenced by a successful introduction of
improved protein quality, novel flower colour and disease, insect and pest resistance
into various crops in the relatively short period of time. In orchids, the first report on
genetic transformation was made by Kuehnle and Sugii (1992). Several gene trans-
ferred methods have been tested with Dendrobium such as particle bombardment
(gene gun) (Kuehnle and Sugii, 1992, Chia et al, 1994), protein electro injection, seed
imbibation and pollen tube mediated DNA transfer (Nan & Kuehnle, 1995b). Among
these, micro bombardment (Klein et al, 1987) was identified as highly suitable for
Dendrobium based on high frequency recovery of transgenic plants. A co-cultiva-
tion method was standardized for transforming Phalaenopsis varieties in vitro with
Agrobacterium tumefaciens using protocorm like bodies as explants (Hsieh et al,
1997). Yang et al (1999) and Yu et al (1999) exploited the protocorm like bodies (PLBs)
to transform the orchid using particle bombardment in hybrids of Cymbidium and
Dendrobium, respectively. Protocorm and PLB’s of three genera Brassica, Cattleya
and Doritaenopsis were genetically transformed via micro-projectile bombardment
(Knapp et al, 2000).
Genetically transformed plants can be obtained by co-cultivation of Agrobac-
terium tumefaciens with cell clumps in Phalaenopsis orchid (Belarmino and Mii,
2000) and with their rhizome sections in Cymbidium niveomarginatum (Chen et al,
2002). A protocol was standardized to obtain a stable transgenic orchid (Dendrobium
nobile) via Agrobacterium mediated transformation of PLBs (Men et al, 2003b). Trans-
genic orchid (Phalaenopsis cv. White Hikaru) plants were generated by inoculating
a needle wounded PLB with Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Chai and Kim, 2004). The
transformation of Phalaenopsis cv. Taisuco Crane protocorm like bodies (PLB’s) by
particle bombardment and Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation with
beta-glucuronidase (GUS) fusion protein was studied by Chan et al (2003). Liau et
al (2003) indicated that foreign DNA can successfully be integrated into the orchid
genome and expressed transcriptionally and translationally in Oncidium orchid
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Genetic Engineering 117
plants. Both genome breeding and molecular breeding approaches can be used con-
currently in varietal development of Dendrobium as cut flowers and flowering potted
plants. Chemical survey of Dendrobium species and hybrids has shows lavender cyan-
idin and peonidin to be the predominant anthocyanidin, and orange pelargonidin to
be rare. Cloning and characterization of key anthocyanin biosynthetic genes such as
of dihydro-flavanol 4-reductase enables more productive hybridization strategies to
be implemented (Kuehnle et al, 2004).
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6 Production of Quality Planting Materials
The lack of quality planting materials has become a major factor for limiting com-
mercial cultivation of various orchids. There are six main techniques used for orchid
propagation: division, Backbulbs, aerial cuttings, keiki, micropropagation and seed
culture. Other techniques used in propagation are aerial shoots and tubers (Bhat-
tacharjee and De, 2010).
6.1 Division
This is the easiest method of propagation used for sympodial orchids. In this case, the
rhizomes are cut between pseudobulbs and the pieces are potted separately so that
each part has at least three healthy pseudobulbs and one dormant bud for producing
new growth. The best time for division of orchids is early spring. Division of an orchid
encourages the plant to produce more vigorous shoots of a better quality. Brassavola,
Calanthe, Laelia, Miltonia, Odontoglossum, Oncidium, Cattleya, Dendrobium, Paphio-
pedilum and Cymbidium can be multiplied through division.
6.2 Back Bulbs
These are previously flowered or unflowered back pseudobulbs. In this case, it may
take up to three years to obtain a flowering size plant. A back bulb having roots is
pulled or rhizomes are cut just beyond it and are inserted at one side of a pot filled with
orchid compost or sharp sand or grit keeping the cut surface of the bulb nearest the
edge of the pot. The shoots emerge from the bulbs within two or three months which
can be potted in orchid compost. Cymbidium, Cattleya and Coelogynes are propag-
ated through in this manner. In Cymbidium, it has been found that both saw dust
and cocopeat are effective media for generation of plants through backbulbs. Prior
to planting, treatment of the back bulbs of Cymbidium orchids with BA (200 ppm)
or coconut water (1:5 or 1:10) is effective to enhance percentage of germination. By
this method, both the media take 90-99 days in spring season and 42-48 days in the
summer season to generate new plants (Tab. 6.1).
6.3 Cuttings
In monopodial orchids like Vanda, Aerides, Arachnis, and Mokara, the upper most
parts of the stem are cut off just under the aerial roots and the removed part is
planted in porous media for producing an individual plant, referred to as top cut-
tings. In sympodial orchids like Dendrobium, cuttings of 10-15 cm having 4-5 seg-
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Air layering 119
ments are taken from canes during spring or rainy season and planted in cocopeat
or saw dust for rooting. Flower stalk cuttings are useful in genera like Phalaenopsis,
Phaius, Calanthe and Thunia. Cutting are usually potted in propagation beds or dir-
ectly in pots after treating the cut ends with fungicides like bavistin at 3 g/litre. The
cutting of genera, like Aerides, Arachnis, Vanda are very hardy and are directly potted
in pots, whereas those of Dendrobium and Phalaenopsis need special care to root and
should be rooted in propagation beds. In Phalaenopsis, offshoots are produced by
cutting out or mutilating the growing point, removing small leaves and treating the
injured portion with fungicides.
Tab. 6.1: Generation of planting materials of Cymbidium through backbulbs
Name of hybrid Type of Media Season Duration
Cym. ‘H.C. Aurora” Cocopeat Spring 90 days

Cocopeat Summer 42 days
Saw dust Spring 93 days
Saw dust Summer 48 days
Cym. ‘W.W.W.’ Cocopeat Spring 99 days
Cocopeat Summer 42 days
Saw dust Spring 93 days
Saw dust Summer 48 days
6.4 Air layering
In this method, a cut is made through the stem 20 to 30 cm below the apex and most
sphagnum moss is wrapped around the cut portion. The rooting media is kept moist
and once the roots are formed, the layer is detached from the mother plant and potted
in small-sized pots. Vanda and other monopodial orchids are easily multiplied by
air-layering or marcotage.
6.5 Keiki
A keiki is a small plant which generally grows from one of the nodes along the stem
instead of a branch. They occur through the accumulation of growth hormones at a
specified point. Keikis grow in two forms: a regular and a basal keiki. The regular keiki
is a small plant growing from one node along the flower stem, instead of a branch.
This is induced by the accumulation of growth hormones at that point, either natur-
ally or by the application of keiki paste, a cytokinin hormone which induces growth in
the node of an orchid inflorescence. The basal keiki is a baby plant growing from the
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base of the mother plant. Sometimes keikis bloom while still attached to the mother
plant. Keikies are used as propagules in Dendrobium, Ascocenda, Phalaenopsis and
Epidendrum.
6.6 Aerial Shoots
Most of the Dendrobiums give aerial shoots or bulbs on old back bulbs devoid of
leaves. They usually develop on the upper part of the back bulbs and grow out slowly.
These aerial shoots take 90-120 days to develop roots. At this stage, they are detached
along with the portion of back bulb and potted as an independent plant in orchid
compost. In genera like Goodyera, the rhizome gives off special lateral branches
which turn up and produce aerial shoots.
6.7 Tubers
In few genera, like Peristylis and Nervillia, the roots are produced from above the
tubers, which are transformed into tubercles. These small tubers produce new plants
the year after.
6.8 Tissue Culture
Tissue culture is one of the most rapid methods of multiplying vegetative plants.
It develops new plants in an artificial medium under aseptic conditions from very
small parts of plants, such as shoots tips, root tips and pollen grains. Thousands or
even millions of identical plants can be produced from a small tissue in a relatively
short time. Among these, meristem and shoot tip cultures are most popular for mass
propagation of commercial species and hybrids. Axillary buds are a good source
of explants in monopodials. Both liquid and solid media are used for culture of
orchid tissues. The widely used media are Knudson’s C medium, Vacin and Went’s
medium, Murashige and Skoog’s medium. Additives like coconut water (15%) and
banana pulp (10%) are found beneficial for promotion of shoots. The mineral salts,
carbon source, vitamins and plant growth regulators are used in the media. Sucrose
as a carbon source promotes organogenesis at suboptimal concentrations and pro-
tocorm formation at supra-optimal concentrations. Among vitamins, thiamine and
growth regulators, auxin, cytokinins are used for callus formation. Protocorms of
Cymbidium ‘Soul Hunt-1’ cultured on media incorporated with different levels of
IBA & GA3 revealed that MS+AC+GA3 (0.5 mg/l) resulted in faster plb proliferation
(18 days for 5th plb stage). A combination of both hormones on plb proliferation was
found to have the best effect for MS+AC+IBA (0.5 mg/l)+GA3(1 mg/l). In vitro plants
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Seed Culture 121
are hardened off in vitro only, before being transferred to the main field. Applica-
tion of paclobutazol delays chlorophyll loss, reduces the activities of enzymes and
delays senescence.
6.8.1 Shoot Tip Culture
In this method, shoot tips are extracted from the vegetative buds located on pseudob-
ulbs. The necessary steps for propagation of micropropagated orchid planting mater-
ials are:
– Selection of healthy and disease free mother plant and establishment of mother
blocks nursery,
– Indexing of viruses of mother plant in the nursery,
– Initiation of cultures,
– Proliferation of cultures,
– Primary hardening and rouging of undesirable plants,
– Secondary hardening and rouging of undesirable plants,
– Genetic fidelity testing and virus indexing at various stages of micropropagation.
6.8.2 Meristem –tip Culture
This method involves the use of the apical dome or shoot tip with a few leaf primor-
dial of the size less than 1 mm in length as explants.
6.9 Seed Culture
Orchid sexual propagation is practised through seed embryo culture. Orchid seeds are
very minute and do not have stored food for seed germination. However, during ger-
mination, fungi infect orchid seeds and help convert complex starch to simple sugars,
which serve as an energy source. That fungi and orchids have symbiotic relationship
in germination. Seedling orchids are grown with the objective of providing seedling
plants and to breed new plants. This is an important field in orchid culture, where
many hybrids and inter-generic crosses are being bred to exhibit new and different
physical characteristics.
An F1 Hybrid plant is produced from a seed obtained from cross pollination between
two different species or two different varieties of the same species. Hybrid seeds can
be produced the following ways:
– By hand pollination: This is usually practiced to produce new varieties for testing
purposes. (Most new varieties are developed in this way).
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– Production in seed plantations: In this method, two different varieties are inter-
planted or placed in an area and seeds are collected from those plants.
– Chance seedlings: In this case, seed is collected from plants i.e. the wild or else-
where which are suspected to have cross pollinated with different varieties. The
seedlings are grown on to flowering stage and then the best varieties are selected.
– Seed collected from F1 Hybrid plants: The initial hybrid is produced by cross pol-
lination (i.e: as above). This hybrid is grown until it produces seed, and the seed
is then collected. This seed is second generation hybrid seed, and can be called
as F2 seed. New plants are grown as seedlings from this seed.
Orchid seed is not generally bought. It can be bred it or collected and can be sown as
soon as possible. As the pods mature they change into yellow colour and then start to
show signs of splitting along the placenta. The plants must be inspected carefully. At
this stage, and not before, the seeds are harvested into a polythene or paper bag. Off
one plant may have as many as a million or so viable seed, or as few as a dozen. (e.g.:
one pod of a Cymbidium tracyanum contains nearly 3 million seeds).
Seeds should be shaken in chlorinated water (usually 1 in 20 with water) for
10 minutes before planting to kill any disease. Seeds are sown using droppers or
needles in a sterile environment, into flasks. The flasks are sealed and placed in high
humidity and warm environment (20-28°C). It normally takes 4 - 6 months to grow up
into seedlings to the point where they can be transplanted. It can take 4 - 10 years for
the seedlings to come into blooms.
Under artificial or laboratory conditions, a sterile artificial medium with sugar
and other nutrients is necessary. Through research, an excellent medium for growing
seeds without fungi can be developed: inside the bottle where orchid seedlings are
grown is a miniature glasshouse, which protects seedlings from unfavorable envir-
onmental conditions. Using artificial media it has become possible to grow nearly all
orchid seeds into mature plants.
6.9.1 Flasking and Reflasking of Protocorms
When orchid seed or embryo is planted in a culture bottle, numerous seedlings ger-
minate in a very limited space with little available food. The first sign of successful
germination is found when orchid seeds start to swell and turn green. As growth
continues, the embryo becomes bigger and assumes a flattened top shape called
‘protocorm’. A small amount of seed sown can produce hundreds of tiny protocorms
growing in limited space. At this stage, they are transplanted into a fresh medium and
kept for further development and rapid growth.
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Production of Disease Free Planting Materials Through Micro-Propagation 123
6.9.2 Composting and Repotting Seedlings
Orchid seedlings become ready for transplanting from culture bottles when roots
and leaves are fully developed. Dendrobiums are potted after 4 to 6 months. Vandas,
Phalaenopsis and Cattleyas in 6 to 8 months after reflasking before seedlings are ready
for transplanting in pots. Seedlings should be potted only in sterile potting medium
and pots to avoid damping-off diseases. Potting medium may consists of sterilized
leaf mould, charcoal and chopped tree fern.
After removing seedlings from bottles, all agar is washed off and the seedlings
are treated in fungicide suspension. Excess moisture is drained out and seedlings are
sorted according to size. Small seedlings are transferred to community pots, while the
bigger ones are potted individually in small pots.
6.10 Production of Disease Free Planting Materials Through

Micro-Propagation
The necessary steps needed for producing virus, pathogen and insect free planting
materials of orchids are as follows:
– Virus diagnosis using visual and molecular detection techniques applied at
mother plant selection, 2nd and 3rd subcultures and primary and secondary
hardening stages.
– Elimination of viruses using molecular techniques like ELISA, PCR, RT-PCR etc.
and other techniques like chemotherapy using anti-viral substances such as
acyclic adenosine analogue, thermotherapy using heat treatment either ‘in vivo’
or ‘in vitro’ and cryo-therapy means storage of samples at ultra low temperature
of liquid nitrogen (-196°C).
– Management of other diseases during secondary hardening.
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7 Physiology of Temperate and Tropical Orchids
Orchids are bilaterally symmetric (zygomorphic), many resupinate, one petal
(labellum) are always highly modified, stamens and carpels are fused, and the seeds
are extremely small.
7.1 Leaves
Like most monocots, orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins,
although some Vanilloideae have a reticulate venation. They may be ovate, lanceol-
ate, or orbiculate and very variable in size. They are normally alternate on the stem,
often plicate, and have no stipules. Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called
stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae) and are
fibrous.
The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant.
Species that grow on sunny sites or dry areas have thick, leathery leaves and the
laminas are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade
species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves.
The attractive mottle of the leaves of Lady’s Slippers from tropical and subtrop-
ical Asia, (Paphiopedilum) is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also
Phalaenopsis schilleriana is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and
light green. The Jewel Orchid (Ludisia discolor) is grown more for its colourful leaves
than its fairly inconspicuous white flowers. The number of stomata per unit surface
area is always higher in upper leaves on the same stem due to stronger light intens-
ity on the upper leaves. Epiphytes generally have smaller stomata than terrestrial
species. Epiphytic orchids are characterized by thick and succulent leaves with thick
cell walls, cuticles and small sub-stomatal chamber whereas those of terrestrial
species are thin. Usually mature leaves are photosynthetically active. Leaves are sites
for reduction of transpiration, water storage organs, retention of rain or condensed
water and absorption of water as liquid or vapour.
The hard leathery leaf type of orchids are drought tolerant with very thick cuticles
and thick walled epidermis together with extensive lignification offer excellent pro-
tection against desiccation. Thick leaves have Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM),
a very important adaptation to water stress. All thin orchid leaves show C3 photo-
synthesis. Small and narrow leaves are better adapted to exposure than larger ones
because they lose heat more efficiently by convection. Leaf hair may help conserve
water by increasing the boundary layer thickness of air around the leaf and length-
ening the diffusion pathway. Deciduousness occurring in sympodial orchids helps
to avoid water stress during the dry season by shedding their leaves and entering a
dormancy period. Water may be stored in pseudobulbs or other parts of the plant.
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Stem and Roots 125
7.2 Stem and Roots
All orchids are perennial herbs and grow according to two patterns.
7.2.1 Monopodial
The stems grow from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year and the
stem grows longer accordingly e.g., Vanda and Vanilla.
7.2.2 Sympodial
The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots which grow to a certain size, bloom and
then stop growing, to be then replaced. The base of the stem of sympodial epiphytes, or
in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form what is called a
pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods, e.g., Cymbidium, Cattleya.
7.2.3 Terrestrial orchids
Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers which contain reserve
carbohydrates. Glucomannan is the major constituent of reserve carbohydrate in
tubers. The free mannose, glucose, manobiose and maltose formed from the reserve
polysaccharides are transformed to sucrose and transported to new tubers and to the
newly formed upper part of plant.
In warm and humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs.
Epiphytic orchids have modified aerial roots that are sometimes a few meters long.
In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis called velamen has the
function to absorb humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white
or brown appearance. The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis
of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients mainly come
from animal droppings and other organic detritus on their supporting surface.
7.3 Flower
Orchidaceae are popular for their structural variations in their flowers. Some orchids
have single flowers but most have a racemose inflorescence, sometimes with a large
number of flowers. The flowering stem can be basal (that is produced from the base
of the tuber) like in Cymbidium, apical (meaning it grows from the apex of the main
stem) like in Cattleya, or axillary (from the leaf axil) as in Vanda.
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The orchid flower, like most flowers of monocots, has two whorls of sterile ele-
ments. The outer whorl has three sepals and the inner whorl has three petals. The
sepals are usually very similar to the petals but may be completely distinct.
The upper medial petal, called the labellum or lip is always modified and enlarged.
The inferior ovary or the pedicel usually rotates 180 degrees, so that the labellum,
goes on the lower part of the flower, thus becoming suitable to form a platform for
pollinators. This characteristic, called resupination occurs primitively in the family
and is considered apomorphic. Some orchids have secondarily lost this resupination,
e.g. Zygopetalum and Epidendrum secundum.
A pollinium is a waxy mass of pollen grains held together by the glue-like alkaloid
viscin, containing both cellulosic stands and mucopolysaccharides. Each pollinium
is connected to a filament which can take the form of a caudicle, like in Dactylorhiza
or Habenaria or a stipe, like in Vanda. Caudicles or stipes hold the pollinia to the vis-
cidium, a sticky pad which sticks the pollinia to the body of pollinators. At the upper
edge of the stigma of single-anthered orchids, in front of the anther cap, there is the
rostellum, a slender extension involved in the complex pollination mechanism.
In Cattleya cut flowers, the respiration rate decreases with age. Tight buds have
the highest rates of respiration, which declines after the opening of bud. All young
flowers respire at higher rates than the older ones.
7.4 Pollination
Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems. Orchid flowers

usually remain receptive for very long periods and most orchids deliver pollen in a
single mass; each time pollination succeeds thousands of ovules can be fertilized.
Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum.
Some orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination, especially in colder regions where
pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower hasn’t been visited
by any pollinator and the pollinia then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise the anther
may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in Holcoglossum amesianum).
In some extremely specialized orchids, like the Eurasian genus Ophrys, the labellum
is adapted to have a colour, shape and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry
of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers.
Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees, which visit the
flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attract-
ants. Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of a different
species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination.
A marked increase in respiration following pollination has been observed in
orchids. Activities of a number of enzymes like catalase, peroxidase, polyphenol
oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase and glycolic acid oxidase increased following pollin-
ation. Activity of polyphenol oxidase in orchids is reportedly highest in the columns
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Fruits and Seeds 127
followed by aerial roots, tips, petals and leaves. A dramatic increase in catalase
activity is observed in columns and petals of Cymbidium lowianum and Dendrobium
nobile after pollination. The sharp rise in peroxidase activity in aging orchid flowers
is caused by an increase in ethylene production during senescence.
7.5 Fruits and Seeds
The ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by 3 or 6 longitudinal slits,
while remaining closed at both ends. The ripening of a capsule can take 2 to 18 months.
The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous; in some species
over a million per capsule. After ripening they blow off like dust particles or spores.
They lack endosperm and must enter a symbiotic relationship with various mycor-
rhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them the necessary nutrients to germin-
ate, so that all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant
upon fungi to complete their lifecycle.
7.6 Photosynthesis
7.6.1 C3-Photosynthesis
All thin leaved orchids fix CO2 via C3 pathway. The thin leaved orchids have fewer layers
of smaller mesophyll cells and a larger number of stomata than thick leaved species.
They have high CO2 points, prominent post-illumination CO2 outbursts and active
glycolic acid activity all of which are characteristics of plants with high photorespiration
e.g., Habenaria platyphylla, Arundina graminifolia, Coelogyne masangeana, Cymbidium
cynense, Oncidium spp, Vanda tessellata, Eulophia keithii, and Spathoglottis plicata.
7.6.2 C4-Photosynthesis:
PEP is the initial C-acceptor and the product is oxaloacetate, which is readily conver-
ted to malate or aspartate. The malate is then decarboxylated to yield CO2 which is
refixed by RUBP carboxylase. C4 pathways occurs primarily in plants of tropical origin
growing under high light and high temperature conditions e.g, Arundina graminifolia.
7.6.3 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)
The majority of plants in the Orchid family use Crassulacean Acid Metabolism or CAM
photosynthesis to fixate carbon dioxide. In these plants, the carboxylating enzyme
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for dark fixation is phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPCase). PEPCase has a high

affinity for the CO2 molecule. Plants open their stomata during the cooler and more
humid night-time hours, permitting the uptake of carbon dioxide with minimum
water loss. During the day, they close their stomata and concentrate CO2 around the
enzyme RuBisCO increasing its efficiency, e.g., Vanilla, Cattleya, Thunia marshiliana,
Coelogyne cristata, Laelia spp, Dendrobium, Calanthe vestita, Bulbophyllum, Aerides
odoratum, Phalaenopsis, Aranda, and Aranthera.
7.7 CO2 Enrichment and Orchid Growth
CO2 enrichment generally causes plants to develop more extensive root systems to
exploit additional pockets of water and nutrients and to enhance the activity of bac-
teria and other organisms that break nutrients out of the soil, which the plants can
then exploit.
It is generally accepted that orchids have either C3 or Crassulacean Acid Meta-
bolism (CAM) mode of photosynthesis, and these are usually associated with
thin or thick leaves (Arditti, 1992; Hew and Yong, 1997). In C3 photosynthesis, the
carboxylating enzyme Rubisco has a relatively low affinity for CO2 molecule and
therefore an increase in CO2 concentration will increase the rate of CO2 fixation. An
increase in CO2 concentration will also inhibit the rate of photorespiration. The net
effect of these two events is an increase in net photosynthesis (Drake et al., 1997;
Hew and Yong, 1997).
An orchid leaf will have greater rates of photosynthesis at higher levels of atmo-
spheric CO2 concentration. This in turn will generate more carbohydrate available for
growth and development.
7.7.1 Practical Aspects of CO2 Enrichment
Carbon dioxide is generally introduced by one of three ways:

– Burning a hydrocarbon such as propane or kerosene.
– Placing containers of dry ice in the greenhouse or growth cabinet/room.
– Using pure carbon dioxide from a pressurized container.
The third option is the preferred one because pure CO2 contains fewer growth limiting
pollutants. For C3 orchids (thin-leaved orchids like Oncidium ‘Goldiana’, Spathoglottis
plicata), CO2 enrichment should commence at sunrise or when photoperiod begins,
and refrain during darkness hours. The average CO2 level that is recommended is 700
to 1500 ppm. For CAM orchids (thick-leaved orchids, like Dendrobium and Phalaenop-
sis), CO2 enrichment should commence at three to four hours before sunset, continue
through darkness hours and stop when photoperiod begins.
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Growth Physiology Stages in Cymbidium Orchids 129
7.8 Growth Physiology Stages in Cymbidium Orchids
The process from flower bud induction in the new growth to blooming can be divided
into three stages.
Stage I: Flower Bud Initiation in the New Growth
Stage II: Flower Spike Initiation
Stage III: Spike Elongation and Blooming
7.8.1 Stage I: Flower Bud Initiation in the New Growth
This stage does not require a temperature as low as Stage II and III.
Normally, flowering of a cymbidium is initiated within the new growing pseudob-
ulb. Under suitable growing conditions, where night temperatures are below the
plant’s required maximum night temperature, their pseudobulbs will be bigger and
healthier with larger and thicker leaves.
Commonly, lower temperature at night reduces plant respiration; therefore plants
deplete less stored energy. As a result, more energy is accumulated in their storage
organs. Eventually, those pseudobulbs have a higher potential to produce better
quality flowers with a higher flower count.
If the required night temperatures are not fulfilled, pseudobulbs will tend to
produce poorer quality flowers and a lower flower count per stem. In severe cases,
they may not produce any blooms at all. It is a general rule that the large-flowered
types need greater energy storage in their pseudobulbs than the smaller-flowered
types do. In other words, the large-flowered types require lower night temperatures
than the smaller-flowered types do.
Traditionally, all commercial large-flowered cymbidiums have been developed
from large-flowered species that originated from the foothills of the Himalayan Moun-
tains, starting from northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, northern Burma, and southwest-
ern China and throughout many smaller ranges in Vietnam, Laos and northern Thail-
and. In these original habitats, their climate is divided into wet and dry cycles.
– The wet season is the monsoon season of Asia. During this season, these areas
receive ample rains with higher daytime temperatures. However, the nighttime
temperatures drop drastically by 10 to 15°C and become cool. This is a common
climatic occurrence at higher elevations. The monsoon season is also the season
of active vegetative growth.
– The dry season is affected by the cold air-mass from northern Asia. Temperat-
ures and humidity fall down. The monsoon rains completely stop. This is the time
when the large-flowered cymbidium species stop vegetative growth, instead they
enter into a reproductive cycle; i.e. the season of blooming.
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The Mediterranean climate zones, cool summer /mild winter, such as the southwestern
coast of the US, southern coast of Europe and South Africa, southern and southwest-
ern Australia and New Zealand are considered ideal for most of the commercial large-
flowered hybrids, which came from the Himalayan species. Because of their relatively
temperate summers, the summer nighttime temperatures drop markedly. And, there
is rarely a freezing period prolonged enough to damage plants or developing flowers.
All traditional cymbidium hybrids perform well under these conditions.
For areas of humid subtropical climates, with hot summer and cool-cold winter,
such as most of the eastern coasts of various continents between latitude 25-40; e.g.
southeastern & southern USA, southern & eastern China, most of Japan, the eastern
coast of Australia, southeastern Brazil to northern Argentina, northern India and
northern Vietnam, there is often a prolonged period of hot & humid summer weather,
with high night temperatures. These conditions cause stress to conventional cymbid-
iums, and result in lower energy storage in their pseudobulbs.
Such stress has a direct negative effect on new pseudobulb growth during the
summer. Those affected pseudobulbs may end up smaller than their genetic poten-
tial. As a result, those stunted pseudobulbs will produce inferior quality flowers and
usually fewer spikes. In the worst scenario, those sub-standard pseudobulbs may not
produce any flowers at all.
Nowadays, growers can overcome these kinds of problems by growing varieties
with a mixed background of tropical lowland species, namely Heat Tolerant Cym-
bidiums (HTC) and Warmth Tolerant Cymbidiums (WTC). Both HTC and WTC do not
require night temperatures as low as that of conventional or standard cymbidiums.
In climates with a prolonged hot summer, the new growths of HTC and WTC will still
initiate flower buds in their growths. Therefore, non-flowering or reduced-flowering
growths can be overcome.
7.8.2 Stage II: Flower Spike Initiation
This stage requires maximum night temperature lower than Stage I but higher than
Stage III.
After the nearly-mature or fully-mature pseudobulbs with flower buds inside
have been exposed to lower night temperatures for a while, spikes appear, emerging
as cone-like nubs (similar to new growths but rounder) from the base of pseudobulbs,
or within the lowest leaf axils. These enlarging flower buds developing into healthy
new growths eventually become the inflorescences.
During this period, growers can manipulate spike maturation and alter how long it
will take for them to bloom. In a protected environment where temperature, light, water
and fertilizers can be fully controlled, the timing of blooming is partly controllable.
The same varieties, when grown in different conditions, can be made to bloom
over an extended period. The group that received lower night temperature earlier will
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Conclusions & Extensions 131
initiate flower spikes before other plants of the same clone. This can give an advant-
age over nurseries located in warmer places, with nurseries located at higher latit-
udes or at higher elevations experiencing earlier blooming.
Because both HTC and WTC have temperature trigger points of flower spike initi-
ation higher than those of conventional/standard cymbidiums, they do not have to wait
for the night temperatures to drop as low as the conventional/standard cymbidiums
require. If HTC and WTC are grown alongside with conventional/standard cymbidiums,
HTC will initiate their spikes first, followed by WTC and concluding with the conven-
tional/standard cymbidiums. This indicates that nurseries located in warmer places or
at lower elevations that grow HTC and WTC can have blooms no later than those that
grow conventional/standard cymbidiums in cooler places or at higher elevations.
7.8.3 Stage III: Spike Elongation and Blooming
This stage is the most critical and requires maximum night temperatures lower than
both Stage I and II.
When night temperatures keeps dropping continuously and the days get milder
or cooler, the flower spikes elongate. Each flower bud enlarges and finally blooms.
Depending on the overall temperature profiles, it normally takes at least 30-60 days
from when the new flower spikes reach to the full bloom. In cases where autumn
cooling is not stable, and especially if the night temperatures are not low enough,
problems in spike development become obvious. As a result, the elongation may
actually slow down, the lateral sepals become deformed, colours lose their intensity,
pollen does not atain maturity and may darken, or at worst, the whole spike turns
yellow and aborts.
Normally, cymbidiums with larger flowers and taller upright spikes require lower
temperatures. They are more susceptible to bud drop due to heat stress than the vari-
eties with arching or pendulous spikes and smaller flowers. Simply, the cut-flower
varieties with the largest flowers and tallest spikes require cooler conditions during
spike maturation than other varieties.
HTC and WTC help in reducing the problem of bud drop if the night chill is not
stable as well as at higher temperatures that plants frequently face during transport-
ation and display in the city markets.
7.9 Conclusions & Extensions
Cymbidium nurseries that most quickly complete the three stages have the blooms
first and do not encounter problems with barren pseudobulbs.
At every stage, the cool-growing/conventional cymbidiums require lower temper-
atures than do HTC and WTC.
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However, all cool-growing/conventional cymbidium hybrids do not require any

temperature as low as 10°C at any growth stage. In reality, many cymbidium nurser-
ies, especially those that produce cut flowers, are located in climates where external
winter temperature drop to lower than 10°C at night throughout the whole of stage III.
In addition, almost all cut-flower nurseries are located in a greenhouse or controlled
environment because this is necessary for providing warmth and the stable temperat-
ures desirable during stage III.
Colombia and Ecuador are the two countries in equatorial zones that currently
successfully grow cut-flower cymbidiums because they have many suitable growing
area at higher elevations. Cut-flower varieties are grown at 2600-2800 metres in
Ecuador and above 1600 metres in Colombia. In these equatorial regions, the crops
are not seasonal but grown round the year.
There are also enthusiasts of orchids and some new commercial nurseries growing
cut-flower cymbidiums in northern India (Sikkim, elev. 1200-1400 metres) and China
(Yunnan, elev. 1900 metres). These two places are located at lower elevations than
Ecuador and Colombia because both Sikkim and Yunnan are located further away
from the equator. In Sikkim, they experience the cold air mass flowing down from the
snow-capped Himalaya, which provides a significant night temperature drop.
7.10 Orchid Pseudobulbs – A Genuine Importance in Orchid

Growth and Survival
Most orchids have conspicuous storage organs. Corms, rhizomes, or tuberoids are
common in terrestrial orchids while storage organs in epiphytic orchids are enlarged
stems called pseudobulbs. Pseudobulbs are also found in some terrestrial orchids like
Cymbidium, Eulophia and Spathoglottis.
Orchid pseudobulbs are of two types: heteroblastic or homoblastic. Heteroblastic
pseudobulbs consists of only one internode, e.g. Oncidium, Cattleya and Miltonia.
Homoblastic pseudobulbs consist of two or more internodes, e.g. Eria and Dendrobium
(Arditti, 1992). A number of aspects have been studied in orchids, e.g. mineral nutrition
(Hew and Ng, 1996), respiration (Hew, 1987), photosynthesis (Hew et al, 1989, 1996,
1997, Hew and Yong, 1994), flowering (Gow et al, 1982), flower physiology (Avadhani
et al, 1994) and more recently, photo-assimilate partitioning (Yong and Hew, 1995a,
Yong and Hew, 1995 b, Yong and Hew, 1995c, Ng and Hew, 1996).
7.10.1 Pseudobulbs – As Water Storage Organs
Orchid pseudobulbs serve as important water storage organs. The epiphytic biotope
is characterized by frequent periods of water and nutrient shortage. The presence of
fleshy organs in roots, stems or leaves confers epiphytic orchids with the ability to
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Orchid Pseudobulbs – A Genuine Importance in Orchid Growth and Survival 133
survive and grow in adverse climates. Pseudobulbs of Oncidium ‘Goldiana’ maintain

relatively high water contents of 90-95% throughout development. In Stanhopea and
Pleione, pseudobulbs are made up of an abundance of water-storing cells (Arditti, 1992).
In addition, most orchid pseudobulbs possess a thick cuticle that is totally impervious
to water and gases. In Cymbidium sinense, pseudobulbs are able to retain about 64% of
their water content after 42 days of water stress conditions (Zengh et al, 1992).
7.10.2 Pseudobulbs – As Mineral Storage Organs
Epiphytic orchids face frequent periods of nutrient scarcity. They can tolerate low
substrate fertility, being totally dependent on stem flow for nutrients. The low fertility
tolerance of orchids is closely associated with the development of the pseudobulb.
Tissue analyses of Laeliocattleya Culminant have shown that there is a net accumula-
tion of nitrogen and phosphorus with age. In contrast, potassium content decreases
with age, indicating that potassium is remobilised to support the growth require-
ments of new developing tissues (Davidson, 1960).
In Oncidium ‘Goldiana’, the highest uptake of nitrate is reported during the
formation of new pseudobulbs. In addition, it is observed that mineral allocation to
pseudobulbs within connected shoots of Oncidium ‘Goldiana’ is most active during
formation and development of a new pseudobulb (Hew and Ng, 1996). There are
remarkable reductions in the mineral content of mature pseudobulbs of connected
shoots during the development of a new shoot. The remobilisation of stored mineral
nutrients from older pseudobulbs coupled with the high rates of nutrient uptake
is indicative of the demand for mineral nutrients by developing pseudobulbs. As
such, it is important to keep connected back shoots intact during the propagation of
sympodial orchids. The active accumulation of mineral nutrients during the period
of pseudobulb development constitutes an important source of reserve for the sub-
sequent development of the inflorescence and new shoots.
7.10.3 Pseudobulb Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is fixed
into sugars in green plant organs. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs in most
plants. In addition to leaves, several other non-foliar organs of orchids possess chloro-
phyll and are capable of fixing carbon dioxide. Experimental evidences suggests that
non-foliar green organs of orchids do contribute positively to whole plant carbon
economy by refixing the carbon which would otherwise be lost through respiration.
Most orchid pseudobulbs are impervious to water and gases due to the presence of
a thick cuticle. The pseudobulb, a massive organ, therefore represents a substantial
cost in terms of carbon for maintenance.
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Although impervious to water and gases, pseudobulbs of Oncidium Gol-

diana, nevertheless are capable of photosynthesis. Pseudobulb photosynthesis in
Oncidium functions, essentially, for the refixation of respiratory carbon produced
by the underlying massive parenchyma (Hew and Yong, 1994). Enzymes within
the tissue of the pseudobulb for carbon fixation are ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. While most orchids
are impervious to the external environment, gas exchange with the ambient atmo-
sphere is mediated by a cavity rich in stomata on top of the pseudobulb in Bulbo-
phyllum minustissimum. This is especially important for those orchids with rudi-
mentary leaves (Winter et al, 1983).
In the CAM orchid, Laelia anceps, photosynthesis of leaves is largely affected by
irradiance of the pseudobulb (Ando and Ogawa, 1987). Exposure of the pseudobulb
to light is necessary for leaves to conduct daily gas exchange with the atmosphere. It
has been proposed that the organic acid fixed during the night is transported to the
pseudobulb and decarboxylated the next day, and that the transport of organic acid
is enhanced by exposure of the pseudobulb to light. It appears that the pseudobulb
can regulate the capacity for CAM in leaves of Laelia anceps, although evidence in
CAM orchids for the basipetal transport of organic acids from leaves to pseudobulb
is lacking. Presently, it is still not clear whether pseudobulbs of C3 and CAM orchids
have a regulatory role in leaf photosynthesis.
7.10.4 Pseudobulbs – as Carbohydrate Storage Organs
The ability of orchid pseudobulbs to photosynthesise points to their importance as

carbon sources for the plant. Studies on both Catasetum viridiflavum (Zimmerman,
1990) and Oncidium ‘Goldiana’ (Hew and Ng, 1996) have shown that carbohydrate
reserves in orchid pseudobulbs are important in the initiation of new growth. The
pseudobulb of Oncidium accumulates massive amounts of carbohydrates during
vegetative development. These carbohydrate reserves are subsequently remobilised
to support new shoot and inflorescence development.
Storage carbohydrate of the pseudobulb is derived mainly from the import of cur-
rently assimilated carbon from the leaves (Yong and Hew, 1995a) and in part from its
own regenerative photosynthesis (Hew and Yong, 1994). The carbohydrate reserves
of connected back shoots also contribute to new shoot and inflorescence develop-
ment (Yong and Hew, 1995c, Hew and Ng, 1996). While leaves are the main sources
of currently assimilated carbon, pseudobulbs represent an important supplement-
ary source of carbohydrate that is utilized to meet the increased demand for carbon
during inflorescence and new shoot development. This observation explains the need
for at least two connected back shoots for optimal inflorescence development (Yong
and Hew, 1995b, 1995c).
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7.10.5 The Absence of a ‘Flag’ Leaf’ – an Apparent Anomaly Due to the Pseudobulb
A ‘flag’ leaf is the main leaf responsible for supplying carbon to the organ of eco-
nomic importance. This is usually the leaf subtending the economically important
organ. Based on gas exchange studies on Oncidium ‘Goldiana’, Hew and Yong(1994),
showed that the rate of carbon dioxide uptake for the leaf subtending the inflores-
cence increased 1.4 fold during inflorescence development while the rate of carbon
dioxide uptake for other mature leaves remained unchanged. This indicates that the
leaf subtending the inflorescence is the ‘flag’ leaf. However, radioactive carbon tracer
studies have shown an absence of a ‘flag’ leaf in Oncidium ‘Goldiana’. All mature
leaves within a single shoot supply similar amounts of carbon to the inflorescence
(Yong and Hew, 1996). This apparent anomaly between gas exchange studies and
radioactive tracer studies is interesting.
Radioactive tracer studies have shown that carbon produced in the leaves is
transported to the pseudobulb in the first instance (Yong and Hew, 1995a) before
being transported to the inflorescence. Tissue analyses of pseudobulb carbohydrate
content showed that there is no net accumulation of carbohydrate during inflores-
cence development (Hew and Ng, 1996). Taken together, these results indicate that
there is substantial mobilisation of carbohydrate to the inflorescence via the pseudob-
ulb. It is likely that there is mixing of different carbohydrate pools (currently assimil-
ated carbon from leaves with storage carbohydrate within the pseudobulb) during the
transport of carbon from leaves to the inflorescence.
The pseudobulb is envisaged as central to the distribution of carbon within a
single shoot of Oncidium Goldiana. Although the leaves are main sources that supply
carbon for inflorescence development, the pseudobulb is responsible for the ulti-
mate re-distribution of assimilated carbon from the leaves. This could account for
the apparent absence of a ‘flag’ leaf in Oncidium based on radioactive tracer studies.
Further research works needs to be done to substantiate the possible regulatory role
of pseudobulbs in partitioning of assimilates in orchids.
7.10.6 Pseudobulbs and Myrmecophily
Ants are in frequent contact with epiphytic plants. Association between ants and
orchids can be broadly classified into two categories: (1) ant-house and (2) ant-garden
(Davidson and Epstein, 1989).
Ant-house orchids are characterized by the presence of a permanent dormatia in
which ants take up residence while ant-gardens are nests of earthen material (called
‘carton’) constructed by ants on which the epiphyte grows (Beattie, 1985). Species clas-
sified as ant-house orchids include Caulathron, Dimeranda and Schomburgkia while
Vanilla planifolia has been reported to be an ant-garden orchid. There is evidence to
suggest that in both ant-house and ant-garden epiphytes the ant-epiphyte association
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is mutualistic. In the CAM orchid Schomburgkia humboldtiana, leaves grow from a

large hollow pseudobulb and contain ant-nests (Griffiths et al, 1989). However, it
appears that the hollow pseudobulb of Schomburgkia humboldtiana forms spontan-
eously without excavation by ants. This is likely the result of co-evolution, although
the actual relationship remains to be unequivocally determined.
The occurrence of an ant-house in pseudobulbs of Schomburgkia provides an
interesting material for the physiological role of the pseudobulb. It is unlikely that
pseudobulbs of Schomburgkia are important in water storage like other orchids.
However, it is possible for the pseudobulb of Schomburgkia to contribute to whole
plant mineral and carbon economy through its association with ants. It is possible
that the provision of an ant-house in the hollow pseudobulb constitutes an additional
food source in the form of ant faeces and refuse. In addition, the fixation of respiratory
carbon from ants may have a positive contribution to whole plant carbon economy.
Cattleya is a epiphytic plant generally found growing on trees of moist and wet
forests from sea level to 4,900 feet (1,500 m) in elevation. Several published scientific
studies have shown that flowering of Cattleya species and hybrids is promoted by expos-
ure to short daylengths and cool temperatures. For example, in Cattleya warscewiczii,
Cattleya gaskelliana and Cattleya mossiae, flower induction occurred only when plants
were placed under photoperiods of nine hours (nine hours of light per day) at 13°C,
while flowering was inhibited under 16 hours of light per day at 55°F (Rotor, 1959).
Dendrobium is one of the largest genera and is native to tropical and subtrop-
ical Asia, Australia and various Pacific Islands. The optimum temperature for flower
induction consequently differs among Dendrobium selections due to its wide geo-
graphical distribution. In Dendrobium nobile, plants exposed to a constant 13°C pro-
duced flowers regardless of the daylength, whereas plants placed at 18°C remained
vegetative and did not flower (Goh and Arditti, 1985). In contrast, Dendrobium
phalaenopsis requires short daylengths and warmer temperatures for flowering. For
example, flower-bud development and flowering of plants placed under nine-hour
day lengths at 18°C are accelerated by six weeks compared to plants placed under
longer day lengths at the same temperature. A similar response is observed at 13°C,
but flower bud development is slower due to the cooler temperature.
Most Phalaenopsis species and hybrids require a period of exposure to relatively
cool temperatures less than 28°C to trigger the elongation of the spike (Lee and Lin,
1984, Wang, 1995). Uniform spiking can be obtained when plants are grown at day/
night temperatures of either 25/20°C or (20/15°C) for four to five weeks. When induced
plants are placed at high temperatures (greater than 28°C), a spike can form a veget-
ative air plantlet (known as a keiki) instead of flower buds, or buds may abort. A few
experimental studies have reported that short days enhance spiking and long days
promote vegetative growth or the development of keikis in Phalaenopsis (Rotor, 1952;
Griesbach, 1985). However, this short-day enhancement is thought to be a result of the
extension of cool-night temperatures and not the daylength itself. Thus, it appears that
photoperiod does not influence flowering of Phalaenopsis (Baker and Baker, 1991).
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What the Future Holds

In recent years, orchids have become the second most valuable potted flowering
plant in the United States, with a wholesale value of US$ 127 million in 2004. More
than 12.7 million orchids were sold in the United States last year, with Phalaenopsis
accounting for more than 75 percent of sales. Why are so many Phalaenopsis being
sold and purchased when there are well over 25,000 described species of orchids
from which to choose? One reason is that we understand how to regulate the flower-
ing process. As mentioned earlier, growers can prevent flowering by maintaining the
day and night temperatures above 82°F (28°C). To induce flowering, plants need to be
grown at cooler temperatures. Unfortunately, there is virtually no adequate inform-
ation available on the flowering of many other orchids, such as Miltonia, Oncidium,
Vanda and Zygopetalum. As a result, growers cannot reliably flower an orchid such
as Zygopetalum for a holiday such as Valentine’s Day or Mother’s Day, which is when
consumer demand is greatest. We do not know if we can manipulate temperature, light
or perhaps some other factor to control flowering. Without this information, growers
are not able to produce a flowering crop when demand — and likely profit — is greatest.
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8 Climate Change and its Impact on Orchid
Productivity
The global population is expected to rise by about 9 billion people in 2050. Food, shelter,
energy, employment, and health care etc. have to depend upon the bio-resources of the
Planet Earth. This uncertainty is due to climate change, agriculture pattern, urbaniza-
tion etc. which are closely linked with biodiversity, economy and the welfare of human-
ity. In 2050, 1.6 billion people of our country will need adequate, nutritious, safe and
healthy food and adequate fiber within the available natural resources.
Some of the major challenges that we have come across are:
– Climate change due to rise in temperature, erratic precipitation and sea level rise
– Greenhouse gas emission
– Fragmented ecosystems
– Loss in biodiversity
– Trade and competitiveness
Before the early 1800’s, the atmosphere contained about 290 ppm CO2, in 1995 it was
360 ppm and according to the World Health Organization CO2 reached 379 ppm in
2006. It is estimated that CO2 will increase to 800 ppm by the end of this century
and bring serious consequences to plants. A 1°C increase in temperature may reduce
yields of major food crops by 3-7%. It is predicted that greater losses will occur at
prolonged higher temperatures. A projected loss of 10-40% is expected in crop pro-
duction by 2100.
8.1 Impact of Climate Change (Mitchell and Tanner, 2006)
8.1.1 Agriculture
– Shifts in food growing areas

– Changes in crop yields
– Increased irrigation demands
– Increased crop pests and diseases in warmer areas
8.1.2 Water Resources
– Changes in water supply

– Decrease in water quality
– Increased drought
– Increased flooding
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Impact of Climate Change (Mitchell and Tanner, 2006) 139
8.1.3 Forests
– Changes in forest compositions and locations

– Disappearance of some forests
– Increased fires from drying of forest trees and grasses
– Loss of wild habitat and species
8.1.4 Biodiversity
– Extinction of some animal and plant species

– Loss of habitats
– Disruption of aquatic life
8.1.5 Weather Extremes
– Prolonged heat waves and droughts

– Increased flooding
– More intense hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes and violent storms
8.1.6 Sea Levels and Coastal Areas
– Rising sea levels

– Flooding of low lying islands and coastal cities
– Flooding of coastal estuaries, wetlands and coral reefs
– Beach erosion
– Disruption of coastal fisheries
– Contamination of coastal aquifers with salt water
8.1.7 Human Population
– Increased deaths
– More environmental refugees
– Increased migration
8.1.8 Human Health
– Increased deaths from heat and epidemic diseases

– Disruption of food and water supplies
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140 Climate Change and its Impact on Orchid Productivity
– Spread of tropical diseases to temperate areas

– Increased water pollution from coastal flooding
8.2 Actions
Community-centred development projects can be incorporated for adaptation to climate

change through the following activities:
– Monitor species and the amount of vegetation to assess the impacts of climate
change. Asking community members to report on invasive species and changes in
growing patterns has been shown to effectively promote climate change awareness.
– Seasonal climate change projections can be reviewed during workshops with
farmers, and decisions can be taken based on responses.
– Keep an updated climate change scenario on file and refer to this at each stage to
make sure activities are not increasing vulnerability to climate change. The scen-
arios can also be used as an advocacy tool.
– Participatory appraisal techniques can be used to assess the impacts of climate
variability and change in livelihoods and production. Simple cost/benefit ana-
lysis of different adaptation options can also be included.
– Fire management techniques and training need to be considered.
– Early warning systems are especially relevant for agriculture. Regional and local
seasonal predictions are currently in use and being developed using weather
forecasting tools.
– Developmental Agencies need to raise awareness among partners and make their
programmes more resilient to climate change impacts.
– Development NGOs will need to plan their adaptation activities carefully to ensure
consistent poverty reduction policies, plans and program. This may require stra-
tegic assessment of the role of adaptation in their program, as well as supporting
mainstreaming in developing countries.
– NGO can link climate change to other related areas such as disaster risk manage-
ment and sustainable development.
– Vulnerable groups must work on climate change adaptation from the starting
point of current variability. Integrating the impacts of future changes into vul-
nerability reduction remains a significant challenge at the policy and strategic
levels, as well as in communities and households.
– To develop a GHG Inventory Management System (GHG-IMS) through Black
Carbon Research Initiative-National Carbonaceous Aerosols Programme (BCRI-
NCAP), Long-term Ecological Research Observatory (LTERO) for climate change,
Co-ordinated Studies (CS) in the North-Eastern Region on Climate Change (NECC)
(CS-NECC) and Climate Change Assessment Studies (CCAS).
– In order to ensure sustainable management of biodiversity vis-a-vis climate
change, adaptation is a key aspect in terms of chalking out a future strategy such
as: to identify and conserve biodiversity components that are especially sensit-
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Challenges 141
ive to climate change; preserve intact habitats so as to facilitate the long-term

adaptation of biodiversity; improve our understanding of the climate change –
biodiversity linkages, and fully integrate biodiversity considerations into climate
change mitigation and adaptation plans.
– India needs to undertake the following strategies at various scales (global,
regional, national and local): increased intensity to promote sustainable manage-
ment, conservation and enhancement of sinks and reservoir; take climate change
consideration into account to minimizing adverse effects on the economy and on
the quality of environment; promote and cooperate with scientific research; edu-
cation training and public awareness; and the exchange of scientific information.
8.3 Challenges
8.3.1 Biodiversity and Conservation
Nearly 12.5% of the global vascular flora are facing extinction and therefore, conser-
vation of rare and threatened plants are of international importance. Two thirds of
orchid species are epiphytes and lithophytes, with terrestrial species comprising the
remaining third (almost half) of the extinct species as per IUCN, 1999. In India, 250
species of orchids are under the threat in various categories.
– Conservation of biota in fragmented landscapes, protecting and increasing the
habitat, improving habitat quality, increasing connectivity, managing disturb-
ance processes in the wider landscape, planning for the long term, and learning
from conservation actions undertaken.
– To maintain the tropical biodiversity, there is no substitute for primary forests,
there is a need to increase the forest area under protected area network.
– The value and importance of indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ customary
sustainable use and traditional knowledge in conserving and upholding biodiversity,
land- and seascapes, and protected areas should be acknowledged. Incentives may
be needed to entice people to participate in conservation and recovery programs.
– Implementation of community-based projects on biodiversity conservation
provides opportunities to actively engage and involve local and indigenous
people.
– There is an urgent need to develop the Biodiversity Profile of India so that we have
adequate knowledge on existing species, ecosystems and genetic resources and
threats to them in order to monitor and report on biodiversity (e.g., extinction
rates, biodiversity loss). The main causes for a lack of knowledge on biodiversity
loss include limited number of scientific experts, national indicators, research,
finance and available technology and lack of biodiversity specific educational
programs.
– More biosphere reserves, sanctuaries and germplasm banks need to be established.
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– Promoting education and awareness about plant diversity conservation and

sustainable utilization and biodiversity conservation at the local level are to be
encouraged.
– An integrated orchid conservation approach including conservation genetics,
mycorrhizal associations, pollinators interactions, in situ conservations (Biosphere
Reserves, National Parks, Sacred Grooves, Gene Sanctuary and Individual Trees)
and ex situ conservations (Field Gene Banks, Botanical Garden, Herbal Garden, In-
vitro-conservation, Cryo-preservation and DNA Bank) will be taken up.
8.3.2 Genetic Improvement
– Genera and species wise cataloguing of all germplasm collection using IPGRI
descriptors is required.
– The rich diversity of orchids in the country requires a well thought out Network Approach
mode. The NRC for Orchids have to work on a network mode and also as a National
Active Germplasms site with the various active centres working on specific groups of
orchids. In view of the IPR regulations, it is of paramount importance to protect our
germplasms using modern tools of bar coding. A network project involving groups
with identical interest between universities and ICAR. These germplasm should be
conserved with the duplicate sets grown in at least two locations, properly catalogued
and characterized with national number obtained from NBPGR avoiding duplication.
Cryopreservation to conserve germplasm can be taken up in collaboration with NBPGR.
– At present, orchid trade is solely based on the hybrids derived from varietals, and
interspecies and inter-generic crosses. Building up a strong crop improvement
programme based on sound breeding methodologies will yield the development
of hybrids/varieties of internationally acceptable quality traits. It is essential to
develop our own hybrids suitable for varied agroclimate for our country to fulfill
the basic requirements of market demands.
– Evaluation of newly evolved genotypes to suit specific agro-ecological conditions
is essential.
– Locating sources of resistance for biotic an abiotic stresses using conventional
and biotechnological tools and developing varieties with high yield, quality and
specific traits are suggested.
8.3.3 Frontier Science Technologies In Orchid Research and Development
– It is essential to use the available hybrids and segregating populations to develop

Association mapping. Hence the facilities available at IIHR and NRCO may be
used to develop genome assistant or marker assistant selections.
– The lead obtained in GIS with the help of facilities of ISSR for Cymbidium to cover other
species which aid in location specific as well as species specific surveys will be effective.
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Challenges 143
– Characterization of rhizosphere microbial community structure and effect of

engineered nanoparticles on microorganisms in the rhizosphere and phyllo-
sphere.
– Commercialization of orchids through bioreactors covering micropropagation
technology to industry in network mode.
8.3.4 Management of Natural Resources
– Cost effective agro-climatic management through optimization of a number of

factors like light, temperature, humidity, water, air, growing media and nutrition
for quality flower production. The standardization of growing media using cheap
and indigenous materials such as leaf ferns, leaf moulds, green moss etc. may be
explored and this must be used in combination with cropping systems to develop
an orchid based farming systems.
– Development and popularization of cost effective agricultural practices (INM/
IPM) for increasing productivity.
– Quantification of water use efficiency and water requirements in orchids based
on growth habit.
– Carbon sequestration potential in orchid based cropping systems.
8.3.5 Post Harvest and Value Addition
– Development of location specific complete protocols starting from pre-harvest,

harvesting, post-harvest techniques up to domestic and international markets for
each genus of commercial orchids.
– Developing a comprehensive approach on value added products from wild
orchids including species trade, drying, flower arrangements, herbal medicines,
edible products and other aesthetic and aromatic products.
– Bio-prospecting using bioinformatics tools
8.3.6 Bio-Risk Management
– Surveillance, identification and characterization of new invasive insects pests

and pathogens
– Pest-risk analysis
– Development of rapid and reliable diagnostics kits against pests and pathogens
including invasive species
– Management alert and control of new invasive insect pests and pathogens
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8.3.7 Policies
– Commercialization of the new upgraded technologies

– Genetic finger printing of rare, endangered and threatened species and their registration
– Finger printing and registration of newly released varieties or hybrids
– Patenting technologies related to orchids
– Confirmation and Documentation of ITK’s
8.3.8 Transfer of Technology
– Constraint analysis and impact assessment of new technologies

– Production of quality planting materials, distribution and commercialization
– Large scale demonstration of proven technologies through training and FLD’s
– Establishing agro-technology information centre like ITMU, AKMU
– Participatory planting material production of commercial orchids
8.4 Impact Assessment
Climate change due to global warming interacts with habitat loss and fragmentation,
introduced and invasive species and population growths. This means that many eco-
systems are likely to undergo severe modification. In Asia, climate change is projected
to compound the pressures on natural resources and the environment associated with
rapid urbanization, industrialization and economic development. Semi-arid vegeta-
tion will tend to be replaced by arid vegetation. Levels of precipitation are likely to
change radically in many areas of the world. Increasing temperature may result in
vegetational zones gradually moving vertically up mountain sides, both permitting
tropical species to subtropical areas, subtropical species to temperate areas and elim-
inating the species in the highest zones (Liu et al, 2010).
Epiphytic orchids may be affected in various ways by changes in the availability of
light, nutrients and moisture. Climate change is a major threat to pollination services
and there is a need to conserve plant communities in which orchids live. The combina-
tion of higher temperatures and lower rainfall may make forests more susceptible to fire
and it may lead to extinction of local species. During 1984, at the World Orchid Confer-
ence held in Miami, it was proposed that the orchid community should start banking
orchid seed as an insurance against possible losses of species from their habitats in
the wild. The majority of orchid species are capable of tolerating dry storage for many
decades when stored at -20°C. Liquid nitrogen storage may further extend the life spans
of orchid seeds. Living collections are recently underutilized as a conservation tool and
there is a need to do more to induce members of the wider orchid community. A number
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Impact Assessment 145
of strategies can be followed for conservation, multiplication, production, improve-

ment and protection of valuable orchid species and varieties (Tab. 8.1)
Tab. 8.1: Strategies for conservation, multiplication, production, improvement and protection of
orchids
Goal Approach Performance Measure
Conservation Integrated orchid conser- • Conservation genetics with molecular methods and phylo-
of genetic vation approach including genetic studies
resources GIS survey and remote • Epiphytic (70%) and terrestrial (20%) mycorrhizal associ-
sensing ations with analysis of DNA sequences
• All Pollinators interactions with population genetics and
phylogenetic analysis of orchids and pollinators
• In-situ conservations (Biosphere Reserves, National Parks,
Sacred Grooves, Gene Sanctuary and Individual Trees) of all
available species)
• Ex- situ conservations (Field gene banks, Botanical garden,
Herbal Garden, In vitro-conservation, Cryo-preservation and
DNA conservation) of more than 100 species
Evaluation, Character specific • Specific collection of 850 indigenous germplasm from NEH
valuation and collection of exotic and region, 288 species of North Western Himalayas, 379 species
improvement indigenous germplasm, of Peninsular India and 115 species of Andaman and Nicobar
of genetic locating resistance source Islands. Exotic germplasm from Thailand, Britain, Singapore,
resources effect- and evolving high yielding Australia, Hawaii andNew Zealand will be attempted to enrich
ively to meet and disease resistant basic genetic materials.
the challenges lines through selection, • Genera and species wise cataloguing of all 1350 germplasm of
of biotic and mutation, inter-generic India collections using IPGRI descriptors.
biotic stresses and inter-specific crosses, • Identification of genes contributing resistance to biotic and
to sustain the polyploidy breeding and abiotic stress factors and quality characteristics of major 10
impact of climate biotechnological tools for commercial orchid genera.
change in addi- orchid improvement • Improvement of Cymbidium to develop hybrids or varieties
tion to quality with less pre-blooming period and resistance to viruses.
• Varietal evaluation of newly developed genotypes of commer-
cial orchid genera to suit specific agro-ecological conditions.
• Development of highly adaptive and tolerant genotypes to
mitigate climate change and water stress
• Genetic engineering and transformation for early flowering
and extending shelf-life in commercial orchids
• Development of Bar codes for germplasm identification at
species level.
Increasing Targeting the production • Production of nucleus planting materials through mass
productivity of levels by propagating and multiplication using standardized protocols of commercial
orchids through distributing quality plant- orchids at least one lakh per annum.
quality planting ing materials of improved • Standardization of protocols for mass multiplication of
materials hybrids for effective endangered, rare and threatened orchid species
production and spread • Participatory quality planting material production of commer-
protected cultiva- cial orchids in collaboration with line departments
tion • Developing technologies suitable for protected cultivation of
disease free planting materials
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continued
Tab. 8.1: Strategies for conservation, multiplication, production, improvement and protection of
orchids
Goal Approach Performance Measure
Developing Generation of eco-region • Cost effective nutrient and agro-climatic management through
efficient system specific technologies optimization for quality flower production
for management based on maximum • Development and popularization of cost effective agricul-
of climatic factors productivity of available tural practices (INM/IPM) of 10 commercial orchid genera for
and nutrients to natural resources increasing productivity
get maximum • Quantification of water use efficiency and water requirements
production and in orchids
developing an • Carbon sequestration potential in orchid based cropping
effective model systems
• Development of at least two to five profitable orchid based
cropping systems with other high value flower crops.
• Reducing pre-blooming period of Cymbidium orchids from five
to two years using effective management practices for higher
income.
Management Identification of new and • Surveillance, identification and characterization of new invas-
of biotic stress effective bio-molecules ive pests and pathogens, pest risk analysis
to reduce for management of biotic • Characterization of rhizosphere microbial community struc-
production losses stresses coupled with ture and effect of engineered nanoparticles on microorgan-
by developing development of innovative isms in the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere
diagnostics, diagnostic techniques for • Development of rapid and reliable diagnostics against pests
forecasting rapid, accurate and cost and pathogens including invasive species
models, bio- effective detection of high • Management of new invasive insect pests and pathogens
control systems impact pests and diseases.
and effective
management
strategies
Post-harvest and Development of post-har- • Development of pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest techno-
value addition vest technologies to logies of major commercially grown orchids for specific target
improve product quality groups like domestic and export market and hybrid/variety
and value addition, chemo specific technologies.
profiling and identification • Development of packaging for marketing of commercially
of new flavour / bioactive important fresh and dried produce using locally available
principles. materials.
• Development of orchid based technologies for dry flowers and
floral arrangement.
• Use of orchid waste for production of phytochemicals includ-
ing pigments, food, feed, herbal medicines and essential oils.
• Patenting technologies related to species
Effective Transfer Participatory approach • Identification of various clusters of production, selection of
of Technology to for effective transfer of beneficiaries and imparting training and technical inputs in
the target groups technologies to empower order to produce orchids of international standards
stakeholders, analyzing • Large scale demonstration of proven technologies through
feedback for further FLD’s and technology dissemination using advanced tools
refinement • Upgrading of Knowledge, Know How techniques, Managerial
Skills and Self employment among extension functionaries,
farmers, school drop outs, young man and women genera-
tions by organizing Kisan Mela, exhibition, Brainstorming
session, need based and focused Training Programme,
Demonstration, Model training Courses etc.
• Inter–institutional collaboration to facilitate popularization of
effective technologies
• Commercialization of technologies and patenting
• Documentation of ITK’s
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Impact Assessment 147
Repository of world orchid germplasm
Field gene bank at NRCO Cryo & DNA bank Referral centre for phenomics
and AICRP centers
Development of cDNA library, data bases and catalogues
Registration of unique genotypes
Bar-coding of promising accessions
Characterization –IPGRI descriptor/molecular
In situ conservation
Collection of germplasm
Ex-situ conservation
GIS for exploring and conserving the diversity
Fig. 8.1: Conservation of genetic resources
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Developing biotic and abiotic stress

resistant & high quality lines
Gene pyramiding Developing gene constructs for resistance
Developing divergent mapping

populations for gene tagging Identification of gene sequences
and functional analysis
Comparative gene expression and protein

Molecular basis for host profiling
pathogen interaction
Convergent breeding of promising Cloning resistant and defense genes

germplasm from resistant sources
Biotechnological approaches
Identifying resistant & quality lines
Fig. 8.2: Varietal development with resistance to biotic/abiotic stress
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9 Production Technology of Commercial Epiphytic
Orchids for Cut flowers
The term “Cut flowers” refers to blossoms or flower buds that are cut with branches,
leaves and stems. Fresh cut flowers are highly perishable because they maintain only
limited life supporting processes by absorbing water through their stems. They are used
for bouquet preparation, decorations, vase arrangements; designs for weddings and
funerals; gifts on occasions; informal display to beautify home and public places. Cut
flowers are the most important floricultural products in the international flower trade.
The most traded flower crops include roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, dahlia,
gerbera, gladiolus, gypsophila, liatris, nerine, orchids, poinsettias, achillea, anthur-
ium, tulips and lilies. These flowers are cultivated in open fields or protected structure.
Epiphytes grow on trees or other objects above ground level, but they do not act
as parasites. Plants living epiphytically in a tropical rain forest face better light con-
ditions than plants living on the ground level. On top of that, epiphytes are more
easily pollinated by flying pollinators. The roots of an epiphyte are developed for a
life above soil. For example, they need high air humidity since they often are forced
to take most of their water from the air. Together with epiphytic ferns and bromelias,
orchids grow and flower on tropical trees. Many orchids growing ‘with’ a tree have
adapted very precisely to the tree’s ‘behaviour’. For example, when the tree drops its
leaves to a period of rest, the orchid does the same thing.
9.1 Cymbidium (Orchidaceae)
9.1.1 Introduction
Cymbidiums are among the most popular winter and spring blooming semi-terrestrial
orchids and originated from tropical and subtropical Asia. This includes North
Eastern India, China, Japan, Malayasia, the Philippines, Borneo islands and North
Australia, where it usually grows in cooler climates at high elevations. The important
Cymbidium growing countries in the world are Australia, New Zealand, Japan, the
Netherlands, the USA and England. Cymbidium consists of 70 semi-terrestrial and
epiphytic orchid species of tropical and subtropical Asia.
9.1.2 Botanical Description
The plants are characterized by short and stout pseudobulbs ensheathed by encirc-
ling leaf bases. Leaves are long, ribbon shaped, leathery or soft and lanceolate. The
flower spikes develop from the base of the pseudobulbs.
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150 Production Technology of Commercial Epiphytic Orchids for Cut flowers
A plant has three types of bulbs. 1. Old Backbulbs without leaves, which act as
a reserve food supply for emergencies. It is advisable to leave one of these on each
divided plant. Back bulbs can make new plants but they may take years to flower.
2. Old bulbs with leaves, which support the new growth and may produce flowers
for a number of years depending on the variety. When dividing, the plant must
retain at least two old bulbs or have one back bulb attached to be able to reflower
next year. 3. New leads or bulbs, which are the youngest bulbs on the plant that the
flowers and most new growth come from. When dividing, at least 1 old bulb and one
back bulb must be retained with this bulb to ensure that the plant may flower the
following year.
The spikes are erect, arching or pendulous and arranged with 2 to 15 flowers. The
individual florets are 1 cm to 12.5 cm across and are of various colours and shades.
Cymbidiums are famous for their beautiful spikes derived from species and hybrids.
Among the orchids, Cymbidium ranks first and in floricultural crops it accounts for
2.7% of the total cut flower production.
9.1.3 Classification
Cymbidium hybrids are classified into three groups-Standard, Intermediate and Mini-
ature hybrids. Standard and Intermediate hybrids produce 90 to 120 cm long spikes
with 8 to 15 flowers per spike. Miniature hybrids produce green, yellow or brown col-
oured flowers, 30 cm tall and each spike contains 30-40 flowers of 2.5 to 8.5 cm across.
Novelty or Intermediate hybrids have been evolved by crosses between Miniature and
Standard hybrids.
9.1.4 World Scenario
Cymbidium has been considered the top commercial orchids in Europe for many
years. They fetch the highest price in the international markets, with the Asian
countries of Singapore and Japan and the Netherlands being the major markets.
Cymbidiums imported from the Netherlands fetched as much as US$ 11.18 per stem
in Singapore, and those imported by Japan from New Zealand fetched US$ 3.33 per
stem. As fars as the Dutch Auction market is concerned, the cymbidiums fetched the
highest value, averaging Euro cents 331 per stem during 2003-2007 period (Tab. 9.1).
East Sikkim has been declared an Agri Export Zone exclusively for production of
cymbidium orchids. In Sikkim, more than 250 hybrids of cymbidium orchids are
commercially cultivated in an around 25 ha of land and about 5 lakhs spikes are
produced annually.
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Cymbidium (Orchidaceae) 151
Tab. 9.1: Average Annual Prices at Netherlands Auction (2003-2007) (Euro cents /stem)
Orchids 2003 2005 2007 Average price
Phalaenopsis 38 46 37 40
Cymbidium (Big bud) 330 334 329 331
Cymbidium
138 148 140 142
(Small bud)
Paphiopedilum 58 52 63 58
Source: CBI Market Survey, The Cut Flowers and Foliage Market in the EU
9.1.5 Importance and Uses
Cymbidiums are highly valued for their potential as genetic resources, cut flowers,
hanging baskets, potted plants and herbal medicines (Tab. 9.2) (De and Medhi, 2012).
Tab. 9.2: Genetic resources for hybridization
Name of species Uses

Cymbidium iridioides, C. eburneum, C. hookerianum, Development of standard cymbidium hybrids
C. sanderae, C. lowianum, C. tracyanum, C. insigne,
C. erythrostylum
Cymbidium ensifolium, C. devonianum, C. tigrinum Development of miniature cymbidium
hybrids
Cymbidium atropurpureum, C. finalaysonianum Development of cascading cymbidium
hybrids
9.1.5.1 Cut flowers

Both standard and novelty hybrids are used as cut flowers.
9.1.5.2 Potted Plants

Species like C. ensifolium, C. aloifolium, C. devonianum, C. eburneum, C. lancifolium,
C. lowianum and C. mastersii are used as potted orchids. Other miniature orchid
hybrids that can be used as potted plants are Autumn Beacon Geyserland, One Tree
Hill Solstice Gold B/CSA, Wakakusu Delight, Minneken Khobai, Kusada Fantasy
Carioca, Phar Lap, Gladys Whitesell, Summer Love.
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9.1.5.3 Hanging Baskets

Cascading hybrids are ideal for hanging baskets: e.g., Sarah Jean Ice Cascade Ad/CSA,
Nicoles Valentine Geyserland HCC/AOS, Dorothy Stockstill Forgotten Fruit.
9.1.5.4 Herbal Medicines

In India, orchids have been used in the indigenous system of medicine since the Vedic
period. In general, orchids through out the world are used for curing rheumatism,
malaria, tuberculosis, cuts, wounds, burn injuries, asthma, bronchitis and several
other ailments.
Tab. 9.3: Cymbidium orchids used in Indian medicine system
Botanical name Parts used Therapeutic uses

Cymbidium aloifolium Rhizomes Salep; used as nutrient and demulcent;
as emetic and purgative
Cym. ensifolium Rhizomes & Flowers Eye sores
Cym. longifolium Pseudobulb As emetic and demulcent
Cym. giganteum Leaf juice Blood clotting
9.1.5.5 Stylish Packaging

These are specially designed to add value to the cut flowers.
Ciliandra: A gift of glass flute containing miniature cymbidium.
Oriental diamond: A fine packaging method for cut cymbidium is designed to add
value to delicate flowers and used for special occasions.
Aura of Luxury: A new packaging method for cymbidium for luxury and style.
9.1.6 Varieties (De, 2014)
White: Jungfrau ‘Snow Queen’, Jungfrau ‘Dos Pueblos’, Camalex, Showgirl ‘Cooks-
bridge’, Showgirl ‘Marion Miller’, Swallow var. ‘Takarazuki’
Pink: Lilian Stewart ‘Coronation’, Lilian Stewart ‘Party Dress’, Orkney ‘Pink Heather’,
Ensikhan, ‘Alpha Orient’, Pacific Rose ‘Swansea’, Soulhunt Series, Valley Paradise
‘Shangriila’, Rievaulx ‘Cooksbridge’, Rincon Fairy ‘Pink Perfection’.
Yellow: Angelica ‘December Gold’, Highland Sunset ‘Plumpton’, Mini Sarah ‘Artisan’,
Hawtescens, Gwen Sherman, ‘Arthur Fetzer’, San Francisco ‘Mona Lisa’, Valya Craig
‘Sutherland’, Luana ‘Imperial’, ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’, ‘Valley Legend Steff’
Green: Joyce Duncan ‘Susan Hughes’, ‘R.D. Hughes’, Miretta ‘Mcbean’, Lucense,
Tricia Allen ‘The Globe’, Sparkle ‘Late Green’, Levis Duke ‘Belle Vista’, Sparkle ‘Late
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Green’, Amsebury ‘Frank Slattery’, ‘Valley Zenith ‘Top Spot’, ‘Madrid Forest King’,
‘Winter Beach Sea Green’
Red: Chief Joseph ‘Pathfinder’, Sensation ‘Chianti’ 4N, Terama ‘Robin,’Barushka ‘Dos
Pueblos’, Khyber Pass ‘Rowes Red’, James Toya, ‘Fire Storm Ruby’, ‘Fire Storm Blaze’
‘Bob Marlin Lucky’
9.1.7 Growing Requirements
In India, its cultivation is limited to Sikkim and the surrounding region of West Bengal
covering Kalimpong, Darjeeling and Mirik. Other North Eastern states like Nagaland
and Arunachal Pradesh are also promoting this flower. Higher elevations of 1500-
2000 m with cool summer night and monsoonal summer rain are ideal for cymbidium
cultivation.
9.1.7.1 Light
A full morning sun or bright dappled afternoon shade during summer and full sun in
winter is ideal. Mature plants need 50-55% shade during hot weather. During growing
season they require up to 5000-6000 foot candle light, whereas in flowering season up
to 2000-3000 foot candle light is needed. Foliages should be yellowish green in colour.
9.1.7.2 Temperature
In general, cymbidiums can tolerate temperatures as low as 7°C. In the vegetative
stage, plantlets grow best at temperature of 18°C at night and 24-30°C during the day.
A temperature of 10-15°C is required for initiation of flower spikes. During the winter
season (Late October to late February) a temperature of 7-12°C at night and 18-24°C
during the day is maintained. Miniature hybrids can withstand temperatures 5°C
higher than standard cymbidiums.
9.1.7.3 Propagation
Cymibidiums are propagated sexually through seeds and asexually through division
or backbulbs. Division means splitting the plants into two to three parts each with
one new shoot, and each will produce an individual plant. Propagation through back
bulb is a slow process which will take three to four years to give a flowering size plant.
Tissue culture is the only way to produce millions of disease free and true to the
type plants in the shortest time. In this method, callus (amorphous masses of cells),
meristems and organs (root, leaf, flower, embryo, ovary, fruit, seeds, etc.) are isolated
and cultured aseptically in a laboratory and supplied with defined media containing
sugars, inorganic salts, vitamins and growth regulators.
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9.1.7.4 Watering
In Cymbidium, watering is required year round to keep the pseudobulbs green and
smooth. The frequency of watering is given below.
Summer: 2-3 times per week
Autumn: Once or twice per week
Winter: Once per week
Spring: As Autumn season
9.1.7.5 Relative Humidity

An optimum range of relative humidity is 50-80% and important for good growth and
flowering. During hot weather, misting down the plants and the surrounding floors
and benches maintains humidity, which prevents crinkling of leaves.
9.1.7.6 Air Circulation

Fresh air and good circulation are essential for orchid production. Leaves should
move gently in a light breeze.
9.1.7.7 Feeding
Cymbidium orchids should be fed about once every two weeks. A foliar feeding of
0.2-0.3% NPK mixture is effective and applied in the following manner.
Spring season: 30:10:10
Summer season: 19:19:19
Autumn season: 10:30:20
Pre-harvest foliar sprays with micronutrient mixture (0.05%), glucose (0.1%) and
mustard cake (1 kg/50 litres of water) were found promising in terms of number
of inflorescence/plant (4 to 6) and number of flowers/spike (8 to 10) followed by
GA3 (50 ppm) and cow urine (1:20). Do not feed your cymbidium once it has started
flowering.
9.1.7.8 Potting and Repotting

Cymbidiums prefer a coarse compost containing bark, cocopeat, cocochips, leaf
mould, sawdust, brick pieces for development of new shoots and good pseudobulb
growth. The compost should be very light, slightly acidic in reaction with a pH range
of 5.5-6 and with good drainage properties and water holding capacity. In Cymbidium,
the potting mixture combinations, cocochips + cocopeat + brick pieces + chopped
fern leaves (3:3:1:1) followed by cocochips + cocopeat + brick pieces + slow release fer-
tilizer (3:3:1:1) were found effective for good pseudobulb growth and flowering. Repot-
ting is required every 2-4 years as indicated by the bulbs filling the pot or breaking
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down of potting mixture and if a plant is not able to produce 1-2 new bulbs each year
from each bulb that grew the previous year.
9.1.7.9 Planting
It is advisable to begin at the end of February or beginning of March which will create
a congenial environment for early establishment of the plant and thus better growth
and development. It is a healthy practice to culture Cymbidiums in pots of 10" dia-
meter and 18" height. The pots should be placed at spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm, which
will accommodate about 3 pots / m2 (gross). The total number of plants will be about
30,000 / ha. These must be cultured under shelter by providing poly-cover to obtain
quality blooms. Some shading (about 30%) is essential during the blooming time for
proper colour development of flowers and during the young plant stage. Cymbidium
pots are kept on 2 to 3 feet high beds.
9.1.7.10 Training
Cymbidiums may be trained with bamboo sticks and yoyo to keep the spikes in
upright position.
9.1.7.11 Harvest
The orchid flowers should be harvested at the proper stage to achieve quality flowers
and maximum vase life. Morning is the best time for harvesting. Flowers are cut
sharply with a knife or secateur and dipped immediately in a bucket of water. In most
of the commercial orchids, the optimum harvesting stage is fully opened and mature
flowers. A matured healthy plant in a 10” pot under good management will produce
about 4-6 flowers per year. A healthy well grown orchid will produce flowers spikes
every year and a plant 10 years old can produce from 10 to 20 flower spikes.
9.1.8 Insects Pests and Diseases
9.1.8.1 Insect Pests

Mites, thrips, scale insects, aphids, mealy bugs, grass hoppers and shoot borers are
common insect pests of Cymbidium. All active stages (nymph and adult) of mite feed
on undersurface of leaves and flowers by sucking the cell sap from the epidermal
layer, especially along with the midrib and the base. The loss of cell sap causes yel-
lowing of leaves. Sulphur, 3% wettable or colloidal, satisfactorily controls the nymph
and adults.
There are five predominant species of scale insects viz., ti scale, Pinnaspis buxi,
florida red scale, Chrysomphalus aonidum; lecanium scale, Lecanium sp; soft brown
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scale, Coccus hesperidum and boisduval scale, Diaspis boisduvali which cause
damage on orchids round the year. Both the stages of scale insects suck the cell sap
from leaves, pseudobulbs, flower buds and flowers causing yellowing of leaves, vigor
loss and stunted new growth. In the case of heavy infestation, infected plants become
deformed, and sticky honeydew is excreted which attracts sooty mould on which dust
particles deposit resulting in a negative effect on the rate of photosynthesis. Chemic-
als like imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.003%, acephate 75 SP or carbaryl 50WP or monocro-
tophos 36EC @ 0.03-0.05% can be used against aphids, scale insects and mealybug.
Two species of aphids like yellow aphid, Macrosiphum luteus and black aphid,
Toxoptera aurantii mainly cause damage to orchids. The nymphs and adults suck
the cell sap usually from new flower spike and foliage. They also excrete honeydew
on which sooty mould develops and affects photosynthesis. Thrips, Dichromothrips
nakahari suck the cell sap from tender portion of plants and on leaves, it become
discolored and shrivels. Both young and adult mealy bugs (Pseudococcus sp) suck
the cell sap from the leaves and petioles or any joint portion of plants and as a result
of that plants become weakened. Grass hoppers (Hieroglyphus banian) feed on young
leaves, un-opened flower buds and flowers by cutting irregular shape with their biting
and chewing mouth parts, and ultimately flower quality is affected.
9.1.8.2 Diseases
Black rot, Crown rot or heart rot (Pythium ultimum, P. splendens, Phytophthora
palmivora and P. parasitica): Water soaked small brown spot on the aerial parts of
plants, which quickly turn black. Fungicides spray viz Captan @ 2 g/l or Zineb @ 2 g/l
water controls it.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C. orchidacearum): Initial
symptom appears as a small oblong to circular oval, sunken and reddish brown to
dark brown or gray coloured spots. Die back of leaves are also observed if the leaf tip
is attacked. Spraying of Carbendazim (Bavistin) @ 1 g/ liter in 10 days interval checks
the disease.
Blossom Blight (Botrytis cinerea): The pathogens produce numerous small dark
spots on petals, especially on older flowers. Sometimes shot hole effect is found on
infected flower petals. Spraying with Bavistin @ 1g/l liter or indofil Z @ 2g/liter at
7 days intervals are effective.
Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora pv. carotovora and E. chrysanthi): Deep
grayish grey lesions on leaves. It causes leaf spot, soft rot and stem rot with fishy
smell. Treating of infected plants with streptomycin or Oxytetracycline solution
before planting checks the infection.
Cymbidium mosaic virus (Cymbidium mosaic potexvirus): The virus produces
variable symptoms on different hosts. It produces mild or severe mosaic symptoms
followed by necrosis. Start with certified and virus free plant material, proper steriliz-
ation of tools used in cultural practices, proper distance among plants has to be main-
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tained to avoid virus infection, proper sanitation. Keep growing area free from plant
debris. Quarantine new plants and control insect vectors are remedial measures.
Odontoglossum ringspot virus (Tobamovirus): It produces ringspot on Odon-
toglossum grande and diamond mottle symptoms. Start with certified and virus free
plant material, proper sterilization of tools used in cultural practices, proper distance
among plants has to be maintained to avoid virus infection and maintain proper
sanitation. Keep growing area free from plant debris. Quarantine of new plants and
control of insect vectors are remedial measures.
9.1.9 Post-harvest Management
A good quality cut flower of an orchid should have the following characteristics
– Minimum eight standard blooms per stem
– Flowers must be cleaned, evenly coloured and free from physiological disorders
– Stem must have flowers evenly arranged and around the stem.
– Two third of the stem should be covered with the flowers.
– Flowers must have a firm texture and a luminescent sheen
– Stems must be firm when held up
– The minimum base diameter of the stem should be of 10 mm
9.1.9.1 Stage of Harvest

In Cymbidium, flowers having 75% bloom stage or two buds opened stage with the
spike length of 60-90 cm are harvested.
9.1.9.2 Grading
Cut spikes of Cymbidium orchids are graded based upon their classes, number of
flowers per spike and spike length (Tab. 9.3).
Tab. 9.3: Grading of Cymbidium cut flowers
Category Grade Flower Count Spike length
Standard AAA 12-15 1.25 m
AA 8 90 cm
Miniature XL >15 65 cm +
L 12-14 55-64 cm
M 8-11 40-54 cm
S <5 30-39 cm
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9.1.9.3 Packing
After harvest the flower stems, are bunched into 5 or 10, wrapped in a specialized
polythene cover and at the base of the stem a slant cut is made with a sharp knife.
The stem bottom is inserted in a plastic plug containing clean water. This will keep
the flowers fresh during transportation. In absence of the plug, a moistened cotton
wrapped with a piece of polythene can do the job for domestic market. After plugging
or wrapping with moistened cotton, the flower stems are placed in corrugated boxes
and readied for dispatch to the market.
9.1.9.4 Storage
The cut spikes can be stored at 0.5 to 5°C for 14 days under dry.
9.1.9.5 Floral Preservatives

In the Cymbidium hybrid ‘Red Princess’ pulsing with 5% sucrose increases vase life up
to 56 days followed by sucrose at 8% (54.78 days). In Cymbidium, 1-MCP and AVG are
superior to STS in prolonging the vase life of cut flowers. In Cymbidium hybrid, ‘Red
Princess’, 75% open flowers with 200 ppm 8-HQS showed highest vase life along with
100% opening. In Cymbidium ‘Ensikhan’ and ‘PCMV’, 4% sucrose + 100 ppm salicylic
acid and 4% sucrose + 100 ppm Al2 (SO4)3 are used as bud opening chemicals. 2%
sucrose + 200 ppm 8-HQS is also used as holding solution.
9.2 Dendrobium (Orchidaceae)
9.2.1 Introduction
Dendrobiums are popular flowering potted plants and cut flowers around the world
due to their floriferousness, wide range in flower color, size and shape, year round
availability and lengthy vase life. Hawaii, California and Florida are major potted
Dendrobium growing regions in the United States. In the Netherlands, production of
potted orchids is now 40 to 50 million units with Dendrobium increasing in popular-
ity. Imports from Thailand, the world’s largest exporter of tropical cut orchids and
second largest supplier to the EU, accounted for 22% of supplies to the EU. Thailand
holds a particularly strong position in Dendrobium orchids.
9.2.2 Botanical Descriptions
Dendrobium consists of 1600 species of sympodial epiphytic orchids. The genus is

characterized by long pseudobulbs or canes with soft leaves on the entire length or in
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Dendrobium (Orchidaceae) 159
some species, pseudobulbs are short or swollen terminating in two coriaceous leaves.
The pseudobulbs are of four types, cane woody (a), cane cylindric (b), cane clavate
fleshy (c) and bulbous round (d) (Tab. 9.4) (De et al, 2013).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Tab. 9.4: Nature of pseudobulb in Dendrobium
Characteristics Example varieties/species
Cane woody Den. gibsonii, Den. bensoniae, Den. aphyllum, Den. ruckeri, Den.
aduncum, Den. cathcartii
Cane cylindric fleshy ---
Cane clavate fleshy Den. primulinum, Den. nobile, Den. parishii, Den. pendulum, Den.
loddigesii, Den. ‘Bangkok Blue’, Den. ‘Big White Jumbo’, ‘Den. ‘Thongchai
Gold’, Den. ‘Erika’, Den. ‘Triple Pink’, Den. ‘Madam Pink’
Bulbous round Den. aggregatum, Den. chrysotoxum, Den. jenkensii, Den. ‘Julie’
The leaf size ranges from 2.5 cm to 40 cm, thick, and are deciduous or evergreen. In
some groups, the flowers are joined in pairs or three on small peduncle on the entire
length of the pseudobulbs, with caduceus leaves. In some species, with persistent
leaves, the flowers are grouped in pairs or threes or alternately closely set, forming
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erect or pendent thyrses. In another group, flowers are generally solitary and small,
arising from the axils of leaves. The inflorescences are terminal or subterminal and
arranged with one to several dozens of flowers with extremely diverse dimensions,
size and ranges of flower colour.
Dendrobiums are popular for cut flowers and for interioscaping. They are also valu-
able as pot plants or hanging baskets. Some species are hanged on the walls or on tree
branches to cover the bare walls and branches. The dried stems of Dendrobium nobile
are used for making herbal medicines. Dendrobium enhances salivation and is used
for the treatment of dry mouth, dry coughs and severe thirst. Flowers could be used
to cure eye ailments. The tonic made from Dendrobium nourishes stomach, lungs and
kidneys. The plant is effective in treating pulmonary tuberculosis, impotence and
anorexia. The pulp of pseudobulb is applied to boils and pimples, and the juice of
the plant is used to relieve fever. Dendrobium blossoms are the most common genus
used in cooking. In Thailand, these edible flowers are dipped in butter and deep fried
while many European cooks garnish desserts and cakes with them. The starchy stems
of Den. speciosum are roasted and eaten.
9.2.4 Hybrids (De, 2014)
White: ‘Snow White’, ‘Pagoda White’, ‘Emma White’, ‘White Surprise’, ‘Jacquelyn
Concert x Walter Oumae’, ‘Kasem White’, ‘Big White 4N’, ‘Big White Jumbo’, ‘White 5N’.
Blue: ‘Vorawit Blue’, ‘Lee Chong Blue’, ‘Kultana Blue’, ‘Kiyoshi Izumi’, ‘Blue Fairy’,
‘Lee Chong Blue’, ‘Bangkok Blue’.
Pink: ‘Chiengmai Pink’, ‘Ekapol Panda’, ‘Jisu’s Star’, ‘Juree Red’, ‘Kiilani Stripe’, ‘Long
Champ’, ‘Penang Sugar’, ‘Sagura Pink’, ‘Miss Singapore’, ‘Madam Pink’, ‘Sonia-16’, ‘Ear
Sakul’, ‘Candy Stripe Pink’, ‘Sonia-17’, ‘Sonia-28’, ‘Dr. A. Abraham’.
Yellow: ‘Sri Siam’, ‘Swan Lake’, ‘Thongchai Gold’, ‘Bonchoo Gold’, ‘Sarifa Fatima’.
Green: ‘Daangsaard’, ‘Kanjana Green’, ‘Green Mist’, ‘Little Green Apples’.
Red: ‘Meike Beauty’, ‘Pathum Red x Sabin’, ‘Little Lolita’, ‘Cleopatra’, ‘Diamond Star’,
‘Fireball’, ‘Kating Daang’.
Interspecific hybrids: ‘Australian Lemon Pepper’, ‘Jiali Paradise’, ‘Womad’, ‘Green
Elf’, ‘Memoria Dipper Nishi’, ‘Falcan’, ‘First Star’, ‘Falcan’, ‘Mini Snowflake’, ‘Scotts
Valentine’, ‘Dounan Spicy’, ‘Black Gold’, ‘Winter Frost’, ‘Peng Seng’, ‘Silver Wings’,
‘Aminah Khatum’, ‘Bruce Gorden’, Green Mist’, ‘Aussies Queen’, ‘Sweet Phurichaya’,
Big Alex’, ‘Carly Hera’, ‘Pink Glow’, ‘Molly’s Angel’, ‘Go Secret’.
Inter-varietal hybrids: ‘Candy Smile’, ‘Angel Moon’, ‘Million Gold’, ‘Liberty Girl’,
‘Asian Smile’, ‘Happy Holiday’, ‘Happy Smile’, ‘Pop Eye’, ‘Sunny Bird’, ‘Wonder
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Rabbit’, ‘Sunny Bird’, ‘Peach Blossom’, ‘Long river Giant’, ‘Sally Fiesta’, ‘Rudkin’,
‘Ice Storm’, ‘Genting Melody’, ‘Hawaiian Twinkle’, ‘Sea Sky’, ‘Singa Beauty’, ‘Arthur
Reserve’, ‘Green Wonder’, ‘Open Heart Leaf’, ‘Rising Star’, ‘Fairy Star’, ‘Nice Boy
Wanda’, ‘Burbank Candy’, ‘ Burnt Orange’, ‘Justine’.
Variety-species hybrids: ‘Bright Angel’, ‘Blue Rain’, ‘Samson Toy’, ‘Margaret
Thompson’, ‘Third Eyes Vision’, ‘Rods Eagle’, ‘Spider Lily’, ‘Sylvester’, ‘Paradise
Fortune’, ‘Sky Mirror’, ‘Butter Fly Dawn’, ‘Island Snow’, ‘Australian Idol’, ‘Fine Ford’,
‘Half Moon Bay’, ‘Special Bride’, ‘Two Kings’, ‘Juliette Copper’, ‘Genting Lipstick’,
‘Singa Kagoshima’, Jairuk Spin’.
9.2.5 Growth and Physiology
Like other flowering plants, orchids also have to attain a certain stage of growth and
fulfill the energetic demand to initiate flowering. It may vary from 3 years to 7 years
depending upon the type of species and hybrids. Orchid pseudobulbs are engaged in
the control of physiological processes that are important for growth and survival. The
ability to store water, minerals and carbohydrates in the pseudobulb has greater impact
for survival in the harsh and nutrient limited epiphytic biotope. Pseudobulb photosyn-
thesis recycles respiratory carbon that would contribute positively to whole plant carbon
economy. There are significant variations in the content of carbohydrates in pseudob-
ulbs and flowers and chlorophyll content in leaves among different hybrids. Reducing
sugar analysis was carried out in the Dendrobium hybrid ‘Thongchai Gold’, where three
stages of flowers, specifically opened flowers, half opened flowers and bud, were taken
for analysis. It was found that the opened flower contains 29.00%, half opened flower
contains 28.25% and buds contain 16.17% of reducing sugars (De et al, 2013).
9.2.6 Cultivation
9.2.6.1 Temperature
The cool growing Dendrobium orchid group thrives well in temperatures ranging
between 10 and 24°C. The intermediate Dendrobium orchid prefers a temperature
range of 14-26°C whereas the warm growing Dendrobium orchids prefer 16 to 30°C.
The warmer group species like Dendrobium phalaenopsis, Den. gouldii, Den. big-
gibum, Den. antennatum and Den. discolor bloom at night temperatures above 16°C
and the cool growing species such as Den. lindleyi, Den. aggregatum, Den. parishii,
Den. pierardii, Den. densiflorum, Den. chrysotoxum and Den. anosmum perform well
at night temperature of 10°C. Low day temperature causes leaf yellowing, defoliation
and reduces vegetative growth, while higher temperatures delay flower bud develop-
ment. Low temperature and short days could change the concentration of endogen-
ous growth regulators leading to the induction of flowering in sympodial orchids.
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9.2.6.2 Light
Most orchids generally prefer indirect or filtered light. Although it varies by species,
growth habit and habitat, as the rule of thumb, 50% shading is advised for most of
the commercial orchids. Under enough light, orchid plants have short, plump stems
with bright green leathery leaves, while too much light causes yellowing, stunting
and scorching of plants, and too much shade causes darker green, soft and succu-
lent leaves with thin and spiny stems. All types of Dendrobium orchids require warm
bright light (2500-3000 foot candles). They should get at least 12-14 hours of light each
day year round.
9.2.6.3 Propagation
Conventionally, Dendrobiums are easy to propagate through keikis that produce along
old canes or by division of pseudobulbs. 10-12 cm long cuttings also can be taken from
a healthy, older and leafless cane keeping three nodes on each cuttings and placed in
moist sphagnum moss for rootings. Commercially, Dendrobium hybrids are usually
either seed-propagated or clonally propagated through tissue culture of apical and
lateral buds that proliferate as protocorm like bodies.
For seed propagation, green capsules are surface sterilized and seeds are dropped
on a basal salt medium containing 15% coconut water and 2% sucrose at pH 4.8 to
5.0 for germination. Three months after sowing, seedlings are transflasked with 75
to 100 plants per 500 ml flask in a salt medium containing 15% coconut water, 2%
banana powder, and 1% sucrose at pH 4.8-5.0.
9.2.6.4 Atmosphere
Fresh air and good circulation are essential for orchid production. Full of continual
light breezes make a good source carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
9.2.6.5 Fertilization
Orchids are light feeders and require nitrogen from the beginning to two-thirds of
their life cycle. During rest periods, they do not need any fertilizers. During flower
initiation and inflorescence development, plants are fed with less nitrogen, more
phosphorus and potassium. During the blooming time, a small level of nitrogen and
phosphorus and high levels of potassium are maintained. In orchids, foliar feeding
is found to be ideal. Frequent application of fertilizers in low concentrations is
the best way of feeding orchids. A concentration of 0.2 to 0.3% of 30:10:10 (N:P:K)
at vegetative stage and 10:20:20 (N:P:K) at blooming stage are applied for quality
flower production. Sometimes, fresh coconut water, diluted cow urine is also useful
as foliar sprays.
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9.2.6.6 Potting Mixture

The potting medium of Dendrobium orchids should be loose, friable as well as well
drained. A potting medium consisting of charcoal, brick pieces and coconut fibre in
equal proportions is ideal for vegetative growth and flowering of epiphytic orchids
like Aerides, Dendrobium etc. Under low humid conditions (30%), plastic pots with a
mixture of bark/perlite/sphagnum moss or osmunda are used. Under average humid-
ity (35-50%), it is advisable to use plastic pots with a mixture of bark and sphagnum
moss. Under high humidity (55% and above), clay pots are used with bark, stone
culture, charcoal or tree fern. In Dendrobium, among potting mixtures, cocochips +
cocopeat + leaf mould + brick pieces (4:1:2:3) showed longevity on plants in Den. ‘Ear
Sakul’(71 days) followed by Den. ‘Triple Pink’ (70 days) and Den. ‘Thongchai Gold’
(69 days).
9.2.6.7 Watering and Humidity

Most orchids are damaged by overwatering rather than under watering. Overwater-
ing leads to root rot and many other diseases. Most orchids prefer water of pH 5.0-
6.5. Watering with lower or higher pH or with high levels of dissolved minerals can
hamper nutrient uptake. Frequent watering is essential under high sunlight and high
temperature conditions. Plants in small containers dry out more quickly than in large
containers. Plants in earthen pots require more watering than plants in plastic pots.
A hanging plant, since it has better aeration, needs more frequent watering than one
in a pot. More frequent watering is also necessary for fresh potting materials. Water-
ing should be practiced either in the morning or in the afternoon. Potting materials
like coconut husk, tree fern etc., having more moisture retention capacity, need less
water and less frequently. The single dominant factor that affects the cultivation of
orchids is humidity, which should be as high as 50-75%. It varies species to species
depending upon habit of growth, light, temperature and ecotypes. As rule of thumb,
in high temperature, humidity should be kept high. Provisions of misting units or
foggers or even humidifiers will ensure adequate humidity. Standing water beneath
the benches may be kept to improve humidity.
9.2.6.8 Repotting
Orchid plants require repotting if there is no space left in the pots for new growths
and if the substrate has decomposed or roots are rotting. Timing is the most important
part of good repotting. The best time for repotting of an orchid is when new growth
and new roots are just beginning to form, before those new roots reach even 1 cm
long. In most of the orchids, it occurs right after flowering. It shows that repotting
should be done between February and June.
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9.2.6.9 Application of Growth Regulators

Experimental evidence has shown that photoperiod and low temperature modify the
concentration of endogenous growth regulators. The combined application of GA3 and
BA improves inflorescence length and reduces percentage of abnormal flowers. In the
Dendrobium hybrid ‘Thongchai Gold’ maximum flower spikes were found in drenching
followed by morning and evening spray. Spike length was found to reach maximum in
morning spray with GA3 200 ppm (46 cm) while in evening spray with GA3 100 ppm spike
length was 43.6 cm and in morning spray with GA3 100 ppm, spike length was minimum
(42 cm). In Dendrobium hybrid, ‘Emma White’, treatment with NPK 20:20:20 with Ca, Mg
and Mn along with BA 10 ppm and GA3 100 ppm increased the number of leaves (20.06),
pseudobulbs (2.73) and pseudo bulb girth (1.94 cm). Plant height was highest (59.79 cm)
in a treatment with NPK 30:30:30 with Ca, Mg and Mn along with BA 25 ppm and GA3
50 ppm. Treatment with NPK 20:20:20 with Ca, Mg and Mn along with BA 50 ppm and
GA3 100 ppm gave maximum number of spikes / plant (2) (De, et al, 2013).
9.2.7.1 Harvest
Dendrobium orchid spikes possess the vase life of 2 to 3 weeks. Usually, 40-60 cm
long floral spikes with 10-15 flowers are harvested at a stage when all flowers are open
except the top bud. Harvested sprays should be immediately placed in clean buckets
of water with the cut ends submerged about 2-3 inches. Then the sprays are taken
into the cool shaded packing area. In Dendrobium, it has been reported that flowers
harvested early in the morning, generally last longer than those harvested in the late
morning.
9.2.7.2 Pre-cooling
This is the fast removal of field heat and it is an important operation in post-har-
vest handling and transport of cut flowers, wherever flowers are held dry pack. All
flowers should be pre-cooled immediately after harvest by placing them in cold
storage without packing or in open boxes until they reach the desired temperature.
These temperatures variy with species and cultivar: Cattleya (7-10°C), Cymbidium and
Paphiopedilum (0.5 to 4°C), Dendrobium (5-7°C). Pre-cooling lowers respiration rate
and decreases the breakdown of nutritional and other stored materials in the stems,
leaves and petals; and delays bud opening and flower senescence. It also prevents
rapid water loss and decreases flower sensitivity to ethylene. Several pre-cooling
techniques such as room cooling, forced air cooling, hydro-cooling, vacuum cooling
and ice bar cooling etc. are available.
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9.2.7.3 Pulsing
The absorption of chemical solutions containing sugars and germicides through the
lower cut bases of flower stems is known as pulsing. Pulsing may be used by growers,
wholesalers or retail florists in order to enhance the cut flowers subsequent vase life
in water. Pulsing is employed with higher concentrations of sugar, mainly sucrose,
the percentage of which varies with species and cultivars. Other chemicals used in the
pulsing treatments are STS, AgNO3, HQ, MH, AOA, CaCl2, CoCl2, nickel sulphate, alu-
minium sulphate and benzyladenine. Pulsing is found to be of great value in prolong-
ing life, promoting opening and improving the colour and petal size of petals through
osmo-regulation. In Dendrobium hybrid ‘Pompadour’pulsing with 25 ppm AgNO3 + 135
Na2S2O3, 5H20 for 30 minutes increases vase life of cut flowers. In Dendrobium cv. ‘Sonia’
pulsing with 4% sucrose + 400 ppm HQ recorded the highest vase life of 21.33 days.
9.2.7.4 Bud Opening

This is the procedure of harvesting flowers at a stage earlier than normally con-
sidered as the cutting stage and then opening the buds off the plant. Such types of
post harvest handling may be applied by growers or wholesalers. Bud opening of
flowers increases longevity of cut flowers by reducing the sensitivity of flowers to
extreme temperatures, low humidity and ethylene, saving space during shipment
and extending the useful storage life. The sugar concentration used is lower than
the concentration of pulsing and the optimum temperature is kept lower. In the
Dendrobium hybrid ‘Thongchai Gold’ opened flowers had 29%, half opened flowers
had 28.25% and buds had 16.17% reducing sugars. In Dendrobium hybrids, HQS or
AgNO3 (50ppm) is effective for opening of tight bud cut flowers. It has been reported
that a preservative solution containing 225 ppm HQS, 30 ppm AgNO3 and 4% glucose
increased bud opening and the time to wilting of the open florets of Dendrobium Cv.
‘Ceasar’. In the Dendrobium hybrid ‘Thongchai Gold’, the maximum percent of fully
opened buds (66%) was recorded with sucrose (4%) + Ca(NO3)2 (1%) followed by
sucrose (4%) + acetyl acetic acid (100 ppm) (60%). Longest vase life (36 days) was
found with sucrose (4%) + Al2(SO4)3 (100 ppm) followed by sucrose (4%) + acetyl
acetic acid (100 ppm) (33 days).
9.2.7.5 Preservatives
Preservatives are used in the holding solutions in the form of tablets containing a
mixture of chemicals such as sugars, germicides, salts, growth regulators etc. In addi-
tion, the chemicals are employed during conditioning, pulsing and for making bud
opening solutions to improve flower shape, size and opening and colour of the flowers.
Sugar, biocide, anti-ethylene compounds and hydrated compounds are used for
conditioning. The sugar and biocide solutions are effective for opening of bud cut
flowers.
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The vase solution should contain sugars, an acidifying agent and a biocide. Citric
acids are mainly used for acidifying agents and hydroxy quinoline as biocides. Metal-
lic salts like silver nitrate, cobalt chloride, aluminium sulphate, zinc sulphate, calcium
nitrate and nickel chloride have been found for prolonging post-harvest life of various
cut flowers. A combination of biocide, sugar and hormone (8-HQC 100 ppm + sucrose
2% + BA 25 ppm) remarkably enhances the post-harvest life of the Dendrobium cut
flowers. New chemicals that have been found promising as floral preservatives are
ethylene inhibitors like amino-oxyacetic acid, 1-amino cyclopropane, aminotriazole,
aminoethoxy vinyl glycine, alpha aminoisobutyric acid, diazocyclopentadiene and
phenidone. Holding solutions for increased longevity of Dendrobium as reported by
various workers are 8-HQC (200 ppm) + sucrose (2%), 0.5 mM AOA + 4% sucrose,
AgNO3 (30 ppm) + 4% sucrose, 400 ppm HQ + 30ppm AgNO3 + 2% sucrose, 200 ppm
8-HQS + 50ppm AgNO3 + 8% sucrose (Bhattacharjee and De, 2005).
9.2.7.6 Grading
The export quality orchids are graded to maintain high standards of excellence.
Sprays are graded according to length, colour, flower size etc. The grading is done in
four standard sizes, based on the quality of the stalk and spike length for each grade
(Tab. 9.5).
Tab. 9.5: Grading of Dendrobium cut flowers
Name of the grade Length of the spike No. of opened flowers
SMALL-S 30 cm 4-5
MEDIUM-M 40 cm 6-8
LARGE-L 45 cm 8-10
EXTRA LARGE-XL 50 cm >10
9.2.7.7 Packaging
The flower spikes of Dendrobiums are first packed in polyethylene sleeves of standard
thickness. The standard is to bunch around 5 spikes of the same grade and variety in a
pack box. Each stem in the box should be placed in a tube containing water or preser-
vative solution. During shipment, loss of water could be supplemented by employing
flower tubes or vials, which could be filled with water or preservative solution. Instead
of small tubes, cotton wrapping can also be used, in this case cotton pieces should be
dipped in water or preservative solution. Then a piece of polythene can be used to cover
the cotton and it should be tied with rubber band. And cushioning materials should be
provided in the back side of the sleeve to avoid damage during transportation.
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Graded flowers are then packed in suitable size of boxes. In order to check move-
ment of spikes within the boxes during transit the base of the spikes should be tied to
the base of the carton by adhesive tapes. Dendrobium flower spikes are normally packed
in carton of different sizes. The length of the carton varies mainly based on the length
of the flower spikes. The carton should be provided with sufficient numbers of holes or
vents for aeration. The carton is exclusively designed to ensure flowers are better cared
for and reach their destination in pristine conditions. In Dendrobium hybrid ‘Sonia-17’ a
low gauge polyfilm of 100 gauge thickness the cotton dipped in 8-HQS (25 ppm) cover-
ing the base of the spike had maximum vase life and flower quality.
9.2.7.8 Storage
Storage of cut flower is an essential part of floriculture industry. Tropical orchids like
Dendrobium, can be stored at 7-10°C and 90-95% RH. The longest vase life of 19 days
has been observed in Dendrobium hybrid Sonia 28 followed by 15 days in Sonia 17 when
stored at 10°C. The orchids stored below optimum temperature cause chilling injury
characterized by darkening of the labellum. In extreme cases, the sepals and petal also
get affected. Orchids are sensitive to ethylene and the storage environment should be free
from ethylene which can be effectively accomplished by proper ventilation and placing
ethylene scrubbers or absorbent containing potassium permanganate in the area.
9.2.8 Value addition
Value addition in flower crops can directly or indirectly influence the floral market to
a great extent. Value addition in flower crops by employing techniques like colouring
in white flowers, flower dehydration, flower processing, advances in flower arrange-
ments etc. can add value up to 5 to 10 times
9.2.8.1 Tinting
This is one of the most important value addition techniques for imparting desired
shades of colour to the flowers. It is a very useful technique in flower crops where pig-
ments are absent or light and dull. Aesthetic beauty of the cut flowers and dry flowers
were enhanced through tinting. Translocation, immersion and spraying are methods
followed in tinting. Stopping irrigation two days before the harvest of flower improves
the flower colour. It can be combined with pulsing solution. Edible dyes of 0.25 to 1%
can be used along with pulsing solutions for 30 minutes to 3 hours. Different dyes
and strains such as food colours, feulgen stain, bromocresol blue, bromocresol green,
eosin yellow, ammonium purpurate and phenol red at varying concentrations can be
used to get flowers with different shades of colours. Artificial colouring can be done
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by using edible dyes like Apple green, Kalakhatta, rose pink etc. Employing this tech-
nique, white flowers can be used to result in all shades of red, blue, green and yellow.
9.2.8.2 Preparation of Bouquet

Bouquets are prepared with different colours of Dendrobium cut flowers selected and
combined according to colour and arranged with some foliage plants and packed in
boxes.
9.3 Phalaenopsis (Orchidaceae)
9.3.1 Introduction
Phalaenopsis is also known as ‘Moth Orchid’ because when the amabilis species
was first observed in its natural habitat, the long inflorescences of pendulous white
flowers that festooned the jungle tree tops were thought to be clusters of moths. This
orchid originated in the jungles of South and Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malayasia
and the Philippines.
Phalaenopsis consists of 70 species of monopodial orchids (‘Moth Orchids’)distrib-

uted in Asia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malayasia, Australia and New Guinea. The
plants are pseudobulbless with short stems covered by clasping leaves. The leaves are
leathery, and thick. The inflorescence arises from the axil of leaves, drooping or erect
bearing spikes of 100 cm length. The flowers are spectacular, long lasting and white,
pink, yellow or mottled. There are two types of Phalaenopsis . In the first type, leaves
are thick and fleshy, elongate-elliptic and obtuse in apex. The flowers petals are
broader than the sepals and the lip possesses two attractive centre lobes and append-
ages. The flowering stem is up to 60 cm long and bears 15 or more blooms. Species
belonging this group are Phalaenopsis parishi, P. aphrodite, P. stuartiana, P. schilleri-
ana and P. sanderiana. In the second type, plants are short stemmed bearing fewer
blooms. The flowers are smaller with equal sizes of sepals and petals and without
any appendages. Species belonging this group are Phalaenopsis cormi-cervi, P. leud-
demanniana, P. equestris and P. mannii.
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Phalaenopsis (Orchidaceae) 169
Phalaenopsis are commonly used as pot plants and cut flowers and are suitable in
hotel arrangements, hanging arrangements, households, boutique stores, weddings,
funerals, birthdays, etc. The purity and brightness of the Phalaenopsis make it espe-
cially appealling for weddings and corsages.
9.3.4 Hybrids (De, 2014)
Tab. 9.6: Common commercial Phalaenopsis hybrids
Colour Name Remarks

White Taisuco Crane, Taisuco Kochdian, Cygnus, Yukimai, Large flowered
Sogo Musadian, White Dream, Florida Snow
Pink Nobby’s Pink Lady, Minho Valentine, Minho King Large flowered
Beauty, New Cinderella, Taisuco Firebird, Sogo Smith
Striped hybrids Sogo Zebra, Chih Shang Stripes, Okay Seven
Spotted hybrids Carmela spots, Rousserole, Soroa Delight, Leopard Pretty
Prince
Yellow Carol Campbell, Emil Giles, Brother Lawrence, Taipei 5-10 flowered
Gold, Golden Bells, Sogo Managers, Brother Passat
Spotted & Barred Golden Amboin, Yellow Queen, Ching Her Buddha,
yellow Golden Sun
Orange red to deep Cordova, Lonnie Morris, Sogo Pony, Sogo Rose, Sogo
lavender Grape
Red spots on yellow Brother Purple, Sogo Prince, Golden Peoker
or cream coloured
background
Colour blending Sweet Memory, Zuma Aussie Delight, Pago Pago,
Brother Sara Gold
White or Yellow base Ever Spring Light, Yu Pin Pearl, Yu Pin Panda, Bright Mutants of Taiwan
colour with black Peacock
blotches
Multiflora hybrids Be Glad, Cassandra, Vilind, Carmelas Pixie, Zuma’s Bred at California
Pixie, Timothy Christopher, Be Tris, Quevedo
Miniature hybrids Micro Nova, Mini Mark, Anna-Larati Soekardi Require lower day
and night temper-
ature and lower
humidity
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9.3.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids

Aeridopsis = Phalaenopsis x Aerides
Arachnopsis = Phalaenopsis x Arachnis
Doritaenopsis = Phalaenopsis x Doritis
Phalanetia = Phalaenopsis x Neofinetia
Renanthropsis = Phalaenopsis x Renanthera Vandaenopsis = Phalaenopsis x Vanda
9.3.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids

Sappanara = Phalaenopsis x Arachnis x Renanthera
Trevorara = Phalaenopsis x Arachnis x Vanda
Lycockara = Phalaenopsis x Arachnis x Vandopsis
Rhyndoropsis = Phalaenopsis x Doritis x Rhyncostylis
9.3.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids

Bogardora = Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis x Vanda x Vandopsis
Bokchoonara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis x Vanda
Edeara = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Renanthera x Vandopsis
9.3.4.4 Pentageneric Hybrids

Sutingara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis x Vanda x Vandopsis
Macekara = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Renanthera x Vanda x Vandopsis
Paulara = Ascocentrum x Doritis x Phalaenopsis x Renanthera x Vanda
9.3.4.5 Natural Hybrids

Phal. Amphitrita, Phal. intermedia, Phal. leucorrhoda, Phal. rothschildiana, Phal. Sin-
gulifera
9.3.4.6 Inter-specific Hybrids

‘Borneo Belle’, ‘Cecile’, ‘Fuscabell’, ‘Anna’, ‘T.H. Pearl’, ‘renchy’s Plastic Yellow’,
‘Herman Sweet’, ‘Gold Veins’, ‘Amabell’, ‘Algicora’, ‘Smiling Tiger’.
9.3.4.7 Inter-varietal Hybrids

‘Free Gold’, ‘Durga Ko Dil’, ‘Popp Queen’, ‘Red Hot Girl’, ‘White Ghost’, ‘White Galaxy’,
‘Dotted Perfection’, ‘Hamana Gold’, ‘Triastar Diamond’, ‘Tiraster Golden Lip’, ‘Archie
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Goodwin’, ‘Taida Sun Smile’, ‘Pink Pixie’, ‘Exotics Plum Red’, ‘Woodson’s Dalmation’,
‘Walnut Valley Peachy’.
9.3.4.8 Variety-species Hybrids

‘Hemlata and Chris’, ‘Hama Snow’, ‘Berry Blossoms’, ‘Good Time Charlie’, ‘Stone
Trail’, ‘Taisuco Imperator’, ‘Taisuco Sumatra’, ‘Thirty Eight Special’.
9.3.5 Climatic Requirements
9.3.5.1 Light
Phalaenopsis orchids are not like Cymbidium, Cattleya, regarding their light needs,
and do well in indirect light. For this reason, healthy Phalaenopsis can be grown
indoors in windowsills, sun rooms, and shaded greenhouses and under artificial
lights in most temperate climates. The requirement of light is 1000-1500 foot candles
for winter and 800-1200 foot candles in summer. Phalaenopsis can be grown under
artificial light. Phalaenopsis can be grown 9-12 inches under fluorescent lights or 4
to 6 feet under 400 watts high intensity discharge lights or high pressure sodium
lights. If Phalaenopsis does not have a flower spike growing by February, move it
where it will receive more light. The indication that the correct amount of light has
been received is that the foliage will appear yellow-green, not dark green. Dark green
leaves or the new leaf growing longer and narrower than the old leaf indicates the
light is too low. Too much light causes white, dried, burned areas on the leaf, and
will have short flower spike. Inadequate light results in succulent, floppy, dark green
foliage with no flowers. In cloudy winter conditions artificial light should be supple-
mented, whereas direct sunlight will damages the plant, therefore placing the plant
near a bright window is good. In green houses, 750-1500 foot candle light is judicious.
If grown indoors, Phalaenopsis should be placed in a North East window to avoid
hot and direct sun. Higher intensity light is recommended for boosting growth at the
vegetative stage, particularly for growing leaves and roots and flower induction. At
flowering, Phalaenopsis can tolerate low light intensity (100 foot candle).
9.3.5.2 Temperature
The Phalaenopsis is a tropical plant, and consequently temperatures lower than 15°C and
above 32°C should be avoided. For an appropriate growth endeavors should be made to
maintain an average temperature of 26-27°C during the growing phase and 19-21°C during
the phase of flowering. During winter the temperature should be maintained between 18
to 20°C. A temperature of 18°C is particularly necessary in the event that the induction
of buds needs to be enhanced in conditions of inadequate light or high daytime temper-
atures. Care should be taken to ensure a minimum night time temperature of 15°C -20°C
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for the rest of winter. Although they are warm growers, above 30°C, they tend to stop
growing, so if this is likely take steps to reduce the temperature by improving ventilation
or misting the floor etc. Continued periods of exposure to low temperature below 10°C
or a rapid drop in temperature can cause chilling injury which ultimately results in poor
growth and yellow sunken spots on the leaves. Higher temperature coupled with higher
humidity will not affect the plant. Phalaenopsis can tolerate higher temperature (30°C to
35°C) for a few hours if sufficient water is in pot. They need cool temperature for a month
at the time of bud development. Higher temperature delays the flowering and aborts the
bud at 28°C and more during flower bud development.
9.3.5.3 Humidity
Phalaenopsis can perform better with the humidity of 50% or higher. At sufficient
humidity plants grow lushly and leave looks healthy. Insufficient humidity cause
stunting of plant, accelerated premature falling of buds, dehydrated and shriveled
leaves and papery texture of flower edges. In greenhouses, the humidity can be easily
controlled by watering the foot path and benches or by humidifier. Humidity can be
improved sufficiently in the growing area. Keeping of water in plastic tray below the
benches is a good option to maintain the humidity in green house. Misting can also
be done to increase humidity for a limited period, but it causes leaf spot diseases if
there is not good air circulation. To increase the humidity level, companion plants
like ferns, bromeliads, and other foliage plants can be placed near the Phalaenopsis
plant in the house.
9.3.5.4 Ventilation and Air Circulation

It is necessary to provide enough space between plants and to allow air movement
(slight breeze) to help dry the leaves. Using an electric fan to induce air movement
inside the greenhouse is common. Plants should not be left in stagnant air, as they
can become infected by bacteria and fungus spores. Fans should be used constantly
to reduce temperature on hot days and to dry plants out for cold nights. In most of
the areas where Phalaenopsis are found, gentle air blows. Air movement in growing
environment ensures good growth and less infestation of diseases and pests. Ceiling
and oscillating fans are effective for providing gentle air flow in hobby greenhouses or
indoor growing areas. Both can cover large areas with a constantly changing air flow
pattern without excessively drying the plants.
9.3.6 Growth and Flowering
The Phalaenopsis passes through two distinctive phases i.e. vegetative and flowering
for production. Plants are grown in separate greenhouses with required temperatures
during these two phases.
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9.3.6.1 Vegetative Phase

The vegetative phase begins when plants are removed from tissue culture flasks
and are transplanted into community trays. Forty to fifty plants from a flask can be
accommodated into 1300 to 1500 cm2 square or rectangular trays or in 128-cell plug
tray. The vegetative phase is again divided in three phases. The first phase comprises
pricking out from flask (25-30 weeks), while the second phase includes repotting to
an intermediate pot (27-32 week) and the third phase is to planting in a bigger pot
(10-12 week). During vegetative phase, the plants must be grown at 28°C or higher to
avoid immature inflorescences. The higher temperature will promote rapid growth
of leaves. Phalaenopsis can tolerate temperatures as high as 32°C, to 35°C for a few
hours per day subject to sufficient moisture in the substrate and good aeration. In
general, about 50 weeks are required to complete these phases. During the initial
stage of growth, during the first 4 to 8 weeks after transplanting the recommended
maximum light intensity is 75μ mol. m-2s-1 to acclimatize the plants to the greenhouse.
A maximum of 300μ mol.m-2s-1 light intensity is maintained during the growth phase.
9.3.6.2 Flowering Phase

Phalaenopsis plants already developed 4 to 5 large leaves, can be exposed to cooler
temperatures to induce the flowering process. Flower induction occurs when exposed
to less than 26°C temperature during the day. Generally, growers maintain a 25°C/20°C
day/night temperature regime for flower spike initiation. However, plants exposed
to a constant 25°C temperature, produce spikes at a faster rate than those exposed
to 26°C. After being exposed to this temperature for a period of 4 to 5 week, plants
can be grown at 17°C to 26°C to time the flowering at specific date. Inflorescence and
flower bud number are higher when Phalaenopsis is induced at 14 to 17°C compared
to warmer temperatures. In warmer regions, the flowering can be regulated in air con-
ditioned green houses for year round production.
At a favorable environmental condition (28°C) bud initiation occurs after the
spikes attain 5 cm in length. However, if a plant with a young inflorescence (less
than 10 cm) is subsequently grown at 28°C or higher spike can form ‘keiki’ instead
of flower buds’ or buds may abort. During the flowering phase, higher temperatures
may increase spike but number and size of flower may decrease. If the light intensity
is excessively low during flowering phase, flowering can be inhibited.
9.3.7 Propagation
9.3.7.1 Division/ Cuttings

This type of propagation can be done by using two types of techniques. Phalaenopsis
can be propagated asexually by keikis forming on old flower stalks or on the sides of
the main stem. Top cutting can be practiced on long drooping plants, after which,
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new plants will shoot from the remaining stem. Using lanolin paste with Benzyl
adenine (BA) on buds in flower stalks to induce kiekies has given successful results.
Kiekies can be planted in clay or plastic pots with chopped charcoal and coconut
husk. Stem propagation sometimes also involves the application of keiki paste or a
similar product to dormant nodes of the flower spike, an ideal method for non-com-
mercial growers. When the keikis have 2-3 roots, it can be removed, by slicing between
the stem and the keikis, or cutting the stem above and below keikis attachment point.
The new plant can now be potted up and grown on. If more flowers are desired, cut
the stem as above, but do not move the plant.
The Phalaenopsis mother plant is topped and it continues to grow vertically and
discard its lower leaves that had served as a storage vessel of water and nutrients.
New roots are produced above the leafless stem, as the plants continue growing ver-
tically. The stem can be cut below the new roots. The top part, with leaves and roots,
is repotted after proper care of the cut. The remaining stub can be left for a few days/
weeks. Soon, new little plants will be found growing out of the old stub. These keikis
can be repotted in the media.
9.3.7.2 Tissue Culture

Phalaenopsis can be propagated by tissue culture technique using shoot tip, nodal
flower-stalk, internodal section, leaf tip and root tip in Vacin and Went medium,
Murashige-Skoog medium, REM, Knops Solution, Hyponex/Kyoto medium New
Dogashima medium.
9.3.8 Cultivation
9.3.8.1 Plant Material

The plants are generally available in flasks containing 20 to 25 plants or in nursery
trays containing 40-50 plants. As soon as they are received, it is necessary to accli-
matize the plants for a few weeks to the local growing. The plants in nursery trays are
better as there is less mortality and a reduction of cultivation period by approximately
5-7 month.
9.3.8.2 Potting
The mature plant with 2 to 3 leaves and healthy roots is generally shifted to a nursery
tray from the flask. Once they harden and the leaf attains a span of 10-15 cm size
in the nursery tray, they can be shifted to pots. The plants need to be sorted out in
two grades i.e. bigger and smaller plants, before planting. Small plants often require
3-4 months more before they are shifted to pots than bigger plant. Smaller plants can
be kept together in community pot. Seedlings can be planted 1 cm apart.
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The potting material should be damped and should be packed firmly and it is
required to water the seedling gently and thoroughly. The community pot needs to
be covered with plastic and left slightly open. This will provide the seedlings with a
humid environment and need to keep the plant in partial shade. In few months the
seedlings will be ready for transplanting as like bigger plant.
9.3.8.3 Containers
The most common pot or container is a plastic or clay pot. In general, the orchid pot
should have a greater number of holes and larger size, both at in the bottom and sides
for better drainage. Phalaenopsis pots are shorter and shallow (10 cm) or have a larger
diameter with a broader base for more stability. Most of the growers prefer plastic
pots over clay pots because they are inexpensive, durable, have a lower accumulation
rate of salts and are easy to clean. In Phalaenopsis, a healthy and more roots can
be obtained in transparent pots as compared to dark coloured pots. Generally, white
colored transparent pots of 12 to 20 cm sizes are preferred for Phalaenopsis.
9.3.8.4 Potting Media

Potting material must support the plant, drain out rapidly, retain moisture and should
have durability. Phalaenopsis cannot withstand long dry spells because they do not have
any water storage organs. A good potting mix contains coconut husk pieces, charcoal or
broken pieces of roofing tile with coconut peat. 25-30% of the media should be charcoal
or tile pieces to ensure adequate drainage. Phalaenopsis can be potted on clay or plastic
pots, with charcoal and coconut husks, or mounted in wooden slabs. Currently, the use
of tree fern roots is being discouraged for the conservation of our endangered giant
tree ferns. Pre-soaked coconut husk is another good medium for Phalaenopsis. Another
alternative medium is a 1:1 mixture of sand and coconut choir dust. For immature or
miniature Phalaenopsis a fine mix consist of 3 parts coco-peat, 1 part fine charcoal and
1 part perlite and 1 part sphagnum moss is filled in 10 cm size pot. However, for standard
size plant the growing media consist of 4 part coconut husk, 1 part medium charcoal,
1 part medium size perlite and 1 part medium sphagnum moss.
9.3.8.5 Repotting
Repotting should be done if there is wilting of foliage, the plant is loose in the pot, flowers
do not last long, there are brown tips on the leaves etc. The plants prefer good aeration
around the roots and this is the easiest way to check the condition of the root system. The
Phalaenopsis are best repotted after flowering in the late spring or early summer. Repot-
ting is done about once a year in an appropriate sized pot. During repotting, it is required
to cut or break the base of the stem is carefully. Except main also other roots should be
cut off and soak the plants and roots in a standard Mancozeb solution for 10 minutes then
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seal the bottom of the stem with a thick paste of Mancozeb or Thiram. Plants should be air
dried before repotting. Growing media is the same as initial potting media.
9.3.8.6 Watering
Water needs are influenced by humidity, potting media, type of pot, size of pot, time of
year and the orchid. Over watering is the biggest killer of orchids. Phalaenopsis do not
like water as do most other types of orchid. The pot should not be watered until very
nearly dry. Phalaenopsis do not prefer frequent watering, although younger plants
require more watering than matured plants. This can be accomplished by misting the
plants instead of water sprinkling. Watering is necessary twice per day during very
hot and dry months, and only 2-3 times per week during wet months or none at all for
matured plants. The quality of water is an important factor for governing the growth
and flowering. Water must be free from chemical and visible contamination. Water for
Phalaenopsis should not contain excessive harmful elements like sodium, chlorine
and bicarbonate. In the absence of good quality of water, deionised water can be used
as substitute. However, rainwater is best for all orchids.
9.3.8.7 Fertilizers:
Phalaenopsis plants need nutrition twice or once a week. Seedlings could be sprayed
with very dilute fertilizer every day after watering. Plants need to be watered heavily
once a week to flush excess salts and should be moist before applying of fertilizers.
Use of balanced foliar fertilizer with trace elements is always beneficial for orchids.
Weak fertilizer applied frequently is better than strong application.
Reduction of fertilizers is suggested once flower spikes form and under low light
conditions. It is important to note that feeding depends upon some other environ-
mental factors: the higher the light the more food is required and the more food is avail-
able at the roots, the more of water is necessary to prevent salt damage to the roots.
When plants are grown under lower light and temperature, less water and nutrition
is required. The pH of fertilizer solution needs to be maintained between 5.2 and 6.2.
The EC of the nutrient solution should lie within the range of 0.8 and 1.2 mS/cm. Slow
release fertilizers like Nutricote (13:13:13) or Osmocote (13:13:13) can be used at a level
of 1 table spoon/plant while planting. The most common form of fertilizer used with
Phalaenopsis is the water soluble type. The water soluble is a 19:19:19 or 20:20:20 NPK
with micronutrients which are available in market and users friendly. Generally, 1g/l
at weekly intervals is sufficient for growth. It is better to fertilize the plant frequently
with diluted rate. The excess rate or higher concentrations will damage the plant.
At the active growth stage the Phalaenopsis require more nutrition than in winter or
inactive phase. In the dormant period, the fertilizers should be applied at lesser rate
(50%). If salt accumulation occurred, it needs to clean with flushing of water.
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9.3.8.8 Flower Production

Mature plant with 5 fully developed expanded leaves may be induced to flower. Gen-
erally, flower production starts 8 months after planting subject to proper manage-
ment. It is important that plant should be healthy, large enough and the pots have
a good root system to bear the flowering. Phalaenopsis will naturally induce spike
when it is fully grown. Flower production can be manipulated by controlling light
and temperature regimes. The spikes become ready to harvest when the spike has
approximately three unopened buds. New and heavier branches could develop from
the plant base after harvesting. The development of this new branch will take more
time than the development of a branch from a bud. There should be at least 12 plants/
sq.m and the complete growing period approximately 5 years. On average, the plant
produces 2 branches /plant/year.
9.3.8.8.1 Premature Flowering

Sometimes flower spikes develop before the plant matures. The premature flowers will
need to be removed to boost vegetative growth. At the early stage, the flower inflores-
cence, or stick, is soft enough and can be pinched off easily. During the growth phase,
the maintenance of temperature at 270C limits the premature flowering.
9.3.8.9 Training of Spike

Phalaenopsis is a marketable flower and consumers prefer straight flower spikes with
better presentable form. The Phalaenopsis flower stems are supported with sticks
made of plastic, bamboo or metal at the time when flower buds begin to swell. Tying
of spike should be secure and firm with the stake. Use of twist tie, soft cotton string,
small green cable ties and loop tape are better than wire, which could damage the
stem. The first tie has to be placed on the lower part of the spike close to the first
node. Another tie should be placed a few inches higher on the flower spike. If neces-
sary, more ties can be placed at suitable distance. The spikes are attached to overhead
wires with the help of strings to avoid bending. The flower sprays are supported with
a small hook from the strings when the lower bud starts swelling.
9.3.8.10 Harvest and Yield

The 40-60 cm long spikes containing at least 8-10 flowers are harvested when all
flowers are fully open. Average flower production is 6 to 7 stems / plant /year.
9.3.9.1 Vase life

Normally, Phalaenopsis cut flowers last for 15 to 21 days.
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9.3.9.2 Pulsing
Chemicals like Chrysal are added to water to enhance vase life. In Phalaenopsis,
pulsing with 0.5 mM STS for 24 hours blocks the deleterious effect of ethylene.
9.3.9.3 Storage
The harvested flowers need to be kept at proper temperatures. In general, Phalaenop-
sis flowers can be stored at 7 to 10°C for two weeks. The low temperature helps to slow
down respiration and depletion of reserved food materials of petals.
9.3.9.4 Packaging
The Phalaenopsis, cut flower are packed in single window gift boxes of 100 cm x 15 cm
x 11.5 cm. 25 to 30 flowering stems are packed in a box depending on the number of
flowers/ stem. During packing of flowers, boxes are cooled at 20°C. Pre-cooled boxes
are more efficient than packing a box and then placing in a cooler place, a process
that requires hours to bring flowers to the optimum temperature range. Cut stems
are kept in cooler places prior to packing. It is best to pack in cooled rooms to reduce
respiration and condensation build-up in the slips.
9.4 Cattleya (Orchidaceae)
9.4.1 Introduction
Cattleyas are considered by most people to be fascinating home garden orchids.

Flowers are long lasting and possess a beautiful fragrance. Cattleya hybrids also
produce the biggest orchid flowers. Named in the honour of William Cattley, a noted
19th century English Horticulturist, this genus falls into subtribe Laeliinae, which com-
prises many Cattleya like species. Of the many intergeneric hybrids, Laelia, Sophrinitis
and Brassovola are the main genera used in hybridization programs. Cattleya orchids
are also known as the ‘Queen of Orchids’.
Cattleya consists of 113 species from tropical America. The plants possess elongated
pseudobulbs and may be unifoliate or bi-foliate. The leaves are thick and leathery.
The present day hybrid cattleyas belong to the unifoliate group. The flowers are 5 to
15 cm in size and they occur in all colours, except true blue and black.
Unifoliate cattleyas bear up to 5 flowers per inflorescence whereas bifoliate pos-
sesses 2 to 25 flowers per inflorescence. They are from the tropical Americas, but
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Cattleya (Orchidaceae) 179
can also be found in the West Indies and Mexico. Cattleya orchids are epiphytes and
have well-developed water-storage organs (called pseudobulbs) and large, fleshy
roots. Cattleya orchid plants are long-lived perennials and will usually flower annu-
ally. These orchid plants are naturally erect, without need of much staking, and of a
medium olive-green color.
In addition to cut flowers and pot plants, Cattleya orchids are ideal components for
flower decorations including bouquets and flower arrangements. In addition, this
orchid is used for making clay flowers.
9.4.4 Hybrids (De, 2014)
9.4.4.1 Parents for Large Blue Cattleya Hybrids

Cattleya warneri var. coerulea, Cattleya labiata var. coerulea, Cattleya mossiae ‘Rei-
neckiana Blue Lip’, Cattleya gaskelliana ‘ Blue Dragon’, Cattleya trianae ‘Blue Bird’

Brassocattleya = Cattleya x Brassolvola
Epicattleya = Cattleya x Epidendrum
Laeliocattleya = Cattleya x Laelia

Vaughnara = Cattleya x Brassovola x Epidendrum
Brassolaeliocattleya = Cattleya x Brassovola x Laelia
Rolfeara = Cattleya x Brassovola x Sophronitis
Osmentara = Cattleya x Broughtonia x Laeliopsis
Dialaeliocattleya = Cattleya x Diacrinum x Laelia
Epilaeliocattleya = Cattleya x Epidendrum x Laelia
Sophrolaeliocattleya = Cattleya x Laelia x Sophronitis

Iwanagara = Cattleya x Brassovola x Diacrinum x Laelia
Yamadara = Cattleya x Brassovola x Laelia x Epidendrum
Potinara = Cattleya x Brassovola x Laelia x Sophronitis
Kirchara = Cattleya x Epidendrum x Laelia x Sophronitis
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9.4.4.5 Intervarietal Hybrids

‘Day Tripper’, ‘Spring Break’, ‘Beau’s Apricot Gem’, ‘Dendis Angel’, ‘Dendis Bee’,
‘Sweet Peggy’, ‘Redland Icicle’, ‘Moonlight Glitter’, ‘French Cream’, ‘Mackay Drop’,
‘Nobiles Virgin’, ‘Summer Bouquet’, ‘Tokyo Life’, ‘Poo Hoon’, ‘Montking’, ‘Black
Wonder’, ‘July Sun’, ‘Pink Jaguar’, ‘Memoria Madan Tamang’.
9.4.4.6 Inter- specific Hybrids

‘Eva’s Fabula Andena’, ‘Oleo Stella’ ‘Oro Verde Azul’, ‘Mareeba Freckles’, ‘Brazilian
Jewel’, ‘Bird Flap’, ‘Bucks Fizz’, ‘Genes Dream’, ‘Little Lars’, ‘Comwhite’, ‘Amazon Blue’,
‘Mini Green’, ‘Jungle Nobility’, Berlin Moon’, ‘Brazilian Ruby’, Brazilian Fire’, ‘Brazilian
Star’.
9.4.4.7 Variety Species Hybrids

‘Maryglossa’, ‘Betty Blue’, ‘Koko Drop’, ‘My Partner’, ‘Pradit Spot’, ‘Summer Poole’,
‘Angaur’ ‘Baby Tata’, ‘Little Bells’, ‘Balkis Gem’, ‘Snow Field’, ‘Summer Pink’, ‘Berlin Star’,
‘Berlin Beauty’, ‘Memoria Bishnu Subba’, ‘Memoria Naren Rai’, ‘Leopard’, ‘Snow Tiger’.
9.4.4.8 Blue Cattleya Hybrids

Cattleya Alcmeda, Cattleya Bobby Howarth, Cattleya Intertexa, Cattleya Mrs. Myra
Peters, Cattleya Veriflora
9.4.5 Cultivation
Cattleya orchids belong to a group of orchids which is the most colorful of all orchid
species. Due to their relative ease of culture and adaptability, Cattleya orchids are
among the most popular orchid genus grown because of their cross compatibility
many genera, which have similar structures and a range of interesting and unique
characteristics. Additionally, the Cattleya orchids belong to both the intermediate and
warm climate groups of orchids under cultivation. Cattleya orchids lend themselves
to many different types of cultivation and they will grow outdoors in trees in tropical
landscaped gardens as well as in pots in shade houses and climate controlled green
houses. Cattleya orchids are usually slow growers and can take up to three or even
four years to flower. However, once they start flowering they will continue to do so all
year round under their optimum growth conditions.
9.4.5.1 Temperature
The ideal temperature range of Cattleya orchid species is between 15 and 30°C.
Depending upon the temperature, Cattleya orchids should be watered about once or
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Cattleya (Orchidaceae) 181
twice a week. In winter, the Cattleya orchid plants become stressed if the temperature
drops below 15°C. It is also essential to keep the orchid plant a little drier under those
conditions because extended exposure to cold and damp simultaneously will result
in rot. The Cattleya orchid goes into a state of dormancy and will wake up when the
weather warms up again. Do not feed or water the Cattleya orchid plant when it is in
a state of dormancy damage. During the summer, the Cattleya orchid plants should
be watered and fed. Cattleya orchids should always be protected against frost in the
cold winters.
9.4.5.2 Light
Cattleya orchids need medium to bright light with 2000 to 3000 foot candles. They
thrive well under a 40% shade cloth. Dark green but limp foliage indicates that they
received little light. The Cattleya and its allied inter-generic hybrid orchids are capable
of withstanding higher light, but they may become stressed if exposed for too long.
9.4.5.3 Water and Humidity

Cattleya orchids should be watered about once or twice a week, and more frequently
during the hotter months of the year. Cattleya orchids may be allowed to dry out
between applications of water. It is advised to always water the Cattleya orchids early
in the day, so that the foliage will be dry by nightfall. They require 40-60% relat-
ive humidity. During the summer months, it is necessary to feed and water Cattleya
orchids to plump up the pseudobulbs and thus provide nutrients for storage purposes
to be used during the winter rest period.
9.4.5.4 Feeding
Cattleya orchids are known as heavy feeders. This is especially true during their active
growth period in spring. A high nitrogenous orchid fertilizer must be applied on a
regular basis during spring. Application of dilute 20:10:10 (N:P:K) weekly fertilizer pro-
duces more flowers. Furthermore, well-rooted plants should be given regular feeds of
nitrogen-based fertilizers. During summer, the fertilizer type may be changed to a good
quality bloom booster that will harden the plant off and make it ready for flowering.
9.4.5.5 Potting Mix and Repotting

All Cattleya orchids, including all hybrid and orchid species that have been hybrid-
ized from the Cattleya orchid require a very open, friable potting mix and a very free
draining compost containing at least 50 percent bark. They should be potted in a
porous, free-draining medium. The most commonly used potting mixes are bark,
shredded tree-fern fibre, various types of rock like granite chips, processed coconut
fiber and lately, mixes based on peat moss and perlite and also osmunda.
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Cattleya orchids should be potted on an annual basis when the orchid plant is
young or in its active growth period. Once the orchid plant has matured and begun to
flower, repotting may occur every alternate year. Repotting of Cattleya orchids is best
practiced soon after flowering, just when the new growth appears at the base of the
pseudobulbs, and just before any new roots may have begun.
9.4.6 Pests and Diseases
All excess humidity increases the risks of fungus and bacterial infections. This can
further result in a loss of new growth and in severe cases causes even permanent
spotting on the leaves.
The ant is a serious pest to Cattleya orchids. They relish the sugary substance that
is produced by the new flowers. They are carriers of scale insects. To prevent this, a
grower should remove old bracts and sheaths and groom the orchid plants regularly.
Virus infection on Cattleya orchids are usually manifested as white striations in
the flowers. This phenomenon is referred to as color-break. This color-break soon
develops further into a brown streak. Viral infections on Cattleya orchids can be con-
trolled effectively by making use of clean secateurs, blades, etc.

Spikes are harvested with fully open flowers. There may be one or more flowers on a
spike of 25-40 cm length depending on the type.
9.4.7.2 Storage
Cut flowers can be kept at 7-10°C for 14 days in dry storage and 10 to 13°C in wet
storage.
9.4.7.3 Vase life

Cut flowers last for 10 to 15 days in normal water.
STS 1 mM + sucrose 1 percent.
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Oncidium (Orchidaceae) 183
9.5 Oncidium (Orchidaceae)
9.5.1 Introduction
Oncidium species, their hybrids and inter-generic hybrids are suited to intermediate
and warmer climates. The plants are epiphytic using hosts such as cactus plant and
trees for support. Hybridization of Oncidium orchids with Brassia orchids, Miltonia
orchids and Odontoglossum orchids results in an Oncidium orchid that has some
warmth tolerance and beautiful flowers. Hybrids and some commercial species are
used for cut flowers, hanging baskets and potted plants.
Oncidium consists of 750 species of sympodial epiphytic orchids from America,

Mexico and Argentina. The plants have either pseudobulbs or a fan of very thin leaves.
They bear numerous attractive blossoms in various size and forms and are commonly
called ‘Golden Showers’ and ‘Dancing Ladies’.
The pseudobulbs are topped by one or more leaves which are small, soft, pencil like
or very large, leathery and thick. Usually, single inflorescence is produced from a single
growth or in some cases, two inflorescences may be produced. Inflorescences develop
from the base of the pseudobulbs or from the axil of leaves. The flower size varies from
1 cm to 12.5 cm across. The flower colours are mostly shades of yellow and brown, and in
some cases they are red, pink, magenta, green or white. In general, all three sepals are
alike in size, shape and colour, although in some cases these vary. The two lateral petals
are similar in size and shape while dorsal sepals are larger. Oncidium species are charac-
terized by (i) presence of coloumn wings (ii) presence of complicated callus on the lip (iii)
pseudobulbs with one or three leaves (iv) several basal bracts at the base of pseudobulbs.
9.5.3 Species & Hybrids (De, 2014)
Tab. 9.7: Common Oncidium Species and Hybrids
Types Species & Hybrids

Yellow Flowered Oncidium splendidum O. lanceanum, O.spacealatum
Golden Shower type Aloha Iwanga Dogasima, Goldiana, Gower Ramsey, Golden Shower, Sum
Lai Who Jungle Queen, Taka H & R, Sharry Baby Sweet Fragrance AM/AOS
White coloured Oncidium variegatum White
Red coloured Popki Red, Irine Gleason Red, Vision Brownish Red, Catherine Wilson x New
Calidonia Brownish Red
Pink Coloured Robson Orchid Glad
Cream Coloured O. lowianum hybrids
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Aspasium = Oncidium x Aspasia
Brassidium = Oncidium x Brassia
Miltonidium = Oncidium x Miltonia
Odontocidium = Oncidium x Odontoglossum
Trichocidium = Oncidium x Trichocentrum
Oncidipilia = Oncidium x Trichopilia

Aliceara = Oncidium x Brassia x Miltonia
Wilsonara = Oncidium x Cochlioda x Odontoglossum
Colmanara = Oncidium x Miltonia x Odontoglossum

Withnerara = Oncidium x Aspasia x Miltonia x Odontoglossum
9.5.3.4 Interspecific Hybrids

‘Dark Tower’, ‘Ruby Frost’, ‘Sanddrinho’, ‘Barbara Ann’, ‘Himekogane’, ‘Peach Pie’,
‘Flamingo’, ‘Flower Fairy’, ‘Nutmeg Dancer’, ‘Karukera Beauty’, ‘Midnight Moon’,
‘Lemon Ice’, ‘Caribbean Stars’, ‘Ruby Jewell’, Debonoir’, ‘Fragrance Fantasy’, ‘Red
Fantacy’.

‘Volcano Gold’, ‘Dark Sun’, ‘Bright Night’, ‘Coral Gold’, ‘Golden Sun’, ‘Sundown’,
‘Sweet Sunset’, ‘Golden Bonanza’, ‘Dear Friend’, ‘Orchidom Happy’, ‘Kulmura Gold’,
‘Aka Cacao’, ‘Music Shower’, ‘Summer Glow’, ‘Baby Breath’, ‘ Island Gold’, ‘Kona
Boy’, ‘Space Baby’, ‘Millenium Gold’, ‘Golden Prince’, ‘Golden River’, ‘Sun Shade’,
‘Ash Hollow’, ‘Private Dancer’, ‘Green Valley’, ‘Fragrant Red Barry’, ‘Golden Sunray’,
‘Sungold’, ‘Sharry Baby Dancing Doll’, ‘Sharry Baby Pink Lip’, ‘Sharry Baby ‘Tricolor’.
9.5.3.6 Variety-Species Hybrids

‘Cameo Moonlight’, ‘Dusk’, ‘Jazzberry’, ‘Long Yellow’, ‘Orchidon Gold’, ‘Tokyo
Fantacy’, ‘Panache Gold’, ‘Sarah Elizabeth Merritt’, ‘Barbie Doll’, ‘Elegant Dancer
Pretty Lady’, ‘Yellow Canary’, ‘Butterfly Profusion’, ‘Pacific Perfume’, ‘Copper Hills’,
Annabel’, ‘Forbes Island’, ‘Sweet Sugar’
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Oncidium (Orchidaceae) 185
9.5.3.7 Colmanara Hybrids

Colm. ‘Jungle Monarch’, Colm. ‘Wildcat’, Colm. Wildcat ‘Bobcat’, Colm. Wildcat
‘Cheetah’, Colm. Wildcat ‘Rainbow’, Colm. Wildcat ‘Red Star’, Colm. Wildcat ‘Tiger’.
9.5.3.8 Medicinal Oncidium

Oncidium cebolleta is reported to contain phenanthrene derivatives.
9.5.4 Cultivation
9.5.4.1 Temperature
The majority of species grow well in temperature between 25-30°C during daytime
and 20°C during the night. A little bit of heat can be tolerated by the warmth tolerant
Oncidium orchid hybrids if humidity and air movement are increased as the temper-
atures rise.
9.5.4.2 Light
Light needs can vary from bright to nearly full direct sun depending on the Oncidium
orchid species and hybrids. Most Oncidium orchids will thrive with one to several
hours of sun a day and a light intensity of 2500 foot candles. Generally, thicker-leaved
plants, such as Tolumnias also known as “mule-ear” and “equitant” Oncidium
orchids, can tolerate more light. Oncidium orchids in a greenhouse are best advised
to make use of a shade cloth which can be anywhere from 30 to 50 percent shade,
depending on the orchid plants. In the home, Oncidium orchids grow best in the east,
south or west windows. Many types of Oncidium orchids will even grow under artifi-
cial light.
9.5.4.3 Water and Humidity

Most Oncidium orchid species and the Oncidium orchid hybrids prefer free compost
that holds moisture rather than water. Water requirements vary with the type of orchid
plant. Generally, Oncidium orchid plants with large fleshy roots or leaves require
less-frequent watering than thin-leaved or thin-rooted plants. Watering should be
thorough, and the medium should be allowed to dry at least halfway through the pot
before watering again. This may be every 2 to 10 days depending on weather, pot size
and material, type of orchid and type of potting medium. Plants not actively growing
should be watered less. Humidity ranges should be between 50 and 60 percent. Many
Oncidium orchids require less humidity than other orchids. Most greenhouses have
adequate humidity and the Oncidium orchid can easily be kept well under those cir-
cumstances. Under indoor climate, Oncidium orchid plants survive better above moist
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pebbles in trays. If Oncidium orchids are grown in a shade house or garden outside,
then they will require more frequent mistings to reduce the possibility of dehydration.
Dehydration of Oncidium orchids is usually manifested as crinkled leaves.
9.5.4.4 Feeding
The Oncidium orchid is known to be a heavy feeder. The Oncidium orchid and its
hybrids must be fed at half the recommended strength of most fertilizers once a week
while the orchid plants are actively growing. A high nitrogenous fertilizer in spring is
beneficial in terms of new growth and a balanced fertilizer during the summer and
the winter keeps the Oncidium orchid in peak condition. During autumn, it is best
to feed the Oncidium orchid with a high potash-based fertilizer to aid new flowering
stems from the bulbs.
9.5.4.5 Potting Mix and Repotting

Potting of Oncidium orchids should be done when new growth is at about one-half
mature stage. This is usually done in the spring. One can use fine-grade potting media
with fine-rooted Oncidium orchid plants and coarser mixes with large-rooted orchid
plants, and the standard size is medium grade. The Oncidium orchid should be posi-
tioned in the pot so that the newest growth is farthest away from the edge of the pot
and allows the maximum number of new growths before crowding the pot. The roots
of the orchid plant are spread over a cone of potting medium which is then filled in
around the roots. The medium around the roots of the orchid plant is firmed with your
fingers. The humidity is kept high and the potting medium kept dry until new roots
form.
The Tolumnias, or equitant and mule-ear Oncidium orchids, as well as other
fleshy-leaved or large-rooted orchid plants are easily grown on slabs of cork bark or
tree fern or in pots filled with a coarse, well-drained medium such as charcoal, or
even osmunda. This measure facilitates the necessary drying between water applica-
tions required by these Oncidium orchids; these orchids detest wet feet.
9.5.5 Pests and Diseases
The Oncidium orchid species is almost pest and disease free as fewer pests attack
them. On rare occasions, Oncidium orchids get aphid infestation. This is observed
usually with those orchids that are placed in open shade houses.
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Paphiopedilum (Orchidaceae) 187

Spikes are harvested when more than 80 percent of the flowers on the spikes are fully
open on a spike length of 60 cm with many florets.
9.5.6.2 Storage
Cut flowers can be stored wet at 8 to 12°C.
9.5.6.3 Vase life

8-HQC 200 ppm + 4% sucrose; AlCl3 100 ppm + boric acid 500 ppm + 4% sucrose +
aspirin 100 ppm are commonly used preservatives for holding solutions.
9.6 Paphiopedilum (Orchidaceae)
9.6.1 Introduction
Paphiopedilums are most popular orchids because of their unique shape, colour and
ease of cultivation. They are commonly called ‘Slipper Orchids’ and can be grown
in windowsills, basements, Wardian cases, small greenhouses, in large commer-
cial greenhouses, lathhouses and shade houses and can be grown in different cli-
mates. Paphiopedilum is a Greek word; ‘Paphion’ means an epithet for Aphrodite (the
Goddess known as Venus to the Romans) and ‘pedilon’ meaning slipper. In India at
least seven species have been reported so far. Paphiopedilums were originally intro-
duced to England in the 19th century.
Paphiopedilum venustum was the first species to flower in England in 1819, and
subsequently other species like Paph. insigne, Paph. javanicum, Paph. purpuratum,
Paph. barbatum, Paph. lowii and Paph. glanduliferum were introduced. The first
hybrid of Paphiopedilum was flowered by John Domany of Messrs. It was Veitch who
developed a hybrid and named it Paph. Harrisianum (Paph. villosum x Paph. bar-
batum). The second hybrid was named as Paph. Vaxillarium (Paph. barbatum x Paph.
fairrieanum). More than 13,000 hybrids have been registered that are very attractive in
colors, size and shapes. These are grown as pot plants or cut flowers.
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Paphiopedilum consists of 50 species of terrestrial or lithophytic orchids distributed in

the Himalayas, China, South East Asia, Indonesia and New Guinea. These orchids are
stemless, pseudobulbless sympodial orchids with well developed leathery, elliptic –
lanceolate leaves clasping at the base. The flowers are borne singly or in few flowered
racemes on a short to elongate inflorescence. The inflorescence is 60 cm tall and often
purplish brown. The dorsal sepals are distinct with markings. The two lateral sepals
are fused to form a vertical sepal. The lateral sepals are narrow and long with wavy
margins. The petals are at right angles to the sepals and sometimes curve forward
towards the lip.
9.6.3 Hybrids

Paph. harrisianum: Paph. villosum x Paph. barbatum
Paph. vexillarium: Paph. barbatum x Paph. fairrieanum

Phragmipaphiopedilum = Phragmipedium x Paphiopedilum
9.6.3.3 Parents for Primary Hybrids

Paph. viniferum, Paph. armeniacum, Paph. micranthum, Paph. malipoense
9.6.3.4 Parents for Mottle Leaf Hybrids

Paph. armeniacum, Paph. micranthum, Paph. bellatulum, Paph. concolor, Paph. super-
biens, Paph. wardii
9.6.3.5 Parents for Maudiae Hybrids

Paph. sukhakulii
9.6.3.6 Parents for Smallest Paphiopedilums

Paph. bellatulum, Paph. concolor, Paph. godefroyae. Paph. niveum
9.6.3.7 Parents for Multi-stemmed Flower

Paph. charlesworthii, Paph. henryanum, Paph. spicerianum, Paph. tigrinum
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9.6.3.8 Multi-floral or Strap Leafed Paphiopedilums

Paph. rothschildianum, Paph. sanderianum, Paph. stonei, Paph. philippense, ‘Prince
Edward of York’, Paph. ‘Michel Koopuwitz’, Paph ‘Saint Swithin’, Paph ‘Mount Toro’.
9.6.3.9 Fragrant Slipper Orchids

Paph. delentii, Paph. malipoense, Paph. micranthum, Paph. armeniacum, Paph. ‘Joyce
Hasegawa’, ‘Paph. ‘Lynleigh Koopwitz’, ‘Paph. ‘Magic Lantern’, Paph. ‘Harold Koop-
witz’.
9.6.3.10 Hybrid Phragmipediums

Phrag. ‘Sorcerer’s Apprentice’, Phrag. ‘Grande’, Phrag. ‘Don Wimber’, Phrag. ‘Eliza-
beth March’, Phrag. ‘Hanne Popow’, Phrag. ‘Jason Fischer’, Phrag. ‘Living Fire’.
9.6.3.11 Interspecific hybrids

‘AI Rutel’, ‘Alexej’, ‘Hung Sheng Eye’, ‘Dungu Roth’, ‘Georges Morel’, Memoria ‘David
Hanson’, ‘Caroline Hands’, ‘Armeni White’, ‘Magic Lantern’, ‘Malvic’, ‘Aaron Poock’,
‘Chai-Ui Lady’, ‘Natasha Von Fox’, ‘Chiu Hua Dancer’.

‘Big Tiger’, ‘Big Jaguar’, Double Moon’, ‘Heavy Ken’, ‘Across World’, ‘Dark Shadow’,
‘Winter Vacation’, ‘World Records’, ‘Angel Dust’, ‘Tree of Crow’, ‘California Spirit’,
‘World Edition’, ‘Angel Lace’, ‘Red Delight’, ‘World Command’, ‘Mystic’, ‘Pulsar’, ‘Two
Loves’, ‘Black Pepper’.
9.6.3.13 Species-varietal Hybrids

‘Bubble Chocolate’, ‘Chunky Fairy’, ‘Arthur Bell’, ‘Angel Drop’, ‘Baby Angel’, ‘Black
Beam’, ‘Doctor Mike Gothic Venture’, ‘Irish Lace’, ‘ Night Leopard’, ‘Winter Passage’,
‘Red Glory’, ‘Power Spice’, ‘Professor Plum’, ‘Asian Sunshine’, ‘Vintage Venus’.
9.6.4 Cultivation
9.6.4.1 Light
Generally, the slipper orchids grow on shallow humus or on rocks in forest areas
where conditions are cool and plenty of shade is available to protect from direct sun
light. Some of the species like Paph. villosum, Paph. parishii and Paph. lowii grow as
epiphytes and on tree trunks of forest trees. Most of the paphs require lower light
conditions in comparison to other orchids, but some species like P. randsii and P. phil-
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ippenense require higher light levels. High temperatures are detrimental for Paphio-
pedilums, and shade cloth roller blinds may be used in the glasshouse to control the
temperature. The shade net can be drawn back during the cloudy season in summer
and rolled up during winter season.
Paphiopedilum readily adapt to indoor conditions and can be grown successfully
in artificial light. The optimum light for the growth of Paphiopedilum is between 6000-
15000 lux (800-1200 foot candles). Direct sunlight is not ideal for slipper orchids.
9.6.4.2 Ventilation and Humidity

Paphiopedilums require good ventilation and high relative humidity particularly
during summer months for the growth of leaves and roots and to minimize bac-
terial and fungal infection. The air movement helps to evaporate excessive water in
the compost or potting medium. Therefore, the polyhouse should be equipped with
exhaust fans of suitable size and misting systems to maintain proper humidity. The
humidity can be maintained by fogging with a very fine spray, which allows tiny
droplets of moisture to settle on the leaf surface thereby reducing the leaf temperat-
ure without saturating compost. In warm climates, evaporative coolers are essential
for commercial glasshouses.
When the temperature decreases during the winter season, the humidity has to
be decreased gradually. The optimum humidity for good growth of Paphiopedilums
ranges between 65-75%. Excessive humidity may cause fungal and bacterial infec-
tion. During extreme winter when temperature falls, heaters are essential to maintain
proper temperature and humidity in the polyhouse. Under low humidity the maturing
buds will show yellowing and dryness.
9.6.4.3 Temperature
Paphiopedilums can survive in a range of temperatures. The best temperature in poly-
houses for good growth is between 15°C to 26°C. However, some species may tolerate
up to 36°C. Decrease in night temperature is required for initiation of flowering par-
ticularly in P. rothschildianum and its hybrids. Paphiopedilums will generally toler-
ate lower than ideal temperatures provided the medium is dry. During hot summer,
glasshouse fans are used to increase air movement with maximum ventilation and
constantly introduced humidity. Shading is also used to minimize the temperature in
the polyhouse.
9.6.4.4 Containers and Compost

Paphiopedilums generally prefer light friable humus, and well drained crevices and
cracks. Two types of pots are available: clay and plastic pots. Clay pots are expens-
ive, heavy and dry out quickly whereas plastic pots are light and inexpensive and
extra drainage holes can be made easily. Plastic pots can be reused after washing in a
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bleaching solution followed by washing with water and proper drying. They prevent
the potting media from drying out too quickly and should be used with an open,
friable and airy mix.
The potting media should consist of coconut husk, expended clay, charcoal, peat
or Sphagnum moss, perlite, vermiculite etc. Coconut husks are economical and are
broken down rapidly by heat and fertilizers. In warmer climates, Sphagnum moss is
widely used in clay containers which allow the mix to dry out without leaving the
roots saturated. Charcoal can be used as an additive, but it attracts excess salts which
is harmful for emerging roots. The most widely used potting mix contains equal part
of peat and coarse grade perlite mixed with three parts of medium sized bark. A small
amount of dolomitic lime is also recommended as an additive over the compost. The
epiphytic Paphiopedilums are also mounted on tree fern slabs or cork rafts.
9.6.4.5 Repotting
In general, the repotting should be done once or twice a year after flowering. Whenever
a plant becomes pot bound and looks unwell, repotting is recommended. The plant
should be removed from the pot and the roots inspected. Dead roots are removed
and the plant is repotted in the same or larger pot and care must be taken to avoid
damaging roots, especially with plants that have live yellow tips. For repotting, damp
compost is recommended and irrigation is not given to the newly repotted plants
for at least two weeks. Additional humidity and fogging are necessary for rooting in
newly potted medium. New roots are encouraged to grow in fresh potting medium. At
this stage plants should be watered normally.
9.6.4.6 Watering
Rain water is supposed to be the best for paphs orchids but it is not always available.
For newly potted plants the media should be allowed to dry, followed by watering.
Paphiopedilums require more frequent watering during summer. In general, good
humidity is maintained by misting. One can judge the amount of watering required
by checking the dampness of the pot medium with one’s fingers. Watering should be
done as early as possible in the morning to ensure that excess water will evaporate
and not remain on the foliage and in the growing tip overnight. It is advised that
once a month the plant should be watered thoroughly so that excess mineral salts are
leached out of the compost. It is also very important that the compost should not be
allowed dry completely. If it is, misting should be done to maintain proper wetness.
Paphiopedilums lack pseudobulbs and do not have any reserve food materials for
drawing nutrition intermittently. The media is supplemented with several granulated
fertilizers at the time of potting. Fertilizers are required during the active vegetative
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growth stage of the plant. The basic fertilizers are highly diluted to a quarter or no
more than half the strength suggested by the supplier.
During spring, nitrogen based fertilizer 30-10-10 (N:P:K) is applied to encourage
growth followed by a general fertilizer (20-20-20) in the summer and then potash
based fertilizers are applied (10-30-20) for flowering and hardening of the plants.
After this application, water is applied thoroughly once a month to leach out any
excess mineral salts, which would be detrimental to the health of the plant. During
winter, a weak solution of general feed is applied.
9.6.4.8 Propagation
Vegetative propagation is the common method for multiplication of Paphiopedilums.
It is necessary to ensure that the plant is divided equally, because inadequate divi-
sion may be detrimental and allow attack by fungal and bacterial pathogens. Some
species, particularly green strap-leaf species and succulent brachypetalums, do not
survive after division, whereas the mottled leaf types can survive after division. Plants
that have already flowered will often send out a new shoot when potted. Another
method for multiplication of Paphiopedilums is selective breeding, as there is no
proven technique of mericloning.
Paphiopedilum is also propagated by seeds in flasks by many growers. One flask
contains about 25-30 seedlings, but growing these plants is a difficult task for small
growers. Only those flasks that are vigorous, uniform with healthy roots and no fungal
infection may be selected. The choice of flask and selection of stock depends on the
experience, expertise and skill of the growers.
After the discovery of tissue cultures techniques during the 1960s, it was revolu-
tion in mass propagation of orchids and other crops. Today, all the ingredients of
tissue culture are easily available from laboratory suppliers and the media can be
prepared and sterilized within a very short time. Seeds are sterilized in bleaching
solution and are then spread over solidified agar gels in the flasks. After few weeks to
months whitish yellow bodies are formed which are called protocorm. Subsequently
the flasks are transferred to growth chamber where temperature is maintained at
about 21°C. These flasks soon develop into tiny plantlets and are kept in the chamber
for six to nine months until the plantlets are large enough to be removed.
To grow Paphiopedilum seedlings by seed culture is a costly affair for the small
grower. However, a number of commercial laboratories offer flasking service. The best
time to deflask the young plants is during spring or autumn.
9.6.5 Pest and Diseases
Among the orchids, Paphiopedilums are least affected by insect pests. Maintaining
good hygiene in the polyhouse is the first step to manage the diseases and pests.
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Vanda (Orchidaceae) 193
Regular removal of the weeds and dead leaves plays an important role in minim-
izing disease and pest infestations of orchid polyhouses. Keeping clean floors free
from algae and mosses will prevent snails and slugs. Plant benches may be cleaned
and sprayed with liquid preventatives and slug pellets. Ants play an important role
in bringing aphids, mealybugs and scale insects around plants. Therefore, by con-
trolling ants, other pest problems can be minimized. Many pests can be removed
manually; application of insecticides should be the last option. Before introducing
the new plants into the glass house, they are thoroughly checked for pests and dis-
eases, and proper quarantine procedures must be followed.
Spider mites and false spider mites cause damage to the leaves by causing pitting
or silvery spots, depressions or punctures on the leaves. Heavy infestations are
accompanied by white webbing on the underside of the leaves. By maintaining high
humidity, spider mites can be controlled. The plant should be watered thoroughly
before spraying miticides.
In Paphiopedilums, the bacterial diseases caused by Erwinia cypripedii and
Pseudomonas cypripedii are most common. The infected area turns black or brown as
the rot spreads. To control the disease, the infected plant should be separated imme-
diately and the infected part may be removed by cutting, followed by treatment of the
cut with sulphur. If the infection is extreme, the plant should be removed from the pot
and the compost should be discarded, then the entire plant should be allowed to soak
in Physan solution before repotting.
Sometimes crinkling and pleating of the leaves are reported, which are not very
harmful. These symptoms are due to a lack of humidity at some stage of development
of leaves. The pleating may arise due to genetic problems or from an incompatible
breeding. Brown leaf tip or leaf tip burn usually indicates an excess of unleached
mineral salts in the compost. The decomposing acidic, soggy compost is responsible
for root tip burn, rotting and poor growth of roots.
9.6.6 Post-Harvest Management
Stage of harvest: 3 to 4 days after opening of flower

Storage: 0.5 to 3°C for 20 days
Vase life: 25 to 30 days
Preservatives: 8-HQC 200 ppm + sucrose 2%; AgNO3 300 ppm + sucrose 2%
9.7 Vanda (Orchidaceae)
9.7.1 Introduction
The Vanda orchids are completely tropical and are easy to grow. Some species can be
exposed to full sun. They are cross compatible with other genera like Ascocentrum,
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Aerides, Rhyncostylis, Neofinetia, Renanthera and even Phalaenopsis. All orchids

having the same characteristics as the Vanda genus, are called vandaceous orchids
and they are grouped together to form the Vanda Alliance. Genera like Vandas, Aerides,
Ascocentrum, Renanthera, Rhyncostylis, Aranda, Mokara, Kagawara are included in
the Vanda Alliance. Many of orchids under this group are called as ‘Scorpion Orchids’
or ‘Spider Orchids’. They are ideal for hanging baskets, pots or tree logs. Leaf juice of
Vanda coerulea is used against diarrhea, dysentery and external application for skin
diseases. Leaf paste of Vanda teres is applied to reduce temperature in fever. Leaves of
Vanda cristata are used as tonic and expectorant.
In Vanda tessellata, a paste made from the leaves is effective against fever. It is
an ingredient of Rasna Panchaka Quatha. In Ayurvedic medicine, it is used in the
treatment of arthritis and rheumatism. The leaf juice extract is used in the treatment
of otitis media. The root is an effective against scorpion sting and bronchitis.
Vanda consists of more than 70 species of monopodial epiphytic orchids distributed

in India, China, The Himalayas, Sri Lanka, Philippines and throughout South East
Asia. These commercial orchids are grown in Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia and
Hawai.
They are diverse in vegetative and reproductive growth. Based on leaf characters
they are grouped into four categories: strap shaped, terete, semi-terete and channeled
(Tab. 9.8). The lip of strap shaped leaves is very irregular while the terete leaves are of
pencil thickness. The inflorescence arises from the axil of the leaves in strap leaved
orchids, whereas in the case of terete leaved orchids inflorescence emerge from the
side of the stem of opposite leaf. The inflorescence is axillary, erect, and simple.
The flowers are small to large, few to many, fleshy, heavy textured, long lasting and
yellow, brown, purple, magenta, blue, and lavender in colour. The flower size varies
from 2.5 to 10 cm.
Tab. 9.8: Leaf Type in Vanda
Leaf types Example species/varieties
Terete Vanda teres, V. ‘John Clubb’ V. ‘Miss Joaquim’
Semi-terete V. Emma van Deventer, V. Ruby
Channelled Vanda sanderiana, Vanda lamellata

Strap Vanda coerulea, Vanda cristata, Vanda parviflora, Vanda coerulescens,
Vanda tassellata, V. stangeana, Vanda alpina, V. ‘KS.SD’, V. ‘Prao Sky
Blue’, V. ‘Pures Wax’, V. ‘RBSD Black’, V. ‘PAT D’, V. ‘Sansai Blue’, V. ‘Motes
Indigo’, V. ‘Pakchong Blue’, V. ‘Roberts Delight Blue’
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9.7.3 Hybrids (De, 2014)

Vanda boumaniae, Vanda charlesworthii, Vanda ‘Miss Joaquim’

Aeridovanda = Aerides x Vanda
Opsisanda = Vanda x Vandopsis
Rhynchovanda = Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Trichovanda = Trichoglottis x anda
Vandoritis = Doritis x Vanda

Aeridovanisia = Aerides x Luisia x Vanda
Burkillara = Aerides x Arachnis x Vanda
Fujiora = Ascocentrum x Trichoglottis x Vanda
Goffara = Luisia x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Holttumara = Arachnis x Renanthera x Vanda
Joannara = Renanthera x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Kagawara = Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Vanda
Leeara = Arachnis x Vanda x Vandopsis
Mokara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Vanda
Renanda = Arachnis x Renanthera x Vanda
Wilkinsara = Ascocentrum x Vanda x Vandopsis
Vascostylis = Ascocentrum x Rhyncostylis x Vanda

Alphonsoara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Vanda x Vandopsis
Bokchoonara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis x Vanda
Himoriara = Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Isaora = Aerides x Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis x Vanda
Knappara = Ascocentrum x Rhyncostylis x Vanda x Vandopsis
Okaara = Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
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Robinara = Aerides x Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Vanda

Yusofara= Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Vanda
9.7.3.5 Pentageneric Hybrids

Knudsonara = Ascocentrum x Neofinetia x Renanthera x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Macekara = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Renanthera x Vanda x Vandopsis
9.7.3.6 Vanda Hybrids

‘Roberts Delight’, ‘Dr. Anek’, ‘Pakchong Blue’, ’Miss Joaquim’, ’Fuch’s Delight’,
‘Lumpini Red’, ‘Motes Indogo Blue’, ‘Pat Delight’, ‘Rasri Gold’, ‘Samsai Blue’, ‘Adisak
Smile’, ‘Robert Sorenson’, ‘Kasems Delight’, ‘Richard Brandon’, Kultana Delight’,
‘Brigton’s Pride’, ‘Hope’, ‘Mark Lewis’, ‘Dr. Mahathis’, ‘Kultana Miami White’, ‘Kultana
Violet’, ‘Grand Lady’, ‘Fuch’s Midnight’, ‘Motes Nut Brown’, ‘Prayoon Delight’.
9.7.3.7 Aranda Hybrids

‘City of Singapore’, ‘Hilda Galistan’, ‘Urmila Nandey’, ‘Christine’, ‘Thailand Sunspot’,
‘Millenium Dawn’, ‘Broga Giant’, ‘Salaya Red’, ‘Propine White’, ‘Propin Spot’, ‘Lueng
Cholburi’, ‘Ishbel Manisaki’, ‘Baytown’, ‘Chao Praya Blue’, ‘Chao Praya Dot Com’,
‘Chao Praya Beauty’, ‘ Ethan Pride’, ‘Taksari Chandrabir’.
9.7.3.8 Ascocenda Hybrids

‘Carol Belk’, ‘Renuka Angle’, ‘Joyce Bevins’, ‘Adisak Blue’, ‘Renu Gold’, ‘Tipi Blue
Boy’, ‘Bobs Fortune’, ‘Rubychai’, Shah Rukh Khan’, Yang Sophia Firuz’, ‘Abdul Ghani
Othman’, ‘Chunika’, ‘Fuch’s Star’, ‘Kultana White’, ‘Golden Peace’, ‘Lani Beauty’,
‘Mahogany Gem’, ‘Copper Pure’, ‘Pokey Dot’.
9.7.3.9 Mokara Hybrids

‘Madam Panne’, ‘Bangkok Gold’, ‘Chao Praya Gold’, ‘Chark Kuan Orange’, ‘Chark
Kuan Pink’, ‘Kelvin Red’, ‘ Kelvin Orange’, ‘Walter Ouame’, ‘Jitti Orange’, ‘Happy
Beauty’, ‘Margaret Thatcher’, ‘Sarita Gold’, ‘Laura Bush’, ‘Winny Burang’, ‘Gladys
Oumae’, ‘Denis Child’, ‘Ratchaburi Blue’, ‘Lion’s Gold’, ‘Chao Praya Sunrise’, ‘Pak-
Kred’, ‘Golden Rooster’, ‘Jasso’s Pride’, ‘Chao Praya Classic’, ‘Chao Praya Spots’, ‘
Calypso’, ‘Bota Gold’.
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9.7.3.10 Kagawara Hybrids

‘Red Lava Orange’, ‘Mist’, ‘Christie Low Redland’, ‘Broga Cemerlang’, ‘Chao Praya
Fantasy’, ‘Curtis Lutchman’, ‘Emily Kavita Rajah’, ‘Diinesh Gold’, ‘Lion’s Flame’,
‘Irene Hew’, ‘Bukit Timah’, ‘Sandy Gold’.
9.7.3.11 Vascostylis Hybrids

‘Ique Pink’, ‘Kruewan’, ‘Banjong Jasmine’, ‘Mishima Lime’, ‘Vanity Fair’, ‘Firuz’, ‘Pine
Rivers’, ‘Banjong Elite’, ‘Pichtawit Gold’, ‘Chao Praya Lime’, ‘Lanna Rosy’, ‘Jeans
Delight’, ‘Bay Sapphire’, ‘Spring Hill’.
9.7.3.12 Aeridovanda Hybrids

‘Bensiri’, ‘Noreen’, ‘Early Bird’, ‘Shiv Sidhu’, ‘New Dawn’, ‘Harrison Luke Somsri Sun-
light’.
9.7.4 Cultivation
9.7.4.1 Light
All Vanda orchids require high light levels. Strap leaf Vandaceous orchids require
60-65% shade whereas terete or semi-terete vandas need more light and require 50%
shade. On average they require a light intensity of 4000 foot candles.
9.7.4.2 Temperature
The Vanda orchid prefers warm temperatures in summer and winter. They are highly
susceptible to cold and frost. In cooler regions, the orchid plants will go into a dormant
state during winter. Cylindrical Vandas require a minimum temperature of 16-17°C at
night during winter, and a maximum of 30-32°C in the summer. Flat leaved vandas need
a winter night temperature of 10-12°C and a summer day time temperature of 22-25°C
They are capable of tolerating higher and lower temperatures for short periods only.
9.7.4.3 Propagation
Easily propagated by cuttings of the shoots along with roots or air layerings. Rapid
large scale multiplication is possible through tissue culture.
9.7.4.4 Watering
Vandaceous plants love good quality water. Being a monopodial, the plants cannot
retain water for any great length of time. It is advisable at all times to water these
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plants as early in the morning as possible, so that the foliage of the plant is dry by
noon. Orchids do not appreciate being wet and cold, so water your plants in the
winter time only on bright and clear mornings as necessary. Adult plants are watered
once a week in the winter time and every day during summer.
All Vandaceous orchids are heavy feeders. During the growing period from the begin-
ning of September to the end of March, the adult plants are fed once a week as follows:
For two weeks we use a well balanced fertilizer (30:10:10) and the following week we
use a low nitrogen fertilizer (10:30:20). The young seedlings are fed once a week; one
can use a well balanced fertilizer (30:10:10) and the following week using a low nitro-
gen fertilizer (10: 30: 20).
During the dormant period when the weather starts getting cooler and the day-
light hours shorten, the food to plants is reduced. Adult plants are fed only once a
fortnight with a low nitrogen fertilizer in order to keep the velamen on the root system
plump. The young seedlings are fed only once a fortnight, rotating a balanced fertil-
izer with a low nitrogen fertilizer as mentioned above.
9.7.4.6 Potting Media

Freshly deflasked seedlings are potted into a fine mix in community pots, and the
larger plants (from flask) are potted directly into 50 mm tubes using the same mix.
When the plants have outgrown their 50 mm tubes, they are either potted into 10-12 cm
black plastic baskets or 15 cm clay pots which have extra holes in the sides.
The mix used in 15 cm pots is 50% good quality treated bark, 30% larger chunks
of cocochips and 20% brick pieces. In the baskets or clay pots, one can put extra
coarse bark and cocochips to support the plants until the roots have gripped the con-
tainer. This assists Vandaceous orchids by providing plenty of good air circulation
around the root system. They do not like to have wet feet especially during prolonged
rainy or cold weather when they can get bacterial soft rot.
9.7.5 Insect -pests and Diseases
Fungal and bacterial diseases cause collapse of the plant’s tissues, frequently with
a water soaked appearance. Bacterial infection may attack the leaves, the stem or
the root system. These diseases require high humidity to survive. Some occur at high
humidity and low temperatures, while other types are not activated until the temper-
atures are relatively high. These diseases can be discouraged by watering orchids as
early as possible in the morning so when the temperature reaches its peak, the plants
dry up and will remain so as the temperature falls at night.
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Fungal and bacterial problems can be kept to a minimum with good sanitation,
good air circulation around the plants, and regular spraying with a preventative fun-
gicide to protect the plants against infection.
Mancozeb or Dithane (0.2%) is also used periodically if required, for instance after
prolonged rainy weather. Before the onset of winter (beginning of May) a mixture of
Mancozeb and Spraytech Oil is sprayed on the plants. Infections such as bacteria can
enter the plants through injury to the root system and then the plant is susceptible to
Fusarium Wilt. The affected plants start to drop the lower leaves. Spraying with Man-
cozeb (0.2%) or Zineb (0.2%) controls the disease. Vandaceous orchids are almost free
from pests and insects. Occasionally scale or cockroaches may attack, causing a wide-
spread infection in the shade-house. If required, spray with a mixture of Diazinon and
White Oil for scale or Diazinon to prevent cockroaches.
9.7.6 Post-harvest Management (Bhattacharjee and De, 2005)
9.7.6.1 Stage of harvest:

Spikes are harvested when all flowers are already open, depending on types 10 to 16
flowers on a stem length of 50-60 cm.
9.7.6.2 Storage
Cut flowers are wet stored at 8 to 13°C.
9.7.6.3 Vase life

AgNO3 30 ppm + sucrose 1.5% is commonly used preservatives in holding solutions
for enhanced vase life of cut flowers.
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10 Production Technology of Commercial Terrestrial
Orchids for Cut Flowers
10.1 Introduction
Terrestrial orchids grow on the ground level in the soil. Most of these can be found
in North America, Europe, and cooler regions of Asia. There are a great number of
species even among the terrestrial orchids. They are either found on the forest floor
under shade (for example Calanthe, Acanthephippium, Eulophia macrostachya,
Tainia, Phaius etc.) or in open grasslands and meadows like Habenaria, Peristylus,
Pachystoma, Ipsea, Eulophia nuda etc. These orchids are rich in starch and alkaloids
and medicinally important.
Based upon growth habit, terrestrial orchids are either creeping or erect type and
can be divided into two types: the solitary type and those growing in clumps or tufts.
Within the solitary type group of terrestrial orchids there are two kinds of growth
habit; one with plants producing single, erect, leafy stems arising from underground
tubers or corms which are terminated by an inflorescence. They are deciduous after
fruiting and seeding are completed. The tubers or corms continue their life cycle after
completion of an annual period of dormancy. Orchids with the second type of solit-
ary growth habit produce a flowering shoot and leafy shoot from separate buds on
the rhizome. Genera such as Nervilia, Eulophia and Pachystoma are examples of this
type. The erect terrestrials are usually evergreen, retaining their leaves for more than
a year. Each new growth starts from the base of the leafy pseudobulbs as in the genera
Liparis, Acanthephippium, Calanthe and Phaius.
The creeping terrestrial orchids have mostly slender, smooth, fleshy rhizomes
with elongated internodes and several short or long roots at the nodes. Axillary buds,
formed below the apex of the rhizomes produce and ascending leafy and flower-
ing shoot. New annual growth is repeated at the end of flowering, fruiting and, in
most cases, after leaf fall. The mother ascending shoot gradually becomes prostrate
and becomes an additional part of the rhizome. Examples of orchid genera in New
Guinea with this type of growth habit are Erythrodes, Eurycentrum, Eucosia, Hetaeria,
Macodes, Vrydragzynea and Zeuxine.
Terrestrial orchids generally prefer:
– A potting medium that retains moisture
– Even watering
– Moderate humidity
– Less air movement
– Less fertilizer
– Cooler temperatures
– Lower light levels
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Calanthe 201
10.2 Calanthe
Calanthe is a genus of about 200 terrestrial species that are widespread throughout all
tropical areas but are highly concentrated in Asia. The first man-made orchid hybrid
created was a Calanthe Dominii, back in 1853, and Calanthe were very popular hot-
house plants during the Victorian Era.
There are two types of Calanthe, the deciduous ones which generally have large,
silvery pseudobulbs, drop their leaves in winter, and require less water during winter;
and the evergreen Calanthe which have either no pseudobulbs or very inconspicuous
ones, usually keep their leaves for several seasons, and require even moisture year
round. The scape is axillary, terminal or lateral from a leafy pseudobulb. The racemes
are long, bearing few to 20 flowers, which are subtended by leafy bracts. The flowers
are basically white, red or mauve, medium sized and attractive.
10.2.1 Genetic Resources (De, 2011)
Calanthe triplicata: This species is native to the Philippines, Pacific Islands and Aus-
tralia. An evergreen species with hairy long inflorescence. The flowers are white col-
oured with reddish and yellow tinge turning black with age and produced during
summer and autumn.
Calanthe masuca: An evergreen species of Sikkim Himalaya and Western Ghat with
elliptic–ovate to lanceolate leaves. Inflorescence is 90 cm tall and crowded with 12 to
15 small blue violet flowers.
Calanthe Regnieri: A deciduous species from Vietnam. The inflorescence is 45 cm
long, pubescent with 8-10 flowers. The flowers are white tinged with pink and pro-
duced during winter season.
Calanthe rosea: A deciduous species from Burma. The pseudobulbs are spindle
shaped. The leaves are broadly lanceolate. The inflorescence is raceme and many
flowered. The flowers are long lasting and rose pink to white or dark rose in colour
and produced in autumn and winter.
Calanthe veratrifolia: This species is native to India and Australia. The leaves are
elliptic and distinctly folded light green in colour. The inflorescence is 150 cm tall,
erect and many flowered. The flowers are long lasting, white and produced during
May.
Calanthe vestita: A deciduous species from India, Malay Peninsula, Burma and Thai-
land. The pseudobulbs are conical, egg shaped carrying 3-4 leaves. The inflorescence
is 150 cm tall, arching and arranged with large white flowers.
Calanthe veitchii: It is a hybrid of Calanthe rosea and Calanthe vestita. The pseudob-
ulbs are elongated with deciduous leaves. The inflorescence is 75 cm tall with rich
rose flowers. The flowers are long lasting and suitable as cut flower and produced in
January –February.
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202 Production Technology of Commercial Terrestrial Orchids for Cut Flowers
Calanthe sylvatica: A terrestrial tropical and subtropical orchid from North East
India. Flowers are large lilac to deep purple with a prominent spur and produced in
August-September.
Calanthe alasmifiolia: Native to Bhutan, India, Sikkim, West Bengal, Arunachal
Pradesh and Nepal. The inflorescence is corymb. The flowers are white and produced
in May-June.
Calanthe biloba: Native to Bhutan, India and Nepal. Pseudobulbs are elongated.
The flowers are yellow-ochre spotted with violet or purple brown and produced in
September-November.
Calanthe brevicornu: Native to Bhutan, India and Nepal. Pseudobulbs are round. The
inflorescence is terminal and arranged with 8 to 15 flowers. Flowers are brick red to
purple red colour striped with white or yellow and produced in May-June.
Calanthe chlorleuca: Native to Bhutan and India. Pseudobulbs are conical cylindric.
The flowers are yellow green, fragrant and produced in April-May.
Calanthe puberula: Native to India, Bhutan and Nepal. The pseudobulbs are
ovoid-conical. The flowers are loosely arranged with inflorescence. The flowers are
pale-lavender and produced in June to August.
Calanthe discolor: An evergreen species. Flowers are pure white.
Calanthe aristulifera: A rarest endemic species of Japan. An evergreen species, 45 cm
tall spikes bearing light pink flowers.
10.2.2 Hybrids
During the 1850’s, Mr. Dominy developed first hybrid, Calanthe dominyi, which is a
cross bettwen Calanthe masuca and Calanthe furcata.

Hizen = Calanthe discolor x Calanthe aristulifera
Ghita Norby = Calanthe triplicata x Calanthe madagascariensis
Egg Drop = Calanthe arisamensis x Calanthe striata
Tydares Sieboca = Calanthe striata x Calanthe masuca
Calanthe Sieboldii ‘Takane’ hybrids, Calanthe Kozu ‘Spice’ hybrids

Phaiocalanthe = Phaius x Calanthe
Gastrocalanthe = Gastrorchis x Calanthe
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Eulophia 203

‘Elegance’, ‘Tsiku Flamingo’, ‘Tsiku Honolulu’, ‘Narita’, ‘Urayasu’, ‘Pink Champagne’,
‘Mont Nicholle’, ‘Kitayama’, ‘Koriyama’, ‘Ranyu’, ‘Bouvet’, ‘Mac’s Gold’, ‘Mont Isaac’,
‘Mont Couchon’, ‘Mont Remon’.
10.2.3 Uses
These species are used as cut flowers. Calanthe orchids are rich in linalool, methyl
benzoate, methyl salicylate, carvone and cinnamic aldehyde. Calanthe masuca is
used for the treatment of acnes and inflammatory sebaceous cysts.
10.2.4 Cultivation
Basically they grow terrestrially in deep patches of forest humus, on rotting logs, and
among rocks with crevices filled with leaf litter. In cultivation one should practice in
pots in order to get the best growth and blooming from the plants. The plants grow
well in a temperature range of 15-25°C, light intensity of 1800-2500 foot candles and
relative humidity of 50-70%. They require ventilated, well lighted and airy conditions
for proper growth and flowering. The compost mixture should consist of charcoal, tree
bark, sphagnum moss, pea nut shells, cow dung, perlite and sandy soil. Dilute liquid
manure is to be applied at monthly intervals. Propagated by the division of bulbs.
10.3 Eulophia
Eulophia consists of 300 species of sympodial terrestrial orchids from Africa, Mad-
agascar, Malayasia, Sri Lanka, China, America and India. The pseudobulbs are sub-
terranean topped by 3 to 5 linear-lanceolate leaves. The leaves are leathery or soft,
1.8 m tall and 10-12.5 cm wide. The inflorescence is simple or branched and bears few
to many attractive flowers which are long lasting. The flower spikes are 1-2 m tall and
arranged with diverse types of flowers, which are yellowish or greenish in colour with
some brown and purplish markings.
10.3.1 Genetic Resources
Eulophia alata: Native to South Florida, Brazil and West Indies. The pseudobulbs are
corm like, subterranean and borne in a long creeping series and 7.5 cm across. Leaves
are dark green and arise from pseudobulbs, 1.2 m tall and 7.5 cm across. The inflor-
escence is 1.5 m tall, raceme, and bearing attractive flowers. The flowers are 4 cm in
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diameter, scented, long lasting, greenish bronze yellow or dull yellow, green purple or
maroon in colour with cup shaped maroon purple lip and produced in autumn and
winter.
Eulophia andamanensis: Native to Andaman Islands. The stems are tuberous at base.
Eulophia ovalis: Native to tropical Africa. Plants are 70 cm tall with purple and white
or cream to lilac in colour.
Eulophia explanata: A tall robust species from Garhwal, Kerala, Chhotanagpur and
Kumaon with a short pseudostem covered by sheathing bases. The inflorescence is
60 cm tall with lemon yellow flowers. The flowers are produced during June-July.
Eulophia guineensis: Native to West tropical Africa. The pseudobulbs are clustered,
furrowed, and irregular with stalked narrowly elliptic leaves. The inflorescence is
raceme like, erect, 90 cm tall and has 10-15 flowers. The flowers are fragrant, long
lasting, waxy, greenish brown with a white lip.
Eulophia mackinnonil: A tropical and subtropical species from Western Himalayas.
Pseudobulbs are flat, triangular with acuminate and lanceolate leaves. The inflores-
cence is a raceme and 8 to 12 flowered. The flowers are yellow to reddish brown and
produced in July-August.
Eulophia spectabilis: A terrestrial species from Bhutan, India and Nepal. Pseudobulbs
are spherical and subterranean with 3 to 4 pleated leaves. The inflorescence is 5-15
flowered. Flowers are purple brown to pure green in colour and produced in April-July.
Eulophia nuda: A tuberous plant with smooth spherical leaves. Leaves are elliptic.
Flowers are lax-raceme, 9-20 flowered and rose-pink in colour.
Eulophia parviflora: Native to Eastern Cape and grown in grassland and rocky slopes.
Flowers are pleasantly scented with brown and yellow flowers.
Eulophia aculeata: Native to southwestern Cape to Mpumalanga. Plants are rhizomat-
ous, 50 cm tall with ivory to greenish, pink or purple flowers.
Eulophia clavicornis: Native to tropical Africa. Plants are rhizomatous, 80 cm tall with
white to purple or yellow petals.
Eulophia foliosa: Native to South Africa. Plants are 60 cm tall with dense elongated
clusters of lime green flowers.
10.3.2 Hybrids
Eulophia x burundiensis (Eulophia cucullata x Eulophia flavopurpurea), an inter-spe-

cific hybrid is native to South Africa. Flowers are large and bright yellow in colour.
Popular as pot plants. Another hybrid available in this genera is ‘John Davison’.
10.3.3 Medicinal Eulophia
Tubers of Eulophia ochreata are used for the treatment of earache and toothache.
In India, the tubers of Eulophia nuda are used to treat tumours, scrofulous glands,
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Phaius 205
blood disorders, bronchitis, tuberculosis and as a vermifuge. Raw tubers are eaten
in rheumoid arthritis. Eulophia speciosa, a native to Africa is used as food sources,
for medicinal purposes and in superstition. The attractive flowers are used on letter
stamps.
10.3.4 Cultivation
Eulophias prefer humid and well lighted location, exposure to direct sun should be
avoided. The sympodial terrestrial species prefer a temperature range of 10 to 15°C,
relative humidity of 40-60% and light intensity of 3000-5000 foot candles depending
upon the species. The pot mixture comprising of leaf mould, sandy soil, tree bark,
sphagnum moss and perlite mixture is good. Application of dilute liquid form of well
rotted cowdung manure at monthly intervals is beneficial. Epiphytic species should
be grown on osmunda fibre or tree fern block with sphagnum moss.
10.4 Phaius
Phaius consists of 30 species of terrestrial orchids distributed in East Africa to Trop-

ical Asia, Pacific Islands, Himalayas, New Caledonia, Indonesia and Fiji Islands. The
pseudobulbs are stocky and thickened and arranged with 2 to 8 large, thin, deeply
grooved, long and lance shaped leaves. The individual leaf is 1.2 m long and 20-25 cm
wide. The inflorescence is 90 to 120 cm long, arises from the rhizome base between
the point of attachment of two leaves. The flowers are large, showy, 10 cm across, long
lasting and of various colours.
Phaius tankervilliae: Native to tropical Asia, Australia and Pacific Islands. The
pseudobulbs are lightly clustered, dull green with very large folded and heavy leaves.
Inflorescence is stout longer than leaves, tipped by a spike of 15-20 flowers. The flowers
are 11 cm across, long lasting, sweet smelling. The fragrant flowers are silvery on the
outside and have yellowish throats. Commonly known as ‘Nun’s Orchid’. Flowers are
produced during December-March.
Phaius humboltii: Native to Madagascar. The leaves are 50 cm long and broadly
lanceolate. Inflorescence is 15 to 20 flowered, erect and thick. The flowers are 6.5 cm
across and rose coloured. Flowers are produced during June-July.
Phaius flavus: Flowers are 45 cm tall and are usually produced during April-June.
The species is native to Japan and Asia. Commonly known as ‘Rock Orchid’. Flowers
are yellow with a reddish brown banded lip. Pseudobulbs are conical, topped with
50-60 cm long plicate variegated leaves.
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10.4.2 Commercial Hybrids
‘Masako’, ‘Morningstar’, ‘Spring Fever’
10.4.3 Herbal Medicines
Paste of pseudobulbs of Phaius tankervilliae is used to heal swellings of hand and

legs, and in poultices to soothe pain of abscess.
10.4.4 Cultivation
Phaius should be grown in a temperature range of 16°C to 24°C night to day. However,
the plants will tolerate lower temperatures to 10°C or higher to 32°C. They enjoy bright
light or light shade. Plants are grown in pots with a mixture of 2 parts coarse peat
moss, 2 part sandy loam and 1 part each perlite and fine bark and watering with good
drainage. Fertilize the plants at every third watering with a balanced Orchid fertil-
izer, such as 18-18-18, diluted to half the strength recommended. Repotting of phaius
orchids is required every two or three years. They are propagated by flower stalk cut-
tings or divisions.
10.5 Pleione
Pleione consists of 20 species of cool growing terrestrial or lithophytic orchids distrib-

uted in China, Formosa, the Himalayas and South East Asia. These deciduous orchids
are known as ‘Indian Crocus’. The psedubulbs are angular, one clustered, small and
sometimes mottled with black. These pseudobulbs are topped by a solitary folded
leaf. Pseudobulbs arise from the base of each pseudobulb, one or two flowered and
attractive. The flowers are delicate and frilled.
Pleione humilis: This species is native to Sikkim and grown in high altitude. The pseudob-
ulbs are egg shaped and clustered with solitary, folded and deciduous leaves. The flowers
are 12.5 cm across, fragrant, white and produced during September-October.
Pleione maculata: A dwarf orchid from India. The pseudobulbs are flask shaped or
almost conical, compressed and tuberculate at base. The leaves are folded, two and
deciduous. The flowers are solitary, fragrant, 5 cm across, long lasting, white and
produced during October-November.
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Pleione 207
Pleione praecox: Distributed in South China, India, Burma and Himalayas. The pseudob-
ulbs are egg shaped, lightly clustered, bottle shaped and depressed at the apex. The
leaves are 2, folded, deciduos and elliptic to lanceolate. The flowers are solitary, fragrant,
long lasting, 12.5 cm across, magenta red in colour and produced during December.
10.5.2 Hybrids

‘Io’, ‘Mandrill’, ‘Gelada’, ‘Kima’, ‘Langur’, ‘Polto’, ‘Dr. Mo Weatherhead’, ‘Bonobo’,
‘Mariemonda’, ‘Lucey’, ‘Muriel’, ‘Orangutan’, ‘Nozomi’, ‘Spring’, ‘Renate’, ‘Lilac
Wonder’, ‘Umpqua Jan Shan’, ‘Yeti’, ‘Zottel’, ‘Sinope’, ‘Kyoto’, ‘Confirmation’.

‘Darwin’, ‘Gorilla’, ‘Wahakari’, ‘Jake Butterfield’, Helen Brownsword’, ‘Vicky’,
‘Michael Butterfield’, ‘Snow Monkey’, ‘Adabra’, ‘St. Helens’, ‘Badaling’, ‘Fan Jiang’,
‘Kiku’, ‘Mikado’, ‘Trask’, ‘Ashmore’, ‘Calypso’, ‘Titan’.
10.5.2.3 Variety – species Hybrids

‘Aye-Aye’, ‘Austice Harris’, ‘Sifaca’, ‘Tai Pan’, ‘Kong’, ‘Mardin’, ‘Leda’, ‘Bo Pan’, Little
Goose Pagoda’, ‘Yokata’, ‘Sakura’, Floor Shan’, Hazlebury’.
10.5.3 Medicinal Pleione
Pseudobulbs of Pleione maculata are used in liver complaints and stomachache.

Pseudobulbs of Pleione formosana are rich in dihydrophenanthrene, pleioanthrenin,
bibenzyls, pleiobibenzynin and cyclomargenyl -p-coumarate. The pseudobulbs are
used to treat tumors.
10.5.4 Cultivation
Pleiones prefer bright filtered light with the intensity of 1000-1500 foot candles. Most
Pleiones require cool to intermediate temperatures. Maximum day temperatures
should be between 22-25°C, and night minimums between 15-18°C. During the winter
months, the plants benefit from a night minimum between 10-15°C.
Plants are grown in shallow clay pots or pans. The potting mixture should consist of
tree bark, peat and sphagnum moss. Plenty of fresh air movement and watering are
essential. Plants are propagated by divisions of bulbs.
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11 Orchids for Pot Culture/ Hanging Baskets/
Tree Mounting
Orchids are one of the most distinctive plants of nature and highly priced in the inter-
national flower trade due to their incredible range of diversity in size, colour, shape,
forms, appearance and long lasting qualities of flowers. They are considered to be
highly valued cut flowers as well as potted plants. Out of 1331 species of orchids of India,
856 species are found in North Eastern Hill Region due to the congenial climatic con-
ditions, diversified topography and altitudinal variation. Among flower crops, orchids
contribute a 10% share in international trade. In addition, the Sikkim Himalayan region
is the centre of origin of an important species like Cymbidium. Other valuable genera
of commercial importance available in the region are Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Paphi-
opedilum, Pleione, Rhyncostylis and Vanda etc. The varied agroclimatic conditions of
our country are highly favourable for cultivation of commercial orchids like Cattleyas,
Vanda, Dendrobium, Arachnis and Aerides in tropical areas, Cymbidium hybrids, Paph-
iopedilum, Dendrobium hybrids and Phalaenopsis in subtropical areas and Cypripedi-
ums, Cymbidiums etc in temperate areas. Among orchids, Cymbidium, Dendrobiums,
Phalaenopsis, Cattleyas, Vandas, Arandas, Arachnis etc are used as cut flowers whereas
Aerides, Arachnanthe, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Coelogyne, Eria, Phaius, Phalaenopsis,
Pleione, and Rhyncostylis are used as potted orchids.
11.1 Agronomic Management
11.1.1 Humidity
The single dominant factor which affects the cultivation of orchids is humidity, which
should be as high as 75-85%. It varies species to species depending upon habit of
growth, light, temperature and ecotypes. Monopodial orchids require higher humidity
than sympodial ones. As rule of thumb, in high temperature, humidity should be kept
high. The provision of misting units or foggers or even humidifiers will ensure adequate
humidity, and standing water may be kept beneath the benches to improve humidity.
Humidity ranges of some orchid genera are given below:
Dendrobium: 50-70% Paphiopedilum, Cupripedium: 40-70%
Cattleya, Laelia: 40-55% Rhyncostylis, Aerides, Phalaenopsis, Vanda: 70-75%
11.1.2 Light
Most orchids generally prefer indirect or filtered light. Although it varies species to
species, growth habit and habitat, as the rule of the thumb, 50% shading is always
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Agronomic Management 209
advised for most of the commercial orchids. Under enough light, orchid plants have
short, plump stems with bright green leathery leaves. Yellowing, stunting and scorch-
ing of plants occur under too much light, while under too much shade plants have
darker green, soft and succulent leaves with thin and spiny stems. Low light orchids
are classified as those requiring 1200-2000 foot candles of light intensity, and origin-
ated from dense forests e.g. Phalaenopsis, Calanthe etc. Medium light orchids grow
at the top of the tree canopies and prefer 2000-3000 foot candles of light intensity.
Cattleya and related genera and hybrids fall into this category.
High light orchids grow in full sun habitats and need 3000 foot candles or more
light intensity, which includes Cymbidium and vandaceous plants. Terete vandas like
Vanda teres, V. hookeriana require plenty of sun light and can grow under direct sun
whereas strap leaved vanda such as Vanda coerulea, V. tricolour, V. sanderiana can not
tolerate direct sun and need 50-60% shade during summer.
11.1.3 Temperature
Orchids are classified into three categories based on temperature. Warm orchids like
Aerides, Vanda, Rhyncostylis and some Dendrobium species grow at day temperature
up to 32.2°C and 15.5°C for a minimum night temperature; intermediate species like
Cattleya, Laelia, Brassovola, Oncidium, Miltonia etc prefer 26.6°C days and 12.8°C
nights. Cool species such as Cymbidium, Odontoglossum, Cypripedium etc. prefer
24°C days and 10°C nights. Most orchids require a lower night temperature for both
robust growth and to initiate blooms. A night temperature of 10-13°C is ideal for ini-
tiation of flowering in Cymbidium. In Phalaenopsis, day and night temperatures of
24°C and 17°C, respectively are essential for optimal flower production. Day temperat-
ures above 21°C and night temperatures in the range of 15.5 to 21°C are favourable for
Vanda. Small and young orchids require 5°C more temperature than mature plants.
11.1.4 Atmosphere
Fresh air and good circulation are essential for orchid production, full of continual
light breezes, make a good source carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
11.1.5 Propagation
Orchids are highly valued for long lasting cut flowers. Both monopodial (Single
stemmed growth) and sympodial (Multistemmed growth) are preferred for commercial
cultivation. Orchid genera like Aerides, Arachnis, Epidendrum, Renanthera, Phalaenop-
sis, Vanda and Dendrobium are propagated by cutting. Flower stalk cuttings are useful
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210 Orchids for Pot Culture/ Hanging Baskets/ Tree Mounting
in genera like Phalaenopsis, Phaius, Calanthe and Thunia. Air layering is effective in
Vanda. Genera of sympodial orchids like Cattleya, Dendrobium, Cymbidium, Epidendrum
are multiplied by division. Off –shoots or keikis emerge from main stem are used as
propagules in Dendrobium, Ascocenda and Phalaenopsis. The older canes of sympodial
orchids like Cymbidium (called ‘backbulbs’) are forced to root in a moist medium. Seed
culture involves germinating seeds and growing seedlings under aseptic condition in
an agar medium supplemented with nutrients in Knudson C media. Various plant parts
like shoot tips or meristem, leaf and leaf segments, stem segments, floral parts, aerial
parts have been used for tissue culture of orchids. Among these, meristem and shoot
tip culture are most popular for mass propagation of commercial species and hybrids,
while axillary buds are good sources of explants in monopodials. Both liquid and solid
media are used for culture of orchid tissues, with Knudson’s C medium, Vacin and
Went’s medium, Murashige and Skoog’s medium being the most widely used. Additives
like coconut water (15%) and banana pulp (10%) are beneficial for the promotion of
shoots, and mineral salts, carbon source, vitamins, plant growth regulators are used in
the media. Sucrose is used as a carbon source to promote organogenesis at suboptimal
concentrations and protocorm formation at supra-optimal concentrations.
Among vitamins, thiamine and growth regulators, auxin, cytokinins are used for
callus formation. In vitro plants are hardened off in vitro only, before transferring to a
main field. The application of paclobutazol delays chlorophyll loss, reduces the activ-
ities of enzymes and delays senescence. Nitsch media with carbon sources of 40 g/l is
suitable for the conservation of the Cymbidium hybrid ‘Sleeping nymph’. It was also
found that MS media with activated charcoal and sucrose at 20 & 30 g/l is suitable for
fast multiplication of pseudobulbs.
The combination effect of BAP and NAA was found to be suitable for faster multi-
plication of pseudobulbs in Cymbidium hybrid ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’ (MS +AC 1.5
g/l + BAP 0.05 mg /l + NAA (0.25 mg/l).
11.1.6 Pots and Potting Media
Terrestrial and semi-terrestrial plants like Paphiopedilum and Cymbidium perform

better in deep pots. Orchid plants as a rule grow to be near one another to aid in cre-
ating a microclimate with higher humidity. Basket culture is useful for those orchids
like Vanda, Rhyncostylis, Arachnis with pendent flower spikes and long dangling
roots. Clay pots are best suitable for terrestrial orchids while plastic pots are used for
epiphytes. Slabs or logs of tree fern are effective for cool growing orchids.
A potting media of terrestrial orchids should have equal parts of leaf mould, soil
and sand. Clay soil, bonemeal, sawdust, charcoal dust, manure, wood savings etc. are
also used in various proportions for satisfactory growth of terrestrial orchids.
A potting media consisting of charcoal, brick pieces and coconut fibre in equal pro-
portions is ideal for vegetative growth and flowering of epiphytic orchids like Aerides,
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Agronomic Management 211
Dendrobium etc. Under low humid conditions (30%), plastic pots with a mixture of bark/
perlite/sphagnum moss or osmunda are used. Under average humidity (35-50%), it is advis-
able to use plastic pots with a mixture of bark and sphagnum moss. Under high humidity
(55% and above), clay pots are used with bark, stone culture, charcoal or tree fern.
11.1.7 Watering
Most orchids are damaged by overwatering rather than under watering; overwatering leads
to root rot and many other diseases. Most orchids prefer water of pH 5.0-6.5. Watering at
lower or higher pH or with high levels of dissolved minerals can hamper nutrient uptake.
Frequent watering is essential under high sunlight and high temperature conditions; plants
in small containers dry out more quickly than in large containers. Plants in earthen pots
require more watering than plants in plastic pots, while a hanging plant needs even more
frequent watering as it has better aeration than one in a pot. More frequent watering is neces-
sary for fresh potting materials and watering should be practiced either in the morning or
in afternoon time. Potting materials having more moisture retention capacity (like coconut
husk, tree fern etc) need less water less frequently, and vice versa.
11.1.8 Nutrition
Orchids are light feeders and require nitrogen from the first two-thirds of their life
cycle. During rest period they do not need any fertilizers, but during flower initiation
and inflorescence development, plants are fed with less nitrogen, more phosphorus
and potassium. During blooming, a small level of nitrogen and phosphorus and high
levels of potassium are maintained. In orchids, foliar feeding is found to be ideal. Fre-
quent application of fertilizers at low concentrations is the best way of feeding orchids:
a concentration of 0.2 to 0.3% of 30:10:10 (N:P:K) at the vegetative stage and 10:20:20
(N:P:K) at blooming stage are applied for quality flower production. Sometimes, fresh
coconut water and diluted cow urine are also useful as foliar sprays. In Cymbidium,
foliar application of 0.3% 19:19:19 of N, P, K at 7 days interval increased the plant height
and leaf length. In Aerides multiflorum and Dendrobium moschatum, treatment with
1000ppm N and 500 ppm each of P and K enhances vegetative growth and flowering.
In the Dendrobium hybrid, ‘Sonia 17’ application of 0.2% NPK (30:10:10) along with 200
ppm BA increases number of spikes per plant and number of flowers per spike.
11.1.9 Repotting
Orchid plants require repotting if there is no space left in the pots for new growths and
if the substrate has decomposed or roots are rotting. Timing is the most important part
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of good repotting. The best time for repotting of an orchid is when new growth and
new roots are just beginning to form (before those new roots reach even 1 cm long).
In most orchids, this occurs right after flowering, indicating that repotting should be
done between February and June.
11.2 World Production Scenario of Potted Orchids
The production of potted orchids for the mass market has gone beyond the United
States and has global economic importance. The largest exporters of potted orchids
include Taiwan, Thailand, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, New Zealand and Brazil,
while the largest importer of potted orchids was the United States during 2002. The
production of finished potted orchids in Europe is often for domestic consumption. In
2002, the total number of potted orchids produced in China and Japan were 4 million
and 28 million, respectively. At flower auctions in Holland, Phalaenopsis orchids were
the most valuable potted plant sold with a wholesale value of €173.7 in 2006. Potted
Dendrobium orchids are produced in China, Taiwan, Thailand, Philippines, USA,
Japan and Germany, while potted Vanda, Mokara, Oncidium, Cattleya, Ascocenda,
Oncidium, Renanthera and Arachnis are produced in large scale in Thailand.
11.3 Description and Culture
Description and culture of orchids for pot culture, hanging baskets and tree mount-
ing such as Aerides, Anoectochilus, Ascocentrum, Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Doritis,
Epidendrum, Gastrochilus, Laelia, Miltonia, Odontoglossum, Renanthera, Rhyncostylis
and Zygopetalum are given below (De, 2011; De, 2014).
11.3.1 Aerides
Aerides consists of more than 60 species. These are monopodial epiphytic orchids
grown on trunks or branches of trees. The stems are round, leafy and branched with
aerial roots. The strap leaves are thick, leathery and bilobed. The inflorescence is aux-
illary and drooping and up to 60 cm long in some species. The flowers are many and
2 cm in diameter, closely set on the inflorescence, and generally fragrant.
11.3.1.1 Genetic Resources

Aerides falcatum: It is distributed in the NEH Region, Thailand and Burma. The plants are
150 cm tall with narrow and thick leaves and pendulus or arching, 50 cm long inflorescence.
The flowers are available in the month of March to May, white, tinted rose and fragrant.
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Description and Culture 213
Aerides Lawrenceae: This species is distributed in Philippines. The plant is 150 cm tall
with thin leaves and pendent inflorescence. Flowers are large, white, purple spotted
and available in the autumn season.
Aerides multiflorum: This species is distributed in India, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam
and the Himalayas. The plants are short stemmed with leathery leaves and densely
flowered inflorescence. Flowers are fragrant, waxy, white with rose purple shades
and available in June-July.
Aerides odoratum: This species is distributed in India, China, Himalayas, Burma, Thai-
land, Philippines and Indonesia. The plants are 150 cm tall with branched stems and
leathery, bilobed leaves. The inflorescence is cylindrical, many flowered, pendulous,
waxy white with touch of amethyl purple and fragrant. It is available in June-July.
Aerides album: A native of Philippines, 150 cm tall, branched and glossy green bilobed
leaves. The inflorescence is pendent, arching and densely many flowered. The flowers are
long-lasting, white with purple tipped petals and sepals and available in August-October.
11.3.1.2 Intergeneric Hybrids

Aredocentrum = Aerides x Ascocentrum
Aredefinetia = Aerides x Neofinetia
Aeridopsis = Aerides x Phalaenopsis
Aeridovanda = Aerides x Vanda
Renades = Aerides x Renanthera
Rhynchorides = Aerides x Rhyncostylis
11.3.1.3 Common Commercial Hybrids

‘Edward’, ‘Brighton’s Sparkle’, ‘Brighton Pink’, ‘Cagayan’, ‘Hollyhock’, May Woo’,
‘Jueile’, ‘Pink Flush’, ‘Sandorata’, ‘Lokelani’, ‘Cressida’.
11.3.1.4 Uses
Aerides is ideal for pots and slat baskets. They make spectacular specimen plants in
baskets or mounted on trees with long flower stems. Scented species are utilized for
the extraction of essential oils, and Aerides guttalum is used as an emollient drug.
Tubers of Aerides crispum are rich in aeridin and phenanthropyran and anti-bacterial.
11.3.1.5 Cultivation
Aerides prefers a bright light of 2400-3600 foot candles, not direct sun. These plants
perform well under warm humid conditions with plenty of free moving air, and should
not be subjected to temperatures below 15°C. A porous potting media consisting of
shredded tree fern fibres or coarse bark along with gravels is ideal. These orchids
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grow throughout the year and require a good amount of water at all times. Fortnightly
or monthly feeding with ½ or ¼ strength of balanced fertilizers of N:P:K (20:20:20) is
desirable. Aerides are easily propagated by keikis divisions.
11.3.2 Anoectochilus
Anoectochilus consists of about 25 species, which are commonly known as ‘Jewel

Orchids’. These are pseudobulbless terrestrial orchids with creeping rhizomes and
petioled green, brown, copper colour veined and striated, rose, yellow or white leaves.
Flowers appear in glandular pubescent spikes.

Anoectochilus albolineatus: This species is found in Burma and Malaya Peninsula and
produce velvety dark purplish leaf with red veins.
Anoectochilus brevilabris: It is distributed in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nepal and
Bhutan. The plants are 10-30 cm tall having beautiful leaves patterned with pale gold
to copper veins on velvety maroon brown leaves.
Anoectochilus roxburghii: A native to the Himalayas. The leaf is deep velvety green
with lighter centre, veined and reticulated golden yellow, reddish margins.
Anoectochilus argyroneurus: This species is native to Java. Leaves are brilliant green,
silvery white veined and green spotted.
Anoectochilus regalis: This species is from Sri Lanka. The leaves are dull green and
bronze shaded veined and reticulated golden yellow.
Anoectochilus yunngianus: Leaves are brown green and covered with a network of
gold and copper veins.
11.3.2.2 Uses
– Jewel orchids are grown for attractive foliages.
– Medicinal Anoectochilus:
– Anoectochilus formosanus: An anti-inflammatory agent, anti-febrigoagent,
anti-depressing agent and against the virus influenza A.
– Anoectochilus roxburghii: Distributed in the Himalayas and Vietnam. It is rich
in novel flavonoid glucoside and has potential in fighting cancer. Popular vari-
eties are ‘TE’, ‘Alba’, ‘Variegated’, ‘Variegated Alba’.
Plants grow well in intermediate to warm conditions under shade environment. They
can be placed in a wet interior with one to two hours sunlight everyday. A well drained
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potting mixture consisting of sand, bark, perlite and soil is ideal. Plants are propag-
ated by seeds or rhizomes.
11.3.3 Arachnis
Arachnis consists of more than 20 species and is commonly known as ‘Scorpion

Orchid.’ These are monopodial epiphytic plants, 30 cm to 4.5 m tall with many leath-
ery leaves. Leaves are strap shaped, clasping the stem at their base. Flowers are
showy, large borne on simple racemes or branched panicles and the inflorescence is
50 to 65 cm long arise from the stem just above the clasping leaves. Flowers are green,
yellow, brown and purple in colour.

Arachnis cathcartii: This species is distributed in Sikkim and Bhutan. Plants are
30-45 cm tall with bilobed coriaceous, lorate and leathery leaves. The inflorescence
is stout, pendulous or horizontal. The flowers are fleshy, waxy, long lasting and pale
yellow with red brown bands, and are available in March-April.
Arachnis clarkei: Distributed in Sikkim and Bhutan. Plants are 30-45 cm long. The
inflorescence is 2-3 flowered. The flowers are fleshy, highly scented, fragrant and
yellow barred with pale cinnamon brown. Flowers are available in the spring –
summer season.
Arachnis flos-aeris: Distributed in Sumatra, Borneo, Malaya Peninsula and Java.
A stout stemmed climbing plant, 5 m tall with leathery, bilobed lanceolate leaves
and ascending or drooping simple or branched inflorescence. The flowers are fleshy,
long lasting, and a pale yellow green colour with dark purple brown bars and spots.
Flowers are available in the spring-summer season.
Arachnis Maingayi: This species is distributed in Singapore to Borneo. The stems are
10-15 cm tall with linear oblong leaves and 30-90 cm long inflorescence. The flowers are
whitish or faintly pinkish with purple or pink blotches and produced during April to May.
Arachnis hookeriana (White Scorpion Orchid): Native to Borneo, Malayasia and Singa-
pore. A hardy and frequently flowering species used as a parent for the development
of hybrids for cut flowers.
11.3.3.2 Inter-generic Hybrids

These genera have the capacity to cross inter-specifically and multi-generically to
evolve outstanding hybrids.
Arachnopsis = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis
Arachnostylis = Arachnis x Rhyncostylis
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Aranthera = Arachnis x Renanthera

Sappanara = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Renanthera
Laycockara = Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Vandopsis
Holttumara = Arachnis x Renanthera x Vanda

Arachnis ‘Maggie Oei Red Ribbon’, Arachnis ‘Maggie Oei Yellow Ribbon’, Arachnis
‘Maroon Maggie’, Arachnis ‘Merry Maggie’, Aranthera ‘Bartha Braga’, Aranthera ‘Ishbel’.
11.3.3.4 Uses
Arachnis is commonly used in wedding decorations, flower arrangements etc. They
are grown with stakes or beds with rods. Spider type early varieties are used as cut
flowers.
They grow well in a temperature range of 18-20°C, light intensity of 2400-3600 foot
candles and relative humidity range of 65 to 80%. A compost mixture consisting of tree
fern, bark, charcoal, cowdung manure, bonemeal and sandy loam soil is good for their
cultivation. The plants are grown in well drained raised beds and pots with compost
and other components like leaf moulds, sphagnum moss and gritty white sand.
11.3.4 Ascocentrum
Ascocentrum consists of six species. These are dwarf monopodial epiphytes and
characterized by large spur hangs from the tip. The plants are small, compact with
small strap shaped leaves and short stalked erect and cylindrical covered with many
closely spaced flowers. Flowers are long lasting and 1-2 cm in diameter.

Ascocentrum ampullaceum: Distributed in the Himalayas, Burma and China. Plants
are up to 20-25 cm tall with many flowered short stalked inflorescence. The flowers
are 2.5 cm in diameter and rose carmine in colour. Flowers are available during March
to May.
Ascocentrum curvifolium: Distributed in the Himalayas and Java. Plants are stout,
12.5 cm tall with rigid and fleshy leaves and densely flowered inflorescence. The
flowers are purple to orange scarlet in colour and produced in spring summer.
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Ascocentrum miniatum: Distributed in Malayasia and the Himalayas, Borneo and the
Philippines. Plants are dwarf (less than 15 cm tall) with linear, very fleshy leaves and
cylindrical inflorescence crowded with densely flowers. Flowers are yellow to orange
red and available in spring summer season.
Ascocentrum pumilum: An intermediate and cold loving dwarf species, 5 cm tall with
needle like leaves and tiny pink flowers.
11.3.4.2 Hybrids:
It is cross compatible with Aerides, Neofinetia, Vanda and Rhyncostylis.
11.3.4.2.1 Bigeneric Hybrids

Aeridocentrum = Ascocentrum x Aerides
Ascofinetia = Ascocentrum x Neofinetia
Renancentrum = Ascocentrum x Renanthera
Asconopsis = Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis
11.3.4.2.2 Trigeneric Hybrids

Kagawara = Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Vanda
Eastonara = Ascocentrum x Gastrochilus x Vanda
Christieara = Aerides x Ascocentrum x Vanda
Komkrisara = Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Rhyncostylis
Lowsonara = Aerides x Ascocentrum x Rhyncostylis
Mokara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Vanda
Nakamotoara = Ascocentrum x Neofinetina x Vanda
Vascostylis = Ascocentrum x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
11.3.4.2.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids

Alphonsoara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Vanda x Vandopsis
Bokchoonara = Ascocentrum x Arachnis x Phalaenopsis x Vanda
Darwinara = Ascocentrum x Neofinetia x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Dominyara = Ascocentrum x Luisia x Neofinetia x Rhyncostylis
Knappara = Ascocentrum x Rhyncostylis x Vanda x Vandopsis
Moonara = Ascocentrum x Aerides x Neofinetia x Rhyncostylis
Okaara = Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Onoara = Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Pageara = Ascocentrum x Luisia x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
Robinara = Ascocentrum x Aerides x Renanthera x Vanda
Unauthenticated
Ronnyara = Aerides x Ascocentrum x Rhyncostylis x Vanda

Stamariaara = Ascocentrum x Phalaenopsis x Renanthera x Vanda
Yusofara = Arachnis x Ascocentrum x Renanthera x Vanda
11.3.4.2.4 Pentageneric Hybrids

Knudsonara = Ascocentrum x Neofinatia x Renanthera x Rhyncostylis x Vanda
11.3.4.2.5 Common Commercial Hybrids

‘Sagarik Gold’.
11.3.4.3 Uses
Mature plants producing many keikis are excellent for specimen culture. Species are
ideal for bamboo baskets or coir basket culture and produce brilliant orange flowers
in the early spring. They can be mounted on slabs of bark. Hybrids are long lasting
and used as cut flowers.
The plants are grown under protected conditions in a temperature range of 24 to 29°C
during daytime and 6-8°C during the night, with a light intensity of 2400-3600 foot
candles and relative humidity of 70 to 90%. They thrive in strong bright light and
can be acclimated to direct sunlight. Exposures of the plants below 15°C can cause
delaying of flowering. Ascocentrum orchids are best grown in pots in a porous media
consisting of osmunda tree fern fibre, tree bark, brick pieces and charcoal. Hanging
plants require regular watering or misting. These orchids are heavy feeders and best
fertilized weekly with ½ strength orchid fertilizers.
11.3.5 Bulbophyllum
Bulbophyllum consists of about 2500 species of orchids from tropical and subtropical
Asia. The name indicates that the leaves are attached to the top of pseudobulbs. These
orchids are sympodial epiphytes having rhizomatous stems with angled pseudob-
ulbs. The pseudobulbs form a chain like growth on the rhizomes. Inflorescence is
erect or pendent and arises from the base of the pseudobulb. The flowers are solitary
or grow in an umbel or united on spurs. Flower size ranges from a few millimeters
(Bulbophyllum minutissimum, B. minututum) to 40 cm in Bulbophyllum echinolobium.
Unauthenticated

Bulbophyllum barbigerum: Native to tropical West Africa. The pseudobulb is small, flat ter-
minating in a single leaf. The 8 to 14 flowers are borne on inflorescence, brown in colour,
and are available in July-August.
Bulbophyllum careyanum: Pseudobulbs are egg shaped and 4-angled. Leaves are thick,
leathery and tongue shaped. Inflorescence is many flowered and densely arranged.
Flowers are 1 cm in diameter, sour smelling, white-yellow and spotted with brown red
and produced during October-December.
Bulbophyllum cornu-cervi: This species is native to Sikkim. Pseudobulbs are globular,
minute and crowded. Flowers are small and borne on slender and erect 8-10 cm long
inflorescence. Flowers are greenish and produced in July.
Bulbophyllum cylindraceum: Distributed in Sikkim and Meghalaya. The rhizome is stout
with obtuse leaves. The inflorescence is erect, cylindric and catkin-like nodding raceme.
Flowers are black purple and available during October-January.
Bulbophyllum eublephrum: Native to Sikkim Himalaya. The pseudobulbs are cylindric.
The inflorescence is raceme and lax flowered. Flowers are green and produced in August.
Bulbophyllum falcatum: Native to tropical West Africa. The pseudobulbs produce one pair
of leaves. Inflorescence is arranged with yellowish brown flowers marked with purple and
produced in summer.
Bulbophyllum grandiflorum: Native to New Guinea. The single greenish brown flower is
borne on a peduncle of 15-20 cm long and produced during July-August.
Bulbophyllum leopardinum: Distributed in Meghalaya. The rhizome is very short with pear
shaped compressed bulbs. The inflorescence is short and 1 to 3 flowered. The flowers are
fragrant, whitish, spotted with crimson and produced during OctoberNovember.
Bulbophyllum lobbii: Native to Burma and Malay Peninsula. The rhizome is stout with egg
shaped pseudobulbs and leathery leaves. Flowers are solitary, fragrant, waxy and long
lasting.
Bulbophyllum macranthum: Native to Java, Borneo, Sumatra and Malayasia. The flowers
are whitish, densely spotted with purple and produced in spring season.
Bulbophyllum makoyanum: Native to Singapore. Pseudobulbs are ovoid with tongue
shaped leaves. The flowers are scented, reddish with darker spots and fringed with yellow
hairs.
Bulbophyllum medusae: Native to Malayasia. The plant is a creeper and arranged with 20
cm long flower stalk having a dense head of fragrant flowers. The flowers are white, cream
white or pink or red spotted.
Bulbophyllum rigidum: Distributed in Sikkim Himalaya. The rhizomes are pseudobulbous
and 25 cm long and 5 cm broad leaves arose from it. The inflorescence is sparsely flowered.
The flowers are yellowish tinged with green and streaked with red and produced in May-
June.
Bulbophyllum striatum: Distributed in Meghalaya. The pseudobulbs are ovoid. The
inflorescence is 2 to 4 flowered. The flowers are yellow-green stripped with purple and
produced in October.
Unauthenticated
Bulbophyllum thomsonii: Distributed in Coorg, Mysore, Nilgiris and the Annamalai

Hills. The rhizome is slender with sub-globose pseudobulbs and round, ovate-lanceol-
ate leaves. The inflorescence is erect, lax flowered and 6-10 flowered. The flowers are
yellow tipped with purple.
Bulbophyllum appendiculatum: Distributed in North East states of India. Pseudobulbs
are ellipsoid cylindric with fleshy, erect, sessile leaves. Inflorescence is one flowered
and erect. Flowers are deep purple and produced in October-November.
Bulbophyllum bisetum: A dwarf species, distributed in all North East states of India.
Pseudobulbs are small, oval shaped and unifoliate. Inflorescence is pendent racemose
and 10-15 flowered. The flowers are dull purple with green yellow margins and pro-
duced in July-September.
Bulbophyllum cariniflorum: A dwarf species from Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
Pseudobulbs are ovoid to cylindric and ridged. Inflorescence is racemose and many
flowered. Flowers are scented, greenish yellow with a bright yellow tip and produced
in July-August.
Bulbophyllum crassipes: A robust species distributed in all states of North East India.
Pseudobulbs are conical and many flowered with coriaceous oblong leaves. Flowers
are yellow with purple spots and produced in September-October.
Bulbophyllum cauliflorum: Distributed in all North East states of India. Pseudobulbs
are cylindric with linear-oblong leaves. Inflorescence is umbellate and 3-5 flowered.
Flowers are pale yellow green with a yellow lip.
Bulbophyllum helenae: A native to all North East states of India. Pseudobulbs are
ovoid with linear oblong leaves. Inflorescence is umbellate and 6-9 flowered. Flowers
are orange red in colour and produced in May-July.
Bulbophyllum hirtum: Distributed in Arunachal Praadesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and
Sikkim. Pseudobulbs are crowded, ovoid cylindric with oblong-lanceolate leaves.
Inflorescence is erect, racemose and many flowered. Flowers are scented, pale green-
ish white and produced in October-January.
11.3.5.2 Hybrids
11.3.5.2.1 Common Commercial Hybrids
‘Ray Gabaldon’, ‘A dorbil Ring’, ‘Madeline Nelson’, ‘Tsiku Goldfinder’, ‘Fredensborg
Delight’, ‘Swissthai Alamia’, ‘Jan Ragan’, ‘Wilmer Shear Magic’, ‘Jim Clarkson’, ‘Tsiku
Taurus’, ‘Agathe’, ‘Short and Sweet’, ‘B.C.’, ‘Chua’, ‘Aquarius’, ‘Chanthaboon Glory’,
‘Meen Bulbul’, ‘Meen Candy Baby’, ‘Supat Sun Radiant’, ‘Supernova’, ‘Tee Dragon
Fly’, ‘Tee Naga’, ‘Puch Golden Hydra’, ‘Tee Gigantic Condor’, ‘Grace Thoms’.
11.3.5.3 Medicinal Bulbophyllums

Bulbophyllum odoratissimum: This species is distributed in China, Nepal, Sikkim,
Bhutan and Thailand. Plants are rich in phenanthrene, lignan, flavonoids, biben-
Unauthenticated
zyls, phenolic glycosides, aldehydes and acids. Plants are used to treat tuberculosis,
chronic inflammations and fractures.
Bulbophyllum inconspicuum: In Japan, it is used as an expectorant and in the treat-
ment of stomach cancers.
Bulbophyllum albidum: In Western Ghats, leaves and bulbs are used to strengthen a
weak uterus for conception.
Bulbophyllum kwangtungense: In China and Japan, tubers are used for the treatment
of pulmonary tuberculosis and fever. This species is rich in dihydrodibenzoxepins,
densifloral A, cumulatin and plicatol B.
11.3.5.4 Uses
Cluster pseudobulb-bearing species grow well in shallow pans whereas long rhizome
bearing species do better in baskets or slabs.
All tropical bulbophyllums grow in a flat pot, hanging or suspended on cork bark in a
humid semi-shaded location where the temperature range is 15 to 27°C. These orchids
like slightly drier conditions in between waterings and require a rest in winter when
they are not growing. They also require good light but it is best if they are shaded
from bright, direct summer sun. In summer, humidity level should be maintained at
70% and 50-60% in winter. Plants are easily propagated through division of clumps
while repotting. A potting mixture of cocochips, bark pieces and brick pieces is ideal.
During active vegetative growth, a half dose of balanced 20:20:20 fertilizer is applied
twice a month.
11.3.6 Coelogyne
Coelogyne consists of 200 species of sympodial and pseudobulbous orchids. The

pseudobulbs are topped by 2 to 4 leaves, slender in size and arranged along with
creeping rhizomes. The leaves are coriaceous, thick and leathery with pronounced
stalks. Inflorescences are erect or pendulous. The flowers are white or shades of
brown, yellow and green and subtended by a papery bracts.

Coelogyne asparata: Distributed in Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra and New
Guinea. Pseudobulbs are vigorous, ovoid, clustered and carrying each pair of huge
leaves up to 60 cm long and 12.5 cm wide. Inflorescences are arching or pendulous
and bear 12 to 18 flowers. The flowers are fragrant, heavily textured, creamy white
with reddish brown lip and produced during spring-summer.
Unauthenticated
Coelogyne barbarata: Distributed in Nepal, Bhutan and India. The pseudobulbs are
pale green in colour, clustered, ovoid with stalked leathery leaves. The inflorescence
is densely flowered, erect or arching. The flowers are white, spotted deep brown and
produced in autumn and winter.
Coelogyne cristata: Native to higher elevations of Himalayan region. The pseudobulbs
are spherical or egg shaped and clustered with soft textured linear-lanceolate leaves.
The inflorescences are semi-erect, many flowered. The flowers are large, pure white
with yellow ridges on lip and are produced during January to May.
Coelogyne quadrangularis: Distributed in Thailand, Malaya Peninsula, Sumatra, Java
and Borneo. The pseudobulbs are conical, strongly ribbed with short stalked leathery
leaves. The flowers are fragrant, 5 cm in diameter, long lasting, dull yellow brown
lined with whitish lips and produced in spring summer.
Coelogyne elata: Native to higher elevations of the Himalayan regions. The pseudob-
ulbs are cylindrical to ovoid with stalked heavily textured leaves. Inflorescence is
erect, 60 cm tall and arranged with 7 to 10 flowers. The flowers are fragrant, long
lasting, milky white with an orange tip.
Coelogyne flaccida: Naturally distributed at higher elevations of Sikkim and
Meghalaya. The pseudobulbs are oblong, bifoliate. The inflorescence is pendulous
and loosely arranged with 5 to 12 medium sized creamy flowers. The flowers are highly
scented and produced during March to May.
Coelogyne graminifolia: Native to India, Burma, Thailand and Malay Peninsula. The
pseudobulbs are borne on creeping rhizomes with pairs of leaves. The inflorescence
is 15 cm tall, arching and 2 to 4 flowered. The flowers are 5 cm across, scented, white
and produced during January to April.
Coelogyne Huettneriana: Native to Burma and Thailand. The pseudobulbs are irreg-
ular dark green and bifoliated. The inflorescence is arching and arranged with 12
flowers. The flowers are fragrant, white, long lasting, 5 cm across with citron yellow
lip and produced during summer and spring.
Coelogyne lawrenceana: Native to Vietnam. The pseudobulbs are bifoliate, ovoid, clustered
and heavily ribbed. The inflorescence is terminal, arching and bearing 1 to 3 flowers. The
flowers are 5 cm in diameter, pale yellow with orange lip and produced in July.
Coelogyne massangeana: Distributed in Sumatra, Java, Malaya, Thailand and Borneo.
The pseudobulbs are ovoid, bifoliate, yellow green with elliptic leaves. The inflores-
cence is pendulous and 15 to 20 flowered. The flowers are fragrant, 6 cm in diameter,
pale yellow with brown side lobed lip and produced in spring and summer.
Coelogyne odoratissima: Distributed in India and Sri Lanka. This species is bifoliate
with sheathed pseudobulbs and linear leaves. The inflorescence is loosely arranged
with 2 to5 flowers. The flowers are fragrant, white with yellow stripes and produced
in spring and summer.
Coelogyne pandurata: Native to Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. The pseudob-
ulbs are compressed on both sides, smooth and leathery leaves. The inflorescence is
arching, 20 flowered. The flowers are highly fragrant, emerald green in colour with
white mottled lip and produced in autumn.
Unauthenticated
Coelogyne speciosa: Native to Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. The
pseudobulbs are ovoid, clustered and bifoliate with arrow elliptic leaves. The inflor-
escence is 2 to 3 flowered, slender and abbreviated. The flowers are long lasting, musk
scented, 7.5 cm across, yellow brown with yellow tip and produced during summer
and spring.
Coelogyne ocultata: A subtropical to temperate species of Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim. Pseudobulbs are green, tapering at both ends and
bifoliate. The inflorescence bears 2-3 flowers. Flowers are 2.5 to 4.5 cm across and
white with blotched yellow tips. Flowers are produced in June-July.
Coelogyne ovalis: A subtropical species from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
Nagaland and Sikkim. Pseudobulbs are oval to spindle shaped. The inflorescence
bears 2-3 flowers of pale yellow green to pale brown with a brown marking lip. The
flowers are produced in October-December.
Coelogyne corymbosa: A subtropical to temperate species from Bhutan, India and
Nepal. Pseudobulbs are ovoid, clustered and bifoliate. Inflorescence is erect or
pendent and 2-4 flowered. Flowers are fragrant and white or with four yellow mark-
ings bordered with orange red lip and produced in April-May.
Coelogyne fuscescens: A subtropical to temperate species from Bhutan, India and
Nepal. Pseudobulbs are bifoliate. The inflorescence bears 2 to 10 flowers. The flowers
are 5 cm across, pale yellow to pinkish brown with orange red lip and produced during
October-December.
Coelogyne prolifera: A subtropical species from Sikkim, Meghalaya and Nepal.
Pseudobulbs are round. The inflorescence is slender-peduncle and 3-8 flowered. The
flowers are yellow, 1-1.5 cm in diameter and produced during May-August.
Coelogyne fimbriata: Native to Sikkim and Meghalaya. Inflorescence is erect raceme
and bears 8-10 yellow flowers. Flowers are produced in October-December.
Coelogyne flavida: Native to Sikkim, Manipur and Meghalaya. Flowers are yellow and
produced during March –May.
Coelogyne ochracea: Native to Assam and Sikkim. Inflorescence is erect and bears 8-10
flowers. Flowers are small, white and fragrant and produced in May-June,
Coelogyne nitida: Native to Bhutan, Assam, Meghalaya and Sikkim. Flowers are white
with two yellow red margin blotches on lip. Flowers are produced during March-May.
Coelogyne rigida: Native to Nilgiri hills, Sikkim and Meghalaya. Inflorescence bears
5-7 flowers, pale yellow in colour and produced in June-July.
11.3.6.2 Hybrids
11.3.6.2.1 Inter-specific Hybrids
‘Memoria W. Micholitz’, ‘Linda Buckley’, ‘Burfordiense’, ‘South Carolina’, ‘G. Beryl
Read’, ‘John Leathers’, ‘Wood Fairy’, ‘Carolyn Sue’, ‘Golden Bug’, ‘Spring Showers’,
‘Professor Georges Morel’, ‘Joel Strandberg’.
Unauthenticated
11.3.6.2.2 Variety-species Hybrid

‘Memoria Fukuba’, ‘Memoria Okami’, Memoria Tokiko’.
11.3.6.3 Coelogyne for Hanging Baskets

Coelogyne asperata, Coelogyne cristata, Coelogyne foestermani, Coelogyne longifolia,
Coelogyne pandurata.
11.3.6.4 Coelogyne for Herbal Medicines

– Coelogyne cristata: Juice of pseudobulb is applied to boils.
– Coelogyne corymbosa: A paste of pseudobulb is applied to forehead to relieve
headache.
– Coelogyne flaccida: A paste of pseudobulb is applied to forehead to treat head-
ache. Juice is also consumed for indigestion.
There are high elevation and low elevation species and hence they are divided into
two major groups, and environment requirements vary between groups. Cool growing
species require a summer day temperature of 21-24°C and night temperature of 14-15°C;
winter day temperature of 11-13°C and night temperature of 2-5°C, light intensity of
2000-3000 foot candles and relative humidity of 60-70%. Strong air movement is
essential. They are best grown in baskets containing a potting mixture of tree bark,
charcoal and sphagnum moss. A balanced fertilizer mixed to ¼ to ½ of the recom-
mended strength should be applied weekly during periods of active growth. Many
growers recommend using a fertilizer lower in nitrogen and higher in phosphorus
during late summer and autumn to promote better blooming the next season and to
allow the new growths to harden before winter. Over watering should be avoided.
11.3.7 Doritis
Doritis is a monotypic epiphytic orchid from Burma to Sumatra. Doritis pulcherrima

is a small, stemless and clump forming monopodial with oblong elliptic leathery
leaves. The inflorescence is erect and arranged with 25 flowers. The flowers are 1.5 to
4.0 cm in diameter with pear shaped lips. The flowers are dark lavender, rose purple,
or magenta rose in colour and produced during the autumn and winter seasons.
11.3.7.1 Primary Hybrids

Primary hybrids evolved through crosses between Doritis pulcherrima and Phalaenop-
sis spp. are listed below:
Unauthenticated
‘Anna –Larati Soekardi’, ‘Annie Van Tweel’, ‘Asahi’, ‘Bandung Pink’, ‘Bonita’, ‘Cel-
ebrant’, ‘Charm’, ‘Imp’, ‘Jim’, ‘Jim Chan’, ‘Kelsey Blush’, ‘Keneth Schubert’, ‘Musick
Surprise’, ‘Myriam Esther’, ‘Profusion’, ‘Purple Gem’, ‘Purple Passion’, ‘Purple Sum’,
‘Red Elf’, ‘San Shia Appendo’ Sandrine Dream’, ‘Si Kancil’, Siam Treasure’, ‘Suka
Hati’, ‘Summer Red’, ‘Sweet Gem’, ‘Tan Swee Eng.’, ‘Tarina’.

Doriella = Doritis x Kingiella
Doritaenopsis = Doritis x Phalaenopsis
Rhyndoropsis = Doritis x Phalaenopsis x Rhyncostylis
Vandoritis = Doritis x Vanda
11.3.7.3 Commercial Uses

Ideal for pot plants or as cut flowers.
The plants require indirect sunlight and are shade loving plants that should be kept
in a warm greenhouse with high humidity. For growing these plants, the optimum
temperature range is 18 to 21°C, relative humidity 60 to 70% and light intensity ranges
from 1500-1800 foot candles. The most suitable potting media is chunks of hardwood
charcoal or a mixture of bark, tree fern fibre and charcoal. The spraying of liquid fer-
tilizers once every fortnight is beneficial.
11.3.8 Epidendrum
Epidendrum consists of more than 1000 species of epiphytic orchids of America.

The pseudobulbs are very elongated or short with coriaceous leaves. Some leaves are
thick whereas in some cases they are leathery with 2 to 4 leaves at the apex of each
pseudobulb. In the case of reed like types, the leaves are alternate. The inflorescence
is terminal, simple or profusely branched, erect or pendulous. The number of flowers
varies from one to many per inflorescence. The size of flower ranges from 2 cm to
7.5 cm in diameter and highly scented. The flowers are varied in colour.

Epidendrum atropurpureum: Distributed in Mexico to Panama. The pseudobulbs are
egg shaped, glossy, purplish, and 10 cm tall with rigid, leathery leaves. Inflorescence
is 60 cm tall, racemose, erect or arching and 2 to 10 flowered. The flowers are chocolate
brown, marginated with apple grren, scented and produced in spring-summer season.
Unauthenticated
Epidendrum Brassovolae: Native to Central America. The pseudobulbs are clustered

or borne on a stout rhizome and 25-30 cm long. The leaves are 2 to 3 leathery and
yellowish green. Inflorescence is erect, long stalked, 45 cm long, 6 to 9 flowered. The
flowers are fragrant, 10 cm across, deep yellowish brown to greenish and produced
in March-April.
Epidendrum ciliare: Native to tropical America. The pseudobulbs are spindle shaped
or cylindrical, 18 cm tall, borne on a creeping rhizome, terminated by two rigid elliptic
oblong leaves. The inflorescence is racemose, 30 cm long with loosely arranged
flowers. The flowers are 17 cm across, sweet scented, greenish white with trilobed
white lip and produced during December-January.
Epidendrum cochleatum: Distributed in South Florida to Brazil. The pseudobulbs are
15 cm tall, pear shaped and clustered with paired light green leaves. The inflorescence
is erect or arching, 60 cm tall, 8 to 12 flowered. The flowers are sweetly scented, green-
ish yellow with velvety red purple black lips.
Epidendrum fucatum: Native to Mexico, Guatemala and Cuba. The pseudobulbs are
ovoid, 7.5 cm tall and clustered with 2 to 3 leathery, linear, 30 cm long leaves. The
flowers are 4 cm across, long lasting, fragrant and yellowish or butter yellow in colour
and produced in autumn-winter.
Epidendrum radicans: Native to Central and South America. The stems are elongated,
18 cm long, branched and offset forming rigid fleshy leaves. The inflorescence is erect
or arching, terminal and 1.2 m tall. The flowers are 4 cm across, red, orange, scarlet,
vermillion, orange red or yellow in colour and produced during summer.
Epidendrum vittellinum: Native to Mexico and Guatemala. The pseudobulbs are
ovoid-conical, clustered with 2 to3 linear lanceolate to oblong, leathery leaves. Inflor-
escence is erect, branched, 45 cm tall and 10-12 flowered. The flowers are 4 cm in
diameter, long lasting and vermillion with orange yellow lip.
Epidendrum xanthimum: A rare species. Flowers are bright yellow and orange and
produced in masses.
Epidendrum parkinsonianum: It is pseudobulbless with pendent succulent leaves.
Flowers are large, exotic, white and highly scented.

Brasso-epidendrum = Epidendrum x Brassovola
Vaughmara = Epidendrum x Brassovola x Cattleya
Yamadara = Epidendrum x Brassovola x Cattleya x Laelia
Epitonia = Epidendrum x Broughtonia
Epicattleya = Epidendrum x Cattleya
Arizara = Epidendrum x Cattleya x Domingoa
Epilaeliocattleya = Epidendrum x Cattleya x Laelia
Kirchara = Epidendrum Cattleya x Laelia x Sophronitis
Epidiacrinum = Epidendrum x Diacrinum
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Epilaelia = Epidendrum x Laelia

Epiphronitis = Epidendrum x Sophronitis

‘Happy Valley’, ‘Little Valley’, ‘Lovely Valley’, ‘Spring Valley’, ‘Lions Mane’, ‘Lions
Pride’, ‘Peace Valley’, ‘Lucky Valley’, ‘Pacific Classic’, ‘Pacific Mandarin’, ‘Pacific
Parade’, ‘Pacific Secret’, ‘Pacific Volcano’, ‘Apricot Valley’, ‘Rain Valley’, ‘Water
Valley’, ‘Pacific Joy’, ‘Pacific Globe’, ‘Pacific Flame’, ‘Pacific Heat’, ‘Pacific Glory’,
‘Walnut Valley’, Fireball’, ‘Autumn’, ‘Lunar Eclipse’, ‘Pacific Dream’, ‘Pacific Lights’,
‘Pacific Shore’, ‘Pacific Delight’, ‘Pacific Mulberry’, ‘Pacific Storm’, ‘Candy Valley’,
‘Holy Valley’, ‘Palm Valley’, ‘ Milky Valley’, Darling Jungle’, ‘Pacific Girl’, ‘Pacific
View’.

‘Cire Blanche’, ‘Thomas Ott’, ‘Little Miss Sunshine’, ‘Saranac Lake’, ‘Eddy Lick Run’,
‘Michael Riley’, ‘Ross Newman’, ‘Daves’, ‘Delectable Deliration’, ‘Orange Park’,
‘Cascade Blanche’, ‘Fuzzy Grapes’, ‘Doctor Ben’, ‘Suzuka Mars’, ‘Pink Lemonade’,
‘Golden Judy’, ‘Patricia Sander’, ‘Candy Dandy’.

‘Saint Nicholas’, ‘Wild Innovation’, ‘Chocolate Cherry Supreme’, ‘Costa Lense’, ‘Spirit
of Volunteerism’, ‘Songbirds’, ‘Topaz Cherry’, ‘Topaz Prolific’, ‘Spirit of Giving’,
‘Topaz Gem’, ‘ Hula Dancer’, ‘Pacific Sunshine’, ‘Topaz Butterball’.
11.3.8.6 Epilaelia Hybrids

‘Royal Velvet’, ‘Topaz Sundaze’, ‘Irene’, ‘Sedona’, ‘Excaliber’, ‘Topaz Seduction’, ‘La
Motte’, ‘Heart of Darkness’.
11.3.8.7 Epilaeliocattleya Hybrids

‘Chocolate Kisses’, ‘Kopaa’, ‘Rainbow Sherbet’, ‘Pixford’, ‘Tiny Magic’, ‘Highland
Canary’, ‘Pseudogold’, ‘Jackie Bright’.
11.3.8.8 Epicattleya Hybrids

‘Cathy Meincer’, ‘Painted Hill Star’, ‘ Calandria’, ‘Erin Routon’, ‘Burdekin Honey’,
‘Peles Flame’.
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11.3.8.9 Medicinal Epidendrum

A Brazilian species namely Epidendrum mosenii is used to treat infective and dolorous
processes.
11.3.8.10 Edible Epidendrum

The leaves of Epidendrum ibaguense are edible, resembling the taste of watermelon,
and can be chewed like bubblegum.
The optimum temperature range is 12 to 21°C, relative humidity 50-60% and light
2400 to 3600 foot candles for successful growth and flowering. They grow in beds
or pots with excellent drainage. Moderate shade during the summer and plenty of
water during active growth are required. The pot mixture comprises of tree bark and
charcoal mixture. Spraying with 0.3% NPK (10:10:10) every two weeks is beneficial.
11.3.9 Gastrochilus
Gastrochilus consists of 20 species of epiphytic orchids distributed in India, East Asia

and Malaysia. These are short to long stemmed epiphytic orchids with 6 to 11 lance
shaped, thick, leathery leaves. The inflorescences are solitary or spicate with one or
more flower spikes arising from the axil of the leaves. The flowers are attractive, 1 to
4 cm in diameter and white in colour with reddish spots and blotched with yellow.

Gastrochilus bellinus: Native to Burma and Thailand. The stems are stout with leath-
ery, tongue shaped leaves. The inflorescence is 4 to 7 flowered, erect and robust. The
flowers are long lasting, 4 cm in diameter and fragrant. The flowers are greenish
yellow with purple spots and blotches and are produced during winter and spring.
Gastrochilus calceolaris: Distributed in Meghalaya, Thailand, Sumatra, Java, Burma
and Malayasia. The plants are short and stout stemed with tongue shaped leathery
leaves. The inflorescence is stout, 3 to 6 flowered and purple spotted. The flowers
are fragrant, waxy, 2 cm across, long lasting, greenish or yellowish with brown or
purplish spots and produced during March-April.
Gastrochilus acutifolius: Native to Bhutan, India and Nepal. Stems are slender,
pendent with oblanceolate leaves. Inflorescence is umbellate and many flowered.
Flowers are fleshy, fragrant, spotted and flushed with brown and are produced during
November-December.
Unauthenticated
Gastrochilus obliquus: Native to Bhutan, West Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
A dwarf species, 20-15 cm tall with stout pendent stems bearing 3-5 oblong fleshy
leaves. The inflorescence is pendent, corymbose to umbellate and many flowered.
The flowers are bright yellow, purple spotted and produced during November-
December.
11.3.9.2 Uses
The rhizomes of Gastrochilus pandurata are used by natives of Java as a medicine and
as a spice.
These orchids grow well in small pots or baskets. They prefer a warm, humid atmo-
sphere and well lighted and ventilated places. The optimum temperature is 15 to
18°C, light 1800-2400 foot candles and relative humidity is 60 to 80% for proper
growth and flowering of these plants. They grow well on tree fern fibre or chunks of
hard wood charcoal. Spraying of complete fertilizer mixture is recommended at fort-
nightly intervals. The plants should be liberally watered during their active period
of growth.
11.3.10 Laelia
Laelia consists of 75 species of epiphytic orchids from Cuba and Mexico to Argen-
tina. These sympodial orchids possess pseudobulbs of various sizes and shapes,
e.g., Laelia harpophylla have needlelike pseudobulbs. Another group bearing flat
and round pseudobulbs is L. rubescens, while other groups have ovoid or egg shaped
pseudobulbs, such as L anceps. The number of leaves per pseudobulb ranges from 1
to 3. The leaves are leathery, entire, thick and 5 cm to 30 cm in length. The inflores-
cence bears more than 20 flowers in some species, while others bear solitary flowers
close to the pseudobulb apex. The flowers are lavender, white, yellow and orange
in colour.

Laelia anceps: Native to Mexico and Honduras. The pseudobulbs are stout, ovoid-oblong,
glossy, purple flushed, quadrangular, clustered and borne on stout rhizomes. The leaves
are solitary, leathery and glossy green and oblong lanceolate. The inflorescence is elong-
ated, slender, erect or gracefully arching with 1 to 6 flowers, 60 cm long. The flowers are
lilac-pink, scented, 10 cm across and produced during December-January.
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Laelia autumnalis: Native to Mexico. The pseudobulbs are short, clustered, sub-conical
and ribbed with 2 to 3 leathery, lanceolate leaves. Inflorescence is elongated, 90 cm
long, loosely arranged, with 5 to 10 flowered raceme. The flowers are pinkish purple,
waxy, long lasting, 10 cm across and produced in December-January.
Laelia cinnabarina: Native to Brazil. The pseudobulbs are elongated, 25 cm long and red
purple with solitary, thick leathery rigid, 60 cm long purple leaves. The inflorescence
is erect or arching and 5 to 20 flowered. The flowers are star shaped, orange red, long
lasting, 7.5 cm across and are produced during March to May.
Laelia pumila: A dwarf species from Brazil. Pseudobulbs are terete and glossy dark
green in colour. The leaves are fleshy, rigid, elliptic oblong and solitary. The inflores-
cence is 8 cm long and single flowered. The flowers are long lasting, fragrant, 10 cm
across, pink purple in colour and produced in September to October.
Laelia purpurata: Indigenous to Brazil. The pseudobulbs are club shaped, robust, fusi-
form, compressed, glossy and yellowish green with leathery, solitary, dark green, thick
leaves. The inflorescence is stout and 12 flowered. The flowers are fragrant, long lasting,
22.5 cm across, white, pale purple in colour and produced during May to July.
Laelia superbiens: A robust species from Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. The
pseudobulbs are elongated, fusiform, compressed and furrowed with one or two leath-
ery, oblong to oblanceolate leaves. The inflorescence is 130 cm long, stout and 20-25
flowered, and borne in clusters in terminal raceme. The flowers are scented, long
lasting, 12.5 cm across, rose coloured with purple yellow lips and are produced during
January-February.
Laelia tibicinis: This is a robust species from Central America. The pseudobulbs are
swollen –cylindrical, hollow, densely clustered, fusiform and yellow with 3 to 5, rigid
yellow green, oblong elliptic, heavy textured leaves. The inflorescence is erect or arching
and 150 cm tall bearing handsome flowers at the tip. The flowers are variable in colour,
sweet scented, long lasting, 8.5 cm across and produced during the spring season.
Laelia milleri: A lithophytic orchid originating from Brazil. A robust plant bears small
orange-red flowers measuring 5 cm across.
Laelia liliputiana: Native to Brazil. A very small plant with 1 cm long pseudobulb, 2 cm
long leaves and flowers that are 3 cm across.

Brassolaelia = Laelia x Brassovola
Laelonia = Laelia x Broughtonia
Laeliocattleya = Laelia x Cattleya
Dialaelia = Laelia x Diacrinum
Sophrolaelia = Laelia x Sophronitis
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Laeliocattkeria = Laelia x Barkeria x Cattleya
Brassolaeliocattleya = Laelia x Brassovola x Cattleya
Lawara = Laelia x Brassovola x Sophronitis
Hartara = Laelia x Broughtonia x Sophronitis
Dialaeliocattleya = Laelia x Cattleya x Diacrinum
Epilaeliocattleya = Laelia x Cattleya x Epidendrum
Sophrolaeliocattleya = Laelia x Cattleya x Sophronitis
Dillonara = Laelia x Epidendrum x Schomburgkia

Iwanagara = Laelia x Brassovola x Cattleya x Epidendrum
Yamadara = Laelia x Brassovola x Cattleya x Epidendrum
Rechara = Laelia x Brassovola x Cattleya x Schombergkia
Potinara = Laelia x Brassovola x Cattleya x Sophronitis
Kirchara = Laelia x Epidendrum x Cattleya x Sophronitis

Laeliocattleya elegans, a cross between Laelia purpurata and Cattleya guttata. The
flowers are greenish white. Miniature types like Laelia braderi, Laelia longipes and
Laelia liliputiana having butter yellow, and white and lavander flowers, respectively,
are used as pot plants.

11.3.10.6.1 Laelia
‘Tropical Mojo’, ‘Milpest’, ‘Rock Ruby’, ‘Akiras Spring’, ‘Bonnie Bonita’, ‘ViDoran’,
‘Newberry Glow’, ‘Rocket Sprite’, ‘Stirling Dickinson’, ‘Fran’s Fuchsia’, ‘Flash’, ‘Gold
Snood’,’William Curtis’, ‘ Aphrodite’, ‘Venus’.
11.3.10.6.2 Laelio-cattleya
‘Hidden Agenda’, ‘Magic Road’, ‘Samba Crown’, ‘Tropical Fashion’, ‘Higher Ground’,
‘Mini Case’, ‘Nobiles General’, ‘Spring Parade’, ‘Upstrart’, ‘Harmony Show’, ‘Julie Anne’,
‘Beautiful Park’, ‘Orange Sunset’,’Carbon Lines’, ‘Good Friend’, ‘Pat’s Golden Dream’,
‘Sunlight Kiss’, ‘Sweet Cream’, ‘Penny Love’, ‘Big Lucy’, ‘Blue Boy’, ‘Gatton Park’.
11.3.10.7 Medicinal Laelia

Laelia autumnalis has antihypertensive and vasorelaxant activities. In Mexico, it is
used for the treatment of diarrhea and abortion.
Unauthenticated
They are intermediate orchids requiring cool periods in winter and enjoy moderate
shade and humidity during vegetative growth. Temperature requirements vary from
12 to 18°C depending upon species. They are best grown in earthen pots or in hanging
baskets. The plants prefer bright sunlight with an intensity of 1800-2400 foot candles
and a humidity of 50 to 65%. Plenty of water is required when the roots are in the
active phase of growth. Watering is to be reduced during resting in winter. They grow
well in tree fern fibre. Fertilizing with dilute, well rotten oil cake (1 kg in 10 gallons of
water) at fortnightly intervals is beneficial.
11.3.11 Miltonia
Miltonia consists of 20 species of sympodial epiphytic orchids from Brazil. They are
also called ‘Pansy Orchids’ at higher elevations. These orchids are characterized by
sessile, flattened pseudobulbs and thin leaves arising from pseudobulbs. Inflores-
cence is single flowered or multiflorus raceme. The flowers are large, 10 cm across
and yellow, reddish purple, white, pink or brown in colour.

Miltonia clowesii: Native to Brazil. The pseudobulbs are elongated, ovoid-oblong with lin-
ear-ligulate glossy leaves. Inflorescence is 7 to 10 flowered, dense, erect or arching and 60 cm
tall. Flowers are yellow with whitish violet lip and produced in September to November.
Miltonia Roezlii: This species is native to Columbia and Panama. The pseudobulbs are
ovoid-oblong with solitary narrow thin leaves. The inflorescence is 2 to 5 flowered, slender.
The flowers are scented, whitish purple in colour and produced in October or spring.
Miltonia spectabilis: A robust rhizomatous orchid with flat pseudobulbs and paired
linear ligulate leaves. Inflorescence is erect and 20 cm tall. The flowers are long
lasting, heavily textured and whitish violet.
Miltonia vexillaria: Native to Coulmbia and Brazil. The pseudobulbs are clustered,
tipped by 2 leaves and arranged basally with 4 to 6 leaves. Inflorescence is 4 to 12
flowered and 50 cm long. The flowers are fragrant, 8.5 cm long, rose- red or lilac- rose
in colour and are produced in April-June.

Milpasia = Miltonia x Aspasia
Miltasia = Miltonia x Brassia
Odontonia = Miltonia x Odontoglossum
Miltodonium = Miltonia x Oncidium
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Aliceara = Miltonia x Brassia x Oncidium
Colomanara = Miltonia x Odontoglossum x Oncidium

Withnerara = Miltonia x Aspasia x Odontoglossum x Oncidium

‘Puna Gold’, ‘Shaini’s Star’, ‘Enzan Sunday’, ‘Mauri Star’, ‘Enzan Floss’, ‘Red Rock’,
‘Tear Drops’, ‘Yellow Sands’, ‘ Black Waters’, ‘George W, Bush’, ‘Indian Hollow’,
‘Cast Sand’, ‘Emily’s Delight’, ‘Ananda Apple’, ‘Whale Bay’, ‘Daydream’, ‘Solar
Storm’, ‘Angel Eyes’, ‘Top Prize Capitula Redwood’, ‘Bingo’, ‘Kismet Sena’, ‘Saffron
Butterfly’, ‘Dream River’, ‘Moon River’, ‘Coconut Cream’, ‘Spring Jewel’, ‘Blackout’,
‘Dear Lady’.
11.3.11.6 Interspecific Hybrids

‘Marion Primmer’, ‘Wine Leopard FCA’, ‘Menina Taylor’, ‘Tropic Skies’, ‘Joyce Hill’,
‘Edwin Oka’, ‘Stellina’.

‘Invisible Man’, ‘Miami Spectacular’, ‘Walnut Valley Glade’, ‘Danny Denton’, ‘Prin-
cess Diana’, ‘Pink Sand’, ‘ Enzan Lady’, ‘Spectacular Dawn’, ‘Candid Ruby’, ‘Komoda
Marvel’, ‘Harry’, ‘David Manzur’, ‘Rick Hood’, ‘Pacific Wars’.

Miltonia x bluntii, Miltonia x cogniauxiae, Miltonia x flava, Miltonia x leucoglossa,
Miltonia x rosina, Miltonia x cuneata, Miltonia x binottii, Miltonia x lamarckiana, Milto-
nia x petersiana
The high elevation orchids require a specialized structure and must be grown in cool
house. Bright diffused light is necessary for miltonias to bloom. Usually, a temperat-
ure range of 10-15°C, relative humidity of 50-70% and light intensity of 2400-3600 foot
candles is ideal for these plants.
A perfectly drained compost consisting of chopped osmunda and chopped sphag-
num moss is good. The plants are well grown in small pots. The tropical species require
Unauthenticated
well lighted locations with warm temperature. It is also best to plant them in well
drained, lightly packed compost mixture of equal parts of chopped tree fern fibre and
dust tree bark preparation. They require abundant water and high humidity. Watering
once a week during winter and twice a week during summer is sufficient. A complete
fertilizer of NPK (30: 10: 10) in liquid form should be sprayed at monthly intervals.
11.3.12 Odontoglossum
Odontoglossum consists of 300 species of epiphytic and lithophytic orchids from

Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil. The pseudobulbs are tipped by 1 or 2 leaves. Inflores-
cence arises from the base of the pseudobulbs, is erect or arching, and bears one
too many large and beautiful flowers. The flower colour is variable from pure white
spotted and blotched with other hues of yellow to chestnut brown.

Odontoglossum citrosmum: Native to Mexico. The pseudobulbs are round bearing two
leathery leaves at the tip. The inflorescence is 10 to 15 flowered and drooping. The
flowers are scented, white splashed with pink, with a pink lip and are produced in May.
Odontoglossum cordatum: Native to Mexico, Guatemala, Hondurus and Costa Rica. The
pseudobulbs are clustered, ovoid-ellipsoid to ellipsoid with solitary, elliptic-lanceol-
ate or oblong ligulate leaves. Inflorescence is erect with few too many flowered. The
flowers are 7.5 cm in diameter, yellow in colour and produced in April-May.
Odontoglossum crispum: A beautiful species from Columbia. The pseudobulbs are
egg shaped with compressed and furrowed edges. The leaves are 2 to 3, soft textured,
narrow and linear ligulate. The inflorescene is erect or arching, and dense with many
flowers. The flowers are white and tinted with pink, having pinkish white lip and
produced during February to April.
Odontoglossum grande: This species is native to Mexico and Guatemala. The pseudob-
ulbs are large, roundish and clustered and furrowed with 1 to 3 thick heavy textured
leaves. The inflorescence is erect, stout, 6 to 8 flowered. The flowers are large, 15 cm
across, waxy and long lasting, yellow streaked with brown or red purple and white
lip. The flowers are produced during December to March.
Odontoglossum Krameri: The species is native to Mexico and Costa Rica. The pseudob-
ulbs are small, compressed, clustered, roundish and tipped by single, leathery,
elliptic lanceolate leaves. The inflorescence is short, erect and 3 to 5 flowered. The
flowers are 4 cm across, lilac pink segment edged with white and produced during
June to August.
Odontoglossum luteo-purpureum: A species native to Columbia. The pseudobulbs are
robust, compressed, oval and tipped with two large ensiform leaves. The inflores-
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cence is erect and 8 to 12 flowered. The flowers are 10 cm across, red chestnut brown
in colour with white lip and produced during April-May.
Odontoglossum pulchellum: Native to Mexico and Guatemala. The pseudobulbs are
clustered, compressed, and ellipsoid-oblong to ovoid with 2 to 3 very narrow leaves.
The inflorescence is erect and 6 to10 flowered. The flowers are long lived, very scented,
white and produced during March to April.
Odontoglossum rubescens: This species is native to Guatemala, Nicaragua and Mexico.
The pseudobulbs are ovoid, clustered, compressed with solitary, ovate-lanceolate or
oblong –elliptic leaves. The inflorescence is 2 to 4 flowered and bracted. The flowers
are 7.5 cm across, narrow, white streaked with brown, have an undulated white lip,
and are produced during January to March.
Odontoglossum stellatum: This species is found in Guatemala and Mexico. The
pseudobulbs are clustered and tipped solitary leaves. The inflorescence is short,
slender and 1 to 2 flowered. The flowers are 5 cm across, tangy brown with white or
pink lip and are produced in the spring season.
Odontoglossum tripudians: This species is widely distributed in Columbia, Eucador
and Peru. The inflorescence is many flowered and 7.5 cm long. The flowers are yellow
and produced during the spring season.
Odontoglossum triumphans: This species is native to Colombia. The pseudobulbs
are compressed with leathery dark green leaves. Inflorescence is many flowered and
erect. The flowers are 12.5 cm across and golden yellow with reddish brown spots.
Odontoglossum wallisii: This species is native to Colombia and Venezuela. The
pseudobulbs are compressed and round with arching leaves. Inflorescence is droop-
ing and loosely 10 to 15 flowered. The flowers are pale yellow with reddish brown
stripe, 6.5 cm across and whitish purple lip and produced during winter season.
Odontoglossum cirrhosum: A magnificent species from Eucador. Flowers are pure
white with heavy cinnamon spots.
Odontoglossum harryanum: This species is native to South America. The inflorescence
is erect, 50-90 cm tall and 12 flowered. Flowers are 7 cm across, reddish brown and
segmented marked with yellow with a reddish brown and white lip.

Aspoglossum = Odontoglossum x Aspasia
Odontonia = Odontoglossum x Miltonia
Odontocidium = Odontoglossum x Oncidium
Odontobrassia= Odontoglossum x Brassia

Wilsonara = Odontoglossum x Cochlioda x Oncidium
Colmanara = Odontoglossum x Miltonia x Oncidium
Unauthenticated

Withnerara = Odontoglossum x Aspasia x Miltonia x Oncidium
Watsonara = Odontoglossum x Brassia x Oncidiun x Tricocentrum
Bakerara = Odontoglossum x Miltonia x Brassia x Oncidium

‘Cynthia Hill’, ‘Luis Salabazar’, ‘Mc Beans Elizabeth’, ‘Spotted Croc’, ‘Mayapan’,
‘Quito’, ‘Colocris’, ‘Mums Tiger’, ‘Ann’, ‘High Street’, ‘Uro-Day’, Cormac’, ‘Gay Enchan-
ment’, ‘Gay Starshooter’.

‘Italian Job’, ‘Joyce Stewart’, ‘Pepe Gerald’, ‘Purple Rain’, ‘Katherine Jenkins’, ‘Roy
Wittwer’, ‘Laguna Blanca’, ‘Precocious’, ‘Snow Fall’, ‘Pesky’, ‘Queen of Mars’, ‘Stam
Point’, ‘Holiday Yellow’, ‘Ronald Norman’, ‘Bridget Ring Lawless’, ‘John Hanry
Hanson’, ‘Point Pesky’.
11.3.12.7 Variety –Species Hybrid

‘Doctor Tom’, ‘Bob Hamilton’, Winter Star’, ‘Age of Reality’,’Rocky Road’, ‘Black
Diamond’, ‘San Damino Royal’, ‘La Platte’, ‘Oratia Bride’, ‘Golden Crisp’, ‘Offalman’,
‘Enzan Yankee’, ‘Ken Armour’, ‘Geneva Snow’.
The plants prefer a bright light with the intensity of 2000-2500 foot candles, a day
temperature 25°C and night temperature of 15°C and 40-80% humidity with free
movement of air. Bark mixes to be the standard potting media for odontoglossums.
One mix consists of one part coarse sand, one part coarse shredded peat, one part
perlite and four parts fine bark. In an 8-inch pot for these ingredients, a small handful
each of bone meal and dolomitic lime can be added. Applications of NPK (30: 10: 10)
twice a month is ideal for successful growth of plants.
11.3.13 Renanthera
Renanthera consists of 12 species of epiphytic or lithophytic orchids from China,

Himalayas, the Philippines, Indonesia and New Guinea. Plants are monopodial, vine-
like, pseudobulbless with ascending stems of intermediate growth. The leaves are
leathery, distichous, thick and coriacious. A large number of aerial roots is produced
from the stem of plants. The inflorescence arises from the axils of leaves (upper)
Unauthenticated
and produce few to many flowers. The flowers are 9 cm across, scarlet, red orange,
crimson to yellow in colour.

Renanthera coccinea: This species is native to Burma, South China and Thailand. The
stems are ascending, erect and freely rooting with leathery, well spaced, yellowish
green leaves. The inflorescence is produced from the stem opposite one of the upper
leaves, 1.2 m tall with about 150 flowers. The flowers are large, 8.5 cm across, long
lasting with red petals and vermillion sepals and yellow crimson lips and are pro-
duced during June –July.
Renanthera imschootiana: An endangered species, restricted to Manipur and other
neighbouring states of North East India, which is commonly called ‘Red Vanda’. The
stems are solitary, 90 cm long arranged with a set of leaves closely packed on the
stem. Inflorescence is horizontal, branched bearing more than 20 bright crimson
flowers with red spots on a pale orange back ground of its dorsal sepal and petals.
The flowers are long lasting, 6 cm across and are produced during April-May.

Renades = Renanthera x Aerides
Aranthera = Renanthera x Arachnis
Renancentrum = Renanthera x Ascocentrum
Renanthopsis = Renanthera x Phalaenopsis
Renanopsis = Renanthera x Vandopsis

Sappanara = Renanthera x Arachnis x Phalaenopsis
Holttumara = Renanthera x Arachnis x Vanda
Moirara = Renanthera x Phalaenopsis x Vanda
11.3.13.4 Renanthera Hybrids

‘SCGB Kylin’, ‘Datin Blanche’, ‘Olbery’, ‘Hooi Sew Yong’, ‘John Losgar’, ‘Red Leopard’,
‘Scarlet Belle’, ‘Chanachae’, ‘Serdang’, ‘Brady Crocker’, ‘20th WOC Singapore-2011’,
‘Bart Motes’.
11.3.13.5 Renanstylis Hybrids

‘Bangkok Beauty’, ‘Teo Choo Hong’, ‘Carl Niemann’
Unauthenticated
11.3.13.6 Renantanda Hybrids

‘Forever Yvonne’, ‘Inspiration Ng Teng Fong’, ‘Ladda Glow’; ‘Polyetheramine Singa-
pore’, ‘Momon Shija’, ‘Paul Gripp’, ‘Science Arts’, ‘Memoria Charles Darwin’, ‘Prof.
G.J. Sharma’, ‘Kebisana Shija’, ‘Mary Motes’, ‘Kofi Annan’.
11.3.13.7 Renanthopsis
‘Bob Banister’, ‘John Mason SCBG Canary’, ‘Lieke Jjoa’, ‘Persian Carpet’, ‘Dancing
Stars’
11.3.13.8 Renanapsis
‘Santa Cruz’
11.3.13.9 Uses
Renanthera orchids are ideal for pot plants, hanging baskets and for mounting on trees.
The plants require a warm, moist atmosphere and airy and well lighted locations
during the growing seasons. Full sun exposure is usually needed for proper flower
production. The plants must be fastened on a block of fern stem or wood, to which
they become firmly attached by their roots. These plants must be planted in a compost
media consisting of tree fern fibre, mixture of fir bark and charcoal. The temperature
of 15-30°C, light intensity of 4000 to 5000 foot candles and humidity of 60 to 70% are
found to be optimum for their growth and flowering. The plants are to be watered
daily during summer months and twice a week during winter months. A complete
fertilizer of NPK (20:20:20) in liquid form should be sprayed at weekly intervals in
summer and fortnightly intervals in winter.
11.3.14 Rhyncostylis
Rhyncostylis consists of 4 species of monopodial epiphytic orchids distributed in India,

Burma, Thailand, Malayasia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the East Indies and the Philippines.
These orchids are commonly known as ‘Foxtail Orchids’ and are considered the state
flowers of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. These are stout, short stemmed plants with
thick and leathery linear-oblong leaves closely arranged on the stem. The inflorescence
is erect or drooping, and densely covered with small, colourful showy flowers. The
flowers are red, magenta, blue spotting, reddish lavender and white in colour.
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Rhyncostylis gigantea: This species is native to Thailand and Burma. The stems are
stout with tongue shaped, heavy, leathery leaves. The inflorescence is pendulous,
45 cm covered with many small flowers. The flowers are sweet scented, long lasting,
waxy, 2.5 cm across with pure white sepals and petals spotted red-violet and magenta
and produced during autumn and early winter.
Rhyncostylis retusa: This species is native to India, Sri Lanka and the Philippines.
The stems are robust and woody with small stout aerial white roots. The leaves are
leathery, strap shaped, linear, deeply channeled and arching. The inflorescence is
pendulous, 60 cm long, many flowered and cylindrical. The flowers are waxy, short
or long lived, sweet scented, 1 cm across with white sepals and petals spotted with
bluish purple and are produced during April-May.
Rhyncostylis coelestis: Native to southeast Asia. The plants are dwarf with stiff folded
leaves that curve downwards. The flowers are 2-tone blue, scented and long lasting.
Rhyncostylis violacea: This species bears many miniature lavender and white flowers,
which are produced during winter and spring season.
11.3.14.2 Common Uses

In Assam, the flower spike of Rhyncostylis retusa known as ‘Kopou Phul’, is used by
girls to adorn their hair during the summer festival. Hybrids are used as cut flowers or
in bouquet making and flower arrangements.

Rhynchorides = Rhyncostylis x Aerides
Aranchostylis = Rhyncostylis x Arachnis
Neostylis = Rhyncostylis x Neofinetia
Rhynchonopsis = Rhyncostylis x Phalaenopsis
Renanstylis = Rhyncostylis x Renanthera
Rhyncovanda = Rhyncostylis x Vanda

Vascostylis = Rhyncostylis x Ascocentrum x Vanda
Rhyncostylis = Rhyncostylis x Doritis x Phalaenopsis
Yapara = Rhyncostylis x Phalaenopsis x Vanda
11.3.14.5 Rhynchorides Hybrids

‘Thai Gem’, ‘Norma’, ‘Alice;s Wally’, ‘Bangkok Sunset’
Unauthenticated
11.3.14.6 Rhynchostylis Hybrids

‘Charles Marden Fitch’
11.3.14.7 Rhyncholaeliocattleya Hybrids

‘Gabgab Castro’, ‘Malvarosa Pearl’, ‘Robinson’s Delight’, ‘Chief Journey’, ‘Aguti Gold’,
‘Little Circle’, ‘Butterfly Wings’, ‘Magic Morning’, ‘Chief Birde’, ‘Chief Pink’, ‘Crimson
Circle’, ‘Bold As Love’, ‘Julian’s Shaw’, ‘Jims Beauty’, ‘Omi Melody’, ‘Proda Flora’,
‘Scarlet Bay’, ‘Salmon Sensation’, ‘Himalayan Aspiration’, ‘Innocent Mastiff’, ‘Lhonak
Sunset’, ‘Pradhan’s Delight’, ‘Rumtek Jewel’, ‘Scented Serendipity’, ‘Sikkim Sentinal’,
‘Sikkim Majestic’, ‘Sikkim Accolade’, ‘Sukhim Song’, ‘Big Shot’,’Deception Girl’, ‘Fire
Rose’, ‘Fire Lake’, ‘Agatha Fire’, ‘Agatha Lim’, ‘Volcano Glory’, ‘Wild Promise’, ‘June
Simpson’, ‘Tinker Bell’.
11.3.14.8 Rhynchosophrocattleya Hybrids

‘Chief Blue’, ‘Chief Heart’, ‘Comet Pink’, ‘Long Run’, ‘Golf Pink’, ‘Gorgeous Lady’,
‘Alpha Plus Peacock’, ‘Exotic Ruby’, ‘Red Bay’, ‘Alphs plus Pink’, ‘Skip Wilson’, ‘Trop-
ical Punch’, ‘Giant Beauty’, Fruit Island’, ‘Lovely Air’, ‘Sakura Grand’, ‘Ashahi Delight’
11.3.14.9 Rhynchovola Hybrid

‘Green Pixie’
11.3.14.10 Rhyncattleanthe Hybrids

‘Buddy Bay’, ‘Burana Fire’, ‘Samba Script’, ‘Typical Worth’, ‘Shigfong White’, ‘Charm’,
Alpha Plus Buddha’, ‘Purple Rainbow’, ‘Golden Bell’, ‘Peter Lin’, ‘Nobile’s Teens’,
‘Nobile’s Coralina’, ‘Nobile’s Toffee’, ‘Algestor Gold’, ‘Sikkim Treasure’, ‘Tendong
Glow’, ‘Life’s Charm’, ‘Laughing Magic’, ‘Silent Moon’, ‘Atomic Jungle’, ‘Hot Blooded’,
‘Sea of Love’, ‘Uptown Girl’, ‘Alpha Plus Candy’, ‘Brown Tone’, ‘Clinton Lewis’, ‘Little
Treat’, ‘California Love’, ‘Chocolate Rose’, ‘Heart Warmer’, ‘Sweet Sound’.
11.3.14.11 Rhynchovanda Hybrids

‘Wilton Hill’, ‘Jammie Harper’, ‘Apichart’, ‘Noo Noi’, ‘Peter Draper’, ‘ Brighton’s
Albino’, ‘Prairie Lady’.
11.3.14.12 Rhyncattleya Hybrids

‘Olor de Otoño’, ‘Cinco de Mayo’, ‘Rios De Oro’, ‘Tadong Delight’, ‘Hsinying Moves’,
‘Irvine Sunset’, ‘Deception Sweetheart’, ‘RIO’s Treasure’, ‘Petit Prisme’, ‘RIO’s Spec-
tacle’, ‘Chuchemen’.
Unauthenticated
11.3.14.13 Rhyncobrassoleya Hybrids

‘Chief Cindy’, ‘Starry’, ‘Taurus’, ‘Tetraspotts’, ‘Bosque Antiguo’, ‘Ramar’s Happiness’,
‘Roberts Dodson’, ‘Sedona’s Surprise’, ‘Tranquility’, ‘Golden Angel Lemon Tang’,
‘Pink Blush’.
11.3.14.14 Medicinal Rhyncostylis

Roots of Rhyncostylis retusa are effective against rheumatisms. Plants are also used
against asthma, tuberculosis, cramps, epilepsy, vertigo, palpitation, kidney stones
and menstrual disorders.
These plants require high humidity, moderate shade and plenty of water during active
phase of growth. They require bright light with an intensity of 3000-4000 foot candles
and strong air movements all the times. These orchids are ideal for hanging baskets.
They grow well in large chunks of tree fern fibre or in a medium of chunks of hard-
wood charcoal.
A day temperature of 30-32°C and night temperature of 24-25°C and relative humidity
of 80% in summer and 60-70% in spring and winter are ideal for their active vegetat-
ive growth and flowering. Plants should be watered heavily while actively growing,
but aeration around the roots must be excellent, allowing the roots to dry rapidly after
watering. For plants grown in pots or baskets, the medium must never become water
logged or soggy. These plants are heavy feeders and respond very well with the dilute
solution of 0.3% NPK (20: 20: 20) sprayed twice a month.
11.3.15 Zygopetalum
Zygopetalum consists of 25 species of terrestrial, lithophytic or epiphytic orchids

from Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Paraguay, Venezuela and New Guinea. The pseudobulbs
are ovoid with a distinct sheath, 5 cm to 7.5 cm tall and strong with lanceolate, dist-
icous leaves. The inflorescence develops from the base of pseudobulbs, and is arching
or erect in nature. The flowers are fragrant and long lasting in shades of brilliant
green, blue or purple. The flowers are 5 cm to 7.5 cm across with wavy margins. They
are excellent for cut flowers and corsages.

Zygopetalum cerinum: This species is native to Columbia with degenerative pseudob-
ulbs and oblong leaves. Flowers are borne singly, creamy white with yellow lip
streaked with purple.
Unauthenticated
Zygopetalum crinitum: This species is native to Brazil with ovoid to conical pseudob-
ulbs and fleshy. Coriaceous, lanceolate and glossy leaves. The inflorescence is 45 cm
long and 3 to 10 flowered. The flowers are 8 cm across, scented with green segments,
maculated brown and have a white lip streaked with violet and are produced in
December-January.
Zygopetalum mackayi: A rare and beautiful species from Brazil with long, erect and
curving leaves. The inflorescence is 90 cm tall and 5 to 10 flowered. The flowers are
large, 8.5 cm across, scented, long lived with yellowish green petals and sepals mac-
ulated with violet purple and white lip intricately veined with red and blue, and pro-
duced during December.
Zygopetalum intermedium: A popular species, native to Brazil with ovoid conical
pseudobulbs and glossy bright green leaves. The inflorescence is 60 cm long, 10-12
flowered and attractive. The flowers are 7.5 cm across, long lasting, fragrant, yellow-
ish green with purple brown blotches and white lips with dots of blue and produced
in December.
Zygopetalum wendlandii: This species is native to Costa Rica and has degenerative
pseudobulbs and lanceolate leaves. The flowers are 10 cm across, pale green in colour
and produced at the end of summer to the beginning of autumn.
11.3.15.2 Intergeneric Hybrids

Zygonisia = Zygopetalum x Aganisia
Chondropetalum = Zygopetalum x Chondrorhynca
Zygocolax = Zygopetalum x Colax
Zygocaste = Zygopetalum x Lycaste
11.3.15.3 Common commercial Hybrids

‘Blue Blood’, ‘Blue Bear’, ‘Imagination’, ‘Tanzanite’, ‘Millie’, ‘Black Plague’, ‘Kiwi
Black’, ‘Kiwi Choice’, ‘Pioneer’, ‘Tasman’, ‘New Era’, ‘Dark Star’, ‘Impulse’, ‘Intu-
ition’, ‘Great Eisen’, ‘Blue River’, ‘Indigo Skies’, ‘Blue Banks’, ‘Bon Voyage’, ‘Centen-
ary’, ‘Hot Springs’, ‘Blackjack’, ‘Night Hawk’, ‘Violet Moon’, ‘Leopard Prince’, ‘Blue
Blood’, ‘Big Country’, ‘Hawker’
Zygopetalums thrive well in a temperature range of 20-26°C during day time and
10-15°C during night. They require bright light in the 3000-4000 foot candles range.
During summer season, it needs 40% shade cloth. They love water during their active
growth period and are watered at 5-7 days intervals. A potting mixture consisting of
cocopeat, cocochips and tree barks is ideal. They are easily propagated through divi-
sion of pseudobulbs.
Unauthenticated
12 Medicinal and Aromatic Orchids
12.1 Medicinal Orchids
Orchids are the most diverse group among the angiosperms and are cultivated for
their attractive flowers. There is no doubt that the Chinese were the first to cultivate
and describe orchids, and they were almost certainly the first to describe orchids for
medicinal use. Reinikka in 1995 reports a Chinese legend that Shên-nung described
Bletilla striata and a Dendrobium species in his Materia Medica of the 28th century BC.
Some species like Dendrobium nobile, Eulophia campestris, Orchis latifolia,
Vanda roxburghii and Vanda tessellata have been documented for their medicinal
value. Phytochemically, orchids have been reported to contain alkaloids, triterpen-
oids, flavonoids and stilbenoids. Ashtavarga, a group of eight medicinal plants, is a
vital part of Ayurvedic formulations like Chyvanprasha and four of these plants viz,
Riddhi, Vriddhi, Jivaka and Rishbhaka belong to the family Orchidaceae (Tab. 12.1).
Tab. 12.1: Medicinal plants used in Ashtavarga, composite Ayurvedic formulation (Singh and Duggal,
2009)
S.No. Ayurvedic name Botanical name Family Part used

1. Jivaka Malaxis muscifera Orchidaceae Bulb
2. Rishbhaka Malaxis acuminata Orchidaceae Pseudo-bulb
3. Meda Polygonum verticillatum Polygonaceae Rhizome
4. Mahameda Polygonum cirrhifolium Polygonaceae Rhizome
5. Kakoli Roscoea procera Zingiberaceae Root
6. Kshira Kakoli Fritillaria royeli Liliaceae Root
7. Riddhi Habenaria intermedia Orchidaceae Root
8. Vriddhi Habenaria edgeworthii Orchidaceae Root
Orchids are widely used in traditional Chinese medicines. In India, chemical analyses
have been conducted on some medicinally important orchids like Eulophia campestris,
Orchis latifolia, Vanda roxburghii. Dendrobium macraei is another important orchid
used in Ayurvedic medicine as it is reported to be the source of Jivanti. Cypripedium par-
viflora is widely used as an aphrodisiac and nervine tonic in Western herbal medicines.
Many medicinal orchids are reported to contain alkaloids and have antimicrobial
activities. Recently, studies have focused on the isolation of anthocyanins, stilbenoids
and triterpenoids from orchids. Orchinol, hircinol, cypripedin, jibantine, nidemin and
loroglossin are some important phytochemicals extracted from orchids. Some of the
medicinal orchids along with distribution, parts used, and medicinal properties have
been tabulated below (Gutierrez, 2010; Singh and Duggal, 2009; Rao, 2004) (Table 12.2).
Unauthenticated
Tab. 12.2: Medicinal orchids and their medicinal properties
Sl.
Botanical Name Distribution Parts used Medicinal properties
No.
1. Acampe papillosa North Eastern India Roots Root is used for rheumatism,
sciatica, neuralgia, syphyllis and
uterine diseases.
2. Acampe Western Ghat of India Roots Anti-rheumatism
praemorsa
3. Aerides crispum Western Ghat of India Whole plant Its plants are powdered, boiled in
neem oil, filtered, 2-3 drops of oil
are put into the ear once at night as
a cure for earache.
4. Aerides multi- Himalaya (Garhwal to Tubers Antibacterial
florum Roxb Sikkim), Assam, India
and Burma
5. Anoectochilus Taiwan Tubers Chest and abdominal paints,
formosanus diabetes, fever, nephritis,
Hayata hypertension, impotence, liver
spleen disorders, and pleurodynia,
anti-inflammatory agent
6. Arundina Himalayas of Nepal, Sri Rhizome Antibacterial
graminifolia Lanka, Thailand, Laos,
(D. Don) Hochr. Cambodia, Vietnam,
southern China, Japan,
Taiwan and south to
Malaya and Java
7. Bletilla striata Taiwan, Nepal, Tuber Treatment of sores, ulcers and
(Thunb.) Rchb.f. Tibet, China chapped skin, heal wounds, reduce
swelling, and promote regeneration
of tissue
8. Calanthe triplicata North East India Roots, Roots are ingredient of local medi-
flowers & cine to treat swollen hands; with
pseudobulbs other ingredients roots chewed for
diarrhea, Flowers as a painkiller in
caries, Pseudobulbs as a masticat-
ory, gastrointestinal disorders.
9. Coelogyne ovalis Western Ghat of India Whole plant The whole plant is used in Western
and Southern parts of India for
cough, urinary infections and eye
disorders.
10. Cypripedium cal- N. America to E. Asia - Roots Antispasmodic, diaphoretic, hyp-
ceolus pubescens Japan notic, nervine, sedative, tonic
(Willd.) Correll
11. Dendrobium China Leaves Antipyretic, eyes-benefiting,
chrysanthum immuno-regulatory purposes, skin
diseases
Unauthenticated
Medicinal Orchids 245
continued
Sl.
No.
12. Dendrobium North East India Stems Fresh and dried stems used in
jenkisii preparation of Chinese drug
Shih-hu
13. Dendrobium Himalayas Tubers Tonic for general debility
macraei Auct
14. Dendrobium Himalayas and China Stems Antiphlogistic, pectoral,
nobile Lindl. sialogogue, stomachic and tonic
15. Dendrobium Western Ghat of India Stems Juice obtained by hand crushing
ovatum the stems is used on patients
suffering from constipation and
stomachache
16. Epidendrum China & Korea Stems Analgesic
Mosenii
17. Eulophia nuda Himalayas Tubers Demulcent and anthelmintic
Lindl.
18. Gastrodia elata Asia Whole plant Treatment of

epilepsy
19. Goodyera India Whole plant Tonic for internal
schlechtendaliana injuries and to improve
circulation
20. Habenaria E. Asia - Himalayas Leaves & Cooling and spermopiotic
edgeworthii roots
Hook.f. ex Collett.
21. Habenaria Himalayas Leaves & The leaves are crushed and applied
pectinata D.Don tubers in snake bites. Tubers mixed with
condiments are used in arthritis
22. Malaxis acuminta Himalayas 1800 m to Pseudobulb Cooling, febrifuge and
D.Don 3500 m eastwards to spermopiotic
Sikkim
23. Malaxis muscifera Himalayas 1850 m Bulb Cooling, febrifuge and
(Lindl.) Kuntze to 2300 m Himachal spermopiotic
Pradesh to Arunachal
Pradesh
24. Maxillaria densa Mexico Whole plant Treatment of painful
complaints. Relaxant
agent
25. Orchis latifolia L. Western Himalayas, Roots Treatment of diabetes, diarrhea,
Afghanistan and Iran dysentery, paralysis, convales-
cence, impotence and malnutrition
Unauthenticated
continued
Sl.
No.
26. Orchis laxiflora South Europe, North Bulb Treatment of diarrhea, bronchitis
Lam. Africa and West Asia. and convalescence
27. Satyrium North East India Tubers Tubers eaten by Monpa tribe for
nepalense Malaria, dysentery, also aphro-
disiac
28. Spathoglotis North East India Whole plant Decoction of the boiled plant used
plicata for rheumatism and used in hot as
a foment.
29. Spiranthes Nepal, China & Taiwan Roots Aphrodisiac, treatment of
sinensis var hemoptysis, epistaxis, headache,
amoena chronic dysentery and meningitis
30. Vanda roxburghii India Leaves & The paste applied to the body
roots to bring down fever. The juice
is dropped in the ear for the
treatment of otitis. The roots are
used in dyspepsia, bronchitis,
rheumatim and sciatica
31. Vanda tessellata India, Sri Lanka and Whole plant Paste of leaves is used as
(Roxb.) Hook. Burma application in fevers. It is
Ex Don ingredient of Rasna Panchaka
Quatha, Ayurvedic formulation
used in the treatment of arthritis
and rheumatism. Expressed juice of
the leaves is sued in the treatment
of otitis media. The root is used as
antidote against scorpion sting and
remedy for bronchitis
32. Vanilla planifolia Mexico Sheath Used as for the treatment of
hysteria, fever, impotence,
rheumatism, and to increase the
energy, of muscular system
12.1.1 Pharmacological Profile of Orchids
Throughout the ages, several health-promoting benefits, including diuretic,

anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, hypoglycemic activities, anti-
microbial, anticonvulsive, relaxation, neuroprotective, and antivirus, activities have
been reported with the use of orchids extracts. Orchid species attributed to medicinal
properties of various ailments are given below (Gutierrez, 2010):
Anti cancer/Anti-tumor: Anoectochilus formosanus, Bletilla striata, Bulbophyllum
kwangtungense, Dendrobium chrysanthum, Dendrobium fimbriatum, Dendrobium
Unauthenticated
Aromatic Orchids (De, 2014) 247
nobile, Ephemerantha ionchophylla, Gastrodia elata, Spiranthes australis, Bulbophyl-

lum odoratissimum
Convulsive diseases: Gastrodia elata, Goodyera schlechtendaliana, Anoectochilus
formosanus
Anti-microbial: Vanilla planifolia, Galeola foliata, Cypripedium macranthos var.
rebunense, Spiranthes mauritianum, Gastrodia elata
Anti-inflammatory: Anoectochilus formosanus, Gastrodia elata, Dendrobium monili-
forme, Pholidota chinensis
Antioxidant: Anoectochilus formosanus, Anoectochilus roxburghii, Dendrobium
amoenum, Dendrobium moniliforme, Gastrodia elata, Pholidota yunnanensis
Antidiabetic: Anoectochilus formosanus, Dendrobium candidum
Diuretic: Cymbidium goeringii
Antihepatotoxic: Anoectochilus formosanus, Goodyera schlechtendaliana, Goodyera
matsumurana, Goodyera discolor
Neuroprotective: Coeloglossum viride, Gastrodia elata
Pain treatment: Maxillaria densa, Scaphyglottis livida, Epidendrum Mosenii
Anti-viral: Epipactis helleborine, Listera ovata, Gastrodia elata, Cymbidium spp.
Relaxation: Scaphyglottis livida, Gastrodia elata, Maxillaria densa
Antiplatelet aggregation: Dendrobium loddigesii, Den. densifiorum, Ephemerantha
lonchophylla, Gastrodia elata
Anti-allergic: Gymnadenia conopsea
Antipyretic: Dendrobium moniliforme
Antimutagenic activity: Dendrobium nobile
Endurance capacity: Anoectochilus formosanus
Ameliorative: Anoectochilus formosanus
Anthelmintic: Bletilla striata
Anti-aging: Coeloglossum viride var. bracteatum
Gastric: Dendrobium nobile, Gastrodia elata
Herbicidal agent: Epidendrum rigidum
Maturation: Anoectochilus formosanus
Phytoalexin: Coelogyne cristata
Skin blood flow: Calanthe discolor
Wound healing: Vanda roxburghii
12.2 Aromatic Orchids (De, 2014)
Orchid fragrance is a relatively volatile substance found in plants. It is stored as essen-

tial oils in special cells (osmopheres) at the periphery of flowers, leaves or roots. Only
small amounts are present as the substance can be toxic to the plant. These fragrant
oils can consist of volatile compounds (Tab. 12.3). Being volatile, they readily change
into vapour at ordinary temperature, which allows us to smell them.
Unauthenticated
Tab. 12.3: Aromatic chemicals and fragrant orchids
Aromatic chemicals Aromatic species

cineole medicinal (citronellol rose-like) Brassavola nodosa, Brassavola digbiana
benzyl acetate (jasmine) Stanhopea tricornis, S. Grandiflora, S. Reichenba-
chiana, Cycnoches ventricosum, C. Warscewizii, C.
Loddigesii, C. Chlorochilon
d-carvone (rye bread) Catasetum discolor
methyl salicilate(wintergreen) Catasetum collare, Catasetum gnomus, Catasetum
candida
Methyl cinnimate Catasetum roseum, Stanhopea saccata, Gongora
quinquenervis
Eugenol Gongora quinquenervis
1,8-cineole Stanhopea cirrhata
Linalool Brassovola digbiana, Gongora quinquenervis
12.2.1 Scent Production
It has been estimated that as many as 75% of all orchids are ‘fragrant’. They emit detect-
able chemical compounds; some are extremely fragrant while in some instances they are
extremely repulsive smells. Only some of the odoriferous compounds released by a flower
are detectable by the human sense of smell, since these are complex substances closely
related to the body chemistry of the pollinator they are ‘supposed’ to attract. Fragrances
are produced in specialized glands (osmopheres) which can be located anywhere on a
flower or bud, depending on function. These are glands of intense physiological activity
and are a large drain on the plant’s energy. When non-fragrant flowers become isolated
geographically, fragrance may evolve as a pollinator attractant. There is, for example, a
fragrant form of Phalaenopsis amabilis from New Guinea, although all other known forms
of the species from other locations are without scent.
All flower parts can produce odours, from sepals and petals to calluses and basal
spurs. Osmopheres in orchids may be diffuse and function only in very general attraction,
or they may be confined to certain regions of the flower so that pollinators are attracted to
these specific areas and collect or deposit pollinia in the process.
Scent glands are most often situated on the lip - e.g. Stanhopea, Herschelia and Cata-
setum.
Members of the Catasetinae and Gongorinae subtribes produce the most voluminous
quantities of scent known amongst orchids.
The fragrance of Catasetum flowers is interrupted within a few hours of pollination to
conserve energy by limiting osmopheric activity.
The intricate flowers of the scented Gongoras last only for two or three days but com-
pensate for this by several of them opening in succession. It is found that if the lip (where
the scent is produced) is removed, the flower lasts for two to three weeks. A urine-like
Unauthenticated
Aromatic Orchids (De, 2014) 249
smell is produced at the tips of the long tepals in Phragmipedium caudatum and this could
be to attract ants who aid in pollination. The long tails of the sepals of Cirrhopetalum orna-
tissimum give rise to an odour of whale oil, while the lip smells of fresh herring.
Orchid floral fragrances are produced in a daily cycle with the time of maximum fra-
grance production generally being during the time when the pollinator of that species
would be active. Fragrance production requires energy, therefore the timing of scent pro-
duction often coincides with the time of visitation of pollinators to use the least energy to
achieve the maximum effect. Lady of the Night orchid (Brassavola nodosa) will perfume
a warm summer evening with its heavy fragrance. The medicinal sweet odour is released
shortly after sunset, reaching maximum strength around midnight, and fading quickly
after sunrise. The scent release is strictly a light-controlled phenomenon and is regulated
by a photochrome trigger. Fragrances may change throughout the day both quantitatively
and qualitatively as well as from day to day:
Clowesia rosea smells of Vicks Vapo rub in the morning and cinnamon in the after-
noon. Catasetum expansum smells of turpentine in the morning and rye bread in the after-
noon.
Bee-pollinated flowers are fragrant early in the day. Cattleya luteola, for example, is
very fragrant between 4:00 and 8:00 am. Some orchids such as Epidendrum difforme are
moderately fragrant throughout the day with a peak fragrance production at night. Others
such as Epidendrum falcatum, change fragrance quality and intensity during the day,
from the delicate, haunting scent of jasmine in the morning to a stronger note resembling
that of Easter lilies or narcissi during the afternoon.
Fragrant compounds can be manufactured synthetically and used to attract pollinat-
ors in the field. This helps to identify pollinators where field observations may be lacking.
Rhyncolaelia (Brassavola) digbiana is a wonderfully fragrant and handsome parent
producing a strong lemon-like perfume. Rhyncolaelia glauca emits a rosy-floral scent.
Neofinetia falcata, which is fragrant during the day and night, awards most of its progeny
with fragrance.
12.2.2 Other Examples of Aromatic Orchids
Maxillaria tenuifolia, Lycaste aromatica, Lycaste cruenta, Lycaste locusta, Thunia

marshalliana, Eria hyacinthoides, Masdevallia triangularis, Masdevallia glandulosa,
Angraecum distichum, Zygopetalum intermedium, Calauthron bicornutum, Cycno-
ches chlorochilon, Dendrobium anosmum, Diaphanante fragrantissima, Cyrtorchis
arcuata, Pterygodium caffrum, alatum and catholicum, Disa cooperi, Satyrium neglec-
tum, Satyrium odorum, stenopetalum lupulinum, bracteatum, muticum and erectum
Mystacidium capense and Mystacidium venosum, Aerides multiflorum, Aerides odora-
tum, Aeranthes, Bulbophyllum odoratissimum, Cattleya maxima, Coelogyne cristata, Coe-
logyne ochracea, Cymbidium ensifolium, Dendrobium nobile, Epidendrum cristatum, Epi-
dendrum floribundum, Epidendrum nocturnum, Lycaste, Oncidium spaceolatum, Phaius
tankervilleae, Rhyncostylis retusa, Vanda cristata, Vanda tessellata.
Unauthenticated
13 Post–harvest Management of Cut Flowers
of Commercial Orchids
13.1 Introduction
The valuable orchid genera that are highly priced in the international flower trade
due to their incredible range of diversity in size, colour, shape, forms, appearance and
long post-harvest life of flowers include Cymbidium, Cattleya, Dendrobium, Phalaen-
opsis, Vanda and Paphiopedilum.
Post-harvest life of orchid cut flowers is influenced by pre-harvest factors like vari-
etal differences, light intensity, sugar level of flowers, temperature and water loss. It
is also affected by harvest factors such as time and stage of harvest, and post-harvest
factors viz. ethylene production, pre-cooling, pulsing, use of preservatives, packaging
and storage. Vase life of cut flowers ranges from 18 to 56 days depending upon types
of species and hybrids. The optimum harvesting stage of commercial orchids occurs
when the flowers are fully open and mature. Ethylene is the main factor responsible
for early senescence; de-capped and emasculated flowers produce more ethylene.
There is an obvious increase in flower sensitivity to ethylene following pollination.
Indian orchid species having high ornamental values used directly as cut flowers
are Cymbidium eburneum, C. hookerianumm, C. lancifolium, Paphiopedilum venustum,
P. spicerianum, P. hirsutissimum, P. insigne, Phaius wallichii, Renanthera imschootiana,
Thunia alba, Vanda cristata, Vanda coerulea and Vanda coerulescens (Singh, 1990).
In India, several native genera like Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Vanda, Arachnis
and Dendrobium are cultivated on a large scale for cut flower production. The Cym-
bidium is mainly grown in the NEH Region, Sikkim, Darjeeling hills and Arunachal
Pradesh. Tropical orchids are cultivated in Kerala and some parts of Tamil Nadu. Those
species which flower during winter and spring months are preferred because they allow
the export flowers to temperate regions from December to May. The orchid has taken a
significant position in the cut flower industry due to its attractiveness, long shelf life,
high productivity, right season of bloom, and ease of packing and transportation.
13.2 Hybrids and Varieties for Cut flower
Among the cut flower crops, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Odontoglossum,

Oncidium, Cattleya, Paphiopedilum, Vanda, Aeridovanda, Aranda, Mokara, Arachnis,
Vascostylis, Renanthera, Rhyncicentrum, Rhyncovanda etc. are important.
A good quality cut flower of an orchid should have the following characteristics
(Sarkar et al., 2009).
– A minimum of eight standard blooms per stem
– Flowers must be cleaned, evenly coloured and free from physiological disorders
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Hybrids and Varieties for Cut flower 251
– Stem must have flowers evenly arranged around the stem.

– Two thirds of the stem should be covered with flowers.
– Flowers must have a firm texture and a luminescent sheen
– Stems must be firm when held up
– The minimum base diameter of the stem should be 10 mm
Important varieties and hybrids under different genera of orchids for cut flower pur-
poses are listed in Tab. 13.1 & Plate 13.1 (Bhattacharjee and De, 2005).
Tab. 13.1: Important varieties and hybrids under different genera of orchids
Sl
Genera Hybrids/Varieties
No.
1 Aeridovanda ‘Doctor Poyck’, ‘Vieng Ping’, ‘Bensiri’, ‘Noreen’, ‘Early Bird’, ‘Shiv Sidhu’,
‘New Dawn’, ‘Harrison Luke Somsri Sunlight’
2 Aranda ‘City of Singapore’, ‘Hilda Galistan’, ‘Urmila Nandey’, ‘Christine’, ‘Thailand
Sunspot’, ‘Millenium Dawn’, ‘Broga Giant’, ‘Salaya Red’, ‘Propine White’,
‘Propin Spot’, ‘Lueng Cholburi’, ‘Ishbel Manisaki’, ‘Baytown’, ‘Chao Praya
Blue’, Chao Praya Dot Com’, ‘Chao Praya Beauty’, ‘Ethan Pride’, ‘Taksari
Chandrabir’, ‘Thailand Sunspot’
3 Arachnis ‘Ishabel’, ‘Maggie Oei’, ‘Maroon Maggie’, ‘Bartha Braga’
4. Ascocenda ‘Apinantat Red Berry’, ‘Pralor Tuyen’, ‘Pak-Kred’, ‘Bangkok’, ‘Surin’,
‘Karnada’, ‘Crownfox’, ‘Sundancer’, Laksi ‘Red Ruby’, ‘Guo Chia Long’
‘Spotty’, ‘Fuchs Angel Frost’, ‘Carol Belk’, ‘Renuka Angle’, ‘Joyce Bevins’,
‘Adisak Blue’, ‘Renu Gold’, ‘Tipi Blue Boy’, ‘Bobs Fortune’, ‘Rubychai’, ‘Shah
Rukh Khan’, ‘Yang Sophia Firuz’, ‘Abdul Ghani Othman’, ‘Chunika’, ‘Fuch’s
Star’
5. Cattleya and ‘Lovely Bangkok’, ‘Admiration’, ‘Bob Belts’, ‘General Patton’, ‘Joyce
allied Hannington’, ‘Little Angel’, ‘Margaret Stewart’, ‘Nillie Roberts’, ‘Pearl
Harbour’, ‘Primma Donna’, ‘Queen Sirkhit’ ‘Diamond Crown’, ‘Secret
Love’, Ladda Belle ‘Pink Pearl’, ‘Maikai’, ‘Pastoral’, ‘Robert’, Prism Palette
‘Tricolour Magic’, ‘Ahmad Seikhi’, ‘Hsinging Catherine’, ‘Chia Lin New City’,
‘Chinese Beauty Orchid Queen’
6. Cymbidium ‘Levis Duke Bella Vista’, ‘Madrid Forest King’, ‘Sparkle Late Green’,
‘Angelica December Gold’, ‘Sleeping Nymph’, ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’,
‘Soul Hunt’, ‘Dr. H. C. Aurora’, ‘Susan Highes’, ‘Tia Gaig Suther Land’, ‘Miss
Sanders’, ‘Amesbury’, ‘Kenny Wine’, ‘Red Star’, ‘Red Princess’, ‘Show Girl’,
Jungfrau ‘Snow Queen’, Jungfrau ‘Dos Pueblos’, Lilian Stewart ‘Coronation’,
Lilian Stewart ‘Party Dress’, Orkney ‘Pink Heather’, Ensikhan ‘Alpha Orient’,
‘Fire Storm Ruby’, ‘Fire Storm Blaze’, Bob Marlin ‘Lucky’
7. Dendrobium ‘Emma White’, ‘Thongchai Gold’, Julie’, ‘Erika, ‘Sonia-17’, ‘Sonia-28’,
‘Kasem White’, ‘Madam Pompadour’, ‘Bangkok Blue’, ‘Ann’, ‘Gold Twist’,
‘Candy Stripe Pink’, ‘Genting Blue’, ‘Bengal Beauty’, ‘Sakura Pink’, ‘Burana
Charming’, ‘Blue Fairy’, ‘Channel’, ‘Nette White’, ‘Dang Saard’, ‘Big White
4N’, ‘Ear Sakul’, ‘Erika’, ‘Lervia’
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252 Post–harvest Management of Cut Flowers of Commercial Orchids
continued
Tab. 13.1: Important varieties and hybrids under different genera of orchids
Sl
Genera Hybrids/Varieties
No.
8. Mokara Walter Oumae ‘Seksan’, Thailand, ‘Sayan’, Walter Oumae ‘Royal Sapphire’,
Susan ‘Orange’, Walter Oumae ‘Calypso’, ‘Eng Ling’, ‘Madame Panne’, ‘Mak
Chin On’, ‘Bangkok Gold’, ‘Bibi’, ‘Chao Praya Gold’, ‘Chark Kuan Orange’,
‘Chark Kuan Pink’, ‘Chark Kuan Rose’, ‘Chark Kuan Super’, ‘Dinah Shore’,
‘Kelvin Red’, ‘Kelvin Orange’, ‘Luenberger Gold’, ‘Margaret Thatcher’, ‘Pink
Star’, ‘Sayan Pink’, ‘WTO’, ‘Jiti’, ‘Happy Beauty’, ‘Salaya Gold’
9. Odontoglossum Carroll, Ismene, Palnina, ‘Italian Job’, ‘Joyce Stewart’, ‘Pepe Gerald’, ‘Purple
Rain’, ‘Katherine Jenkins’, ‘Roy Wittwer’, ‘Laguna Blanca’, ‘Precocious’,
‘Snow Fall’, ‘Pesky’, ‘Queen of Mars’, ‘Stam Point’, ‘Holiday Yellow’, ‘Ronald
Norman’, ‘Bridget Ring Lawless’, ‘John Hanry Hanson’, ‘Point Pesky’
10. Oncidium ‘Aloha Iwanga Dogasima, Goldiana’, ‘Gower Ramsey’, ‘Golden Shower’, ‘Sum
Lai Who Jungle Queen’, ‘Taka H & R’, ‘Sharry Baby Sweet Fragrance AM/
AOS’, ‘Golden Glow’, ‘Popki Red’, ‘Irine Gleason Red’, ‘Vision Brownish Red’,
‘Catherine Wilson x New Calidonia Brownish Red, ‘Robson Orchid Glad’
11. Paphiopedilum Niveum, Concolor, P. rothschildianum (3 to 5 flowers), P. sanderianum (3 to
5 flowers), ‘Prince Edward of York’, ‘Michel Koopwitz’, ‘Saint Swithin’,
‘Mount Toro’, ‘Sorcerers Apprentice’, ‘Grande’, ‘Don Wimber’, ‘Elizabeth
March’, ‘Hanne Popow’, ‘Jason Fischer’, ‘Living Fire’
12. Phalaenopsis ‘Taisuco Crane’, ‘Taisuco Kochdian’, ‘Cygnus’, ‘Yukimai’, ‘Sogo Musadian’,
‘White Dream’, ‘Florida Snow’, ‘Nobby’s Pink Lady’, ‘Minho Valentine’,
‘Minho King Beauty’, ‘New Cinderella’, ‘Taisuco Firebird’, ‘Sogo Smith’,
‘Carol Campbell’, ‘Emil Giles’, ‘Brother Lawrence’, ‘Taipei Gold’, ‘Golden
Bells’, ‘Sogo Managers’, ‘Brother Passat’, ‘Be Glad’, ‘Cassandra’, ‘Vilind’,
‘Carmelas Pixie’, ‘Zuma’s Pixie’, ‘Timothy Christopher’, ‘Be Tris’, ‘Quevedo’,
‘Strawberry’, ‘Detroit’, ‘Maki Watnabe’, ‘Kaleiodoscope’
13. Renanthera Brookie Chandler, Manila T-Orchids, Kilauea, Mok Yark-Seng, Poipu, Tom
Thumb, ‘Red Leopard’, ‘Scarlet Belle’, ‘Chanachae’, ‘Serdang’, ‘Brady
Crocker’, ‘20th WOC Singapore-2011’, ‘Bart Motes’
14. Renantanda ‘Forever Yvonne’, ‘Inspiration Ng Teng Fong’, ‘Ladda Glow’; ‘Polyetheramine
Singapore’, ‘Momon Shija’, ‘Paul Gripp’, ‘Science Arts’, ‘Memoria Charles
Darwin’, ‘Prof. G.J. Sharma’, ‘Kebisana Shija’, ‘Mary Motes’, ‘Kofi Annan’
15. Rhynchovanda ‘Wilton Hill’, ‘Jammie Harper’, ‘Apichart’, ‘Noo Noi’, ‘Peter Draper’, ‘
Brighton’s Albino’, ‘Prairie Lady’
16. Vanda ‘Annette Jones’, ‘Antonio Real’, ‘Golamcos Blue Magic’, ‘Fuch’s Charmer’,
‘Jimmy Millers RF Orchids’, ‘Keree Delight’, ‘Memoria Lyle Swanson’, ‘Motes
Indigo x Merrillii, Motes’ ‘Honeybun’, ‘Motes Primerose’, ‘Miss Joaquim,
V. Rothschidiana’, ‘VTMA –Red’, ‘Pink’, ‘White’, ‘Vasco, Johnny Miller’,
‘Veerawan’, ‘Roberts Delight’, ‘Rasriprai’, ‘Pat Delight’, ‘Pakchong Blue’,
‘Mimi Plammer’, ‘Manuvade’, ‘Lumpini Red’, ‘Kultana Gold x Thongchai
Gold’, ‘Fuchs Delight’, ‘Charles Goodfellow’, ‘Pine River’, ‘Adisak’, ‘Doctor
Anek’, ‘John Club’, ‘Bill Sutton’, ‘Ellen Noa’, ‘Emily Notley’, ‘Evening Glow’,
‘Honomu’, ‘Honolulu’, ‘Hilo Blue’
17. Vascostylis Paragon Joy x Kasems Delight, Precious, Veeraphool, Crown Fox ‘Red Yen’,
Aroon Fairy, Viboon Velvet, Chao Praya Lime’, ‘Lanna Rosy’, ‘Jeans Delight’,
‘Bay Sapphire’, ‘Spring Hill’
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Physiology of Cut Flowers 253
13.3 Physiology of Cut Flowers
Vase life or longevity of a cut flower is determined on the basis of attributes like dia-
meter and length of florets, opening of flowers, changes in fresh weight, diameter
or length of stem or pedicel, senescence pattern, colour of petals, total longevity
and foliage burning. In general, cut flowers complete their life cycle in two distinct
phases: (i) bud swelling to bud opening and (ii) maturation, senescence and wilting.
Flower bud development to swelling involves growth or a change in the orientation of
petals or subtending tissues and may also require abscission of protective structure
(Evans and Reid, 1986). When an inflorescence is cut from the plant, a number of
physiological processes are affected which include the supply of water, depletion of
stored substrates and production of ethylene. The most common symptom of flower
senescence is wilting i.e. loss of turgor pressure of the cells due to failure of water
uptake (Eze et al., 1986). The failure of water uptake as a result of stem blockage may
be due to air blockage, microbial growth or physiological plugging. In addition, sen-
escence is accompanied by a dramatic increase in the leakage of several molecules
such as amino acids, sugars, inorganic ions and anthocyanins, and activity of petal
ACC synthetase and the disintegration of tonoplast and mitochondria (Bieleski and
Reid, 1992). Two major metabolic and biochemical changes occurring in senescing
petals are increase in respiration and hydrolysis of cell components. Vase life of cut
flowers depends upon the rate of transpiration through open stomata of leaves and
solutes present in vase water (Van Doorn, 1997).
Experimental evidences have shown that cuticular transpiration plays an import-
ant role in the water loss of orchid flowers. The transpiration rate of tropical orchid
flowers ranges from 0.15 to 0.17 mg water cm-2h-1 or 0.4 to 1.9 g of water per inflores-
cence per day depending upon the total floral surface area. Halevy (1986) classified
flowers into climacteric or non-climacteric based on the presence or absence of an
increased rate of ethylene production associated with petal senescence. In most veget-
ative tissues, the overall synthesis of ethylene is the conversion of SAM (S-adenosylme-
thionine) to ACC (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid). Water loss in orchid flowers
is considerably lower than that reported for roses and carnations due to the absence of
supporting leaves in orchid sprays. It has been found that carbohydrate levels in mature
flowers are lower than the levels in the tight buds. Moreover, the level of carbohydrates
in the flower decreases markedly with time after harvest as reflected in the decreasing
rate of respiration. This problem can be overcome by the exogenous supply of sucrose.
In orchid flowers, ethylene production is an autocatalytic process and ethylene
level of 1 ppm caused premature fading of flowers (Lindner, 1946, Fischer, 1950). The
premature fading of petals may be induced by pollination and by removing pollinia
(Akamine and Goo, 1981). In Cymbidium, fading of flowers due to pollination is
characterized by the formation of anthocyanins in both column and lip, swelling of
column, stigmatic closure and wilting of sepals and petals. The anthocyanin level
begins to decrease with age (Arditti et al., 1971, 1973).
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Developmental processes associated with post-pollination events include senes-

cence of perianth, pigmentation changes, ovary maturation, ovule differentiation
and female gametophyte development (O’Neil, 1997). Flowers of Dendrobium ‘Pom-
padour’ develop premature petal and sepal senescence following pollination. Pol-
lination induces an ethylene climacteric accompanied by a small respiratory climac-
teric, epinasty and increased flower and inflorescence fresh weight and water uptake
(Ketsa and Rugkong, 1999). The orchid flowers harvested in the tight bud stage had
a lower rate of respiration than open flowers. The respiration rates continuously
declined during the post-harvest period until the flower faded (Sheehan, 1954). Da
Silva (2003) reviewed the some aspects of changes, and found that programmed cell
death occurred in petal senescence.
13.3.1 Cellular Structural Changes
– Membrane rupturing and increase in cytoplasm debris and loss of permeability

and fluidity due to oxidation.
– Invagination of tonoplast and endocytosis of cytoplasmic contents and disap-
pearance of cortical microtubules.
– Reduction in cytoplasm volume, cessation of cytoplasmic streaming and change
in proton flux across plasma membrane.
– Degeneration and collapse of organelles and increase in number of peroxisomes.
13.3.2 Biochemical and Structural Molecular Changes
– Increase in proteinases and nucleases; upregulation of phospholipases, acyl

hydrolases and lipoxygenase neutral lipids; sterol/phospholipid ratio; lipid per-
oxidation; reactive oxygen species; water leakage and cell wall cross linking.
– Decrease in phospholipids, chlorophylls, proteins, thiol groups, nucleic acids
and RNA.
Post-harvest life of orchid cut flowers is influenced by pre-harvest factor like varietal
differences, light intensity, sugar level of flowers, temperature, nutrition and water
loss; harvest factors like time, method and stage of harvest; and post-harvest factors
including ethylene production, pre-cooling, water quality, pulsing, use of preservat-
ives, bud opening, packaging and storage.
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Pre-harvest Factors 255
13.4 Pre-harvest Factors
It is estimated that a third of the post-harvest life of flowers is programmed by pre-har-

vest handling.
13.4.1 Varietal Differences
Varietal differences in cut flowers have been reported due to variations in water
uptake, fresh weight, flower diameter, stem lignification, vase life and senescence
behaviour. Among different species, the vase life ranges: Lycaste spp. (9 days), Phaius
tankervillae (24 days), Zygopetalum intermedium (18 days), Aerides multiflorum,
A. odoratum, Cymbidium irridioides, Dendrobium nobile and Renanthera imschootiana
(28-56 days), Paphiopedilum hirtussimum, P. wardianum (56 days) and Vanda coerulea,
Vanda teres (28-42 days) (Tab. 13.2).
Out of nine hybrids of Cymbidium (‘PCMV’, ‘Red Princess’, ‘White Beauty’, ‘H.C.
Aurora’, ‘Sun Gold’, ‘Ensikhan, Florance’, ‘Valley Legend’ and ‘Platinum Gold’) eval-
uated at NRCO, Pakyong, Sikkim during 2008-2009, ‘Florance’ had the highest vase
life of 54 days followed by ‘White Beauty’ (53 days) and the lowest occurred in ‘Plat-
inum Gold’ (22 days) (Fig.13. 1). The present day orchid hybrids of Dendrobium, Vanda
and Mokara remain perfect for 7 to 30 days. The flowers of Cattleya and Phalaenopsis
remain fresh for 1 to 4 weeks whereas Aranda lasts for 18 to 28 days.
Fig. 13. 1: Evaluation of Cymbidium hybrids for their vase life
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256
Post–harvest Management of Cut Flowers of Commercial Orchids
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Cymbidium, ‘Fire Storm Ruby’ for cut flower Dendrobium, ‘Dang Saard’ for cut flower Vanda, ‘Roberts Delight Blue’ for cut flower
Oncidium, ‘Sharry Baby Sweet Fragrance’ Blc, ‘Hsinging Catherine’ for cut flower Phalaenopsis, ‘Strawberry’ for cut flower
for cut flower
Plate 13.1: Important orchid hybrids for cut flowers

Pre-harvest Factors 257
Tab. 13.2: Vase life of orchids due to species and varietal differences
Name of Species/hybrids Vase life (days)
Aerides odoratum, Aerides multiflorum, Cymbidium iridioides, 28-56 days

Dendrobium nobile, Renanthera imschootiana
Paphiopedilum hirtussimum, P. wardianum 56 days
Phaius tankervillae 28-42 days
Vanda coerulea, Vanda teres, Zygopetalum intermedium 14-21 days
Cymbidium hybrids 20-55 days
Dendrobium hybrids 14-21 days
Vanda, Mokara hybrids 14-30 days
Cattleya hybrids 10-20 days
Phalaenopsis hybrids 25-30 days
Aranda 18-28 days
13.4.2 Light Intensity
Light determines the carbohydrate levels before harvest which in turn influence the
keeping quality. Flowers containing relatively higher amounts of carbohydrates,
especially mobile sugars, last longer in the vase. Plants having few leaves, or leather-
like leaves (like most cattleyas and oncidiums), require a high-light environment. If
the leaves are soft and limp (like some phalaenopsis and most paphiopedilum), the
plants are probably very light-sensitive, and should not be placed in a sunny south-fa-
cing window. Most orchids prefer indirect or filtered light and 50% shading.
– Low light orchids (1200-2000 foot candle): Phalaenopsis, Calanthe
– Medium light orchids (2000-3000 foot candle): Cattleya, Laelia, Brassovola
– High light orchids (3000 foot candle or more): Cymbidium, Vandaceous groups.
13.4.3 Temperature
Generally, higher temperatures result in a higher level of respiration. Cooling is essen-

tial to reduce other metabolic changes, such as enzymatic activity, and to slow the
maturation of flowers. Cooling prior to packaging and transport reduces ethylene
production and improves longevity. Based on temperature requirements, orchids are
classified into three groups:
– Warm orchids (Aerides, Vanda, Rhyncostylis & Dendrobium): 32.2°C day temper-
ature and 15.5°C night temperature
– Intermediate orchids (Cattleya, Laelia, Oncidium, Miltonia): 26.6°C day temper-
ature and 12.8°C night temperature
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– Cool orchids (Cymbidium, Odontoglossum, Cypripedium): 24°C day temperature

and 10°C night temperature.
13.4.4 Humidity
As a rule of thumb, orchids require 80-85% humidity for satisfactory growth. Monopo-
dial orchids require higher humidity than sympodial ones. Many sympodial orchids like
Cattleya, Oncidium and Dendrobium form pseudobulbs, which are swollen shoots that
store water and nutrients to help the plant survive periods during prolonged drought.
Insufficient humidity during summer may lead to shriveling of the pseudobulb. Excess-
ive humidity during winter may lead to spotting of flowers usually caused by Botrytis.
Most orchids prefer water of pH 5.0-6.5; watering with lower or higher pH or with high
levels of dissolved minerals can hamper nutrient uptake. Rain water is best for water-
ing. Regular watering is essential under high sunlight and high temperature condi-
tions. Sprinkling or misting may be practiced during hot summer. Watering should be
reduced in late summer and the plants should be kept barely moist during winter. Wa-
tering orchids with thick leaves and CAM activities (such as Aranda and Dendrobium) in
the late afternoon prior to harvesting season improved the keeping quality.
13.4.5 Nutrition
Orchids are light feeders and require nitrogen for the first two-thirds of their life cycle.
During rest periods they do not need any fertilizers, while during flower initiation and
inflorescence development plants are fed with less nitrogen, more phosphorus and
potassium. During the blooming time, a small level of nitrogen and phosphorus and
high levels of potassium are maintained. In orchids, foliar feeding is found to be ideal.
Frequent application of fertilizers in low concentrations is the best way to feed orchids.
A concentration of 0.2 to 0.3% of 30:10:10 (N:P:K) at the vegetative stage and 10:20:20
(N:P:K) at the blooming stage are applied for quality flower production. Sometimes fresh
coconut water, diluted cow urine and fish meal emulsions are also useful as foliar spray.
13.5 Harvest Factors
13.5.1 Time of Harvest
Flowers should be harvested in mild temperatures because high temperature causes

rapid respiration rates and excessive water loss. Flowers should be harvested in the
early morning or in the evening. In the early morning, flowers remain turgid due to
transpiration at night and higher sugar levels. Similarly, flowering stems retain a
higher amount of stored carbohydrates if cut in the afternoon and retain more vase life.
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Post-Harvest Factors 259
13.5.2 Method of Harvest
Sharp tools or secateurs should always be used to detach the stems of flowers from
the mother plant. The angle of the cut should be slanting and the stem should not be
crushed during harvesting, especially hard wood stems. The spikes should be dipped
in a bucket containing water immediately after harvest.
13.5.3 Stage of Harvest
The optimum harvesting stage of the commercial orchids is mostly fully open and
mature flowers. The stage of harvest, spike length and number of flowers of some
commercial orchids are given in Tab. 13.3.
Tab. 13.3: Stage of harvest, spike length and no of flowers of some commercial orchids
Orchid hybrid Commercial stage of harvest Spike length (cm) No of Flowers
Aranda 50% bloom 45-60 cm 8-10

Cattleya 2-4 days before bud open 25-40 cm 1 or more
Cymbidium 75% bloom or two buds open stage 60-90 cm 10-15
Dendrobium All flowers except top bud 40-60 cm 8-12
Oncidium 80% bloom 60 cm Many
Paphiopedilum 3 to 4 days after opening of flowers 25-40 cm 1-5
Phalaenopsis Fully open flowers 40-60 cm 8-10
Vanda Fully open flowers 50-75 cm 8-15
Out of three Cymbidium hybrids (namely ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’, ‘Valley Legend Stefi’,
‘Pure Inca Gold’) flower spikes harvested at four stages: fully open, 75% open, 50% open
and 25% open to standardize the stage of harvesting. Vase life was noted to be highest in
the 75% open stage. A maximum vase life of 59 days was recorded in ‘Pine Clash Moon
Venus’, followed by 48.83 days in ‘Valley Legend Steff’ and 53 days in ‘Pure Inca Gold’.
13.6 Post-Harvest Factors
13.6.1 Temperature
Opening of flower buds and rate of senescence accelerate at higher temperatures. At

lower temperatures, the respiration rate decreases and the flowers produce less ethyl-
ene. Temperature plays an important role in the expansion of buds for flowers harves-
ted at the immature stage, therefore flower buds are kept at temperatures as low as 0.5
to 4.0°C in Cymbidium and Paphiopedilum, 5-7°C in Dendrobium and 7-10°C in Cattleya.
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13.6.2 Light
Light is essential for long distance transport or prolonged storage of cut flowers. Sim-
ilarly, high light intensity is essential for opening of tight bud cut flowers. Flowers
like carnations can be stored in darkness for a longer period without affecting quality.
Florists should maintain a light intensity of 2000-3000 lux for 12-24 hours in their
shops for illuminations.
13.6.3 Humidity
Cut flowers should be kept at 90-95% relative humidity for maintaining turgidity;
flowers begin to show wilting symptoms when they have lost 10-15% of their fresh
weight. The rate of transpiration from leaves is reduced with the increase of high rel-
ative humidity.
13.6.4 Water Quality
Water quality is defined by pH and EC value, hardness contents of phytotoxic ele-

ments and the presence of microorganisms causing vascular occlusions that affect
the longevity of cut flowers. Saline water decreases the vase life of cut flowers. In case
of cut gladiolus, the longevity of flowers decreases when the concentration of salts in
the water reaches 700 ppm, whereas for cut roses, chrysanthemum and carnations,
200 ppm is harmful. At salt levels over 200 ppm, each 100 g per litre increase in salin-
ity shortens vase life by half a day. . The presence of basic ions like Ca++, Mg++ in hard
water is less harmful to flowers than soft water that contains sodium ions. Fluorine is
very toxic to most of the cut flowers and causes injury to freesias, gladiolus and ger-
beras at 1 ppm, and chrysanthemums, roses, poinsettias and snapdragons at 5 ppm.
Flowers like lilacs, cymbidiums and daffodils, however, are resistant to fluorine ions.
Vase life increases in tap or well water that has been passed through a de-ionizer. The
importance of low pH of the holding solutions is well known for improving vase life.
A holding solution of pH 3.0-5.0 is optimum for increasing vase life of cut flowers.
13.6.5 Ethylene
Ethylene plays an important role in the regulation and co-ordination of senescence in

climacteric flowers. Less of this hormone is produced but is more stable in floral buds
and young flowers. A sharp increase in ethylene evolution is found during flower
maturation, opening and senescence. Afterwards, ethylene production decreases
and remains static. Basically, ethylene is first produced in the pistil and the evolved
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Treatments for Improving Longevity of Cut Orchid Flowers 261
ethylene acts on the petals and induces expression of genes for ACC synthase, ACC
oxidase and cysteine proteinases, resulting in the auto-catalytic ethylene production
from the petals, in-rolling of petals and wilting of flowers (ten Have and Woltering,
1997). The gynoecium has been shown to produce a significant amount of ethylene
before its production in the petals, possibly induced by factors such as ABA or IAA.
This suggests its importance in controlling ethylene production in the flower during
natural and pollination induced senescence, with emasculation hastening the release
of ethylene (Shibuya et al., 2001). A wide range of flowers is affected by ethylene.
Some typical symptoms are: sleepiness of carnation and kalanchoe petals, fading
and in-rolling of the corolla of Ipomoea, fading and wilting of sepal tips in orchids,
and induction of anthocyanin formation in female reproductive parts and abscission
of flowers and petals. Orchid flowers are highly sensitive to ethylene. High levels of
ethylene production are due to herbivore damage, mechanical injuries and pollina-
tion. Decapped and emasculated flowers produce more ethylene than untreated ones.
Sometimes, forced unfolding of flower buds in orchids reduces vase life.
13.6.6 Diseases and Insect- pests
Fungi, bacteria and insects affect the quality of cut flowers by causing the production
of higher amounts of ethylene. Microbes accelerate flower senescence by the plug-
ging of xylem vessels with pectin degraded products, and by producing ethylene and
toxic compounds. Among bacteria genera, Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter,
Erwinia, Bacillus, Corynaebacteria, Aeromonas, Acetinobacter and Flavobacterium
are commonly found in vase water. Some fungal species Botryris cinerea, Fusarium
oxysporum, Mucor, Penicillium spp, Rhizopus, Aspergillus spp, Alternaria alternata
and Acremonium strictum are responsible for early senescence of flowers and wilting
and decaying of potted plants (De and Bhattacharjee, 2000, 2002).
13.7 Treatments for Improving Longevity of Cut Orchid Flowers
13.7.1 Physical Treatments
13.7.1.1 Pre-cooling
It is the fast removal of field heat and is an important operation in post-harvest hand-
ling and transport of cut flowers, wherever flowers are held dry pack. All flowers
should be pre-cooled immediately after harvest by placing them in cold storage
without packing or in open boxes until they reach the desired temperature (Bhat-
tacharjee, 1997). The temperature varies with the species and cultivar: Cattleya
(7-10°C), Cymbidium and Paphiopedilum (0.5 to 4°C), Dendrobium (5-7°C). Pre-cool-
ing lowers respiration rate; decreases the break-down of nutritional and other stored
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materials in the stems, leaves and petals; and delays bud opening and flower senes-
cence. It also prevents rapid water loss and decreases flower sensitivity to ethylene.
Several pre-cooling techniques such as room cooling, forced air cooling, hyder-cool-
ing, vacuum cooling and ice bar cooling etc. are available.
13.7.1.2 Vase Life of Cut Flowers as Affected by Stem Cut Ends

The resistance to water flow through stem segments increases predominantly in the
lower one to two centimeters of the cut stems. Re-cutting stems under water improves
longevity due to the elimination of air from the conducting vessels.
13.7.2 Chemical Treatments
13.7.2.1 Conditioning
Conditioning or hardening is a simple process where flowers are kept standing loosely
in a big container so that air can circulate around the stems. The purpose of the treat-
ment is to restore the turgidity of cut flowers with water stress during storage and
transport. Conditioning is achieved by treating the flowers with de-mineralized water
supplemented with germicides and acidified with citric acid to pH 4.5 to 5.0, with or
without sugar. Hydration is improved when water is de-aerated or acidified, or when
a wetting agent like Tween 20 at the rate of 0.01 to 0.1% is added. Flower stems should
be placed in warm water or in a preservative solution in plastic jars at a depth of
2-4 cm and held at room temperature or in cold storage for several hours.
13.7.2.2 Impregnation
Sometimes, the cut ends of flower stems are impregnated for a short time with chem-
icals. This treatment prevents the blockage of water vessels in the stem by microbial
growth and stem decay. Impregnation of cut bases of flowers with high concentrations
(1000-1500 ppm) of silver nitrate, nickel chloride or cobalt chloride for 10-15 minutes
improves the longevity of several flowers such as aster, gerbera, gladiolus, carna-
tion, chrysanthemum, phalaenopsis and snapdragon. In Cymbidium ‘Baltic Glaciers
Mint Ice’, the highest longevity compared to the control (39 days) was recorded when
CoCl2 (1000 ppm) was used for 15 minutes (46 days) followed by CoCl2 (1500ppm) for
15 minutes (44days) (De et al, 2013).
13.7.2.3 Pulsing
The absorption of chemical solutions containing sugars and germicides through the
lower cut bases of flower stems is known as pulsing. Pulsing may be used by growers,
wholesalers or retail florists in order to enhance the subsequent vase life of cut flowers
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in water. Pulsing is employed with higher concentrations of sugar, mainly sucrose, the
percentage of which varies with species and cultivars. Other chemicals used in pulsing
treatments are STS, AgNO3, HQ, MH, AOA, CaCl2, CoCl2, nickel sulphate, aluminium
sulphate and benzyladenine. Pulsing is found to be of great value in prolonging life,
promoting opening and improving the colour and size of petals through osmo-regula-
tion. In the Cymbidium hybrid ‘Red Princess’ pulsing with 5% sucrose increases vase
life (56 days) followed by sucrose at 8% (54.78 days). In Cymbidium ‘Baltic Glaciers Mint
Ice’, pulsing of flowers with 5% sucrose followed by 150 ppm 8-HQS increased the vase
life of flowers both with pollina (49.33 & 46.33 days) and without pollinia (44.00 & 41.67
days). The vase life of cut flowers is increased by pulsing with 4 mM STS for 10 minutes
in the case of Aranda (Hew et al., 1987), and in Dendrobium hybrid ‘Pompadour’ by
pulsing with 25 ppm AgNO3 + 135 Na2S2O3, 5H2O for 30 minutes (Hew and Yong, 2004).
In Oncidium ‘Goldiana’, pulsing cut sprays with AgNO3 for 30 minutes improves vase life
(Ong and Lim, 1983). In Phalaenopsis, pulsing with 0.5 mM STS for 24 hours blocks the
deleterious effect of ethylene. In Dendrobium cv. ‘Sonia’, when pulsing was conducted
with 4% sucrose + 400 ppm HQ the highest recorded vase life was 21.33 days. When
inflorescences were pulsed with 6% sucrose + 400 ppm HQ, the highest recorded sugar
content in the flowers was 27.64% (Jomy and Sabina, 2002).
13.7.2.4 Bud Opening

In this procedure, flowers are harvested earlier than the normal cutting stage and
then the buds are opened off the plant. Such types of post-harvest handling may
be applied by growers or wholesalers. Bud opening of flowers increases longev-
ity of cut flowers by reducing the sensitivity of flowers to extreme temperatures,
low humidity and ethylene, by saving space during shipment and by extending the
useful storage life. The sugar concentration used is lower than the concentration of
pulsing and the optimum temperature is kept lower. In Dendrobium hybrid, ‘Thong-
chai Gold’, opened flowers had 29%, half opened flowers had 28.25% and buds had
16.17% reducing sugars. In Dendrobium hybrids, HQS or AgNO3 (50 ppm) is effective
for opening tight bud cut flowers. Ketsa et al. (2001) reported that a preservative
solution containing 225 ppm HQS, 30 ppm AgNO3 and 4% glucose increased bud
opening and the time to wilting of the open florets of Dendrobium Cv. ‘Ceasar’. In
Cymbidium Cv. ‘Ensikhan’ 4% sucrose + 100 ppm acetyl salicylic acid or 4% sucrose
+ 100 ppm Al2(SO4)3 improved bud opening. In Cymbidium hyb. ‘PCMV’, sugar (4%)
+ salicylic acid (200 ppm) showed maximum per cent of flower opening (75%) and
vase life (45 days), followed by sugar (4%) + Al2(SO4)3(100 ppm) (57% & 44 days)
and sugar (4%) + 8-HQS (200 ppm) (53.8% & 44 days for flowering and vase life,
respectively) over control (bud drop and senescence on 27th days) (Tab. 13.4). The
highest carbohydrate content (140 mg/g) was estimated in fresh condition at bud
stage (140 mg/g) followed by at bud stage at senescence in control (131 mg/g).
A minimum carbohydrate content of 60 mg/g was observed with sugar 4% + 8-HQS
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(200 ppm), followed 64 mg/g carbohydrate with sugar 4% + salicylic acid (200
ppm). In Dendrobium hybrid ‘Thongchai Gold’, the maximum percentage of fully
opened buds (66%) was recorded with sucrose (4%) + Ca(NO3)2 (1%), followed by
60% when sucrose (4%) + acetyl acetic acid (100 ppm) was used. Longest vase life
(36 days) was found with sucrose (4%) + Al2(SO4)3 (100 ppm) followed by 33 days
with sucrose (4%) + acetyl acetic acid (100 ppm).
Tab. 13.4: Effect of chemicals on bud opening in Cymbidium hyb. ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’
Days to Diameter of % of half % of fully

Vase life
Treatment first floret first floret opened opened
(Days)
opening (cm) buds buds
Distilled water --- ---- 0 0 27
Sugar 4% 20 5.1 5.8 44 37.8

Sugar 4% +
Al2(SO4)3(100 ppm) 21 5.4 0 57 44
Sugar 4% + 8-HQS
(200 ppm) 18 5.5 30.7 53.8 44
Sugar 4% + Salicylic
acid (200 ppm) 21 6.6 0 75 45
Sugar 4% + Ca (NO3)2
(1%) 25 4.85 2 22.8 37.8
Sugar 4% + Boric
acid 200 ppm + K2SO4 20.5 5.5 6.25 25 36.2
(2 mM)
Preservatives are used in holding solutions in the form of tablets containing a mixture
of chemicals such as sugars, germicides, salts, growth regulators etc. In addition, the
chemicals are employed during conditioning, pulsing and for making bud opening
solutions to improve flower shape, size, colour and opening.
Sugar, biocide, anti-ethylene compounds and hydrated compounds are used for
conditioning. The sugar and biocide solutions are effective for opening of bud cut
flowers.
The vase solution should contain sugars, acidifying agent and a biocide. Citric
acids are mainly used as acidifying agents and hydroxy quinoline as biocide. Metallic
salts like silver nitrate, cobalt chloride, aluminium sulphate, zinc sulphate, calcium
nitrate and nickel chloride have been found to prolong post-harvest life of various cut
flowers. Among several growth regulators used to increase vase life of cut flowers, BA,
IAA, NAA, 2,4,5-T, GA3, B9, CCC are common.
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New chemicals that have been found promising as floral preservatives are ethyl-
ene inhibitors like amino- oxyacetic acid, 1-amino cyclopropane, aminotriazole,
aminoethoxy vinyl glycine, alpha aminoisobutyric acid, diazocyclopentadiene and
phenidone.
Different chemicals used in holding solution for improving vase life of orchids are
listed in Tab. 13.5.
Tab. 13.5: Holding solutions for different types of orchids
Name of orchid Holding solution

Oncidium 8-HQC (100-200 ppm) + 4% sucrose
kinetin (50ppm) + 4% sucrose
Cymbidium 8-HQC 200 ppm + sucrose 2%,
1-MCP (500ppb)
1% Sucrose + STS (1 mM)
Arachnis, Aranda, Aranthera, Cattleya STS (1 mM) + 1% sucrose
Paphiopedilum 8-HQC (200 ppm) +2% sucrose
Vanda AgNO3 (30 ppm) + 1.5% sucrose
Dendrobium 8-HQC (200 ppm) + sucrose (2%),
0.5 mM AOA + 4% sucrose,
AgNO3 (30 ppm) + 4% sucrose
400ppm HQ + 30ppm AgNO3 + 2% sucrose
200 ppm 8-HQS + 50ppm AgNO3 + 8% sucrose
Tab. 13.6: Effect of chemicals on post-harvest life of Cym. ‘PCMV’
Longevity of first Solution uptake

Treatments Loss in wt (g) Vase life (days)
floret (days) (ml)
Distilled water) 12.6 37.2 44.4 21
Al2(SO4)3 (100 ppm) 18.4 45.2 53.4 33
Al2(SO4)3 (500 ppm) 21.4 28.4 36.8 21
Ca (NO3)2 (100 ppm) 16.4 42.0 54.8 27
Ca (NO3)2 (500 ppm) 29.6 32 35.6 24
8-HQS (100 ppm) 27.4 33.2 45.6 29
8-HQS (200 ppm) 26.8 42.2 49.8 33
BA (25 ppm) 24.0 49.2 48.0 27
In Cymbidium ‘PCMV’, the use of 2% cane sugar resulted in the highest depletion of
stored carbohydrates, maximum longevity of first floret (54 days), zero % of flower
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dropping, maximum solution uptake (24 ml) and the highest vase life (61.2 days). This
was followed by 4% cane sugar with medium longevity of first floret (40.8 days) and
a vase life of 52.8 days. The least longevity of first floret (27.2 days) was found when
8% cane sugar which also resulted in a vase life of 36.2 days. Longevity of first floret
was recorded maximum with BA (25 ppm) (49.2 days) followed 45.2 days when Al2
(SO4)3 (100 ppm) was used (Tab. 13.6). Maximum vase life (54.8 days) was found with
Ca(NO3)2 (100 ppm) followed by Al2 (SO4)3 (100 ppm) (53.4 days). The maximum solu-
tion uptake (33 ml) was observed with Al2 (SO4)3 (100 ppm) and 8-HQS(200 ppm).
In Cymbidium, ‘Baltic Glaciers Mint Ice’, 8HQS at 150 ppm increased the vase life of
flowers with pollinia (48.33 days) followed by 8 HQS 200 ppm (46.80 days). 8 HQS
200 ppm increased the vase life of flowers without pollinia to 36.67 days.
In another experiment, in the Cymbidium hybrid, ‘PCMV’, out of six treatment
combinations, the maximum vase life (77.6 days) was obtained with 2% sucrose +
200 ppm 8-HQS, followed by 2% sucrose + 100 ppm Al2(SO4)3 (77.4 days) over control
in tap water (65 days).
13.8 Grading and Packing
Grading is done based on parameters like appearance, stage of maturity, blemishes

or injuries due to diseases, infestations caused by insect pests, colour and size of the
bud, and straightness, strength and length of stem. Flowers are generally grouped into
bunches of 5, 10, 12 or 20 stems and loosely tied with rubber bands. Before placing in
the package, individual flower bunches are wrapped with suitable packing materials
such as cellophane paper, kraft paper, newspaper, tissue paper or corrugated card-
board sheets. For local markets, bunches are held in buckets containing water or pre-
servative solution. It is advisable that for long distance transport and storage, flower
bunches are held in dry cardboard boxes. The minimum length of boxes should be
about twice the width, and the width should be about twice the height. The use of
telescope-style boxes made of CFB is ideal. Grading of Cymbidium and Dendrobium
cut flowers are given in Tab. 13.7 and Tab. 13.8, respectively.
Tab. 13.7: Grading of Cymbidium Cut Flowers
Cymbidium Grades Flower count Spike length Other consideration

Cymbidium AAA 12-15 1.25 m – Strong straight stems,
Standard AA 8 90 cm uniform length, no marks on
flowers.
Cymbidium XL >15 65+
– Bent crooked spikes but
Miniature L 12-14 55-64 with perfect flowers.
M 8-11 40-54
S <5 30-39
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Packaging in Orchids 267
Tab. 13.8: Grading in Dendrobium Cut Flowers
Grade Spike length No. of opened flowers
Small (S) 30 cm 4-5
Medium (M) 40 cm 6-8
Large (L) 45 cm 8-10
Extra Large 50 cm >10
13.9 Packaging in Orchids
Cut flowers are inserted in a tube containing water with or without preservatives or simply
wrapped in wet cotton swabs covered with a piece of plastic and tied with rubber band to
keep in it place (Plate 13.2). Flower spikes are grouped into bunches of 5 or 10 or so. Bunches
or individual spikes are placed inside the box in in alternate fashion (Plate 13.3). Ethylene
scrubbers with KMnO4 or Purafil may also be kept in the box. For export purpose, packing of
flowers in two piece boxes is the best option. In Cymbidium, single flowers backed by a fern
leaf are inserted in small flasks containing preservative solution. The flasks are then packed
in a 3-sided box with a display window. In the Dendrobium hybrid ‘Sonia-17’ a low gauge
polyfilm of 100 gauge thickness along with the cotton dipped in 8-HQS (25ppm) covering the
base of the spike had maximum vase life and flower quality (Jawaharlal et al., 2006). A glass
flute containing a flowering mini Cymbidium and stylish setting is called a Cilindra, and is
commonly used as festive packaging for special occasions like Birthdays.
Plate 13.2: Cut flowers are inserted in tube containing water or water with preservatives
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Plate 13.3: Individual spikes are placed inside the box in alternate fashion
13.10 Storage of Cut Flowers
Low temperature treatment during the storage or shipment period reduces the entire
metabolism in the tissues, slows down the respiration, transpiration and ethylene
action and retards the multiplication of bacteria and fungi.
In general, temperate orchids are stored at temperatures as low as 5°C in cold
chambers whereas tropical orchids are stored at 7-10°C. A 90-95% relative humidity is
necessary during storage to minimize moisture loss and to prevent wilting.
There are two types of cold storage methods, namely ‘wet storage’ and ‘dry
storage’. In wet storage, flowers are stored with their bases dipped in water or pre-
servative solution for a short time, whereas dry storage methods are used for long
term storage. In this method, fresh flowers are harvested in the morning, graded and
sealed in plastic bags or boxes to prevent the loss of moisture. In Controlled Atmo-
sphere (CA) storage, cut flowers are kept in gas tight cool chambers equipped with
cooling systems at a higher level of CO2 and lower level of O2 to reduce the respiration
rate and the production and action of ethylene. Generally, the concentration of CO2
should be maintained at levels higher than 4% and not below 0.4% in CA storage
(Tab. 13.9).
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Transport 269
Tab. 13.9: Storage of Orchid Cut Flowers
Name of Orchid Storage Temperature Storage period
Oncidium, Phalaenopsis,
7-10°C 2 weeks
Odontoglossum, Cattleya
Dendrobium 5-7°C 10-14 days
Cymbidium 1-4°C 14 days
Paphiopedilum -0.5-3.0°C 20 days
Arachnis, Aranda, Aranthera, Asco- 8-13°C 10-14 days

cenda, Epidendrum
13.11 Transport
Flowers are short lived and perishable in nature and should be delivered to their des-
tination as early as possible immediately after harvest. For long distance markets, cut
flowers are transported by cargo planes, merchant ships and trucks. Other modes of
transportation are head loads, bicycles, two-three wheelers, cars, vans etc. Hence, for
long distance transportation, advanced methods of post-harvest handling like cooling,
conditioning, impregnation, pulsing, bud opening and packaging are followed.
Short time pulsing of flowers with optimal concentration of sucrose, AgNO3, STS
and growth regulators is important for long term truck and sea shipments. Flowers
such as standard and spray carnations, chrysanthemum with non-hardy stems of full
flowers, gerbera, coloured bud lily, miniature and floribunda roses are suited for dry
transport over a period of several days; while chrysanthemum with hardy stems and
single flowered freesias, iris, narcissus and H.T. roses are unsuited for dry transport-
ation over a long period. Other than tropical flowers, the best method of transport of
most cut flowers is under refrigeration from the grower to final consumers.
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14 Value Addition in Orchids
14.1 Introduction
Value addition is a way to increase the value of a raw product anytime between har-
vesting and sales of the final product. A typical value addition includes processing in
some ways like cleaning, cutting, packaging, smoking, drying, freezing, extracting
or preserving. Value added products give a higher return, open new markets, create
brand recognition and add variety to a farm operation. Value addition does not offer
any guarantee on profitability. Careful planning and management are required to
promote profitability. These key factors for the success of value added enterprises are
quality products, good marketing and sufficient capital.
Other factors required for value added enterprises are:
– A unique product
– An enthusiastic promoter of the product
– The right kind of labeling and packaging
– Aggressive marketing
– A full time presence on the farm
– Strong agricultural or livestock knowledge
– Ability to cater to customers
– Assistance from agencies and universities
– A strong relationship with the local community
– Safe food handling and food safety regulations
– Product liability insurance
Value addition in floriculture increases the economic value and consumer appeal of
any floral commodity. In floriculture, value addition is accomplished through genetic
changes, processing or diversification. The profitability of a commodity is increased
when a raw material is converted into a unique product. Although it requires more
time, labour and skill it can significantly increase the net cash return of a small scale
floriculture enterprise. Value addition gives high premium to the grower and provides
quality products for the domestic and export markets. Recently, the consumption
pattern is becoming diversified and leaning towards value added products such as
essences, perfumes and other by-products from flowers. There is an urgent need for
value addition in floricultural products through processing, packaging and supply
chain management to increase farm income and generate employment (De, 2011).
The value added products from non-conventional floricultural crops like essen-
tial oils of rose, tuberose, jasmine, marigold and plant extracts used in medicines and
pharmaceutical industry are unique and export-import opportunities.
Orchids comprise the largest family of flowering plants with 25,000 to 35,000
species belonging to 600-800 genera and covers 6.83% of the flowering plants. They
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Orchids - A Component Adapted to the Diversified Climate 271
are prized for their incredible diversity in the size, shape, colour and attractiveness of
their flowers and their high keeping qualities even up to 10 weeks.
14.2 Orchids - A Component Adapted to the Diversified Climate
Orchids are found in nearly every environment in the world. Epiphytic orchids like
Thunia, Coelogyne, Cattleya, Laelia, Dendrobium, Calanthe, Bulbophyllum, Aerides,
Phalaenopsis, Aranda and Aranthera with thick leaves and succulent stems have CAM
and are drought tolerant with higher water use efficiency. Rhizomatous orchids like
Habenaria, Eulophia etc require a terrestrial climate.
14.3 Orchids-organically Viable
Each orchid genus has different requirements for potting media collected from locally
available organic sources. It is very important to have the correct medium for each
type of orchid, depending on whether it is terrestrial or epiphytic. Growing media
commonly include fir bark, coconut husk, sphagnum moss, tree fern fibres, coco
peat, saw dust and perlite, and frequently a mixture of two or three of these materials.
All orchids potted in a typical bark medium need to be repotted every 18 to 24 months,
depending on the needs of the individual plant.
14.4 Landscaping with Orchids
Orchidscaping is the use of orchids permanently planted into specially prepared beds
or attached to trees, shrubs or rocks in the appropriate spot in the garden. Combined
with other traditional ornamentals such as palms, ferns, flowering perennials, shrubs,
trees and herbs etc. it is easy to create some of the most interesting and beautiful
gardens imaginable, depending upon the cost involvement and microclimatic factors.
Many orchids can be grown on rocks and logs for placing in the landscape. They are
attached to either cut wooden logs, coconut logs or living trees and shrubs. Once the
orchids are established they will attach to the trees and logs (Teoh, 2005). In order to
create visual impact in landscaping, the orchids should be planted in a single bed of
one type and one colour. If someone has only one or two plants of a type, it is advis-
able to growing them in pots. Almost all spider orchids (Arachnis and their inter-gen-
eric hybrids, terete and semi-terete vanda, Phaius tankervillaea, Calanthe spp, and
Ladies Slippers) perform well, if they are grown on the ground in full sun with liberal
watering and fertilization. Sloping or flat ground with good drainage provides the
ideal location for orchid beds.
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14.5 Colour Scheme with Orchids
To develop an orchidscape, a gardener should aware of the flowering period of each

orchid. Some gardeners enjoy seasonal bursts of colour. In this case, cymbidiums and
dendrobiums which flower from winter to spring should be the first choice (Friend, 2004).
14.5.1 Winter Flowering Orchids
Bulbophyllum hirtum, B. putidum, Cymbidium lowianum, C. mastersii, Eria bambusifo-

lia, Paphiopedilum farrieanum, P. insigne, P. spicearum, Pleione maculata, P. praecox.
14.5.2 Spring Flowering Orchids
Ascocentrum ampullaceum, Calanthe plantaginea, Coelogyne cristata, Cymbidium

devonianum, C. eburneum, Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum, P. villosum, Phalaenopsis
lobii, Pleione humilis.
14.5.3 Summer Flowering orchids
Coelogyne corymbosa, C. cristata, C. nitida, C. ochracea, Cymbidium aloifolium,

Dendrobium fimbriatum, D. heterocarpum, D. nobile, P. mannii, Pleione hookeriana,
Phaius flavus, P. tankervillae, Renanthera imschootiana, Rhyncostylis retusa, Spatho-
glotis plicata, Vanda coerulea, Vanda cristata, Vanda stangeana, Vanda tessellata.
14.6 Orchids in Balcony Gardens
In Balcony gardens, lithophytic orchids can be grown by attaching them in free stand-
ing rocks or to the balcony’s masonry walls. Genera suitable for shady location may
include Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Eria, Maxillaria, some Oncidiums, Sarchochilus
hybrids, Phalaenopsis and Cattleya hybrids.
14.7 Orchid Tree
An orchid tree is a variation on mounting orchids that involves the placement of many
orchids on a branch or branches to give a completely natural look (Taylor, 2009). It is used
in those areas of the country where orchids are grown outdoors most of the year. Usually,
the larger plants are attached to the bottom and the smallest on the upper portions for
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Orchids – Genetic Materials for Breeding and Species Trade 273
aesthetic reasons and to provide extra weight at the bottom to balance the weight of the
structure. It is better to select those plants which require similar light, temperature and
humidity conditions. Another factor that has to be considered is flowering times, to get
different colours on the tree throughout the year. The chosen plants are mounted on
the tree with sphagnum moss and fishing wire. Thorough misting and maintenance of
humidity are essential for a month to establish the plants on the structure.
14.8 Orchids – Genetic Materials for Breeding and Species Trade
Several local species of Vanda, Cymbidium, Ascocentrum, Paphiopedilum, Calanthe,

Dendrobium, Coelogyne, Renanthera, etc are in great demand in international market for
breeding materials (Tab. 14.1) (Bose and Bhattacharjee, 1980; Kumar and Sheela, 2007).
Tab. 14.1: Orchid species suitable for breeding
Arachnis cathcartii Ascocentrum ampullaceum Bulbophyllum leopardinum Bulbophyllum putidum
Calanthe chloroleuca Calanthe herbacea Calanthe masuca Calanthe plantaginea
Calanthe triplicata Coelogyne barbata Coelogyne corymbosa Coelogyne cristata
Coelogyne fuscescens Coelogyne nitida Coelogyne ochracea Cymbidium devonianum
Cymbidium eburneum Cymbidium hookerianum Cymbidium iridioides Cymbidium lancifolium
Cymbidium longifolium Cymbidium lowianum Cymbidium munronianun Cymbidium tigrinum
Cymbidium tracyanum Cymbidium whiteae Dendrobium bensoniae Dendrobium candidum
Dendrobium densiflorum Dendrobium farmeri Dendrobium formosum Dendrobium gibsonii
Dendrobium infundibulum Dendrobium nobile Dendrobium parishii Dendrobium pendulum
Dendrobium primulinum Dendrobium wardianum Dendrobium williamsonii Paphiopedilum fairrieanum
Paphiopedilum
Paphiopedilum insigne Paphiopedilum spicearum Paphiopedilum venustum
hirsutissimum
Paphiopedilum villosum Papilionanthe teres Pecteilis gigantea Phaius flavus
Phaius tankervillea Phalaenopsis decumbens Phalaenopsis lobii Phalaenopsis mannii
Pleione hookeriana Pleione humilis Pleione maculata Pleione praecox
Renanthera imschootiana Spathoglottis plicata Thunia alba Thunia marshalliana
Thunia venosa Vanda coerulea Vanda corulescens Vanda cristata
Vanda pumila Vanda stangeana Vanda tessellata Vandopsis undulata
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14.9 Orchid Species and Hybrids for Cut flower
Orchid species like Cymbidium eburneum, Cymbidioum iridioides, Paphiopedilum insigne,

Paphiopedilum villosum, Paphiopedilum venustum, Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum, Paph-
iopedilum spicerianum, Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, Renanthera imschootiana, Vanda
coerulea, vanda tessellata, Zygopetalum intermedium are used as cut flowers. Orchid
hybrids of Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Vanda, Phalaenopsis, Oncidium, Cattleya, Paphio-
pedilum, Mokara, Aranda, Renantanda etc. with different colour and forms are used as cut
flowers, floral displays and exhibits (Bhattacharjee and De, 2005; De, 2011; De, et al, 2013).
14.10 Orchids – as Potted plants/Hanging Baskets/ Trays
Potted orchids last for longer than cut flowers, their shelf life being three weeks to
four months depending upon species and hybrids (Nagrare and Ram Pal, 2008).
Tall growing monopodial orchids are best grown in large clay pots up to 30 cm in
diameter. Terrestrial and semi-terrestrial plants like Paphiopedilum and Cymbidium
perform better in deep pots.
Orchid plants, as a rule grow, to be near one another to aid in creating a micro-
climate higher in humidity. Basket culture is useful for those orchids like Vanda,
Rhyncostylis, Arachnis with pendent flower spikes and long dangling roots. Clay pots
are best suitable for terrestrial orchids. Plastic pots are used for epiphytes. Slabs or
logs of tree fern are effective for cool growing orchids.
Important orchid genera used as potted plants in the international market are
Phalaenopsis, Oncidium, Miltonia, Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Dendrobium, Cattleya,
Ascocenda, Vanda, Brassia, Miltonia and Epidendrum (Lopez and Runkle, 2005).
14.11 Orchids – as Herbal Medicine and Aromatic Products
Tribal people of the North eastern hill region use wild orchids for a variety of folk
medicine, as orchids are rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, carbohydrates and
other phytochemicals (Tab. 14.2).
Tab. 14.2: Common medicinal orchids (Rao,2004)
Name of species Parts used Uses

Acampe papillosa Root Rheumatism, Sciatica and uterine diseases
Aerides odorata fruit, leaves The ground fruit used for healing wounds. Juice
of leaves is used to heal boils in ear and nose
Cymbidium aloifolium whole plant Ground plant to cure chronic illness, weakness
of eyes, vertigo and paralysis
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Orchids – as Herbal Medicine and Aromatic Products 275
continued

Dendrobium nobile Stems Fresh and dried stems used in preparation of
chinese drugs for longevity and as aphrodisiac,
stomachic and analgesic
Habenaria acuminata Roots Roots are used as tonic
Phaius tankervilleae Pseudobulbs Pseudobulb is used to heal swellings of hands
and legs, poultice to soothe pain of abscess
Pholidota imbricata Pseudobulbs Pseudobulbs are mixed with mustard oil and
applied on joints for rheumatic pain
Rhyncostylis retusa Roots Roots are effective against rheumatism,
asthma, tuberculosis, cramps, epilepsy,
vertigo, kidney stone, menstrual disorder
Arundina graminifolia Stems Bulbous stems are used to heal cracks
Dendrobium densiflorum Leaves Leaves crushed to paste with salt and applied
on fractured area to set bones
Vanda corulea Leaves Leaf juice is used against diarrhea, dysentery
and external application for skin diseases
Vanda teres Leaves Leaf paste to reduce temperature in fever
Vanda cristata Leaves Leaves are used as tonic and expectorant
Dendrobium moschatum Leaves Leaf juice is used as ear drop
Aerides multiflorum Tubers Anti-bacterial
Anoectochilus formosanus Tubers Hepatitis, hypertension, cancer
Bletilla striata Pseudobulbs Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, demulcent,
skin styptic
Cypripedium pubescens Roots Anti-spasmodic, diaphoretic, hypnotic, sedat-
ive, tonic
Orchis latifolia Roots Aphrodisiac, expectorant, nervine tonic, dia-
betes, diarrhea, dysentery
Eulophia nuda Tubers Worm infestation, Scrofula
Habenaria edgeworthii Leaves and roots Blood diseases
Habenaria intermedia Leaves and roots Blood diseases
Habenaria pectinata Leaves and tubers Arthritis
Malaxis acuminata Pseudo-bulb Bleeding diathesis, burning sensation, fever
Orchis laxiflora Bulb Diarrhea, bronchitis, convalescence
Vanda spathulata Flowers Consumption, asthma, mania
Vanda tessellata Whole Plant Fever, arthritis, rheumatism, bronchitis
Calanthe discolor Whole plant Hair restoring
Dendrobium chrysanthum Leaves Antipyretic, Immunoregulatory, skin diseases
Dendrobium loddigessii Leaves Stomach tonic
Habenaria repens Tubers Aphrodisiac
Pholidota chinensis Pseudobulbs Scrofula, toothache and stomachache
Vanilla planifolia Sheath Hysteria, fever, impotence, rheumatism
Cymbidium aloifolium Rhizomes Salep; used as nutrient and demulcent; as
emetic and purgative
Unauthenticated
continued

C. ensifolium Rhizomes & Eye sores
Flowers
C. longifolium Pseudobulb As emetic and demulcent
C. giganteum Leaf juice Blood clotting
14.12 Fragrant Orchids
Fragrant orchids are delightful in outdoor living areas. Brassovola species are per-
fumed at night and the Australian native Dendrobiums perfume the air on warm spring
mornings. Other aromatic orchids are Aerides multiflorum, Aerides odoratum, Aer-
anthes, Bulbophyllum odoratissimum, Cattleya maxima, Coelogyne cristata, Coelogyne
ochracea, Cymbidium ensifolium, Dendrobium nobile, Epidendrum cristatum, Epi-
dendrum floribundum, Epidendrum nocturnum, Lycaste, Oncidium spaceolatum, Phaius
tankervilleae, Rhyncostylis retusa, Vanda cristata, Vanda tesselata, Zygopetalum inter-
medium.
14.13 Orchids – as Source of Phytochemicals
Many medicinal orchids are rich in alkaloids. Experimental studies have been con-
ducted on the isolation of a number of alkaloids like anthocyanins, stilebnoids and
triterpenoids from orchids. Orchinol, hircinol, cypripedin, jibantine, nidemin and
loroglossin have been isolated from orchids.
Several phytochemicals isolated from orchids along with active ingredient are
listed in Tab. 14.13.
Tab. 14.3: Phytochemicals from orchids
Sl. Phyto-Chemical
Name of orchid Name of phytochemical
No. class
1 Aerides crispum Phenanthropyran Aeridin
2 Agrostophyllum Triterpenoid Agrostophyllinol
brevipes
3 Agrostophyllum Triterpenoid Isoagrostophyllol
callosum
4 Agrostophyllum Stilbenoids Orchinol, 6-methoxycoelonin, imbricatin, flaccidin,
callosum oxoflaccidin, oxoflaccidin, isooxoflaccidin,
flaccidinin, agrostophyllin, callosin, callosinin,
callosumin, callosuminin, callosumidin
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Orchids – Used as Foods 277
continued
Tab. 14.3: Phytochemicals from orchids
Sl. Phyto-Chemical
Name of orchid Name of phytochemical
No. class
5 Arundina Stilbenoids Arundinan
graminifolia
6 Cypripedium 1-4 phenan- Cypripedin
calceolus threnequinone
pubescens
7 Orchis latifolia Glucoside Loroglossin
8 Dendrobium Alkaloid Jebantine
macraei
9 Dendrobium nobile Bibenzyl Gigantol
10 Dendrobium nobile Bibenzyl Moscatilin
11 Dendrobium nobile Alkaloid Dendrobine
12 Dracula chimaera Anthocyanins
13 Eulophia nuda Phenanthrene Nudol
14 Vanda roxburghii Glycoside Melianin
15 Nidema boothi Triterpenoid Nidemin
16 Anoectochilus Glycoside Kinsenoside
formosanus
17 Dendrobium Phenanthrene Rotundatin and moscatin
moschatum
18 Bulbophyllum Phenanthrene Gymopsin
gymopus
14.14 Orchids – Used as Foods
Leaves, tubers and pseudobulbs of different species are used for edible purposes. Vanilla,
a major spice crop and source of vanillin, comes from Vanilla planifolia. Anoectochilus
leaves are used as vegetables in Indonesia and Malayasia. Pseudobulbs of Cymbidium
maladimum and Dendrobium speciosum, and tubers of Microtis uniflora and Caladenia
carnea are eaten. The popular beverage called as ‘Faham’ or ‘Madagascar Tea’ on the
islands of Mauritius and Madagascar is prepared from the orchid Jumellea fragrans. The
tubers from orchid genera such as Acianthus, Dipodium, Glossodia, Lyperanthus, Praso-
phyllum and Thelymitra have been used as food by the inhabitants of Australia. In Africa,
the tubers of Cynorchis, Eulophia, Disa, Habenaria and Satyrium are used as food or juice is
extracted from them. Roots, tubers or rhizomes of Eulophia, Gastrodia, Habenaria, Orchis,
Pholidota, Platanthera and Spiranthes are used as food in Asia. Tubers of Disa engleriana,
D. robusta and D. zambica, Habenaria clavata, Satyrium ambylosacco, S. buchananii and
S. carsonii are used as foods in Malaysia. In Bhutan, the inflorescence or the flowers and
pseudobulbs of Cymbidium spp. are eaten (Bhattacharjee and Das, 2008).
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14.15 Orchids – a Special Item for Value Addition
Cilindra - a gift of a glass flute containing a flowering mini Cymbidium.

Stylish setting - Festive packaging for special occasions like Birthday
14.16 Orchids – for Festivals and Special Uses
People of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh use Rhyncostylis retusa, Papilionanthe teres,
Vanda roxburghii, Aerides odoratum and many Dendrobium species in their religious
and cultural festivals. In Assam, the flowering spike of Rhyncostylis retusa known as
‘Kopou Phul’ is used by girls to adorn their hair during the spring festival. The flowers
of some other orchids like Vanda roxburghii and Coelogyne nitida are also used to
adorn the hair of girls of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in local festivals. The flowers
of Papilionanthe teres are offered to Lord Buddha and spirits by the Khamtis and other
Tai ethnics of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. In the Kameng district of Arunachal
Pradesh, Dendrobium hookerianum, Dendrobium nobile and Dendrobium gibsonii are
considered as the symbol of purity and sanctity by the local people. Monpas consider
the flowers of Cymbidium grandiflorum important for holy worship. The young naga
women of Manipur wore the orange flowers of Dendrobium densiflorum behind their
ears. Similarly, the flowers of Vanda coerulea are used by the women of Manipur in
their hair during the autumn puja festival.
In several countries, orchid species and hybrids are used as National Flowers.
For example, Vanda ‘Miss Joaquim’ in Singapore, Peristeria elata in Panama and
Lycaste skinneri var. alba in Guatemala. Orchids are depicted on the stamps of several
countries like Venezuela, USA, New Zealand, Australia, Indonesia, India, Singapore,
Japan, Russia, Thailand, Malaysia and many others.
14.17 Orchids for Dry Flowers
Orchids are highly attractive, delicate, available in a variety of colours, and can be pre-
served by drying for use in flower arrangement and dried flower craft. The best method
for drying orchids is using silica gel for microwave drying or by freeze drying. Drying
orchids is a challenging task as these flowers are considered difficult to preserve.
Dried orchids are used for different purposes, such as for use in vases and baskets
and sometimes in shadow boxes. Bright flowers of orchid genera like Dendrobium,
Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum Cattleya, Pholidota etc. can be used for drying.
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Orchid Flower Arrangements 279
14.18 Orchid Flower Arrangements
Orchids symbolize wealth, beauty and social status. Orchids flower arrangements are
good table decorations and weddings. Among orchids, Cymbidium, Dendrobium and
Phalaenopsis are excellent for wedding centerpieces.
An arch decorated with chic white silk combined with white orchids can be con-
sidered an admirable orchid flower arrangement. In the home, they can be displayed
in three ways viz. single flower vases, plants in pots and traditional mixed flower
arrangements.
14.19 Other Uses
In the Philippines and New Guinea, the stems of some Dendrobium species are used
to make baskets and bracelets. In some tribes, the sap of Cattleya labiata var. autum-
nalis is used as glue for musical instruments. In Central America, the empty pseudob-
ulbs of Schomburgkias are used to make horns.
Unauthenticated
15 Marketing
15.1 Introduction
Marketing is one of the most important aspects of nursery crop production. Market-
ing of any business is broken down by using the 4P’s: Product, Price, Promotion and
Placement.
Product: A nurseryman must let everyone know about the business and how your
product is superior to the already available product in the trade. First, every business
should have a plan to market the product. A marketing plan should cover the follow-
ing questions:
What or Who is your market?
How will you identify your product to the market?
Price: In the first instance, the price should be fixed high enough to generate a profit
for the business. In fixing price, the following factors should be taken into consider-
ations:
– What are customers willing to pay?
– Are all costs covered; where do you break even?
– What does the competition charge?
– How much profit do you want to generate?
Promotion: This is the strategy that a person uses with the customer to encourage
them to purchase the product. Promotion includes advertisement, public relations
and personal contact.
Placement: When the product is ready for sale, has been priced and consumers know
that it exists, how do they get? This is called placement of the product or getting the
goods to the customers i.e., distribution. A nurseryman must rely upon distribution
channels like wholesalers, retailers, distributors, brokers and cooperatives.
15.2 Marketing Channels
There are various markets for nursery crops including landscape contractors, garden
centres, mass merchandisers, other growers, brokers, agricultural producers and
home owners. Most nursery crops are sold at the wholesale level. The major whole-
sale market is the garden center. Brokering is a small but useful market channel for
new growers with a limited product line, insufficient market contacts or poor market-
ing skills. Direct selling of product to the consumer is attractive because it maximizes
the price per plant. Those engaging in direct farm marketing should have a building
permit to ensure compliance with building codes, a business license or registration,
liability insurance and signs that meet standards with respect to placement, size, loc-
ation and type of sign used.
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Capital Investments in the Nursery Development 281
Mail order selling is another form of retailing that does not require face to face busi-
ness with the client. Internet websites can bring the world market place to the door
of even the smallest nursery business at a reasonable cost. Nursery management has
attained a status of a commercial venture where retail nurseries sell planting materi-
als to the growers and general public. It includes the following aspects:
– Capital investment in nursery development
– Process of distributed nursery production
– Knowing the government loan and subsidies available for nursery development
– Analysis of income, expenditure and profit in nursery management
– Understanding the role of horticultural nurseries in entrepreneurship development
15.3 Capital Investments in the Nursery Development
A large volume nursery requires a full time manager and considerable capital invest-
ment, while a small volume nursery requires a part time job and less capital invest-
ment. A plant nursery needs various capital components of expenditure like land,
building, road, fencing, polyhouse, mother plant block, shade net, equipment,
machinery, office stores, well/ tube well, motors, irrigation systems etc. The cost and
expenditure components for non-recurring heads that are included under capital
components are seed beds, nursery beds, potting mixtures and potting yards, poly-
house, mist chambers, polytunnels.
15.4 Marketing of Plants from Nurseries
Based on demand survey, the cost of various nursery plants are fixed depending upon
the age of plants, height of plants, variety, propagation techniques used, production
costs, maintenance costs etc. There should be adequate publicity and advertisement
of availability of various grafts and seedlings in the nursery. This includes advertise-
ments in the sales area, advance booking, information through gram sabhas, exhibi-
tion through stalls, advertising through newspaper and magazine, publicity in weekly
bazaars, posters, appointing sale agents, information brochure, and printing cata-
logues.
15.5 Government Regulations and Support Nursery
The availability of quality planting materials is the main criteria for the success of
horticulture industry. Nursery Registration Act is at present in force in the states of
Punjab, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, J&K, Orissa
and Tamil Nadu. A system of monitoring exists for horticulture nurseries in the
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282 Marketing
states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Haryana, Karnataka and Kerala while
there is no horticulture nursery Act in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Chhatisgarh,
Jharkhand, M.P., Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Rajasthan, Sikkim,
Tripura and West Bengal. It is essential to adopt quality standards for Horticulture
Nurseries to facilitate, promote and monitor production and trade of quality planting
materials of horticultural crops which are propagated vegetatively.
A nursery must set certain standards and these standards are categorized into
three main groups, cost efficiency, quality and size. Cost efficiency includes the cost
of production, profit and sales price. Quality standards include general plant health,
hardness or softness of plant tissue, uniformity, labeling etc. Size standards include
pot size for trees, shrubs, herbs and indoor plants; and plastic punnets for seedling
vegetables and flowers etc.
15.6 Support for Nurseries under National Horticulture Mission

(NHM)
The National Horticulture Mission has given important focus on production and
distribution of good quality seeds and planting materials. Most of the States have
a network of Central or State assisted nurseries for producing planting materials.
Assistance for infrastructure in nurseries includes the following:
– Proper fencing.
– Mother stocks block maintenance under polycover to protect from adverse
weather conditions.
– Raising rootstock seedlings under shade net house conditions.
– Propagation house, tropical polyhouse with ventilation having insect proof
netting on sides and fogging and sprinkler irrigation systems.
– Hardening / maintenance in insect proof net house with light screening proper-
ties and sprinkler irrigation systems.
– Pump house to provide sufficient irrigation to the plants and water storage tank
to meet at least two days requirement
Under the revised guidelines of NHM, assistance can be provided for setting up a nursery
of 1 ha costs Rs. 6.25 lakhs and maximum area of 4ha with a total cost of Rs. 25 lakhs. The
nurseries in the public sector are given 100% assistance and for those under the private
sector 50% assistance is provided as credit linked back and subsidies. Nurseries that are
1 ha are classified as small nurseries and beyond that are classified as large nurseries.
Each nursery has to produce a minimum 50,000 plants per ha per year of the mandated
perennial fruit plant /tree spices/ plantation crop through vegetative propagation. The
nurseries have to supply quality planting materials. In order to ensure the supply of
quality planting material, the planting material must be purchased from the nurseries
which are accredited by the National Horticulture Board, SAU’s and ICAR institutes.
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Nursery Expenditure, Income and Profit Analysis 283
15.7 Nursery Expenditure, Income and Profit Analysis
The nursery enterprise is an important source of employment and income generation

and depends upon proper planning of work, man power, raw material and proper
financial appraisal. Entrepreneurs may use business analysis as a tool for import-
ant decisions such as business expansions, financing, marketing strategies, opera-
tions planning and product selection. With proper implementations, this information
may increase nursery business profitability, control costs, reduce the risk of business
failure, boost employee productivity and job satisfaction, enhance physical efficiency
and increase management professionalism. Financial analysis assists in identifying
some common problems in wholesale plant nurseries such as low output, slow crop
growth or poor pricing, excessive costs, waste or overuse, poor cash flow, over-capit-
alization or under-capitalization and imbalanced debt structure.
15.8 Expenditure Estimate in Nursery
The estimate of expenditure in a nursery consists of two major components fixed

costs and variable costs. Fixed cost components include one-time capital investment
include fencing, workshed, mother plant block, irrigation with pipe line, office-cum-
store, shade net house, mist chamber, polytunnel, seedbeds, nursery beds, internal
roads, pathways, polling yard, water storage. Variable cost is the amount used by
a business unit to fulfill its daily requirements. Variable cost components include
labourer, raw materials, like media, polybags, fertilizers, manures, pesticides and
consumable items like labels, stationary, electricity and telephone.
15.9 Nursery Income
A nursery enterprise can have various sources of income such as the sale of saplings,
grafts, vegetable seedlings, potted plants, bagged plants and ball seedlings, planting
materials like seeds, bulbs and corms. They can sell other raw material and equip-
ment like pots, bags, pruning and grafting implements etc. Other sources of income
can be obtained from realization of commission, consultancy fee, subsidy, donation
and minor sale of weed grass, fuel wood etc, and from the nursery.
15.10 Maintenance of Records for Sale and Income
The nursery should keep a record of mother plants illustrating both rootstock and
scion trees, production of grafts and seedlings and sale of plants. Book keeping is
another important function of financial accounting and it maintains proper records
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284 Marketing
with complete details of business transactions. Business transactions are classified

into several major activities or groups, e.g., sales, purchases, assets etc. Separate
books are maintained for recording transactions. Details of transactions are recorded
into respective headings.
Purchase books are maintained to record all transactions pertaining to purchases
on credit or cash. Sales books are maintained to record all transactions related to
credit or cash sales. Ledgers are maintained to record all accounts involved in the
transactions.
A Cash book is maintained in a subsidiary book of the ledger for recording the
account of cash. A Bank book is a subsidiary book of the ledger where the account of
the bank is maintained. The Stock register is a register where the movement of stock
is maintained.
15.11 Profit Analysis and Financial Ratios (De, 2013)
To make a nursery business economically viable and profitable, various financial

ratios are taken into consideration and these ratios help the lenders to analyse the
viability and profitability of the nursery enterprise. These financial ratios include
return on investment covering both borrowed capital and owned capital, Debt Service
Coverage Ratio (DSCR), Internal Ratio of Return (IRR), Break Even Point and Debt
Equity Ratio.
Net profit + Interest + Tax

DSCR =
Interest + Principal loan
A project remains viable if the minimum value of DSCR is 1.7.

IRR (Internal Return Rate) is the interest rate at which the net present value of costs of
the investment equal the net present value of the benefits of the investments. IRR are
used to evaluate the desirability of investments or projects.
Break Even Point (BEP): This is the level of activity where the total contribution is
equal to the total fixed cost: Contribution = Sales - Variable Cost
The BEP indicates the risk involved in a project.
Debt-Equity Ratio: This indicates the extent to which the funds of the promoter are
leveraged to procure loans.
Total long term debt
DER =
Total promoters fund
A higher debt enquiry ratio indicates more risk due to a higher fixed cost of interest.
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Entrepreneurship Development through Nursery 285
15.12 Entrepreneurship Development through Nursery
Nursery enterprise creates sizeable employment opportunities for the rural masses
and the areas are production of seeds, seedlings, grafts, potted plants, ball plants,
plants for aesthetic purposes in landscaping or management program on rental basis;
sale of plants to retail nurseries; starting plant libraries; providing vegetable seed-
lings, ornamental plants and planting materials, medicinal and aromatic plants and
tissue culture plants; landscape gardening and consultancy. A nursery entrepreneur
undertakes a nursery business or an enterprise.
The qualities required for a nursery entrepreneur are as follows:
– Calculated risk takers
– Perceive opportunities very quick, synthesize the available information and
analyze emerging pattern that escape the attention of others
– Desire to hit new goals
– Convert adversities into opportunities
– Seek out experts for assistance
– Take immediate feedback on performance and record prompt and accurate data
– Achievement driven person
– A successful entrepreneur plans while keeping an open mind to achieve goals in
pre-scheduled time frame.
– A successful entrepreneur influences others and motivates them to think and act
in his way.
15.12.1 Role of Nursery Entrepreneurship
A nursery enterprise aids in providing plants and planting material and other pro-
cesses that indirectly help in the national economy. It also assists in gaining a more
balanced financial development as the business flourishes both in urban and rural
sector. It aids in empowering people by providing increased community participation.
Another aspect of nursery enterprise is to contribute national economy by providing
employment opportunities for the skilled and unskilled workers.
15.12.2 Risk Analysis in Nursery Enterprise
A nursery enterprise can be carried out successfully provided the raw material,
labour, capital requirement, planning of expenditure and income and knowledge of
market are carefully taken into consideration.
A number of factors that can lead to losses in a nursery enterprise and the factors
are underutilization of capacity, untimely availability and sale of plants, production
not as per demand, increasing competition poor recovery of credit sales, increasing
cost of labour and raw material and poor technical knowledge.
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286 Marketing
15.12.3 Profitability in a Nursery Enterprise
The profitability of a nursery enterprise depends upon assumptions of demand of

plants and availability of various production inputs like raw material and labour.
Points to be considered to bringing nursery enterprise into a profitable venture
– Production of plants in a nursery in a commercial venture.
– Balancing the technical aspects and practical feasibility of production and sale
of plants in a nursery
– Proper planning and execution of operations
– Maintenance and critical analysis of records of expenditure and income at regular
intervals
– Monitoring of daily activities in nursery
– A proper coordination among production of plants, rearing of plants and sale of plants
– Increasing sales through aggressive marketing, publicity and advertisement in
newspaper, magazines and other mass media.
15.13 Export Market Views of Orchids
– Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia are the
major suppliers of tropical orchids to the world. Japan is considered one of leading
orchid-importing countries, consuming 40% of the world supply. The European
countries also consume 40% of the world supply while Australia, Hongkong, and
the United States take up the remaining 20%. Recognizing the immense poten-
tial of floriculture export, governments in the Asia-Pacific countries continue to
support research and development by providing sophisticated laboratory testing
and control apparatus to help growers improve quality and varieties. Distribution
and transportation facilities are constantly upgraded and promotion activities
conducted to nurture appreciation for plants and flowers.
– Dendrobium and Vanda are the most preferred orchids while the rose had the
highest demand among ornamental plants. The price of flowers fluctuates widely
depending on the occasion or season. Various factors affect pricing include
supply and demand situation, cut-flower quality, and grading of cut orchids. In
grading the cut orchids, size, color, freshness, and texture are considered.
– Proximity to export markets such as Japan and Taiwan is considered an advant-
age to orchid exporters. The bulk of the products are sold to commercial buyers
and flower retailers.
– The creation of the Cut-flower Development Plan, and the enactment of the High
Value Crop Law can enhance growth of the cut-flower industry.
– The serious problems that have been identified for growers, breeders, retailers,
and traders are the lack of quality planting materials, improved production tech-
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Development of International Orchid Market 287
nologies, inadequate capital investment, proper diagnosis and control of plant

pests and diseases.
– To minimize problems that hinder the growth of the cut-flower industry, research-
ers recommended collaborative efforts among growers, breeders, traders, and
retailers with assistance from the different government agencies, private sector,
academia, financial institutions, and the media. There is also an urgent need to
form cut-flower cooperatives, associations, and federations. The creation of allied
services could be beneficial to the orchid industry in terms of having greater
access to opportunities and addressing requirements of the cutflower growers.
The cut-flower association’s approach would be to provide technical and market-
ing assistance to grower members and would-be growers.
15.14 Development of International Orchid Market
The production of pot orchids and cut orchid flowers has increased rapidly since
the early-1990s. More first-time orchid growers are becoming involved in producing
orchids than ever before. Orchid production is turning into a true international
business.
Since the signing of the CITES in the late 1970s, orchid trade across international
boundaries has been regulated by this international treaty. Although CITES was
designed to protect the threatened and endangered species of plants and animals, it
plays a vital role on growers and traders who export and/ or import orchids. Through
the efforts of the American Orchid Society and countries having large orchid-export-
ing businesses, CITES has slowly relaxed the control of trading on a limited number
of commercially-important orchid genera.
During the 8th Asia-Pacific Orchid Conference, held in March 2004 in Tianan,
Taiwan, Mr. Andy Matsui first proposed the idea of forming a worldwide orchid produ-
cers’ organization. With the help of the organizers of the Taiwan International Orchid
Show (TIOS) and through the coordination of Dr. Yin-Tung Wang, Professor of Horti-
culture at Texas A&M University, an organizational meeting was held in March at the
2006 TIOS. All of the attendees of this preparatory meeting expressed high interest
in forming an international organization to represent the orchid growers. A second
meeting was held during March: the 2007 TIOS. Mr. Andy Matsui, Dr. David Beck (a
cut-flower cymbidium grower in New Zealand) and Dr. Yin-Tung Wang presided at this
meeting. Over 70 representatives from several countries around the world in attend-
ance elected Mr. Matsui the first President of the International Commercial Orchid
Growers Organization (ICOGO). Dr. Yin-Tung Wang was elected the Executive Secret-
ary, and Mr. Matsui donated $50,000 to get the organization off the ground and to
start functioning. Two orchid growers, Yupin Biotechnology and Chian Huei Flowers
in Taiwan, pledged to donate to help with ICOGO.
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288 Marketing
The Objectives of ICOGO

– Develop business models from the experience of successful growers and regions.
– Increase orchid trade around the world through more extensive marketing efforts.
– Enhance the availability of orchid varieties to benefit all parties in the industry.
– Disseminate information related to orchid production and orchid trade.
– Cooperate and support applied research and conservation that help the advance-
ment of commercial orchid production with local, regional, national and interna-
tional research agencies and institutions.
– Provide the necessary trade information among the members to enhance orchid
trade and cooperation.
The Functions of ICOGO

– To develop a system to help and protect the exclusive orchid varieties and the
exchange of breeding materials among orchid breeders, propagators, and produ-
cers worldwide.
– To assemble up to date orchid information and assist in developing new tech-
niques for producing orchids more profitably.
– To promote the eradication and control of insect pests and diseases and muta-
tions for producing quality plants.
– To participate in regulatory activities, i.e., CITES, government regulations, etc. to
ease on international orchid trade.
– To provide the necessary trade information among members to enhance orchid
trade and cooperation.
– To conduct trade shows and publish newsletters to enhance communication
among the members.
Geographical Regions
– Region I: Europe
– Region II: The Americas
– Region III: North Asia
– Region IV: South Asia, Oceania, Australia, New Zealand
– Region: V: Africa, Middle Asia
Membership Classes
– Full Members
– Commercial orchid growers, production area ≥ 1,000 m2.
– Have voting rights.
– Associate Members
– Allied suppliers, equipment & greenhouse manufacturers, orchid-related
businesses, employees of Full Members, educators, researchers, members of
government and regulatory agencies, orchid organizations, etc.
– Have no voting rights.
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Domestic Orchid Market 289
ICOGO’s headquarters is currently located in the United States and it has been
registered with the State of California. The orchid trade has just passed its infancy
stage and there is a tremendous avenue for growth in the years to come.
15.15 Domestic Orchid Market
In India, it took a century for Sikkim and the northeastern region to realize the poten-
tial of Cymbidium, together with five other orchids - Dendrobium, Vanda, Cattleya,
Phalaenopsis and Oncidium - as revenue earners. Flowers became a commercial pro-
spect for us 10 years ago. It is a late start but is turning out to be a promising sector.
Sikkim annually produces Rs 20 million worth of orchids on an average. A cut
stalk (spike) costs between Rs.20 and Rs.150 depending on the quality. The state gov-
ernment has introduced a special package in 18 clusters under which 50 flori-farm-
ers have been given 500 orchid plantings (saplings) each with necessary support for
cultivation, training and marketing. The state has to overcome several challenges to
send the produce out to the national market. The first hurdle is transportation to the
nearest marketplace. An effective cold chain is another area of concern.
The state requires refrigerated vans to the cold storages, and then the flowers are
flown out. Orchids and other horticultural products are marketed by SIMFED - the
government’s national sales network. Veteran flower trader Andy Warren, managing
director of the New Zealand-based company Bloomz, proposed that Sikkim and the
northeastern states – (the country’s traditional orchid hothouses) should concentrate
on the domestic market and explore its “optimal capacity” for high returns instead
of eyeing bigger export shares globally. This region lacks post-harvest facilities such
as good packaging houses and cold storages. During hot summer logistics to move
the harvested products are inadequate. Flowers like orchids wilt. The region needs
to look at expanding markets in New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Chennai to fetch
good prices. The critical thing is to ensure top quality in the market every day. This
observation was made by Warren, who has been trading flowers with India for the
last 20 years, to IANS at the Sikkim International Flower Show 2013. According to his
concern, going to the international market is a “whole new ball game” with its own
stringent set of standards.
Producers
– Open to certification
– Require support and extension service
Government strategies
– Clear Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) framework at national level
– Strengthen Standard knowledge & dissemination
– Promote production of high quality orchids: GAP farm
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290 Marketing
Which information is still needed?

– Do producers benefit from certification? (i.e. welfare, access to export markets)
– Information on environmental and social impacts
– Views of other stakeholders in importing countries i.e. buyers in EU
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References
Abraham, A. & Vatsala, P. (1981). Introduction to orchids with illustrations and descriptions of 150
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298 References
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Unauthenticated
List of Figures
Fig. 4.1: Pseudobulb shape in Cymbidium  46
Fig. 4.2: Leaf shape in Cymbidium  46
Fig. 4.3: Nature of stem in Dendrobium  49
Fig. 4.4: Leaf type in Vanda  52
Fig. 4.5: Spur type in Vanda  53
Fig. 4.6: Leaf shape  78
Fig. 4.7: Leaf apex  79
Fig. 4.8: Inflorescence type  79
Fig. 4.9: Flower arrangement of petals  79
Fig. 4.10: Shape of Dorsal sepal (20) and Lateral sepal (28)  80
Fig. 4.11: Curvature of Dorsal sepal (21) and petal (35)  80
Fig. 4.12: Petal shape  80
Fig. 4.13: Lip: presence of whiskers (42) and callus (54)  81
Fig. 4.14: Lip: shape of apical lobe  81
Fig. 4.15: Lip: bump and ridge on apical lobe  82
Fig. 4.16: Lip: shape of lateral lobe  82
Fig. 4.17: Curvature of lateral lobe  83
Fig. 4.18: Nature of pseudobulb  97
Fig. 4.19: Leaf shape  98
Fig. 4.20: Dorsal sepal shape (21) and Lateral sepal shape (26)  98
Fig. 4.21: Dorsal sepal apex (22) and Lateral sepal apex (27)  98
Fig. 4.22: Dorsal sepal curvature (23), Lateral sepal curvature (28) and Petal
curvature (34)  99
Fig. 4.23: Petal shape (33), Lip lateral lobe shape (44) and Lip mid lobe shape
(46)  99
Fig. 4.24: Petal margin (35), Lip lateral lobe margin (45) and Lip mid lobe margin
(47)  99
Fig. 8.1: Conservation of genetic resources  147
Fig. 8.2: Varietal development with resistance to biotic/abiotic stress  148
Fig. 13. 1: Evaluation of Cymbidium hybrids for their vase life  255
Plate 13.1: Important orchid hybrids for cut flowers
Plate 13.2: Cut flowers are inserted in tube containing water or water with
preservatives  267
Plate 13.3: Individual spikes are placed inside the box in alternate fashion  268
Unauthenticated
List of tables
Tab. 1.1: Origin and habit of different types of orchid species  3
Tab. 1.2: Present status of orchid distribution in India (Hajra and De, 2010)  12
Tab. 2.1: Export of orchids from India (Rs. in lacs & quantity in MT)  14
Tab. 2.2: Value of fresh cut orchids and buds global trade (2007-2012)
(Unit: Million US$)  14
Tab. 2.3: Imports of orchids by Singapore (2007)  15
Tab. 2.4: Average annual prices at Netherlands auction (2003-2007)
(Euro cents /stem)  16
Tab. 2.5: Quantity of consumption and wholesale value of sales of potted
Dendrobium in Hawaii (Johnson, 1999).  17
Tab. 2.6: Orchid price in Singapore (US$)  17
Tab. 2.7: Orchid export from Thailand in 2009 (% share of total export value)  18
Tab. 3.1: Some monotypic orchid genera of North East India  21
Tab. 3.2: Some threatened orchids of North East India (Tandon et al, 2007)  21
Tab. 3.3: Distribution of major orchids in North East States (Chowdhery, 2001, 2009;
Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1997-1998, 1999)  22
Tab. 3.4: Orchid flora of Eastern Ghats of India  24
Tab. 3.5: Orchid genera of Andaman and Nicobar islands  29
Tab. 3.6: Host – tree and orchid species specificity (De et al, 2011)  32
Tab. 4.1: Characteristics for DUS Test guidelines in Cymbidium  43
Tab. 4.2: Characteristics for DUS test guide lines in Dendrobium  47
Tab. 4.3: Characteristics for DUS test guidelines in Vanda  50
Tab. 4.4: Table of Characteristics of DUS Test Guidelines in Phalaenopsis  56
Tab. 4.5: Table of Characteristics of DUS Test Guidelines in Cattleya  86
Tab. 6.1: Generation of planting materials of Cymbidium through backbulbs  119
Tab. 8.1: Strategies for conservation, multiplication, production, improvement and
protection of orchids  145
Tab. 9.1: Average Annual Prices at Netherlands Auction (2003-2007) (Euro cents /
stem)  151
Tab. 9.2: Genetic resources for hybridization  151
Tab. 9.3: Cymbidium orchids used in Indian medicine system  152
Tab. 9.3: Grading of Cymbidium cut flowers  157
Tab. 9.4: Nature of pseudobulb in Dendrobium  159
Tab. 9.5: Grading of Dendrobium cut flowers  166
Tab. 9.6: Common commercial Phalaenopsis hybrids  169
Tab. 9.7: Common Oncidium Species and Hybrids  183
Tab. 9.8: Leaf Type in Vanda  194
Tab. 12.1: Medicinal plants used in Ashtavarga, composite Ayurvedic formulation
(Singh and Duggal, 2009)  243
Tab. 12.2: Medicinal orchids and their medicinal properties  244
Unauthenticated
List of Tables 301
Tab. 12.3: Aromatic chemicals and fragrant orchids  248

Tab. 13.1: Important varieties and hybrids under different genera of orchids  251
Tab. 13.2: Vase life of orchids due to species and varietal differences  257
Tab. 13.3: Stage of harvest, spike length and no of flowers of some commercial
orchids  259
Tab. 13.4: Effect of chemicals on bud opening in Cymbidium hyb. ‘Pine Clash Moon
Venus’  264
Tab. 13.5: Holding solutions for different types of orchids  265
Tab. 13.6: Effect of chemicals on post-harvest life of Cym. ‘PCMV’  265
Tab. 13.7: Grading of Cymbidium Cut Flowers  266
Tab. 13.8: Grading in Dendrobium Cut Flowers  267
Tab. 13.9: Storage of Orchid Cut Flowers  269
Tab. 14.1: Orchid species suitable for breeding  273
Tab. 14.2: Common medicinal orchids (Rao,2004)  274
Tab. 14.3: Phytochemicals from orchids  276
Unauthenticated

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Lakshman Chandra De, Promila Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K.

Managing Editor: Magdalena Golachowska

Language Editor: Emefa Monu

ISBN (paperback): 978-3-11-042638-0

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche National-

Managing Editor: Magdalena Golachowska

Cover illustration: © Lakshman Chandra De

2 Global Orchid Industry  13

3 Biodiversity, Conservation and Bio-piracy

4 Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Valuable species  40

5 Breeding Approaches for Improved Genotypes  103

6 Production of Quality Planting Materials  118

7 Physiology of Temperate and Tropical Orchids  124

9 Production Technology of Commercial Epiphytic

10 Production Technology of Commercial Terrestrial

11 Orchids for Pot Culture/ Hanging Baskets/ Tree Mounting  208

12 Medicinal and Aromatic Orchids  243

13 Post–harvest Management of Cut Flowers of Commercial Orchids  250

14 Value Addition in Orchids  270

List of Figures  299

List of Tables  300

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

Flowers are bright yellow with brown spotted greenish sepals.

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

the compost. Diuris palus-

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

glass house with a winter

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

ature of 14°C and medium

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

Category Genera Species Description Habitat

Region States Genera Species

Eastern Himalayas and Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, 159 870

2.1 Global Orchid Trade

Country 2010-2011 2011-12 2012-13

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value

Source: DGCIS Annual report

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Import 233,734,023 252,647,645 232,568,129 251,445,523 265,702,077 267,196,847

Source: Department of Foreign Trade, Thailand (2013)

Tab. 2.3: Imports of orchids by Singapore (2007)

Country Value (US$) Share (%)

Malayasia 5422069.0 83.03

Source: International Enterprise Singapore

2.2 Trend in Growth

Orchids 2003 2005 2007 Average price

Year Number of pots sold Value (US $) Number of growers

1985 0.2 millions 1.1 million 88

Tab. 2.6: Orchid price in Singapore (US$)

Product details Origin Price /stem

Orchid Cymbidium Malaysia 1.97

Source: Market News Service-Week 14, 2009, ITC

2.2.4 Other Tropical Orchids

Cut orchid Orchid plant

3.1 Region Wise Distribution of Orchids

3.1.1 Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern India

3.1.1.1 Endemic Orchids

– Anoectochilus crispus, Cymbidium eburneum, Habenaria khasiana, Liparis delicu-

Tab. 3.1: Some monotypic orchid genera of North East India

Anthogonium Wall. Ex Lindl. Arundina Bl.