Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
DOI 10.1007/s12649-012-9107-9
SHORT COMMUNICATION
Potential Applications of Mahua (Madhuca indica) Biomass
Aditi Gupta • Rohit Chaudhary • Satyawati Sharma
Received: 20 October 2011 / Accepted: 21 January 2012 / Published online: 2 March 2012
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract The genus Madhuca, belonging to the family of
Sapotaceae, is a multipurpose tree with its species, Madhuca
latifolia, M. longifolia and M. butyracea being the most
prevalent. The tree is economically important because of
widespread uses of almost its every part. The present paper
reviews information about ecology, distribution, species of
mahua, different parts and their uses focusing on flowers, oil
and seed cake. Flowers are used for the treatment of skin
diseases, preparation of intoxicating liquor and various nutraceuticals. Production of biodiesel from mahua seed oil is
recently gaining considerable importance. After the extraction of oil, approximately 60% is left as de-oiled seed cake.
The paper discusses at length the composition of cake and its
various applications. The cake is a rich source of sugars,
nitrogen and proteins. But, the presence of toxic saponins in
it limits its extensive usage. The cake has been used as a low
grade fertilizer, bio-pesticide, included in animal feed (up
to 20%) and in dye removal from waste waters. Various
detoxification methods have also been tried for the use of
cake as an improved animal feed only. Not many applications of the raw and detoxified cake have been explored. The
paper also deals with the experiments performed to evaluate
the use of raw as well as detoxified cake (produced as a result
of a simple water treatment) for biogas production and
mushroom cultivation. Significant enhancement in the biogas (93%) as well as the mushroom yield (128%) could be
obtained.
A. Gupta S. Sharma (&)
Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute
of Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
e-mail: satyawatis@hotmail.com
R. Chaudhary
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
Keywords
Mahua Seed cake Detoxified
Introduction
Madhuca indica is one of the most important Indian forest
trees belonging to the family of Sapotaceae. It is found in
abundance in the forests of Asian and Australian continents
[1–4]. Adapted to arid environments, it is a prominent tree
in tropical mixed deciduous forests [1, 5] of West Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh
[6, 7] and sub mountainous region of the Himalayas [8] in
India. It is much planted in the plains of Northern India and
Deccan peninsula [9] and propagates mostly by seeds [10].
This tree species has been domesticated by tribal people in
India and Pakistan [11, 12] for its wide variety of uses from
its flower, leaves, bark, seed oil, seed cake, etc. since the
ancient times [13–15]. Its various parts have been used as
food, fuel, fertilizer, cattle feed, in preparation of alcoholic
beverage, oil and its derivatives such as soaps, detergents,
butter, etc. The tree has a very rich medicinal application in
the treatment of rheumatism, ulcers, bronchitis, dressing
wounds and heart diseases [11]. Many other uses are
continuously being explored.
Biological and Chemical Aspects
Taxonomy and Ecology
Mahua is a slow-growing species, found commonly in
deciduous forest of Indian sub-continent [6], attaining a
mean height of 0.9–1.2 m at the end of the fourth year but
may attain a height of 20 m on full growth [16, 17]. It
matures from 8 to 15 years, fruits up to 60 years and
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Table 1 Species of Madhuca in India [11]
Species
Distribution
Distinguishing characteristics
M. latifolia
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
Hyderabad
Leaves elliptic or oblong elliptic, shortly acuminate, calyx rusty tomentose,
anthers 20–30, 3-seriate subsessile.
M. longifolia
South India
Leaves lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, glabrous distinctly nerved,
anthers 16, 2-seriate subsessile, lips 3-toothed, young fruit globose
densely hirsute.
M. butyracea (Local
name: Phulwara)
Sub-Himalayan tracks with maximum
abundance in kumaon and Gharwal
regions
Leaves obovate or obovate-oblong, stamens 30–40, filaments glabrous as
long as anthers
M. neriifolia/
M.malabarica
Bombay, South Karnara, Madras and
Mysore
Branchlets glabrous, leaves lanceolate or oblong obtuse or scarcely acute,
glabrescent, distinctly nerved, stamens 16, in two series, subsessile,
connective, excurrent lanceolate-linear, young fruit oblong-lanceolate,
glabrous
M. bourdillonii
Mysore and Western Ghats
Branchlets glabrous, leaves very narrowly oblong, coriaceous, nerves
obscure anthers 16, 2-seriate, subsessile, connective, excurrent,
lanceolate-linear, young fruit oblonglanceolate, glabrous
possesses evergreen or semi-evergreen foliage [1, 5]. It is
known by its various names as mahua and mohwa in North
India, illipi in South, etc. [11]. and be scientifically classified as follows:
Kingdom: Plantae—Plant
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta—Vascular Plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta—Seed plants
Division: Magnoliaphyta—Flowering Plants
Class: Magnoliopsida—Dicotyledons
Subclass: Dilleniidae
Order: Ericales
Family: Sapotaceae—Spodilla family
It grows well on a wide variety of soils especially on
alluvial soil in Indo-gangetic plains. For its better growth
and productivity, a deep loamy or sandy-loam soil with
good drainage is best suitable. It can also occur on shallow
bouldery, clayey and calcareous soils [18]. It grows up to
an average altitude of 1,200 m whereas in Himalayan
regions it can be found up to 4,500 m. A mean annual
temperature of 2–46°C and mean annual rainfall of
550–1,500 mm is suitable for its growth. The mean relative
humidity in its natural habitat varies from 40 to 80% in
January and from 60 to 90% in July [18].
Species and Distribution
The genus Madhuca belongs to the family of Sapotaceae,
which includes more than 800 tree species many of which
are used for the production of latex (e.g. Guttapercha) [1].
Royan [19] listed around 84 species of mahua out of which
Madhuca latifolia, M. longifolia, M. butyracea, M. neriifolia and M. bourdillonii are commonly found in India.
Few species have also been isolated from Malaysia, [3, 4]
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Pakistan [12], Sri-Lanka [20], Australia [2] and New
Guinea [1]. Recently four new species i.e. M. chai-ananii,
M. chiangmaiensis, M. klackenbergii and M. smitinandii
have also been isolated from Thailand [5]. According to a
survey carried out by the Indian Central Seeds Committee,
there are about 8.5 million Madhuca trees in India [21].
The distribution of five common species in India has been
summarized in Table 1. These five species can also be
differentiated by their leaf structure which has also been
listed in the same table.
Different Parts and Their Uses
Mahua is an economically important tree because of
widespread uses of almost it’s every part. The tree has a
large spreading superficial root system that holds the soil
together and prevents soil erosion. Vesicular–arbuscular
mycorrhizal associations and root colonization have been
observed in mahua which helps in nitrogen fixation. Wood
is hard and reddish brown in colour, very heavy (929 kg/
cu. m) and takes a fine finish. It is used for house construction, naves and felloes of cartwheels, door and window frames. Leaves are generally oblong-shaped, thick and
firm, exuding a milky sap when broken. Young leaves are
pinkish and woolly underneath. Flowers are cream colored,
fleshy and clustered at the end of branches. Fruits are
ovoid, fleshy greenish 3–5 cm long containing 1–4 shiny
elliptical brown seeds. Most of the leaves fall from February to April and at the same time, flower appears. A
couple of months after flowering period, the fruit opens.
The fruit is an egg-shaped king of berry. Mature seeds can
be obtained during June to July. The different parts and
their various applications have been summarized in
Table 2.
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
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Table 2 Uses of different parts of mahua
Part
Use(s)
References(s)
Roots
Root paste used to expel intestinal worms
[22]
Bark
Treatment of rheumatism, ulcers, itches, bleeding and spongy gums, tonsilitis,
leprosy and diabetes
[11, 23, 24]
Leaves
Flower
Fruit
Seed
Seed oil
Dyeing and tanning
[11]
Insect repellant
Building structures and furniture
[25]
[11]
Fuel wood and timber
[26]
As a poultice to relieve eczema
[24]
Dressing for wounds and burns (Leaf ash ? Ghee (clarified butter))
[24]
Fodder for cattle, Green mannure
[27]
As coolant, aphrodisiac, galactagogue, expectorent and carminative
[6, 11]
Beneficial in heart diseases, burning sensation, biliousness and ear complaints
[6, 11]
Making sugar syrup (after decolorizing it with 3.5–5% Activated Charcoal)
[6]
Preparation of bakery and confectionary goods (candy, biscuits, jam, jelly and cake)
Fomentation in cases of orchitis
[28]
[11]
Flowers fried in ghee (clarified butter) are eaten by people suffering from piles
[23]
Preparation of liquor
[2, 3, 6, 15, 26, 29–36]
Ethanol fermentation
[27, 31]
Antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli
[37]
Effective against rice pest diseases
[4]
Treatment of chest problem such as bronchitis
[24]
Used in making vinegar
[24]
Spent flowers (after fermentation) are also used as animal feed
[3, 6]
New anti-bacterial mahua Flower agar medium
[38]
Production of organic mannure by addition to the waste organic matter
[39]
Increases the production of breast milk
[24, 40]
Employed as a lotion in chronic ulcer, in acute and chronic tonsillitis and pharyngitis
[41]
Consumption and curing blood diseases
[11, 42]
As galactagogue
[11]
Seed husk contains active carbon with good bleaching
[11]
Seed shells for removal of Cr(VI)
[43]
Insect repellant
[25]
Nutritional tonic and stimulant
[44]
Curing bronchitis, snake bites, fish poison and scorpian sting
[44, 45]
Beneficial in skin diseases, rheumatism, bilious fevers and burning sensation
Good emollient
[11, 23, 24, 46]
[11]
Biodiesel production
[16, 17, 47, 48]
Seeds fat used as galactagogue
[16, 17]
Manufacture of laundry soaps and lubricants
[16, 17, 49]
Used in cooking, adulteration of ghee, and manufacturing chocolates
[16, 17]
Controlling pulse beetle Callosobruchus maculatus c
[50]
Used as bakery fat due to absence of trans fatty acid
[23, 46, 51]
Fat used in making margarine
[52]
Making cocoa butter substitute
[9, 53]
Poultry rations
[49]
Used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries
[3, 49]
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Table 2 continued
Part
Use(s)
References(s)
Seed cake
Hair wash along with Shikakai (Acacia concinna)
[9, 25, 54]
Fungicide
[49, 55]
Insecticidal and pesticidal property
[9, 17, 25]
Dye removal from waste waters
[56]
Nematicide
[57]
Livestock feed and manure (rich in nitrogen)
[3, 48, 58]
Mahua flowers, seed oil and seed cake due to their manifold uses have been discussed in detail
Mahua Flowers
Table 3 Composition of mahua flowers (?; trace amounts)
Constituents
The annual production of mahua flowers in India during
1997–1998 was about 45,000 metric tons which has
remained more or less constant during 2003–2004 and
2004–2005 [31]. Flowering of an average size mahua tree
occurs during March–April each year [6, 59, 60]. The
flowers are fleshy, off white in color, and emit attractive
sweet fragrance when the plant is in full bloom [61].
Collection of mahua flower is an important source of
employment for the poor in India [6]. Storage of flowers for
its various uses is a difficult task as being hygroscopic in
nature, they tend to absorb atmospheric moisture and get
spoiled [18]. Table 3 lists the composition of mahua
flowers as reported by various authors for different species.
Being a rich source of sugars, proteins, vitamins and
minerals, mahua flowers are eaten raw or when cooked [6].
Massive use of flower is implemented in making distillated
liquor [3, 11, 31, 62]. The freshly prepared liquor has a
strong, smoky, fetid odour, which disappears on ageing. It
is reported to excite gastric irritation and produce other
unpleasant effects whereas the redistilled one can be as
good in quality as Irish liquor [23]. Mahua flower being
very rich in fermentable sugars (28.1–36.3 g per 100 g/
66–72% of dry weight) are considered as the most
important raw material, next to cane molasses, in production of alcohol [11, 31]. About 90 per cent of the theoretical
amount of ethyl alcohol can be obtained by the fermentation of Madhuca flowers using endogenous natural yeast
strain. The fermentation is facilitated by the addition of
ammonium phosphate and dilute sulphuric acid [30]. One
ton of dried mahua flowers are reported to produce 90
gallons of 95% ethyl alcohol (rectified spirit). Mahua
flowers have also been tried for acetone fermentation.
Flowers as well as spent flowers generated after fermentation also find application as a feed for livestock without
affecting their yield and quality of milk [3, 11]. It has been
observed that the flesh of animals, particularly pigs, fed on
mahua flowers acquire a delicate flavor [9]. About 80% of
juice extracted from flowers is concentrated to produce
honey like liquid sweetener. This sweetener can be used
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[65]
[30]
[18]
54.06
Total sugars (%)
72.9
60.7
(Sugars)
Arabinose
Pentoses
Rhamnose
Dextrose
Fructose
Levulose
Glucose
Maltose
Sucrose
Sucrose
Fat (%)
0.6
Fibre (%)
1.7
Moisture (%)
18.6
19.8
Ash (%)
2.7
4.36
Starch (%)
Vitamins (per
100 g)
3.6
3.6
Vitamin A
39 IU
Thiamine
32 lg
Nicotinic acid
5.2 mg
Riboflavin
878 mg
Ascorbic acid
7.0 mg
Pentothenic acid
?
Folic acid
?
0.5
Minerals
Phosphorous
0.09
1.9
11.61
0.028 mg
0.87 g
Niacin
Biotin
[66]
4.8 mg
?
1.140 mg/
100 g
2 mg/l
Calcium
0.140 mg
8 ppm
Iron
15.0 lg
Magnesium
?
Copper
?
Enzymes
Catalase
Catalase
Maltase
Emulsin
Oxidase
Invertase
Oxidase
further as syrup suitable for making good quality jams,
candies, jelly, sauce, confectionery goods and as a substitute for brown sugar [6, 11]. The flowers can also be
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
used in making vinegar and other products which are
conventionally made from cane sugar [11].
Flowers possess several medicinal value as well- coolant, aphrodisiac, galactagogue, expectorant, demulcent,
anthelmintic, carminative and laxative properties [7, 9, 11].
They are also reported to be beneficial in heart diseases,
burning sensation, biliousness and ear complaints [11].
Distilled spirit from flower is a powerful diffusible stimulant and astringent [25] and considered to be a tonic and
salutary in diarrhea and colitis. The flowers promote the
removal of catarrhal matter and phlegm from the bronchial
tubes and therefore used in cough, cold and bronchitis. In
skin diseases, the juice of flower is rubbed for oleation as
they also exercise a soothing effect on the skin and mucous
membranes [63]. The decoction of flower is a valuable
remedy for pitta disease. Flower juice is also beneficial as a
nasya (nasal drops) in diseases of the head due to pitta like
sinusitis [64]. Fresh juice of flower is used in great benefits
to arrest bleeding. The flowers have also been reported to
play an important role in augmenting the breast milk in
lactating mothers and in boosting the quantity of seminal
fluids [64]. Some antibacterial properties have also been
reported [9]. Flower powder in mixture with ghee and
honey has been found to be beneficial for people suffering
from piles [11]. Dried flower are used as a fomentation in
cases of orchitis for their sedative effect [11]. The honey
from flower is edible and is reported to be used for eye
diseases [9].
Mahua Oil Seed
Madhuca flowers produce green fleshy fruits containing
three to four seeds which are ellipsoidal in shape. Unlike
many other tropical fruit seeds, the seeds of Madhuca show
a good commercial potential as a source of vegetable fat
[20]. The potential availability of mahua seeds is 4.9–5.1
lakhs tones [52] which are being collected in organized
sectors and utilized for oil [3, 49]. Harvesting period of
mahua seeds is at the time of peak rainfall (July–August)
[67]. Depending on the size and age of the tree, yield of
mahua sees varies from 5 to 200 kg/tree [48]. The average
yield of sun dried mahua seed is about 1.6 kg/tree. The
seed yield of the tree can increase tenfold starting from an
age of 10 years up to an age of 60 years [48]. The tree is
valued for its fat/oil and is therefore also known as ‘The
Indian Butter tree’. The composition of mahua seed as
reported by various authors has been listed in Table 4.
Mahua has an estimated oil production potential of 18
lakhs metric tones per year in India [48, 68]. It is by far
considered the most important tree seed oils for the tribals
of India [18]. Fresh oil is pale yellow fluid at room temperature with an unpleasant taste and odour [3, 18]. On the
basis of iodine number, mahua oil can be classified as non-
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drying oil [3]. The peroxide value of mahua seed oil
indicates that mahua seed may have low levels of oxidative
and lipolytic activities. It tends to go rancid during storage,
mainly due to the presence of oxidable constituents in the
unsaponification fraction [3]. Palmitic acid is the major
saturated fatty acid present. The total unsaturated fatty acid
content have a major portion of oleic and linoleic acid. This
might focus interest on the use of mahua seed oil, as
unsaturated vegetable oils have an ability to reduce serum
cholesterol levels [3]. The high oil content indicates the
suitability of mahua seeds for industrial purposes as it
reduces the production cost by avoiding hydrogenation and
transesterification. Unlike other tree borne seeds which
have the presence of toxic principles like curcurin in
jatropha, ricin in castor and pongamin and karakjiin flavonoid in karanj, mahua oil is fit for human consumption
[69]. Table 5 lists the composition and various properties
of mahua seed oil.
The oil is edible and is used for cooking in some rural
areas of India. As reported by National Seed and Vegetable
Oil Development Board of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Govt. of India, oil is used for edible purpose by blending
5% of it in other edible oils [67]. Mahua oil (MO) finds
application in the manufacturing of soaps, particularly
laundry soaps. The oil is sometimes used as an adulterant
for ghee; for this purpose it is clarified with buttermilk to
mask the odour. Refined oil finds use in cooking, confectionery, chocolate making and manufacturing of lubricating
greases and fatty alcohols [67]. The oils have also been
tested as potential cocoa butter extenders [47, 70, 71]. The
oil is also used for candle making, as batching oil in jute
and as a raw material for the production of stearic acid [9].
Mahua oil has been reported to be beneficial in curing skin
diseases, rheumatism, bilious fevers and burning sensation
[11]. It acts as a good emollient. It also possesses pesticidal
value. Application of M. longifolia oil at 0.5 ml/100 g of
seeds has been recommended as the optimum dose to
protect seeds without affecting their organoleptic properties or germination or any other damage. Utilization of M.
longifolia oil to protect cowpea seeds has been reported as
an eco-friendly and an economically viable method [50].
Biodiesel due to its environmentally safe, non-toxic,
biodegradable and renewable nature, as against the conventional diesel, has been regarded as the fuel of future.
For use as biodiesel, fatty acid methyl esters of various
seed oils, both edible and non-edible, have been found
suitable. The edible sources mainly include soybean,
rapeseed, sunflower and safflower [12, 72, 73]. Few
attempts have been made for producing biodiesel from
non-edible sources like greases, tallow, lard, jatropha
(Jatropha curcas), neem (Azadirachta indica), castor
(Ricinus communis), karanj (Pongamia pinnata), mahua
(Madhuca indica) and kokkam (Garcinia indica) [74–78].
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180
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
Table 4 Composition of mahua oil seed
Components
[3]
[9]
[18]
[4]
[12]
[56]
[49]
Mahua seed
cake
Mahua seed
cake
Mahua seed
cake
Mahua seed
cake
Mahua seed
cake
Defatted
flour
19.1
19.1
24.39
15.38
24
10.39
1
7.8
5.52
Mahua seed
cake
Defatted
flour
Protein (N 9 6.25)
(%)
16.9
29.4
Oil (%)
51.5
1.1
3.2
8.6
8.4
Fibre (%)
Carbohydrates (%)
22
16.3
55–56
42.8
51.3
Ash (%)
3.4
6
6.3
6.8
9.2
Saponins (%)
2.5
9.8
4.6
5.1
5.1
Tannins (%)
0.5
1
Moisture (%)
8
64.36
4.63
34
10.85
6
5.89
10.4
1.2
8.7
6.5
12
Phosphorus as
P2O5 (%)
0.78
Volatile matter (%)
Fixed carbon (%)
68.3
18.4
Lignin (%)
20.21
Cellulose (%)
60.42
Hemicellulose (%)
16.21
Bulk density (g/cc)
0.3482
Organic matter (%)
90.8
Sapogenols (%)
95.37
1.6
1.6
CaO (%)
0.49
K2O (%)
2.93
Table 5 Composition and properties of mahua seed oil
[3]
[18]
Refractive index
1.4795
1.452–1.462
Specific gravity
0.915
Saponification value
196
187–197
Iodine value
80.2
55–70
Peroxide value (meq/kg)
24
24.5
1
1.0–3.0
[12]
[1]
[16]
[80]
Physico-chemical property
Cetane number (CN)
Unsaponifiable matter (%)
1.456
198.34–202.78
190
52.09–68.59
59
58.0–51.58
Acid value (mg KOH/g of oil)
16
Fatty acids composition (%)
Palmitic
Stearic
17.8
14
24.5
22.7
11.65–61.5
19.11–32.16
17.8
14
16–28.2
20–25.1
16–28.3
20–25.2
Oleic
46.3
37
32.91–48.65
46.3
41–51
41–52
Linoleic
17.9
14.3
9.36–15.42
17.9
8.9–13.7
8.9–13.8
Linolenic
1.7
Arachidic
0.9
0–3.3
0–3.4
Total unsaturated
65.9
46.66–60.65
Total saturated
32.7
39.33–52.75
Mahua with its huge oil potential offers a great scope for
biodiesel production. There are at least four ways in which
oils and fats can be converted into biodiesel, namely,
123
transesterification, blending, micro emulsions and pyrolysis—transesterification being the most commonly used
method [79, 80]. Mahua oil methyl esters (MOME) have
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
181
Table 6 Properties of mahua oil biodiesel (MOB)
Property
[17]
MO
[16]
MOB
B20
MO
[16] [17] [47]
MOB
MO
MOB
Standards
Diesel
USA ASTM
Europe EN
Flash point (°C)
212
129
103
212
129
232
208
68
[130
[120
Kinematic viscosity @ 40°C
28.58
5.1
4.04
27.63
4.85
24.58
3.98
2.6
1.9–6.0
3.5–5.0
Copper strip corrosion
1.5
1
1
Cloud point (°C)
17
4
-3
18
9
Density at 15°C (kg/m3)
897
876
838
915
883
960
880
850
Calorific value (MJ/kg)
35.61
36.91
41.75
35.61
36.91
36
37
42
14
5
51
15
6
7
51
Pour point (°C)
Cetane number
1
-6
860–900
[47
[51
Acid value
38
0.41
0.35
\0.8
\0.5
Water content (%)
1.6
0.04
0.02
\0.03
\0.05
\0.02
Ash content (%)
0.9
0.01
0.01
Carbon residue (%)
3.7
0.2
0.17
been prepared by transesterification using potassium
hydroxide (KOH) as a catalyst [17]. The fuel properties of
mahua oil biodiesel (MOB) are closely related to diesel and
confirm to the ASTM standards. From the engine test
analysis, it has been observed that the MOB, B5 and B20
blend results in lower CO, HC and smoke emissions as
compared to diesel. Hence MOB or blends of MOB and
diesel (B5 or B20) can be used as a substitute for diesel in
diesel engines used in transportation as well as in the
agriculture sector [16]. It has also been observed that the
fuel properties of mahua biodiesel are similar to those of
karanja and jatropha biodiesel except the viscosity which
can be suitably modified by transesterification [16].
Table 6 lists the various properties of mahua oil biodiesel
(MOB) as reported by various authors.
Even though mahua oil is used for consumption, some
authors have reported its toxicological nature. The incidence
of aflatoxin contamination in mahua seeds was several-fold
higher than permissible limits of imposed regulatory
guidelines by FAO, WHO, European and Asian countries
[67, 81]. It was observed that inclusion of alkaline-refined
edible grade mahua oil (from Madhuca latifolia) at a rate of
10% in the diet of weanling albino rats for 14 weeks reduced
their reproductive performance in the second generation.
Histological studies showed bilateral testicular atrophy with
degenerative changes in the seminiferous tubules [1].
Mahua Seed Cake (MC)
After the extraction of oil from mahua seed, a major portion (60–70%) of raw material is left over as the seed cake.
Mahua seed meal/cake is a good source of nitrogen and
proteins [18]. Small quantities of the cake are sometimes
fed to cattle without any apparent ill effects. It has also
been used as manure either alone or in mixture with other
\0.02
\0.3
cakes and ammonium sulphate. The cake goes mainly as a
low-grade fertilizer [82]. It is also used along with shikakai
(Acacia concinnca) as a hair wash in south India [9, 18, 25,
54]. The foaming agent of mahua seed cake makes the cake
suitable in preparation of detergent, shampoo and toiletry
[18]. Active carbon with good bleaching properties has
been prepared from the husks of mahua seeds [9]. At
an optimum condition (pH: 2; temperature: 30°C; dosage:
6 g/l; shaking speed: 150 rpm), cake has a potential to
absorb Congo red dye for lower concentration range up to
75 mg/l [56]. The defatted mahua seed flour has an oil
absorption capacity of 4.5 ml/g flour i.e. twice that of
water; which makes it suitable for bakery products. High
emulsification capacity of flour makes it advantageous for
preparation of sausages and other meat products [3].
Mahua seed cake is applied to lawns and golf greens, as
saponins present in it have a specific action against earthworms. The cake may be used in the formulation of moulding
powder composition. It possesses insecticidal, piscicidal and
pesticidal properties [9, 12, 24, 25, 29]. Mahua cake independently or in combination with a chemical nematicide
(Carbofuran3G) has been reported for the management of
Pratylenchus delattrei in crossandra under glass house
conditions. Application of cake against nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) has shown to improve plant growth [55].
Mahua also inhibited the mycelial growth (by 64.16%) and
spore germination (by 71.41%) of Bipolaris oryzae (Cochliobolus miyabeanus), the causal agent of brown spot disease
of rice [83]. The residum or cake left after the expression of
the oil has also been employed as an emetic [23].
Toxicity of Mahua Seed Cake (MC) The use of mahua
seed cake in food or livestock feeds is limited by the
presence of bitter and toxic components, viz. the saponins
[46]. Saponins are a diverse group of low molecular-weight
123
182
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
Fig. 1 Aglycones present in
mahua saponins [1]
secondary plant metabolites that are widely distributed in
the plant kingdom. The chemical structure of saponins
consists of an aglycone of either steroidal or a triterpenoid
nature and one or more sugar chains (glycosides). Saponins
can form stable foam in aqueous solutions, hence the name
‘‘saponin’’ from the Latin word for soap (sapo) [84].
In Madhuca, the triterpenoids mostly occur in the seeds
up to a concentration of around 100 g/kg as for example in
M. butyracea [49] and M. longifolia [3, 85]. Species of
Madhuca contain pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins based
on an oxygenated oleanolic acid skeleton. The known
Madhuca saponins contain protobassic acid (2b, 6b,
28-trihydroxyoleanolic acid), 16a-hydroxyprotobassic acid
(2b, 6b, 16a, 28 tetrahydroxyoleanoic acid), or their 2-oxo
derivatives as aglycones (Fig. 1), with sugar residues
attached in most case to both C-3 and C-28 to form bidesmidic saponins [85–87]. New saponins are continuously
123
being isolated and their structures determined [86–90].
However, structural details proposed for some of the isolated
saponins are not reliable, and it is therefore difficult to conclude about the exact number of known Madhuca saponins.
Structures shown in Table 7 can be regarded as representative examples rather than as a comprehensive list [1].
Many authors have reported the toxic effects of saponins
[91, 92]. Rats fed with Madhuca latifolia meal, containing
5–6% saponin, at the level of 10–12% died in a month [93].
The oral LD50 in mice of crude Madhuca saponins (exact
botanical source not given) was about 1.0 g/kg body
weight. In mice and rats, Madhuca saponins caused local
gastrointestinal toxicity as well as liver and kidney toxicity.
At lower doses, Madhuca saponins can cause feed refusal
and starvation with reduced body weight gain and
increased mortality. Results from studies on Madhuca seed
cakes, which contain saponins, on ruminants indicate that
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
183
Table 7 Saponins isolated from Madhuca species [1]
Madhuca species
Saponin
Structure
References
M. longifolia
Madlongiside A
6b,23-dihydroxy-2-oxooleanoic acid 28-O-a-L-arabinopyranoside
[87]
M. longifolia
Madlongiside B
3-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl 6b,23-dihydroxy-2-oxooleanoic acid 28-O-a-Larabinopyranoside
[87]
M. longifolia
Madlongiside C
Protobassic acid acid 28-O-a-L-arabinopyranoside
[87]
M. longifolia
Madlongiside D
Protobassic acid 28-O-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)-O-a-L-arabinopyranoside
[87]
M. longifolia M.
butyracea
Mi-saponin A
3-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl protobassic acid 28-O-b-D-rhamnopyranosyl(1-3)b-D-xylopyranosyl(1-4)-a-L-arabinopyranoside
[86, 87,
90]
M. butyracea
Butyroside A
3-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl protobassic acid 28-O-b-D-apiofuranosyl(1-3)-b-Dxylopyranosyl(1-4)-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)-a-L-arabinopyranoside
[90]
M. butyracea
Butyroside B
3-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl 16a-hydroxyprotobassic acid 28-O-b-Dapiofuranosyl(1-3)-b-D-xylopyranosyl(1-4)-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)-a-Larabinopyranoside
[90]
M. butyracea
Butyroside C
3-O-b-D-glucuronopyranosyl protobassic acid 28-O-b-D-rhamnopyranosyl(13)-b-D-xylopyranosyl(1-4)-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)-a-Larabinopyranoside
[86]
M. butyracea
Butyroside D
3-O-b-D-glucuronopyranosyl 16a-hydroxyprotobassic acid 28-O-b-Dapiofuranosyl(1-3)-b-D-xylopyranosyl(1-4)-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)-a-Larabinopyranoside
[86]
M. butyracea
16a-hydroxy Misaponin A
3-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl 16a-hydroxyprotobassic acid 28-O-b-Drhamnopyranosyl(1-3)-b-D-xylopyranosyl(1-4)-a-L-arabinopyranoside
[90]
they are more tolerant to Madhuca saponins than monogastric animals and can tolerate inclusion levels of up to a
maximum of 20% of the total diet [1]. Except for piscicidal
effect of Madhuca saponins by water exposure in guppy
fish, no toxicity studies after dietary exposure have been
identified in fish [1]. The defatted meal, though contains
a good amount of protein, is not edible due to the presence
of saponins which are toxic [94]. Thus, detoxification of
mahua seed flour is necessary before its extensive utilization in food or feed products.
Table 8 Different methods for
saponin removal from mahua
seed cake (MC)
Treatment
Detoxification of Mahua Seed Cake A number of processes have been examined for reducing the saponin content
in mahua seed cake. Jakhmola et al. [85] reported that simple
water treatment of Madhuca cake to reduce the saponins
content appears to improve the utilization potential of the
press cake as an animal feed. The detoxification has been
achieved in a number of different ways, including ureaammoniation, soaking in cold or hot water, salt solutions, etc.
[3, 49, 95–98]. Table 8 lists the various solvents/methods
tried for the detoxification of mahua cake.
Saponins
removal (%)
Sapogenols
removal (%)
Tanins
removal (%)
31.77
References
Ethanol
86.46
–
Single stage ethanol extraction
55
–
–
[49]
[95]
Double stage ethanol extraction
Cold water
90
87.1
–
99.4
–
–
[49]
[4]
Hot water
85.7
98.6
–
[4]
0.25% NaOH
61.9
98.5
–
[4]
–
[4]
0.5% NaOH
54.6
98.3
Water
65.44
–
35.71
[96]
Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate
buffer (pH 6)
70.8
–
61.21
[96]
Ammonium ferrous sulphate
88.39
–
52.87
[96]
Ammonium acetate
60.23
–
39.05
[96]
Triammonium citrate
50.66
–
61.21
[96]
Diammonium hydrogen citrate
45.24
–
52.87
[96]
Diammonium hydrogen carbonate
68.9
–
48.12
[96]
Ammonium ferric sulphate
54.834
–
39.05
[96]
123
184
Experiments with Mahua Seed Cake (MC)
From above, we find that almost every part of mahua is
utilized in one way or another. Most importantly, mahua
flowers and oil have extensive usage. After the extraction
of the oil, much of the material is left as the seed cake,
which though being rich in nutrients is not much utilized
because of its toxic saponins. Since the cake is a rich
source of sugars and proteins, attempts were made for its
effective utilization. A simple water treatment was given to
detoxify the cake. The raw cake and the detoxified cake so
obtained were checked for the production of biogas and the
growth of Pleurotus mushrooms.
Materials and Methods
Characterization of Cake
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
up was designed in a specific manner so as to collect the
biogas by water displacement method and periodically
withdraw the slurry samples from the digester for analysis.
The total solids in each set up were, however, maintained at
10% and the working volume of each digester at 5 l. The
experiment was run for a period of 70 days in a room with
its average temperature maintained at 35 ± 2°C with the
help of a room heater thermostat. Each treatment was set
up in triplicate and repeated twice. To each set, an inoculum from a running biogas plant was added [99].
The quantity of biogas produced in different treatments
was measured by the water displacement method daily. Gas
samples from each set up were collected weekly and analyzed for their methane and carbon dioxide content using
Gas Chromatography (Agilent Technologies 7890A GC
system). The total solids and combustible solids in the
slurries obtained were determined as above.
The cake used in experiments was procured from Pratapgarh area in U.P., India and characterized by NISCAIR,
CSIR, India. The toxic saponins present in the cake were
extracted following the protocol of Lalitha et al. [88] and
their %age content in the cake was determined.
Moisture content and total solids (TS) were determined
by heating the cake at 60°C for 24 h and then at 103°C for
about 3 h using a hot air oven. These oven dried samples
were further heated to 550 ± 5°C temperature for about
5 h in a muffle furnace to determine the total combustible
solids [99].
Carbon and nitrogen contents were estimated using
CHN analyzer (CHNOS Elementar, Vario EL III model)
and the crude protetin was obtained by multiplying the
nitrogen content by a factor of 6.25 [99]. Total soluble
sugars were determined by the anthrone method and oil
content by using hexane as the extracting solvent and
heating at 60–65°C in a soxhlet apparatus [99].
A simple treatment was given to detoxify the cake as
follows. The cake was soaked overnight in water at a
dilution ratio of 1:6 (cake:solvent) sufficient as to soak the
cake completely without making the mixture too thick to
separate. The cake was then filtered and its saponin content
was found as above.
The average of three determinations was taken in all the
cases and the final value was reported.
Mushroom Cultivation
Biogas Production
Characterization of Cake
For experiments on biogas production, fresh cow dung was
collected from the village katwaria Sarai, Delhi, India. The
raw as well as the detoxified cake were mixed in various
proportions of 25, 50 and 75% with cow dung (CD) in 7 l
bottles fabricated at the Biogas Lab, Centre for Rural
Development and Technology (CRDT), IIT Delhi. The set
Mahua seed cake was characterized as Madhuca longifolia
(L.) J.F. Macbr. Var. latifolia (Roxb.) A. Chev. Syn.
Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. M. latifolia Macbr.; Bassia
latifolia Roxb by NISCAIR, CSIR, India. A voucher
specimen has been deposited there. Table 9 lists the composition of mahua seed cake used.
123
For experiments on mushroom cultivation, P. sajor-caju
spawn was procured from Bharat Mushroom Organisation,
New Delhi, India and stored at 4°C till subsequent use.
Chopped wheat straw (4–5 cm) was soaked overnight with
water containing formalin (100 ml formalin in 100 l water)
to make it free from any contamination. The extra water
was drained out. 2.5 kg wheat straw (on wet basis) was
taken and raw as well as detoxified mahua seed cake were
added at 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40% proportions, as a
source of nitrogen to the straw, and mixed properly. 10%
spawn (on dry basis) was added to each treatment. Further,
these substrate combinations were packed in polythene
bags (28 cm by 20 cm) with small holes for proper aeration
and allowed for spawn run at 20–25°C for 2–3 weeks.
After completion of the spawn run, which was visible from
the transparent polythene sheet as a white mycelial growth
over the substrate, the polythene bags were cut open. Water
was sprinkled regularly twice, at morning and afternoon,
to develop fruit bodies. Thereafter, the mushrooms were
harvested in 3–4 flushes. The total yield was reported as the
fresh weight of fruit bodies in grams obtained per kg dry
straw.
Results and Discussion
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
185
Table 9 Composition of mahua seed cake (MC)
Constituents (%)
Mahua cake
Moisture
7.81 ± 0.23
Total solids
92.18 ± 2.8
Total combustible solids
91.67 ± 1.67
Total soluble sugars
30.05 ± 1.23
Protein
19.68 ± 1.27
Fat
7.01 ± 0.7
Saponins (toxins)
16.7 ± 1.38
Carbon
44.93 ± 0.08
Nitrogen
3.15 ± 0.02
Table 10 Percentage change (? increase, -decrease) observed in
biogas volume over CD for various treatments [99]
Treatment
% Change in biogas volume
100% CD
-
25 (MC): 75 (CD)
(?) 14.28
50 (MC): 50 (CD)
(-) 12.7
75 (MC): 25(CD)
(-) 50.34
25 (50 DMC): 75 (CD)
(?) 40.13
50 (50 DMC): 50 (CD)
(?) 93.36
75 (50 DMC): 25 (CD)
(?) 61.22
It was found that the water treatment could reduce the
saponin content by approximately 50%. The resultant cake
was designated as 50% detoxified mahua cake (50 DMC).
Experiments on Biogas Production
The % age change in the total biogas volume obtained from
various treatments over CD is given in Table 10. With pure
cow dung, 196 l/kg TS of biogas could be obtained.
However, with the addition of 25% raw mahua seed cake,
about 14.28% increase in the production was observed.
This could be because mahua seed cake is rich in sugars
and proteins and might prove to be an additional nutrient
source for the bacteria involved in the process of biogas
production [99]. Further, addition of 50 and 75% raw
mahua seed cake to CD significantly decreased the biogas
volume obtained. On the other hand, 50 DMC could easily
be tolerated up to a proportion of 50% with CD giving a
maximum biogas production of 379 ± 3.6 l/kg TS, an
increase of 93.36% over the control [99]. Addition of 75%
50 DMC, however, decreased the biogas production. These
results suggest possibility of saponins being toxic to the
bacteria involved in the biogas production process but
further microbial studies are still required to validate this
observation [99]. Figure 2 gives the data from these two
substrates and compares the results with the biogas volume
obtained from other seed cakes used in different combinations, either alone or with CD [99–105].
Methane and carbon dioxide content in all the cases
varied between 50–60% and 38.5–48%, respectively.
Maximum decrease of 58.60% and 71.30% in total solids
and combustible solids, respectively was obtained for the
same treatment, i.e., 50 (CD): 50 (50 DMC) for which the
maximum biogas volume was obtained [99].
Experiments on Mushroom Cultivation
Out of the several species of mushrooms being commercially available, Pleurotus species offer several advantages.
They are rich in minerals, possess several medicinal
properties, have low demand on resources, are easiest and
least expensive to grow and can be cultivated on a variety
of substrates [102]. Figure 3 lists some substrates [106]
Fig. 2 Biogas volume obtained
from various non-traditional
substrates. Numbers in the
square brackets above the
histogram indicate the reference
123
186
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
Fig. 3 Substrates used for
cultivation of Pleurotus species.
Numbers in the square brackets
above the histogram indicate the
reference
Fig. 4 Effect of olive mill
effluent and mahua seed cake
(raw and detoxified) on the yield
of Pleurotus mushroom species
that have been used for the cultivation of different Pleurotus species [107–112].
Paddy straw and wheat straw (WS) have been reported
as traditional substrates for the growth of Pleurotus species. However, the use of seed cakes as nitrogen supplements have shown 50–100% increase in the mushroom
yields [106]. In the present study, experiments were also
performed to check if the raw as well as detoxified mahua
seed cake could support the growth of Pleurotus sajor caju
mushrooms. It was observed that the addition of cake could
significantly enhance the mushroom yield. Both the cakes,
raw as well as detoxified, could be easily tolerated up to
10% after which the yield started decreasing. Maximum
yield of 477 g/kg dry straw was obtained from the combination containing 10% 50 DMC along with WS, an
123
increase of about 128% over the control. The detoxified
cake seemed to perform better than the raw cake. This was
well supported by the fact that the toxic saponins, extracted
from mahua seed cake (MC), when tested alone were found
to inhibit the growth of Pleurotus sajor caju fungus. Figure 4 shows the trend in the total yield of Pleurotus sajor
caju obtained with addition of different concentrations of
raw and 50 DMC to wheat straw (WS) and compares it
with the results obtained with other Pleurotus species
cultivated on WS to which different concentrations of olive
mill effluent were added [113–114]. As can be seen from
the graph, the effluent could be suitably tolerated up to
25% as against the solid cake in our case which could be
tolerated up to 10%, after which the decrease in the total
yield due to their toxic nature was observed.
Waste Biomass Valor (2012) 3:175–189
Conclusions
From the above study, it is concluded that mahua biomass
has a vast potential. After mahua flowers and oil, mahua
seed cake falls next in the category due its numerous uses.
Its nutrient rich composition makes it useful for various
applications, which can be further enriched after the
removal of its toxic saponins (detoxification). The cake has
given excellent results for the two new applications studied
(biogas and mushroom production) and many other
potential uses can further be explored.
Acknowledgment The authors are grateful to Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR) and IIT Delhi for the financial support
offered for the experimental work.
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