Records of Centipede Fauna In Sri Lanka

Duminda S.B. Dissanayake

Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is significantly important both in a regional and global scale. Sri Lanka has the highest species density (number of species present per 10,000 sq. km) for flowering plants, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals in the Asian region. The currently recognized statistics of the major plant and animal taxa that are treated in this book is given in the text. However, it should be noted that there are many other taxonomic groups in Sri Lanka that are excluded from this text due to lack of clear data on their current status

The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora This publication has been prepared by the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment in collaboration with the National Herbarium, Department of National Botanic Gardens. Published by: Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and National Herbarium, Department of National Botanic Gardens Amended Version Copyright : Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment Citation: 1. For citing the threatened list MOE 2012. The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. viii + 476pp 2. For citing an article Author name 2012. Title of the paper. In: The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Weerakoon, D.K. & S. Wijesundara Eds., Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. x-y pp ISBN Number : : 978-955-0033-55-3 Printed by : Karunarathne and Sons Pvt (Ltd) 67, UDA Industrial Estate Katuwana Road, Homagama. Available from : Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment. National Herbarium, Department of National Botanic Gardens. Cover page photos: George Van der Poorten Samantha Suranjan Fernando Ranil Nanayakkara Manoj Prasanna Samantha Gunasekera Mendis Wickremasinghe Thilanka Perera Table of Contents List of Abbreviations v Red Listing Team vi Participants of Expert Panel viii Acknowledgements xiv Message of the Minister of Environment xv Message of the Secretary, Ministry of Environment xvi A Brief Overview of the Biodiversity of Sri Lanka xvii Preparation of the 2012 Red List xx The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Dragonly Fauna of Sri Lanka 1 List of Dragonlies in Sri Lanka 5 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Ants in Sri Lanka 11 List of Ants in Sri Lanka 15 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Bees in Sri Lanka 20 List of Bees in Sri Lanka 23 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Butterlies of Sri Lanka 26 List of Butterlies in Sri Lanka 32 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Spiders in Sri Lanka 42 List of Spiders in Sri Lanka 45 Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka 58 List of Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka 63 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Land Snails in Sri Lanka 65 List of Land Snails in Sri Lanka 69 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Fishes in Sri Lanka 77 List of Freshwater Fish in Sri Lanka 82 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Amphibians in Sri Lanka 88 List of Amphibians in Sri Lanka 92 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Reptile Fauna in Sri Lanka 99 List of Reptiles in Sri Lanka 104 iii The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Birds in Sri Lanka 114 List of Birds in Sri Lanka 118 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Mammals in Sri Lanka 134 List of Mammals in Sri Lanka 138 Analysis of Faunal Groups 145 Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Pteridophyte Flora of Sri Lanka 148 Summary of the Status of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka 154 List of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka 155 Present Status of Dry-zone Flora in Sri Lanka 165 Present Status of Lowland Wet Zone Flora of Sri Lanka 175 Present Status of Montane Forests in Sri Lanka 181 Present Status of Fresh Water Aquatic Flora of Sri Lanka 186 Present Status of Mangroves in Sri Lanka 197 Present Status of Family Orchidaceae in Sri Lanka 200 Summary of the Status of Angiosperms of Sri Lanka 205 List of Gymnosperms in Sri Lanka 210 List of Angiosperms in Sri Lanka 210 Analysis of Seed Plants of Sri Lanka 340 Potential Applications of the National Red List and the Way Forward 346 References 353 Provisional Checklist of Sea Urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri Lanka 370 Provisional Checklist of Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea & Holothuroidea 373 Provisional Checklist of Soft Corals Recorded in Sri Lanka 375 Provisional Checklist of Corals in Sri Lanka 376 Provisional Checklist of Marine Aquatic Shelled Molluscs of Sri Lanka 384 Provisional Check List of the Marine Crustaceans in Sri Lanka 396 Provisional Checklist of Marine Fish of Sri Lanka 411 Provisional Checklist of the Leafhoppers in Sri Lanka 431 Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles in Sri Lanka 438 Provisional Checklist of Centipede Fauna in Sri Lanka 445 The IUCN Red List Categories 450 Criteria 452 iv List of Abbreviations ARROS BDS BEAR CABRE CEA CR CR(PE) DD E EN EW EX FAO FNCP GCS IFS IUCN LC LORRIS MOE NARA NCS NE NSCAC NT ORCA PGIS RFLP S SEALS SNR T VU Amphibian & Reptile Research Organization of Sri Lanka Biodiversity Secretariat Biodiversity Education & Research Organization Center for Applied Biodiversity Research and Education Central Environmental Authority Critically Endangered Critically Endangered Possibly Extinct Data Deicient English name Endangered Extinct in Wild Extinct Food and Agriculture Organization of UN Foundation for Nature Conservation & Preservation Global Conservation Status Institute of Fundamental Studies World Conservation Union Least Concerned Land Owners Restore Rainforests in Sri Lanka Ministry of Environment National Aquatic Resources & Research Development Agency National Conservation Status Not Evaluated National Species Conservation Advisory Committee Near Threatened Ocean Resources Conservation Association Post Graduate Institute of Science Regional Fisheries Livelihood Programme for South and Southeast Asia Sinhala name Spirit & Eco Adventure Living Squad Strict Nature Reserve Tamil name Vulnerable v Red listing Team Supervision and Guidance Prof. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo) Dr. Siril Wijesundara (Director General, Department of National Botanic Gardens) Mr. Gamini Gamage (Former Director, Biodiversity Secretariat) Mr. Ajith Silva (Former Director, Biodiversity Secretariat) Ms. Padma Abeykoon ( Director, Biodiversity Secretariat) Coordination Ms. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat) Ms. Hasula Wickramasinghe (Biodiversity Secretariat) Ms. Subhani Ranasinghe (National Herbarium) Dr. Achala Attanayake (Department of Botanic Gardens) Mapping Ms. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat) Ms. Saranga Jayasundara (Biodiversity Secretariat) Editors Prof. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo) Dr. Siril Wijesundara (Director General, Department of National Botanic Gardens) Editorial Assistance Mr. Pradeep Arjuna Jayatunga Cover page design & page setting Mr Sanjeewa Lelwala Data Compiling and Mapping Assistance Ms. Nadeeka Gunawardana (National Herbarium) Ms. Gayani Fonseka (National Herbarium) Ms Hasula Wickremasinghe (Biodiversity Secretariat) Ms. Himali de Costa (Biodiversity Secretariat) Mr Amila Sumanapala Mr Chaminda Ratnayake Mr. Gayan Kariyawasam Mr. Gihan Kanchana Vandergert Mr. H.L.Imeda Lahiru Mr. Kasun R.Dalpathadu Mr. Lasantha Jayaruwan vi Mr. M.P.Tharanga Wijewickrama Mr. M.T.R.Fernando Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda Mr. Sanjeewa Mahaarachchikumbura Mr. Tharaka Muthunayake Ms T.S. Herath Ms. A.M.S.K.Abeysekara Ms. A.M.Wathsala Abesinghe Ms. B.A.K.Wickramathilake Ms. K.A.Samanthi Kumarasinghe Ms. Kasundika Bandara Ms. L.W.L.H.Thejanikala Ms. N.G.K.D.D. Senevirathne Ms. S.A.Dilani Kaushalya Ms. S.M. Wijesuriya Ms. Sathiska Cathurani Epa Ms. Thilini Muthukudarachchi Ms. W. A. Sathya Surakshi Ms. W.G.Kanchana Kumuduni Ms. W.M.N.P.Wijayakoon Ms. T.A.Dilhani Jayawardana Ms. Gayani Hapuarachchi Ms. Himali Gamage vii Participants of Expert Panel Flora Higher Plants Prof. Deepthi Yakandawala Prof. Nimal Gunathilake Prof. Savithri Gunathilake Dr. Achala Attanayake Dr. Anoma Perera Dr. Hashendra Kaththiarachchi Dr. Magdon Jayasuriya Dr. Samantha Suranjan Fernando Dr. Siril Wijesundara Mr. Dilup Chandranimal Mr. Nalinda Peris Mr. Sarath Ekanayake Ms. Subhani Ranasinghe University of Peradeniya University of Peradeniya University of Peradeniya Department of National Botanic Gardens University of Peradeniya University of Colombo Environmental Management Limited PGIS & CABRE Department of National Botanic Gardens Flora Consultant Flora Consultant Flora Consultant National Herbarium Orchids Dr. Siril Wijesundara Dr. Samantha Suranjan Fernando Mr. Ajantha Palihawadana Mr. Samantha Gunasekara Department of National Botanic Gardens PGIS & CABRE Sewalanka Foundation Department of Customs Ferns Dr. D.N.K.G.Pushpakumara Dr. R.H.G.Ranil Ms. Nadeeka Gunawardana Mr. D.M.U.B.Dhanasekara University of Peradeniya University of Peradeniya National Herbarium Mangroves Prof. L.P. Jayatissa Prof. K.B.Ranawana Prof. Mala Amarasinghe Dr. Abyerami Sivasubramanium Dr. T. Jayasingam Mr. Duglus Thisera Mr. Hasantha Amarasekara Mr. M.Gammanpila Mr. Manoj Prasannna Mr. W.A.Sumanadasa University of Ruhuna University of Peradeniya University of Kelaniya University of Jaffna Eastern University of Sri Lanka Small Fisheries Federation RFLP & FAO NARA Biodiversity Secretariat NARA viii Fauna Freshwater Fishes Prof. Ruchira Cumaranatunga Prof. Upali Amarasinghe Dr. Terney Pradeep Kumara Mr. Dinesh Gabadage Mr. Jagath Gunawardana Mr. Kelum Manamendra Arachchi Mr. M.M. Bahir Mr. Madura De Silva Mr. Nadika Hapuarachchi Mr. Sajeewa Chamikara Mr. Samantha Gunasekara Mr. Sameera Akmeemana Mr. Sampath Goonatilake Mr. Shantha Jayaweera Mr. Tharaka Muthunayake Mr. Vimukthi Weeratunga Ms. Hasula Wickremasinghe Ms. Ramani Shirantha University of Ruhuna University of Kelaniya University of Ruhuna Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Wildlife Conservation Society Galle Wildlife Conservation Society Galle Sri Lanka Nature Group Sri Lanka Customs Wildlife Conservation Society Galle IUCN Young Zoologists’ Association University of Colombo Environmental Foundation Limited Ministry of Environment NARA Amphibians Mr. Anslem de Silva Mr. Dinal Samarasinghe Mr. Dinesh Gabadage Mr. Dushantha Kandambi Mr. Imesh Nuwan Bandara Mr. Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi Mr. M.M. Bahir Mr. Madura De Silva Mr. Mendis Wickramasinghe Mr. Sameera Akmeemana Mr. Sameera Karunarathna Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake Mr. Tharaka Muthunayake Mr. Thasun Amarasinghe Mr. V.A.M.P.K.Samarawickrama Mr. Vimukthi Weerathunga ARROS Young Zoologists’ Association Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society University of Peradeniya Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Wildlife Conservation Society Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society Galle Young Zoologists’ Association IUCN University of Colombo Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Environmental Foundation Limited Reptiles Mr. Ajantha Palihawadana Mr. Anslem de Silva Mr. Dinal Samarasinghe Mr. Dinesh Gabadage Mr. Dulan Ranga Vidanapathirana Mr. Duminda Nilakshana Mr. Dushantha Kandambi Sewalanka Foundation ARROS Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka ix Mr. Gayan Chathuranga Mr. Imesh Nuwan Bandara Mr. Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi Mr. M.M.Bahir Mr. Malaka Bopage Mr. Mendis Wickramasinghe Mr. Nadika Hapuarachchi Mr. Ruchira Somaweera Mr. Sameera Akmeemana Mr. Sameera Karunarathna Mr. Saminda Prasad Fernando Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake Mr. Tharaka Muthunayake Mr. Thasun Amarasinghe Mr. V.A.P.M.P. Samarawickrama Mr. Vimukthi Weeratunga University of Peradeniya Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society Galle Wildlife Conservation Society Galle Young Zoologists’ Association The Open University of Sri Lanka IUCN University of Colombo Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Environmental Foundation Limited Birds Prof. Devaka Weerakoon Dr. B.Z. Nizam Dr. Darshani Mahaulpatha Dr. Nanda Senanayake Dr. Nilmini Jayasena Dr. Sudheera Bandara Mr. Amila Prasanna Sumanapala Mr. Chaminda Pradeep Rathnayake Mr. Chinthaka Kalutota Mr. Deepal Warakagoda Mr. Dhammithra Samarasinghe Mr. Indika Peabotuwage Mr. Jagath Gunawardena Mr. Kithsiri Gunawardana Mr. Lester Perera Mr. Nadika Hapuarachchi Mr. Pathmanath Samaraweera Mr. Rohan Peiris Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake Mr. Sandun Jayawardana Dr. Sriyani Wickremasinghe Mr. Tharanga Herath Mr. Thushara Senevirathna Mr. Udaya Siriwardana Mr. Uditha Hettige Mr. Uditha Wijesena Mr. Upul Wickremasinghe Mr. V.A.M.P Samarawickrama University of Colombo The Open University of Sri Lanka University of Sri Jayawardanapura Ceylon Bird Club University of Peradeniya Young Zoologists’ Association University of Kelaniya Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka Ceylon Bird Club Young Zoologists’ Association Ceylon Bird Club Ceylon Bird Club Ceylon Bird Club Wildlife Conservation Society Galle Ceylon Bird Club Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka/ FNCP IUCN Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka Rajarata University of Sri Lanka Young Zoologists’ Association Ceylon Bird Club Ceylon Bird Club Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka x Mammals Prof. Devaka Weerakoon Dr. Charmalie Nahallage Dr. G.A.T. Prasad Dr. Jinie Dela Dr. Mayuri Wijesinghe Dr. Sriyani Miththapala Dr. Sriyani Wickramasingha Dr. Wipula Yapa Dr. Wolfgang Dittus Mr. Channa Rajapakse Mr. Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi Mr. M. Rohan Peiris Mr. Madura De Silva Mr. Nadika Hapuarachchi Mr. Ranil Nanayakkara Mr. S.R.B.Dissanayake Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda Mr. Saman Gamage Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake Ms. Anouk Ilangakoon Ms. Manori Goonatilake University of Colombo University of Sri Jayawardanapura Department of Wildlife Conservation University of Colombo Rajarata University of Sri Lanka University of Colombo IFS Commercial Bank Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology Open University of Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society- Galle Wildlife Conservation Society- Galle BEAR Department of Wildlife Conservation FNCP LORRIS IUCN Department of National Museums Butterlies Prof. Devaka Weerakoon Dr. George Van der Poorten Dr. Nirmalie Pallewatte Mr. Chamitha De Alwis Mr. Himesh Jayasingha Mr. Rajika Gamage Mr. Sajeewa Chamikara Mr. Sameera Akmeemana Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake Mr. Sandun J. Perera Mr. Sarath Sanjeewa Mr. V.A.M.P.K. Samarawickrama Mr. Vimukthi Weeratunga Ms. Chanuka Maheshani Ms. Manori Goonatilake Ms. Nancy Van der Poorten University of Colombo University of Colombo University of Sabaragamuwa Irrigation Department- Wellawaya Tea Research Institute Sri Lanka Nature Group Wildlife Conservation Society Galle IUCN University of Sabaragamuwa University of Sabaragamuwa Environmental Foundation Limited The Open University of Sri Lanka Department of National Museums Odonates Dr. George Van der Poorten Dr. Karen Conniff Mr. Sampath Gunasinghe Ms. Nancy Van der Poorten Wildlife Conservation Society Galle xi Ants Prof. Sriyani Dias Ms. Anuradha Kosgamage Ms. Wajira Swarnamali Peiris University of Kelaniya University of Kelaniya University of Kelaniya Spiders Dr. Suresh Benjamin Mr. Bhathiya Kekulandala Mr. Menan Jayarathna Mr. Mendis Wickremasinghe Mr. Ranil Nanayakkara Mr. Rohan Peiris Mr. Salindra Kasun Dayananda IFS Practical Action Young Biologists’Association Herpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lanka BEAR The Open University of Sri Lanka FNCP Bees Prof. Jayanthi Edirisinghe Dr. Inoka Karunaratne University of Peradeniya University of Peradeniya Freshwater Crabs Mr. Dinesh Gabadage Mr. M.M.Bahir Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society Land Snails Prof. Kithsiri Ranawana Dr. S. Krishnaraja Mr. T.G. Mahesh Priyadarshana Mr. V.A.M.P.K. Samarawickrama Mr. Rohana Jayasekara University of Peradeniya The Open University of Sri Lanka SEALS Corals Dr. S. Krishnaraja Mr.Arjan Rajasuriya The Open University of Sri Lanka NARA Marine Fish Dr. Terney Pradeep Mr. Kasun R. Dalpathadu Mr. Prasanna Weerakkody Mr. Rex de Silva University of Ruhuna University of Ruhuna ORCA Marine Crustaceans Prof. S. Kuganathan Mr. Prasanna Weerakkody University of Jaffna ORCA xii Bivalves & Gastropods Dr. Malik Fernando Sri Lanka Natural History Society Echinoderms Dr. Malik Fernando Dr. Sevvandi Jayakody Sri Lanka Natural History Society University of Wayamba Leafhoppers Dr. Raji. Gnaneswaran University of Jaffna Dung Beetles Dr. Enoka Kudavidanage Ms. Deepchandi Lekamge University of Sabaragamuwa University of Sabaragamuwa Centipedes Mr. Duminda Dissanayake Dr. Sriyani Wickramasingha Rajarata University of Sri Lanka Rajarata University of Sri Lanka xiii Acknowledgements The National Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora 2012, is compiled and presented as a result of great teamwork. We wish to thank Mr. B.M.U.D. Basnayaka, Secretary of the Ministry of Environment and Mr. N.K.G.K.Nammewatta, Additional Secretary of Ministry of Environment, for the encouragement and support provided. Former Director of Biodiversity Secretariat, Mr. Gamini Gamage, played a key role in initiating the 2012 National Red List. His successors, Mr. Ajith Silva and Mrs. Padma Abeykoon too provided all the support required to carry the project forward. The contributors and experts, who provided the key information necessary for the compilation of 2012 National Red List, are acknowledged with highest gratitude. We would also like to acknowledge the Global Red Listing Team for the training and logistical support they have provided throughout the red listing process. We wish to thank Dr. Suranjan Fernando for providing the initial training on Red Listing criteria and for volunteering as one of the editors for the lora section, Dr. R.H.G. Ranil and Mr. Pradeep Jayatunga for the editorial assistance provided for the pteridophyte and fauna section respectively and Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake for all the support provided. We wish to thank Mr. Sanjeewa Lelwala for voluntarily helping us with the cover design and page layout. All the Staff of Biodiversity Secretariat and National Herbarium are acknowledged for various support provided without reservation, in order to make this project a success. In addition, we like to acknowledge the management and staff of Karunarathne and Sons Printers, for going beyond their call of duty to print this book on time. Finally, we wish to thank, all the contributors and their respective organizations for making the National Red List of 2012, a reality. Red Listing Team xiv Message of the Minister of Environment According to the 1978 Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, it is the duty of the state and every person in Sri Lanka to protect, preserve and improve the environment for the beneit of the community. The Ministry of Environment has taken the responsibility of implementing the constitution in sustainable management of the environment. Sri Lanka is considered as a biodiversity hotspot due to its richness in Flora and Fauna and threats to their survival. As the policy makers of the country it is very important to identify and prioritize the species for conservation activities. I believe the National Red List 2012 has provided a solid base in this aspect by evaluating all lowering plants, ferns, all terrestrial vertebrates and major groups of invertebrates of the country. Together with the National Herbarium of the Department of Botanic Gardens, the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry has taken the leading role in preparation of National Red List 2012. I wish to thank the Fauna and Flora coordinators, the staff of National Herbarium and the members of the expert committees for their voluntary collaboration in successfully achieving this nationally important activity. I also congratulate the Director and the staff of the Biodiversity Secretariat of my Ministry for their effort in completing this event. I hope this document will be taken as an important tool in future development activities in becoming the immerging Wonder of Asia in a sustainable manner while conserving the biodiversity of the country for the generations to come. Anura Priyadharshana Yapa, Minister of Environment. xv Message of the Secretary, Ministry of Environment After completion of the National Red List 2007, the Species Conservation Unit was established under the Biodiversity Secretariat and all the literature and the Red List database was handed over to this unit by IUCN for updating the Red List. Preparation of 2012 Red List is one of the major activities of BDS for year 2012 With the contribution of the members of the expert groups established by the National Species Conservation Advisory Committee, the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry has completed the evaluation of lora and fauna of the country. The National Herbarium of the Department of Botanic Gardens collaborated in evaluation of Flora. Signiicance of the National Red List 2012 is the evaluation of all species by collaboration of two government institutions using government funds by building capacity of the government oficers. The database established by this activity will facilitate future research and provide guidance to the policy and legislations related to biodiversity. I wish to thank all the taxonomists, naturalist, researchers and other resource persons who contributed in providing data and comments in preparation of this publication. I also thank the Red Listing team for completing this publication successfully. I believe we as the Ministry of Environment has the responsibility in implementing the targets of the way forward for conservation of the priority species and area selected. B.M.U.D.Basnayake, Secretary, Ministry of Environment. xvi A Brief Overview of the Biodiversity of Sri Lanka Devaka Weerakoon University of Colombo Sri Lanka, with a total land area of 65,610 km2 is a tropical island situated in the Indian Ocean. The southwestern region of Sri Lanka, encompassing approximately 20,000 km2, is the only aseasonal ever wet region in the whole of South Asia (Ashton & Gunatilleke, 1987; Gunatilleke et al., 2005). This region is referred to as the wet zone of Sri Lanka and receives up to 3000 mm of rainfall annually. Wet-zone of Sri Lanka along with the Western Ghats of India is designated as one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, in demand of extensive conservation investment (Myers et al., 2000; Brookes et al., 2002). This high biodiversity seen in Sri Lanka can be attributed to a wide variety of climatic, topographic and soil conditions that exist in the island that has resulted in a diverse array of aquatic and terrestrial habitats (detailed descriptions of the natural terrestrial and aquatic natural habitats are given in the lora section). Sri Lanka was part of the ancient Gondwanaland and was located adjacent to the African continent. Around 160 million years ago, the Deccan plate which comprised of India and Sri Lanka, broke away from the Gondwanaland, drifted northwards and collided with the Asian plate around 55 million years ago. Thereafter, Sri Lanka separated from India due to submersion of the land bridge between the two countries about 20 million years ago. These zoogeographic, climatic, topographic and edaphic factors have shaped the faunal and loral assemblage seen in Sri Lanka. During the last 2 to 3 thousand years land-use changes brought about by humans have been instrumental in large scale habitat changes that have had both positive and negative inluences on Sri Lanka’s lora and fauna. Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is signiicantly important both in a regional and global scale. Sri Lanka has the highest species density (number of species present per 10,000 sq. km) for lowering plants, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals in the Asian region (NARESA, 1991). The currently recognized statistics of the major plant and animal taxa treated in this book are given in Table 1. However, it should be noted that there are many other taxonomic groups in Sri Lanka that are excluded from this table due to lack of clear data on their current status. Table 1. Species richness of selected faunal and loral groups of Sri Lanka Taxonomic Group Angiosperms Number of Species Number of Endemic Species 3,154 894 Gymnosperms 2 0 Pteridophytes 336 49 Soft corals 35 Hard corals 208 Spiders 501 Centipedes 19 Marine crustaceans 742 256 Fresh water crabs 51 50 Dragonlies 118 47 Ants 194 33 Bees 130 Butterlies 245 Leafhoppers 257 26 xvii Dung beetles 103 Bivalves 287 Gastropods (marine) 469 Land snails 253 Echinoderms 190 Marine ish 1377 Fresh water ish 21 205 91 50 Amphibians 111 95 Reptiles 211 125 Resident birds 240 27 + 6 Proposed Mammals 125 21 Even though the above table indicates that Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich biodiversity, at present only a small fraction of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is known to science. For instance, higher plants and vertebrates are the only taxa that have been studied in suficient detail to date. Lower plants and invertebrates are largely neglected except for few selected groups such as butterlies, dragonlies, land snails, pteridophytes and algae. Even the vertebrates and, for that matter, higher plants are not completely listed, as during the last two decade alone large number of new species have been discovered (Table 2). Even among the birds, which have been studied quite exhaustively, a new species of owl has been discovered recently (Warakagoda & Rasmussen, 2004). Table 2. How the number of species have changed over the last decade. Taxonomic group 1993 2012 Fresh water shrimps 21 23 Freshwater crabs 7 51 Freshwater ish 51 91 Amphibians 39 111 Reptiles 155 211 Mammals 90 125 The statistics shown in Tables 1 & 2 clearly indicate that most of the information available for lora and fauna of Sri Lanka is on higher plants or vertebrates. However, one must keep in mind that higher plants and vertebrates make up only about 3% of all the species described to date while Order Insecta alone make up about 54%. There is no doubt that large number of insect species are awaiting to be discovered in Sri Lanka. It will be rather unfortunate if some of these organisms would perish even before we discover them. Furthermore, so far very little attention has been given to species that inhabit the forest canopy. Studies in Australia and South America have shown that the forest canopy is home to large number of living organisms that will not be detected by the traditional sampling techniques used (Russell-Smith & Stork, 1995; Stork et al., 1997a; Stork et al., 1997b). Therefore, it is safe to say that one of the biggest drawbacks in conserving the biodiversity of Sri Lanka is the lack of knowledge about what we actually have. This state of affairs has arisen mainly due to lack of trained taxonomists as well as lack of initiative to explore the biodiversity of the country. The state agencies that are responsible for carrying out these activities have failed to address this issue appreciably due to funding constraints as well as lack of a clear xviii leadership to achieve this daunting task. On the contrary, few local and foreign academics and Non Governmental Organizations have been in the forefront of such exploration in the recent times. Their work led to the discovery of number of new species of plants and animals over the past decade as indicated in Table 2. Even if we mange to fully inventorize the biodiversity of Sri Lanka, it will be impossible to conserve all of them. Therefore, we will have to choose those species that require our immediate attention. Thus the conservation status of each species has to be determined. Based on such an evaluation a list of species is compiled with their present conservation status. Such lists are referred to as Red Lists or Threatened Lists and can be done at national, regional or global scale. These lists will help us to prioritize conservation action as well as to plan national and international legislature. However, listing the conservation status is only the irst step towards conserving threatened species. This should be followed with three other important steps which are planning, implementation, and monitoring. It appears that we have failed to address these issues appreciably. This clearly indicates that even though the need to conserve threatened species has been recognized, the necessary steps to conserve them have not been taken. Sri Lanka has a rich history of conserving biodiversity, which dates back to the ancient kings. Furthermore, Sri Lanka has a biodiversity that is worthy of conservation. There is also a great deal of enthusiasm among our people to conserve the biodiversity of this country. Now is the time to harness this enthusiasm and provide the right kind of leadership to the conservation movement of this country as there is still time to save the biodiversity of Sri Lanka. However, one must bear in mind that this is a race against time and time lost will also result in loss of species. References Ashton, P. M. S. & Gunatilleke, C. V. S., (1987). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I. Historical plant geography. Journal of Biogeography, 14, pp. 249-285. Brookes, T. M., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Fonseca, G. A. B. Da., Rylands, A. B., Konstant, W. R., Flick, P., Pilgrim, J., Oldield, S., Magin, G. & Hilton-Taylor, C., (2002). Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots of biodiversity. Conservation Biology, 16, pp.909-923. Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., Gunatilleke, C. V. S. & Dilhan, M. A. A. B., (2005). Plant biogeography and conservation of the southwestern hill forests of Sri Lanka. The Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12, pp.9-22 Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Fonseca, G. A. B. Da & Kent, J., (2000). Biodiversity hot spots for Conservation Priorities. Nature, 403, pp.853-858. NARESA., (1991). Natural resources of Sri Lanka: conditions and trends. Colombo: Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority. Russell-Smith, A. & Stork, N. E., (1995). Composition of Spider communities in the canopies of rain forest trees in Borneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11, pp. 223-235. Stork, N. E., Adis, J., & Didham, R.K. eds., (1997a). Canopy Arthropods. London: Chapman & Hall. Stork, N. E., Adis, J., & Didham, R.K., (1997b). Canopy Arthropod studies for the future. In: N.E. Stork, J. Adis, & R.K. Didham, eds. 1997. Canopy Arthropods. London: Chapman & Hall. pp.551-561. Warakagoda, D. H. & Rasmussen, P. C., (2004). A new species of scops-owl from Sri Lanka. Bull. B.O.C., 124 (2), pp. 85-105. xix Preparation of the 2012 Red List Dakshini Perera, Hasula Wickramasinghe and Saranga Jayasundara Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment, Battaramulla The irst list of threatened lora of Sri Lanka was prepared by Prof. B.A. Abeywickrama in 1987. This list was reproduced by Wijesinghe et al., in 1987 which also included a list of nationally threatened fauna. This list was updated by Wijesinghe et al., in 1993, using the data gathered from National Conservation Review of the natural forests of Sri Lanka. Although these lists were used widely by the scientiic community as well as policy makers, they were not accepted at a global scale as all these lists were prepared in a subjective manner by a few experts using their personal experience. In 1996 IUCN International introduced a new set of criteria for assessing the conservation status of a species based on an objective methodology as compared to the subjective process that was followed before that. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has formulated a group of scientists to carry out a fresh assessment of Sri Lankan species based on the new criteria that has been introduced by IUCN International. This group, having analyzed the available information, has come to the conclusion that the information available in Sri Lanka is inadequate to assess the conservation status of Sri Lankan species based on the new criteria. Therefore, they have proposed a scientiically accepted set of National Criteria developed along the same conceptual framework used by IUCN International, but applicable to the type of data available for Sri Lankan species. These criteria were used in the preparation of the 1999 threatened list of Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Altogether, 807 species of lowering plants and 1,243 species of fauna represented by dragonlies, butterlies, land snails, freshwater shrimps, freshwater crabs, freshwater ish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals were evaluated. The main drawback faced in this list was that it was prepared using national criteria and therefore, could not be compared with the global list. In 2004, the National Species Conservation Advisory Committee of the Ministry of Environment, requested that IUCN Sri Lanka, in collaboration with the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment, to establish a digital database containing information on all the Sri Lankan species as well as to update the conservation status of Sri Lankan species. This led to the publication of 2007 list of threatened fauna and lora of Sri Lanka, where species were evaluated using Global Redlist Categories and Criteria (version 3.1) and categories adapted at the regional level. In this list, altogether 1,099 lowering plants and 1,064 animals represented by freshwater ish, reptiles, birds, mammals, butterlies, land snails and Mygalomorph spiders were evaluated. Further, the conservation status of amphibians, dragonlies and freshwater crabs that has already been evaluated at a global scale has been included in this list making the total number of faunal species listed to 1,341. During this exercise GIS technology was used for the irst time in order to prepare distribution maps for each evaluated species and calculate their Extent of Occurrence and Area of Occupancy. Following the preparation of this Red List, a Species Conservation Unit was established under the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment in order to institutionalize the Red Listing Process in Sri Lanka. The Species Conservation Unit has been given the responsibility of updating the literature collection on Sri Lankan biodiversity, the xx National Species Database and coordinating all matters pertaining to species conservation including periodic updating of the National Red List. In 2009, the Biodiversity Secretariat started updating the National Red List. The updating of lora has been done in collaboration with the National Herbarium of the Department of National Botanical Gardens to evaluate the lora of the country. For this purpose an expert group was established for higher plants and pteridophytes. The task of data compiling for the evaluation of plants was handed over to the National Herbarium, which gathered data from all published literature and herbarium sheets. As only 1,099 species had been evaluated during the preparation of 2007 Red List, a decision was taken to enter all relevant information available for lowering plants and pteridophytes in to the National Species Database. Preparing the distribution maps of each of the species and draft evaluations were done by the Species Conservation Unit of the Biodiversity Secretariat and presented to the expert committee for the inal evaluation. All the native higher plants and pteridophytes were evaluated under this project. When one species has more than one sub species or varieties species assessment was done irst and the sub species/variety assessment was done subsequently if data were available and/or subspecies/variety is more threatened than the species. When both cultivated and wild varieties are present assessment was done based on the wild variety. Nomenclature of the lora was done following the most recent published literature. In the preparation of species list the most updated nomenclatura available was used unless otherwise stated. For the fauna, expert committees were established for freshwater crabs, spiders, dragonlies, butterlies, ants, bees, land snails, freshwater ish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. In addition, an expert group was formed for marine organisms. The data compilation, preparation of maps and draft evaluations were carried out by the Species Conservation Unit and presented to the individual expert groups for inal evaluation. For each taxonomic group two expert committee meetings were held. Comments received at the irst meeting were included and presented at the inal meeting where the lists and conservation status were inalized. Nomenclature of the fauna was done according to the latest published literature available. All the species related data were entered into excel sheets that were used for the preparation of species distribution maps using Arc view 3.2 software package. In most of the publications only the name of the location was given with province or district, but no geographic information. To overcome the problem a database was created using coordinates obtained from 1:50,000 scale maps of the Survey Department and geographic coordinates presented in the National Gazetteer. The species distribution maps were used to calculate the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) and Area of Occupancy (AOO) and to clarify the distribution points of the species. In calculation of the AOO 2 x 2 Km grid was used. District boundary maps, climatic zone maps, river basins and protected area network maps were overlaid for each species distribution map presented at the expert meetings. In application of Red List criteria, criteria B was used in most cases and criteria A and C were used in cases where the population data is available. As a precautionary measure, Category Critically Endangered possibly extinct CR(PE) was given to species with no distribution records in last 60 years as no comprehensive surveys has been conducted during recent past. xxi The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Dragonly Fauna (Insecta: Odonata) of Sri Lanka Nancy van der Poorten1 and Karen Conniff2 1 Hammaliya Estate, Bandarakoswatte 2 C\O ICIMOD, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, G.P.O Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal. Introduction Members of the order Odonata belong to one of two suborders: the Zygoptera (damsellies) and the Anisoptera (dragonlies). The life of an odonate revolves around water: eggs are laid in water; the larva spends its life in water feeding on aquatic prey; and adults usually court and mate near the oviposition site. Because of this intimate connection to water, odonates have been used as indicators of water quality and environmental quality for conservation work and biodiversity studies. Odonates are also used to monitor the effects of climate change. The odonate fauna of Sri Lanka has been studied since the mid-1800s. H. A. Hagen published the irst list of odonates from the island (then called Ceylon) in 1858-1859. He published several more works describing the island’s species with E. de Sélys Longchamps, one of the world’s foremost authorities on Odonata. Further studies by several well-known odonatologists including W. F. Kirby, F. F. Laidlaw, F. C. Fraser and M. A. Lieftnick continued up to about 1970. F. C. Fraser authored three volumes on the Odonata in the series The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma (1933, 1934, 1936). de Fonseka (2000) updated the taxonomy and included information on distribution, habitat, larvae and adults. This book has been invaluable in furthering interest and research. In the past 15 years, additional studies carried out primarily by M. Bedjanič and the authors have advanced our knowledge of the species and their distributions. Worldwide there are about 5700 described species of odonates. The current list for Sri Lanka includes 118 species in 12 families with a high degree of endemism: there are 47 endemic species and an additional 8 endemic subspecies. Three new endemic species are in the process of description. Since the last IUCN Red List publication (2007), ive new endemic species have been described: Drepanosticta bine, D. anamia, D. mojca (Bedjanič, M., 2010), Lyriothemis defonsekai (van der Poorten, 2009a) and Libellago corbeti (van der Poorten, 2009b). The odonate fauna of Sri Lanka includes many common Oriental species and is similar to the fauna of south India with which Sri Lanka is zoogeographically related. There are, however, several interesting exceptions and the high degree of endemism is noteworthy. All members of the following families are endemic: Chlorocyphidae (4 species), Euphaeidae (1 species), Protoneuridae (6 species), Platystictidae (18 species), Corduliidae (2 species), and Gomphidae (all except for 3 species). Some of the endemic species seem to be taxonomically isolated (e.g. Sinhalestes orientalis, Cyclogomphus gynostylus and Microgomphus wijaya). Taxonomy Since the last IUCN Red List publication (2007), several synonymies have been documented (Bedjanič, 2011; Bedjanič, 2009; Bedjanič, 2008) through careful reading of the literature and study of original specimens and newly available material. Two species have been removed from the list of 1 Sri Lankan odonates because of lack of supporting evidence for their occurrence: Libellago indica (Hämäläinen et al., 2009) and Palpopleura s. sexmaculata (van der Poorten, 2011). Distribution The biology of odonates is intimately tied to water and each species has a requirement for a speciic type of water (e.g. fast- or slow-lowing streams, stagnant water, marshland). In Sri Lanka, the majority of the common Oriental species are found at lowland tanks (reservoirs) in the dry zone (e.g. Ictinogomphus rapax, Crocothemis s. servilia). One species is restricted to coastal areas (Macrodiplax cora). Several other common species are widespread in the wet lowlands and mid-hills, in marshes, streams and seeps (e.g. Orthetrum luzonicum). A few species are restricted to the higher elevations (e.g. Indothemis g. gracilis, Sympetrum fonscolombii). The endemics, however, tend to be localized to specialized habitats within the wet zone rainforest. These habitats can be compared to small islands; they often have highly specialized lora and fauna and it can be dificult for an individual to move to another habitat if conditions become unfavorable. The habitat is fragile and easily disrupted. For example, the 15 species of Drepanosticta are almost all found in very restricted habitats, usually small shady streams within a forest patch. Two endemic species (Lyriothemis defonsekai and a yet-to-bedescribed species) are found only within a restricted area in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve near a heavily shaded, well-vegetated stream. Elattoneura leucostigma is found only in small well-vegetated streams in the dense montane forests. Several species of the Gomphidae family (e.g. Microgomphus wijaya) require well-shaded fast-lowing streams that have dense vegetation on the edges. By contrast, Mortonagrion ceylonicum requires well-shaded scrub areas at the edge of still water or ditches. Threats Deforestation leading to disruption of the habitat and changes in water sources is probably the most pressing threat because a number of Sri Lanka’s endemic species (e.g. Drepanosticta, Platysticta, Libellago and members of the Gomphidae) are found in small patches of rainforest. Forests have been logged to extract timber, to allow for expansion of plantations and villages and, in some areas, to maintain security during the conlict period. Cutting of the undergrowth by villagers for irewood produces changes in the habitat that impact unfavorably on the water sources on which the odonates rely. For example, the thinning of the forest at Dombagaskanda (Bodhinagala) has resulted in increased drying of the soils and streamlets between rains, adversely affecting the Platysticta species found there. Water pollution is also a serious threat. As a result of agricultural production, many chemicals end up in the drains and streams where odonates breed. The increasing human population also puts pressure on water sources, causing increased extraction and use of water and increased pollution from soap products and other human pollutants. This is detrimental to the odonates not only directly but also indirectly: other freshwater fauna which odonate larvae eat are also affected negatively. For example, at Balangoda, in the past 5 years, the stream has become illed with soap and algae due to the increased human population. The Gomphids and Macromia that used to be seen here are no longer found. 2 Changes in water sources, such as damming of streams or cutting of canals, also affect odonates. For example, the Mahaweli project has reduced the Mahaweli River to a stagnant, slow-lowing river in many places, leading to the disappearance of the riverine species (e.g. Libellago adami). Tanks that are not rehabilitated properly also lose their native odonate fauna. Other irrigation schemes, such as the Uda Walawe scheme, do great damage to the landscape as trees are cut, canals are built and rivers dammed. The large scale conversion of wetlands to other uses also adversely affects the constituent odonate fauna. For example, the Muthurajawela Wetland Sanctuary is being illegally developed with consequent detrimental changes in odonate habitats. Conservation 1. Enforce existing conservation measures in protected areas For example, Sinharaja Forest Reserve, which is the only known location for three endemic species should be protected from removal of vegetation so that the streams and seeps on which the odonates rely are not damaged. Another example is Talangama Lake near Colombo; it has protective legislation from various levels of government but still continues to be subject to gross destruction of the habitat with the consequent loss of species. 2. Establish new protected areas in the wet zone and montane areas The lake and shores around the Parliament in Sri Jayawardenapura is a rich habitat for odonates including some less common ones but it is being destroyed by the cutting of vegetation and development activities including the installation of a major roadway. Similarly, the habitat around Water’s Edge in Battaramulla (Diyawannana ) was home to Mortonagrion ceylonicum and Agriocnemis femina, two uncommon species and was shown to have a very high diversity index. Due to dredging of the wetlands for lood control, this habitat has been damaged. The lake and shores around the Parliament is an ideal candidate for designation as a protected area. However, establishing protected areas must be done with a view to protecting the fauna therein. Even though Diyawannana is apparently designated as a sanctuary, this has not provided any protection for the odonate fauna. 3. Legislate additional protection for streams, rivulets and forest corridors in the wet zone In many places (e.g. Nuwara Eliya), streams are cut illegally to obtain water and vegetation is cleared right to the edge, destroying the habitat. Streams, rivulets and forest corridors need legislation to prohibit the diversion of streams and clear-cutting of the edges. 4. Restore already degraded areas in key locations For example, at Hiyare Reservoir, much habitat degradation has occurred due to illegal activities in the area but this could be reversed at this time with simple measures. 5. Limit agricultural expansion in forest areas For example, Morapitiya Forest Reserve is slowly being encroached upon and its undergrowth is being cut. This will cause the river to become stagnant and will affect the species that depend on a fast-lowing river (e.g. Macromia zeylanica and Libellago corbeti). 6. Enforce existing legislation regarding corridors and reservations In many places, the reservations around tanks and rivers are being cut despite legislative protection. This not only impacts the health of the tank and river but also removes the surrounding vegetation that is so important to odonates: newly emerged adults need to spend a few days in a protected area until they mature, and the forested edges of rivers and tanks are ideal for this. 3 7. Conduct comprehensive faunisitic work to study the distribution and biology of the odonate species. Without this baseline information, conservation measures cannot be undertaken. Research gaps Though the odonates of the island are comparatively well-studied, there are still many gaps in our knowledge. In 10 taxa, only one sex has been described (usually the male). In about 75 taxa, the larval stage and exuvia have not yet been described. The distribution of most species is not well-known, particularly those found in the north and east. Several species have not been seen for more than 50 years (e.g. Sinhalestes orientalis, Heliogomphus nietneri). There are only one or two records for a few species that are not rare in other countries (e.g. Lestes malabaricum and Pseudagrion decorum which are both northern species). Habitat requirements for the adult and larval stages of most species have not been well-documented. Conclusions and recommendations 1. Do comprehensive surveys in order to map the distributions of all species 2. Do studies to determine light times and breeding times, habitat requirements for adults and larval stages, and behavioural needs especially with regards to courtship, mating and oviposition 3. Complete descriptions of both males and females for each species 4. Build up a scientiically managed specimen collection in the museum 5. Encourage high quality research by facilitating the granting of research permits 4. Encourage and fund research at the university level for Masters and PhD studies 5. Primary education in schools about the overall importance of biodiversity for the island’s fauna References Bedjaniĉ, M., (2011). On the synonymy of three endemic dragonly species from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Platystictidae, Protoneuridae). Notulae Odonatologicae, 7(8). Bedjanič, M., (2010). Three new Drepanosticta species from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Platystictidae). Odonatologica, 39(3), pp.195-215. Bedjanič, M., (2009). Drepanosticta starmuehlneri St. Quentin, 1972 from Sri Lanka, a synonym of D. lankanensis (Fraser, 1931) (Zygoptera: Platystictidae). Notulae Odonatologicae, 7(4), pp.37-44. Bedjanič, M., (2008). Notes on the synonymy, distribution and threat status of Elattoneura oculata (Kirby, 1894), an endemic damselly from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Protoneuridae). Odonatologica, 37(2), pp.145-150. de Fonseka, T., (2000). The dragonlies of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust. Hämäläinen, M., Bedjaniĉ M. & van der Poorten, N., (2009). Libellago indica (Fraser, 1928) deleted from the list of Sri Lankan Odonata (Chlorocyphidae). Echo, 6, pp. 3-5 (published in Agrion, 13(1)). van der Poorten, N., (2011). Palpoleura s. sexmaculata (Fabricius, 1787) deleted from the list of Odonates of Sri Lanka (Libellulidae). Agrion, 15(2), pp.52-53. van der Poorten, N., (2009a). Lyriothemis defonsekai sp. nov. from Sri Lanka, with a review of the known species of the genus (Anisoptera: Libellulidae). Odonatologica, 38(1), pp.15-27. van der Poorten, N., (2009b). Libellago corbeti sp. nov. from Sri Lanka (Odonata: Chlorocyphidae). Internationaln Journal of Odonatology, 12(2), pp.223-230. 4 Table 01: List of Dragonlies in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS Criteria Family: Calopterygidae Neurobasis chinensis (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Oriental Greenwing VU B1ab(iii) LC Vestalis apicalis Selys, 1873 E: Black-tipped Flashwing VU B1ab(iii) LC Libellago adami Fraser, 1939 E: Sri Lanka Adam's Gem VU B1ab(iii) Libellago inalis (Hagen in Selys, 1869) E: Sri Lanka Ultima Gem VU B1ab(iii) Libellago greeni (Laidlaw, 1924) E: Sri Lanka Green's Gem EN B2ab(iii) Libellago corbeti van der Poorten, 2009 E: Sri Lanka Ebony Gem CR B2ab(iii) Family: Chlorocyphidae Family: Euphaeidae E: Sri Lanka Euphaea splendens Hagen Shining in Selys, 1853 Gossamerwing NT Family: Lestidae Lestes praemorsus Hagen in Selys, 1862 E: Scalloped Spreadwing NT Lestes elatus Hagen in Selys, 1862 E: White Tipped Spreadwing LC Lestes malabaricus Fraser, 1929 E: Malabar Spreadwing DD Sinhalestes orientalis (Hagen in Selys, 1859) E: Sri Lanka Emerald Spreadwing DD Indolestes divisus (Hagen in Selys, 1862) E: Sri Lanka E: Metallic-backed Reedling EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Indolestes gracilis (Hagen in Selys, 1862) E: Mountain Reedling VU B1ab(iii) LC CR B2ab(iii) LC LC CR Family: Coenagrionidae Agriocnemis femina (Brauer, E: White-backed 1868) Wisp Agriocnemis pygmaea (Rambur, 1842) E: Wandering Wisp LC Mortonagrion ceylonicum Lieftinck, 1971 E: Sri Lanka Midget EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) DD Onychargia atrocyana Selys, 1865 E: Marsh Dancer VU B1ab(iii) LC Paracercion malayanum (Selys, 1876) E: Malay Lilysquatter LC LC Enallagma parvum Selys, 1876 E: Little Blue DD LC Aciagrion occidentale Laidlaw, 1919 E: Asian Slim VU Ischnura aurora (Brauer, 1865) E: Dawn Bluetail NT 5 LC B1ab(iii) LC LC B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name Ischnura senegalensis (Rambur, 1842) E: Common Bluetail, Marsh Bluetail LC Ceriagrion cerinorubellum (Brauer, 1865) E: Painted Waxtail VU Ceriagrion coromandelianum (Fabricius, 1798) E: Yellow Waxtail LC Pseudagrion decorum (Rambur, 1842) E: Azure Sprite DD Pseudagrion malabaricum Fraser, 1924 E: Malabar Sprite LC Pseudagrion microcephalum (Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Sprite LC E: Sri Lanka Orange-faced Sprite LC E: Yellow Featherleg LC Drepanosticta adami (Fraser, 1933) E: Sri Lanka Adam's Shadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(ii,iii)+ 2ab(ii,iii) Drepanosticta austeni Lieftinck, 1940 E: Sri Lanka Austin's Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(ii,iii)+ 2ab(ii,iii) Drepanosticta brincki Lieftinck, 1971 E: Sri Lanka Brinck's Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) Drepanosticta digna (Hagen in Selys, 1860) E: Sri Lanka Nobel Shadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Drepanosticta hilaris (Hagen in Selys, 1860) E: Sri Lanka Merry Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) E: Sri Lanka Drepanosticta lankanensis Drooping (Fraser, 1931) Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1ab(ii,iii)+ 2ab(ii,iii) Pseudagrion rubriceps Selys, 1876 NSG Criteria GCS Criteria LC B1ab(iii) LC LC LC Family: Platycnemididae Copera marginipes (Rambur, 1842) LC Family: Platystictidae Drepanosticta montana (Hagen in Selys, 1860) E: Sri Lanka Dark Knob-tipped Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) Drepanosticta nietneri (Fraser, 1931) E: Sri Lanka Nietner's Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) Drepanosticta submontana (Fraser, 1933) E: Sri Lanka Bordered Knob-tipped Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) Drepanosticta tropica (Hagen in Selys, 1860) E: Sri Lanka Dark-shouldered Cornuted Shadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) 6 Scientiic Name Common Name NSG Criteria Drepanosticta subtropica (Fraser, 1933) E: Sri Lanka Blue-shouldered Cornuted Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) Drepanosticta walli (Fraser, 1931) E: Sri Lanka Wall's Shadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) Drepanosticta anamia Bedjaniĉ, 2010 CR B2ab(iii) Drepanosticta bine Bedjaniĉ, 2010 CR B2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii) E: Sri Lanka Platysticta maculata Selys, Blurry 1860 Forestdamsel EN B2ab(iii) Platysticta greeni Kirby, 1891 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Drepanosticta mojca Bedjaniĉ, 2010 Platysticta apicalis Kirby, 1894 E: Sri Lanka Dark E: Forestdamsel GCS Criteria DD Family: Protoneuridae Ellatoneura oculata (Kirby, 1894) E: Sri Lanka Twospotted Threadtail EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(ii,iii)+ 2ab(ii,iii) Elattoneura caesia (Hagen in Selys, 1860) E: Sri Lanka Jungle Threadtail VU B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(ii,iii)+ 2ab(ii,iii) Elattoneura centralis (Hagen in Selys, 1860) E: Sri Lanka Dark-glittering Threadtail VU B1ab(iii) Elattoneura leucostigma (Fraser, 1933) E: Sri Lanka Smoky-winged Threadtail CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(ii,iii)+ 2ab(ii,iii) Elattoneura tenax (Hagen in Selys, 1860) E: Sri Lanka Redstriped Threadtail EN B2ab(iii) Prodasineura sita (Kirby, 1894) E: Sri Lanka Stripe-headed Threadtail LC Anisogomphus solitaris Lieftinck, 1971 E: Sri Lanka Solitaire Clubtail DD CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Burmagomphus pyramidalis Laidlaw, 1922 E: Sinuate Clubtail CR B2ab(iii) Cyclogomphus gynostylus Fraser, 1926 E: Sri Lanka Transvestite Clubtail CR B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Megalogomphus ceylonicus (Laidlaw, 1922) E: Sri Lanka Sabretail EN B2ab(iii) Paragomphus henryi (Campion and Laidlaw, 1928) E: Sri Lanka Brook Hooktail EN B2ab(iii) Heliogomphus ceylonicus (Hagen in Selys, 1878) E: Sri Lanka Grappletail DD Heliogomphus lyratus Fraser, 1933 E: Sri Lanka Lyrate Grappletail CR Family: Gomphidae 7 B2ab(iii) NT CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NSG Heliogomphus nietneri (Hagen in Selys, 1878) E: Sri Lanka Nietner's Grappletail DD Heliogomphus walli Fraser, 1925 E: Sri Lanka Wall's Grappletail EN B2ab(iii) NT Macrogomphus lankanensis Fraser, 1933 E: Sri Lanka Forktail EN B2ab(iii) VU Macrogomphus annulatus (Selys, 1854) E: Keiser's Forktail DD Microgomphus wijaya Lieftinck, 1940 E: Sri Lanka Wijaya's Scissortail EN B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Gomphidia pearsoni Fraser, 1933 E: Sri Lanka Rivulet Tiger EN B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Ictinogomphus rapax (Rambur, 1842) E: Rapacious Flangetail LC LC Anax gutattus (Burmeister, 1839) E: Pale-spotted Emperor LC LC Anax immaculifrons Rambur, 1842 E: Fiery Emperor VU Anax indicus Lieftinck, 1942 Elephant Emperor LC Criteria GCS CR Criteria B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) DD Family: Aeshnidae Anax tristis Hagen, 1867 B1ab(iii) LC LC DD Hemianax ephippiger (Burmeister, 1839) E: Vagrant Emperor DD Gynacantha dravida Lieftinck, 1960 E: Indian Duskhawker NT Anaciaeschna donaldi Fraser, 1922 E: Dark Hawker CR Epophthalmia vittata Burmeister, 1839 E: Blue-eyed Pondcruiser NT LC Macromia linti Lieftinck, 1977 E: Sri Lanka Flint's Cruiser DD CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Macromia zeylanica Fraser, 1927 E: Sri Lanka Cruiser CR B2ab(iii) Hylaeothemis fruhstorferi (Karsch, 1889) E: Fruhstorfer's Junglewatcher CR B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Tetrathemis yerburii Kirby, 1893 E: Sri Lanka Yerbury's Elf EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii) Brachydiplax sobrina (Rambur, 1842) E: Sombre Lieutenant LC Cratilla lineata (Brauer, 1878) E: Pale-faced Forestskimmer EN Lathrecista asiatica (Fabricius, 1798) E: Pruinosed Bloodtail NT Lyriothemis defonsekai van der Poorten, 2008 E: Sri Lanka Vermilion Forester CR B1ab(iii) Orthetrum chrysis (Selys, 1891) E: Spine-tufted Skimmer VU B1ab(iii) Orthetrum glaucum (Brauer, 1865) E: Asian Skimmer NT LC B2ab(iii) LC Family: Corduliidae Family: Libellulidae 8 LC B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC LC LC Scientiic Name Common Name NSG Orthetrum luzonicum (Brauer, 1868) E: Marsh Skimmer NT LC Orthetrum pruinosum (Burmeister, 1839) E: Pink Skimmer NT LC Orthetrum sabina (Drury, 1770) E: Green Skimmer LC LC Orthetrum triangulare (Selys, 1878) E: Triangle Skimmer EN Potamarcha congener (Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Pursuer LC LC Acisoma panorpoides Rambur, 1842 E: Asian Pintail LC LC Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius, 1793) E: Asian Groundling LC LC Bradinopyga geminata (Rambur, 1842) E: Indian Rockdweller LC LC Crocothemis servilia (Drury, 1770) E: Oriental Scarlet LC LC Diplacodes nebulosa (Fabricius, 1793) E: Black-tipped Percher NT LC Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Percher LC LC Indothemis carnatica (Fabricius, 1798) E: Light-tipped Demon NT NT Indothemis limbata (Selys, 1891) E: Restless Demon NT LC Neurothemis intermedia (Rambur, 1842) E: Paddyield Parasol NT LC Neurothemis tullia (Drury, 1773) E: Pied Parasol LC LC Rhodothemis rufa (Rambur, 1842) E: Spine-legged Redbolt NT LC Sympetrum fonscolombii (Selys, 1840) E: Red-veined Darter EN Trithemis aurora (Burmeister, 1839) E: Crimson Dropwing LC Trithemis festiva (Rambur, 1842) E: Indigo Dropwing VU Trithemis pallidinervis (Kirby, 1889) E: Dancing Dropwing NT Onychothemis tonkinensis Martin, 1904 E: Aggressive Riverhawk EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC Rhyothemis triangularis Kirby, 1889 E: Sapphire Flutterer VU B1ab(iii) LC Rhyothemis variegata (Linnaeus, 1763) E: Variegate Flutterer LC LC Hydrobasileus croceus (Brauer, 1867) E: Amber-winged Glider NT LC Pantala lavescens (Fabricius, 1798) E: Globe Skimmer, Wandering Glider LC LC Tramea basilaris (Palisot de Beauvois, 1805)) E: Keyhole Glider, Wheeling Glider VU 9 Criteria B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) GCS LC B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC B1ab(iii) LC LC B1ab(iii) LC Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NSG Tramea limbata (Desjardins, 1832) E: Sociable Glider LC LC Tholymis tillarga (Fabricius, 1798) E: Foggy-winged Twister LC LC Zyxomma petiolatum Rambur, 1842 E: Dingy Dusklyer NT LC Aethriamanta brevipennis (Rambur, 1842) E: Elusive Adjutant LC LC Macrodiplax cora (Kaup in Brauer, 1867) E: Costal Pennant VU Urothemis signata (Rambur, 1842) E: Scarlet Basker LC LC Zygonyx iris Selys, 1869 E: Cascader VU LC 10 Criteria B1ab(iii) GCS LC Criteria The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Ants (Order: Hymenoptera, Family: Formicidae) in Sri Lanka R. K. S. Dias, K. R. K. A. Kosgamage and H. A. W. S. Peiris Department of Zoology, University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya Introduction Ants are a common group of insects in most terrestrial habitats in Sri Lanka. Their habitats vary from highly disturbed urbanized areas to undisturbed forests. Further, the ants occupy a wide variety of microhabitats ranging from soil (up to a depth of about 20 cm) decaying wood, plants, trees, litter, termite nests etc. Bingham (1903) was the irst to attempt documenting of the ant species in Sri Lanka. For the next 50 years, ants of Sri Lanka have received little attention. During the past ive decades several taxonomic works on ants of Sri Lanka have been published (Bolton & Belshaw, 1987; Dorow & Kohout, 1995; Jayasooriya & Traniello, 1985; Wilson, 1964; Wilson, et al., 1956). A revival of taxonomic work on ants of Sri Lanka in recent times began with the work initiated by the author in 2000. A preliminary taxonomic study of the ants collected from the premises of the Kelaniya University (Gampaha District) was carried out (Dias & Chaminda, 2000; Dias, et al., 2001) and this work was later extended to other Districts such as Colombo, Ratnapura and Galle (Dias & Chaminda, 2001; Chaminda & Dias, 2001). Books and articles that are relevant to systematics of ants published up to 2003 has been summarised by Dias (2005, 2006). Classiication of ants has been revised by Bolton (2003) and the recent revisions are presented in Bolton, et al., (2006, 2012). In addition, several websites are available on world ants (www.antbase.org) and the ants of several countries (Japanese ants colour image database, Ants of India, Ants of Papua New Guinea etc.). The website on ants of Sri Lanka has been launched in 2011. Current taxonomic status and taxonomic issues According to the currently valid classiication (Bolton, 2003; Bolton, et al., 2006), ants belonging to twelve subfamilies, sixty three genera and, two hundred and ifteen species and morphospecies have been recorded from Sri Lanka (Table A). The provisional checklist of ants is based on Bolton (1995), specimens deposited at National Museum, Colombo, the collections of the irst author from the wet and dry zones during 2000 - 2011 and the collection from dry, intermediate and arid zone districts, namely, Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Kurunegala and Puttalam, by the other two authors for their postgraduate studies. Solenopsis geminata, Oecophylla smaragdina, Meranoplus bicolor, Paratrechina longicornis and Tapinoma melanocephalum have been listed from Vantharumoolai region in Batticaloa District (Vinobaba L., personal communication). Based on the IUCN criteria, nineteen ‘Endangered’ and thirty three ‘Critically Endangered’ species have been identiied. The Sri Lankan Relict Ant, Aneuretus simoni Emery is currently included in the ‘Endangered’ category. 11 Table A. Number of genera and species in each of the twelve ant subfamilies recorded from Sri Lanka. Subfamily Genera Species Aenictinae 1 5 Amblyoponinae 2 1 Morpho-species 3 Aneuretinae 1 1 Cerapachyinae 1 6 1 4 Dolichoderinae 5 8 Dorylinae 1 3 Ectatomminae 1 1 Formicinae 12 54 3 Leptanillinae 2 01 3 Myrmicinae 23 79 1 Ponerinae 11 31 6 Pseudomyrmecinae 1 4 61 194 21 In addition to the generic and species level classiication, a number of ant genera have been classiied to subgenera, subspecies and varieties (Bolton et al. 2006) but the generic name and species name of any ant is presented in Appendix Table 1. Also, Carebara is the currently valid generic name of Oligomyrmex (Fernandez, 2004; Bolton et al. 2006). Among the ant genera listed in Appendix Table 1 the following ant genera, Acanthomyrmex, Anillomyrma, Gnamptogenys, Metapone, Paratopula, Rophalomastix, Myopias and Myopopone were never observed during 2000 to 2011 period. Therefore, they are included in the ‘Data Deicient (DD)’ category. Inadequate research on ant systematics, lack of funding for accessing foreign ant repositories and lack of morphological descriptions for identiication to the species levels are the major taxonomic issues in ant systematics. Also, identiication to the species level requires the collection of major and minor workers (at the same time) of certain ant genera such as Pheidole but the sampling methods did not fulil this need. Sampling methods that were suitable for ground ants and ground-foraging ants were employed for our research and therefore, ant species that occupy other microhabitats (e.g. arboreal – Polyrhachis spp., Tetraponera spp.) and forage elsewhere had a very low representation in this collection. Distribution In order to determine the distribution pattern of ants in Sri Lanka an extensive survey was conducted in Gampaha, Colombo, Galle and Kalutara Districts and intensive surveys conducted in other Districts from 2000-2011. Two new records, the presence of Aneuretus simoni Emery (Sri Lankan Relict Ant) in “Kirikanda” forest (Dias, et al., 2011 in press) and “Kalugala Kanda” forest in Kalutara District (by the irst author), were reported in 2010 and 2011 respectively. Members of Ectatomminae were never observed in our collection. Threats Due to the lack of adequate research on individual ant species very little is evident as threats to the ant fauna. Lack of ground vegetation and leaf litter seems to be the reason for the absence of leaf litter ants, mostly common ponerines, in cultivated lands when compared with the ant 12 fauna in the nearby forests. Further, setting ire to land before cultivating or to promote grass growth in pasture lands, which is a common practice in most parts of Sri Lanka has been identiied as a major threat to many species of ground dwelling ant fauna. Conservation Awareness programmes on the ecological and economic (where applicable) importance, general biology and distribution of ants should be conducted at schools, universities and through media. Ants that are considered as agricultural pests (e.g. Solenopsis geminata, Meranoplus bicolor, Acropyga acutiventris), nuisance insects or household pests (tramp species) and the medically important species (Dias, 2011) should be recognized and excluded from the list. Habitats that are critically important for endemic and threatened ant species (e.g. Aneuretus simoni, Stereomyrmex horni) that do not come within the protected area net work must be identiied and actions should be taken to ensure that these habitats are maintained to ensure the survival of these species. Research gaps and research needs The inadequacy of research that focuses on forest ants of Sri Lanka (except for Perera 2003, Dias and Perera, 2011, Gunawardene et al., 2008, Kosgamage, 2011, Peiris, 2012) with only a few sporadic publications by foreign researchers is a major barrier for the development of myrmecology in Sri Lanka. Available information on ants in Sri Lanka is restricted to few Districts of Sri Lanka. Therefore, the survey on ants should be extended to natural and man made habitats in all other Districts of Sri Lanka that are under different levels of disturbance. Research projects on ant systematics, biology and ecology of individual species and distribution of endemic species should be encouraged among undergraduate and postgraduate students. One of the main reasons for lack of research on ants of Sri Lanka can be attributed to lack of trained personnel in this ield of specialization. Therefore, the curricula in the Universities should be revised in order to enhance the theoretical knowledge and practical skills required in ant systematics. Further, short training workshops should be conducted to ield biologists who are currently engaged in entomology research to encourage more research on ant fauna Conclusions and recommendations Current Red Listing of ant species has been based on the existing information (1960 - 2011) and a detailed check list including the conservation status of species that were evaluated is given in Appendix 1. Aneuretus simoni, Cardiocondyla nuda, Centromyrmex feae, Cerapachys aitkini, Cerapachys fossulatus, Cerapachys fragosus, Cerapachys typhlus, Ochetellus glaber, Polyrhachis illaudatus, Polyrhachis rastellata, Pseudolasius isabellae, Stereomyrmex horni, Technomyrmex brunneus, Technomyrmex elatior, Prenolepis naorojii, Myrmecina striata and Dorylus labiatus could especially be considered as Critically Endangered among them. Lack of adequate surveys on ants in various microhabitats and taxonomic issues pertaining to ant identiication are the major reasons identiied for the current scarcity of information on ants of Sri Lanka. Therefore, the ant list given in this paper may not include all the species that are present in Sri Lanka today and therefore, needs to be improved in the future. In order to achieve this goal, more surveys on ants should be conducted with the participation of university students and other enthusiasts. Further, a book on the ants of Sri Lanka, giving morphological descriptions and colour photographs (where possible), should be published to encourage people to work on this lesser known yet common group of insects. 13 References Bingham, C. T., (1903). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma: Hymenoptera -Vol. 2: Ants and Cuckoo-wasps. London. Bolton, B., (1994). Identiication Guide to the Ant Genera of the World. USA: Harvard University Press. Bolton, B., (1995). New General Catalogue of the Ants of the World. USA: Harvard University Press. Bolton, B., (2003). Synopsis and classiication of Formicidae. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute, 71, pp.1 - 370. Bolton, B. & Belshaw, R., (1993). Taxonomy and biology of the supposedly lestobiotic ant genus Paedalgus (Hym:Formicidae). Systematic Entomology, 18, pp.18 –189. Bolton, B., Alpert, G., Ward, P. S. & Naskrecky, P., (2006). Bolton’s Catalogue of Ants of the World. 1758–2005. [CDROM], USA: Harvard University Press. Chaminda, K. M. G .R. & Dias, R. K. S., (2001). Taxonomic key for the identiication of Sri Lankan ants: Subfamilies Proceedings of the Third ANeT. ANeT Newsletter, 4, Abstract only. Dias, R. K. S., (2005). Ants – Diversity and importance of ants in Sri Lanka as a component of biodiversity (in Sinhala). In: H. Amarasekera, ed. 2005. Biodiversity heritage of Sri Lanka – Invertebrates. Nugegoda: Piyasiri Printing Systems. Dias, R. K. S., (2006). Current taxonomic status of ants of Sri Lanka. In: C. N. B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. The fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of taxonomy, research and conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union (IUCN) of Sri Lanka & the Government of Sri Lanka, pp. 43-52. Dias, R. K. S., (2008). Amazing ants – present status of research on ants of Sri Lanka. In: N.C. Kumarasinghe, ed. 2008. Social Insects and their Economic Importance and Conservation. Colombo: SLAAS and Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, pp. 1 - 9. Dias, RKS, Peiris, HAWS and HPGRC Ruchirani. 2011. Discovery of Aneuretus simoni Emery in a disturbed forest in Kalutara, and Stereomyrmex horni Emery in Anuradhapura Sanctuary, Sri Lanka, Asian Myrmecology, 3, in press Dias, R. K. S. and K. A. M. Perera. 2011. Worker ant community observed by repeated sampling and information on endemic Aneuretus simoni Emery in the Gilimale Forest Reserve in Sri Lanka. Asian Myrmecology, 4: 69 – 78 pp Dias, R. K. S., (2011). Biology of medically important ants in Sri Lanka. In: A. Ratnatilaka, ed. 2011. Medically important ants, bees, wasps and spiders. pp. 30 – 68. Dias, R. K. S. & Chaminda, K. M. G. R., (2000). A preliminary taxonomic study of Sri Lankan ants. In: University Malaysia Sabah, the Second ANeT workshop and seminar. Kota Kinabalu, East Malaysia: University Malaysia Sabah. Dias, R. K. S. & Chaminda, K. M. G. R., (2001). Systematics of some worker ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) collected from several regions of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Third ANeT workshop and seminar held in Hanoi, Vietnam. ANeT Newsletter, 4. Abstract only. Dias, R. K. S., Chaminda, K.M.G.R. & Yamane, S., (2001). Systematics of the worker ant fauna collected from the premises of Kelaniya University. Proceedings of the 57th SLAAS Annual Session, Abstract only. Dias, R. K. S., Peiris, H. A. W. S. & Ruchirani, H. P. G. R. C., (2011). Discovery of Aneuretus simoni Emery in a disturbed forest in Kalutara, and Stereomyrmex horni Emery in Anuradhapura Sanctuary, Sri Lanka. Asian Myrmecology, 4, pp.99-102. Dorow, W. H. O. & Kohout, R. J., (1995). A review of the Subgenus Hemioptica Roger of the genus Polyrhachis Fr. Smith with description of a new species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae). Zool. Med. Leiden., 69, pp.93104. Jayasooriya, A. K. & Traniello, J. F. O., (1985). The biology of the primitive ant Aneuretus simoni Emery (Formicidae: Aneuretinae) – Distribution, abundance, colony structure and foraging ecology. Insectes Sociaux, 32(4), pp.363 -374. Kosgamage, K. R. K. A., 2011. Diversity and distribution of worker ants (Family: Formicidae) in selected sites in two dry zone Districts of Sri Lanka and the potential of Neemazal-F and citronella oil in the control of selected ant species. M. Phil. Thesis, University of Kelaniya, 249 p. Peiris, H. A. W. S., 2012. Similarities and differences of worker ant fauna in three types of habitats in four districts of Sri Lanka. Thesis submitted for the Degree of M. Phil., University of Kelaniya. Perera, K. A. M. 2003. The relative abundance and density of Aneuretus simoni Emery (Order: Hymenoptera, Family: Formicidae) in a selected region in the forest (“Pompekelle”) associated with water pumping station in Ratnapura. Thesis submitted for the B. Sc. Special Degree in Zoology, Department of Zoology, University of Kelaniya. Wilson, E. O., (1964). The true army ants of the Indo-Australian area (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Dorylinae). Paciic Insects, 6(3), pp.427 - 483. Wilson, E. O., Eisner, T., Wheeler, G. C. & Wheeler, J., (1956). Aneuretus simoni Emery, a major link in ant evolution. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 115(03), pp.81 -105. 14 Table 02: List of Ants in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Subfamily: Aenictinae Aenictus biroi Forel Aenictus ceylonicus (Mayr) DD E: Asian Reddish Brown Army Ant Aenictus fergusoni (Karavaive) Aenictus pachycerus (Dalla Torre) E: Army Ant Aenictus porizonoides Walker DD EN B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) DD Subfamily: Aneuretinae EN B1+2ab(iii) Myrmecina striata Emery CR B2ab(iii) Acanthomyrmex luciolae Emery DD Anillomyrma decamera Emery DD Calyptomyrmex tamil Baroni Urbani DD Aneuretus simoni Emery E: Sri Lankan Relict Ant Subfamily: Myrmicinae Calyptomyrmex vedda Baroni Urbani DD Calyptomyrmex singalensis Baroni Urbani DD Cardiocondyla nuda (Mayr) CR Cataulacus simoni Emery DD Cataulacus taprobanae Smith F. DD Crematogaster anthracina Smith F. DD Crematogaster biroi Mayr EN Crematogaster apicalis Motchoulsky DD Crematogaster brunnescens Motchoulsky Crematogaster dohrni Mayr VU DD Crematogaster politula Forel CR Crematogaster ransonneti Mayr CR S: Kodaya LC LC Metapone greeni Forel DD Metapone johni Karavaiev DD E: Flower Ant S: Thel Koombiya Monomorium subopacum (Smith F.) LC DD E: Sri Lanka Flower Ant DD Monomorium latinode Mayr DD Monomorium criniceps (Mayr) EN Monomorium destructor (Jerdon) E: Singapore Ant S: Rathu Koombiya Monomorium mayri Forel Monomorium pharaonis (L.) B2ab(iii) LC Meranoplus bicolor (Guerin-Meneville) Monomorium taprobanae Forel B1+2ab(iii) DD Lophomyrmex quadrispinosus (Jerdon) Monomorium loricola (Jerdon) B1ab(iii) DD E: Thai Tree Ant Crematogaster rogeri Mayr Crematogaster rothneyi Forel B2ab(iii) DD S: Kodaya Crematogaster pellens Walker Crematogaster rogenhoferi Mayr B2ab(iii) LC DD E: Pharaoh Ant Monomorium rogeri (Mayr) LC DD 15 B1+2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders LC Carebara bruni (Forel) DD Carebara butteli (Forel) DD Carebara deponens (Walker) DD Carebara taprobanae (Forel) DD Carebara escherichi (Forel) DD Paratopula ceylonica (Emery) DD Pheidole latinoda Roger DD Pheidole nietneri Emery DD Pheidole sulcaticeps Roger DD Pheidole barreleti Forel DD Pheidole ceylonica (Motchoulsky) DD Pheidole difidens (Walker) DD Pheidole gracilipes (Motschoulsky) DD Pheidole horni Emery DD Pheidole malinsii Forel DD Pheidole megacephala Forel E: Big Head Ant DD Pheidole noda Forel DD Pheidole parva Mayr DD Pheidole pronotalis Fore DD Pheidole rhombinoda Mayr CR Pheidole rugosa Smith F. DD Pheidole spathifera Forel DD Pheidole templaria Forel DD Pheidologeton ceylonensis Forel Pheidologeton diversus (Smith F.) Criteria B2ab(iii) DD E: East Indian Harvesting Ant VU Pheidologeton pygmaeus Forel DD Recurvidris pickburni Bolton DD Recurvidris recurvispinosa (Forel) VU Rophalomastix escherichi Forel DD Solenopsis geminata (Fabricius) E: Red Tropical Fire Ant S: Nayi Koombiya LC Solenopsis nitens Bingham E: Fire Ant DD Stereomyrmex horni Emery CR Strumigenys godeffroyi Mayr DD Strumigenys lyroessa (Roger) EN B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) Tetramorium bicarinatum (Nylander) LC Tetramorium paciicum Mayr DD Tetramorium simillimum (Smith) DD Tetramorium curvispinosum Mayr DD Tetramorium pilosum Emery DD Tetramorium smithi Mayr VU B1ab(iii) Tetramorium tortuosum Roger VU B1ab(iii) Tetramorium transversarium Roger DD Tetramorium walshi (Forel) VU 16 B1ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Tetramorium yerburyi Forel DD Vollenhovia escherichi Forel DD Criteria Subfamily: Cerapachyinae Cerapachys fossulatus Forel CR B2ab(iii) Cerapachys luteoviger Brown DD Cerapachys coecus (Mayr) DD Cerapachys fragosus (Roger) CR B2ab(iii) Cerapachys typhlus (Roger) CR B2ab(iii) Cerapachys aitkenii Forel CR B1+2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) Subfamily: Dolichoderinae Dolichoderus taprobanae (Smith F.) Ochetellus glaber (Mayr) E: Black House Ant Tapinoma indicum Forel Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) LC E: Ghost Ant S: Hini Koombiya Technomyrmex albipes (Smith F.) LC VU Technomyrmex bicolor Forel S: Kalu Koombiya B1ab(iii) LC Technomyrmex detorquens (Walker) DD Technomyrmex elatior Forel CR B1+2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) Subfamily: Dorylinae Dorylus labiatus Shuckard Dorylus laevigatus (Smith F.) E: Driver Ant EN B1+2ab(iii) Dorylus orientalis Westwood E: Red Ant EN B1+2ab(iii) Subfamily: Ectatomminae Gnamptogenys coxalis Brown DD Subfamily: Ponerinae Anochetus consultans (Walker) DD Anochetus graeffei Mayr VU B1ab(iii) Anochetus longifossatus Mayr EN B1ab(iii) Anochetus madaraszi Mayr DD Anochetus nietneri (Roger) CR Anochetus yerburyi Forel DD Centromyrmex feae (Emery) EN Cryptopone testacea Emery DD B2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) Diacamma ceylonense Emery S: Kadiya EN B1+2ab(iii) Diacamma rugosum Forel E: Queenless Ponerine Ant S: Kadiya EN B1+2ab(iii) Harpegnathos saltator Jerdon E: Jerdon's Jumping Ant EN B1+2ab(iii) Hypoponera ceylonensis (Mayr) DD Hypoponera coninis (Roger) CR Hypoponera taprobanae (Forel) DD Leptogenys exudans (Walker) DD Leptogenys hysterica Forel DD Leptogenys processionalis (Jerdon) LC Leptogenys pruinosa Forel EN Leptogenys yerburyi Forel DD 17 B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Leptogenys diminuta (Smith F.) DD Leptogenys falcigera Roger DD Leptogenys meritans (Walker) DD Leptogenys peuqueti (Andre) CR Myopias amblyops Roger Odontomachus simillimus Smith F. Criteria B2ab(iii) DD E: Indian Trap-jaw Ant S: Dala Kadiya Pachycondyla luteipes (Mayr) LC LC Pachycondyla rubiginosa (Emery) CR B2ab(iii) Pachycondyla sulcata (Forel) CR B2ab(iii) Pachycondyla tesseronoda (Emery) LC Platythyrea clypeata Forel DD Platythyrea parallela (Smith F.) VU B1ab(iii) Subfamily: Amblyoponinae Myopopone maculata DD Subfamily: Leptanillinae Leptanilla besucheti Baroni Urbani DD Subfamily: Pseudomyrmecinae Tetraponera allaborans (Walker, 1859) VU Tetraponera nigra (Jerdon) DD Tetraponera petiolata (Smith F.) Tetraponera rufonigra (Jerdon) B2ab(iii) DD E: Arboreal Bicolored Ant S: Hathpolaya LC Subfamily: Formicinae Acropyga acutiventris Roger Anoplolepis gracilipes (Smith F.) LC E: Yellow Crazy Ant S: Ambalaya LC Camponotus compressus Fabricius LC Camponotus irritans (Smith F.) LC Camponotus latebrosus Donisthorpe DD Camponotus mitis (Smith F.) DD Camponotus ominosus Forel DD Camponotus simoni Emery DD Camponotus thraso Forel DD Camponotus wedda Forel DD Camponotus albipes Emery DD Camponotus auriculatus Mayr DD Camponotus barbatus Roger DD Camponotus letcheri Donisthorpe DD Camponotus greeni Forel DD Camponotus indelexus (Walker) DD Camponotus isabellae Forel DD Camponotus mendax Forel DD Camponotus oblongus Forel EN Camponotus reticulatus Roger LC Camponotus rufoglaucus (Jerdon) VU 18 B1+2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) Scientiic Name Camponotus sericeus (Fabricius) Common Name E: Golden Backed Carpenter Ant NCS LC Camponotus sesquipedalis Roger DD Camponotus varians Roger DD Camponotus variegatus (Smith F.) Criteria CR B2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) Lepisiota frauenfeldi (Mayr) VU B1ab(iii) Lepisiota opaca (Mayr) VU B1ab(iii) Lepisiota capensis (Mayr) E: Black Sugar Ant Myrmoteras ceylonica Gregg DD Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius) E: Weaver ant S: Dimiya Paratrechina longicornis (Latrielle) E: Longhorn Crazy Ant S: Kalu Koombiya LC LC Paratrechina indica Forel EN Paratrechina taylori (Forel) DD Nylanderia yerburyi (Forel) LC Plagiolepis jerdonii Forel VU Plagiolepis pissina Roger DD Polyrhachis bugnioni Forel DD Polyrhachis exercita (Walker) DD Polyrhachis horni Emery DD Polyrhachis jerdonii Forel EN Polyrhachis nigra Mayr DD Polyrhachis rupicapra Roger DD Polyrhachis thrinax Roger DD Polyrhachis tibialis Santschi DD Polyrhachis xanthippe Forel DD Polyrhachis yerburyi Forel DD B1+2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) Polyrhachis convexa Roger VU B1ab(iii) Polyrhachis illaudata Walker CR B1+2ab(iii) Polyrhachis punctillata Roger VU B1ab(iii) Polyrhachis rastellata (Latreille) CR B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Polyrhachis scissa (Roger) EN Polyrhachis sophocles Forel DD Prenolepis naorojii Forel CR B2ab(iii) Pseudolasius isabellae Forel CR B1+2ab(iii) No of species: 194 (Due to the recent revisions in the ant taxonomy and removal of morphospecies this number has gone down) No of endemics: 33 (based on "so far recorded from Sri Lanka only") Global list contains only Aneuretus simoni as CR (B1+2c) 19 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) in Sri Lanka W. A. Inoka P. Karunaratne and Jayanthi P. Edirisinghe Department of Zoology, University of Peradenya, Peradeniya Introduction Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apiformes) are the most important pollinators of lowering plants including agricultural crops resulting in fruits and seed production. Most of the world’s crops are pollinated by bees comprising more than 20,000 identiied species and a similar number of species awaiting identiication. The distribution of bees depends on climate and their ability to disperse to suitable areas (Michener, 2000). The highest bee diversity has been recorded from warm temperate desert regions of the world. The earliest work on bees of Sri Lanka dates back to the British Colonial period where Dalla Torre (1896) listed 17 species of bees and Bingham (1897) recorded and described 42 species of bees from Sri Lanka. During the post-colonial period Sakagami and Ebmer (1987), Schwarz (1990), Sakagami (1978 & 1991), Sakagami, Ebmer and Tadauchi (1996 and 1998), Snelling (1980) and Baker (1996) worked on bees of Sri Lanka. The Smithsonian - Sri Lanka Insect Survey conducted from 1969 through 1975 up to 1987 resulted in the identiication of several more bee species and led to several publications. Duplicate specimens of bees identiied through this survey have been deposited in two locations: the Sri Lanka National Museums, Colombo (58 spp.) and in the Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya (42 spp.). Through a survey of published literature on bees of Sri Lanka, Wijesekara (2001) compiled an annotated list of bees of Sri Lanka documenting 132 bee species belonging to 25 genera and 4 families. The land mark publication on the ‘Bees of the world’ by Michener (2000) includes 29 genera and several subgenera of bees from Sri Lanka. Later surveys conducted by local scientists resulted in the updating of the checklist of bees of Sri Lanka with the addition of 5 new genera and 15 new species including one species new to Science (Karunaratne, Edirisinghe & Pauly, 2005). Taxonomy Dificulty in accessing the published keys and descriptions of selected bee groups in the region and the lack of an expert identiied reference bee collection in the country are the major impediments to the advancement of bee taxonomy. Further, lack of cooperation between bee specialists in the region and the absence of a forum for exchanging scientiic/research indings are also major constraints faced by bee taxonomists in Sri Lanka. As a result there are many morpho-species awaiting proper identiication. The need for revising the bee taxa of Sri Lanka is a major requirement as evidenced by the recent upgrading of the subfamily Nomiinae in Sri Lanka (Karunaratne, Edirisinghe & Pauly, 2005) that resulted in 11 genera of bees that were previously classiied under 3 genera. Distribution Field studies conducted in the recent past have shown that most bee species are distributed across a range of altitudes while few species are restricted to speciic habitats above 900 m. They are Homalictus singhalensis, Lasioglossum (Sudila) bidentatum, L. (Sudila) alphenum, 20 L. (Sudila) aulacophorum, and L. (Evylaeus) carnifrons. The Low country Dry zone harbours the majority of bee species where disturbed habitats such as scrublands that comprise of a diverse assemblage of herbaceous lowering plants, support the largest number of generalist bee species. Threats The most serious threat faced by bees is the decline and fragmentation of natural habitats that harbour their feeding plants and nesting sites. Encroachment of exotic invasive tall grass species such as Panicum maximum into scrublands and agricultural lands that harbour large number of bee species can be considered as a serious threat to the bees. These invasive grass species eventually eliminate the herbaceous lowering plants that provide food and the nesting grounds for bees. In agricultural habitats, uncontrolled application of insecticides and weedicides, especially during the active period of bees, has lowered their populations signiicantly. Conservation As bees are the major pollinators of our crops and lowering plants, priority should be given to proper management of this faunal group. Conservation of natural habitats is an essential task in bee conservation. Presence of a variety of pollen and nectar producing plants that can provide a year-around supply of food that is necessary to retain bees even during off seasons. Further, ground nesting bees should have undisturbed soil to make their nests. Therefore, at least 25% of the area covered by cultivated landscapes should be set aside for natural vegetation to keep beneicial insects including bees. Also application of insecticides and weedicides in agricultural habitats should be carried out during periods when bees are less active. Conserving lowering plants that provide nectar and pollen for bees and establishing sites that are suitable for nesting is another priority area that needs to be addressed. Further, application of insecticides and weedicides should be carried out in a manner that would have the least affect on bees. Measures such as application of insecticides prior to lowering and at a time of the day when bees are less active on lowers would minimize their exposure to such chemicals. Research gaps The need for revising the bee taxa of Sri Lanka is a major requirement as evidenced by the recent studies that have led to the discovery of several new species in Sri Lanka. Further, much of the data available for bees in Sri Lanka is restricted to few locations. Therefore, lack of knowledge about the distribution of bees is also a major gap in the knowledge on Sri Lankan bees. Thus, an island-wide survey should be conducted to document distribution patterns of the bees. This can be coupled with the establishment of a reference collection at the National Museum. Bees play a crucial role as pollinators, especially in crop plants. Yet bee pollinators of many crop plants are yet to be identiied and documented. Therefore, an attempt should be taken to identify and document bees that function as pollinators of crop plants and plants that are of conservation value such as threatened and endemic plants. Studies done in India have indicated that a signiicant increase in the yields can be achieved by augmenting the pollinator bee populations. Similar studies can be undertaken in Sri Lanka as to how crop pollination can be enhanced in both natural and built environments. The current trends in bee populations remain unknown and as population luctuations of bees will have a direct bearing 21 on agriculture, a mechanism must be established for monitoring the changes in bee diversity and density in speciic landscapes. Conclusions and recommendations 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. It is necessary to enhance the capacity of bee taxonomists to undertake the much needed taxonomic revisions on bees of Sri Lanka, through education and training It is also important to educate the local communities on the important role played by bees as pollinators and encourage them to actively engage in the conservation of bees Develop an user friendly ield guide on bees that to enable and popularize the study of bees Prepare an information booklet outlining actions that can be taken to enhance the population of bees Introduce agronomic practices that requires a lesser usage of agrochemical that are detrimental to bees Undertake a coordinated programmes to enhance the bee diversity and density, especially in agricultural landscapes References Baker, D. B., (1996). Notes on some palearctic and oriental Systropha, with descriptions of new species and a key to the species (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Halictidae), J. Nat. Hist., 30, pp.1527-1547 Bingham, C. T., (1897). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Hymenoptera Vol. 1, Wasps and Bees. London: Taylor and Francis. Dalla Torre, C. G., (1896). Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus. X: Aphidae (Anthophilla). Leipzig, pp. 643. Gupta, R. K., (2003). An annotated catalogue of bees of the Indian Region, [online] Available at: <http://geocities.com/ BeesInd2/ braunsapis.htm> Karunaratne, W. A. I. P., (2004). Taxonomy and Ecology of Bees of Sri Lanka. PhD. University of Peradeniya. Karunaratne, W. A. I. P., Edirisinghe, J. P., & Pauly, A., (2005). An updated checklist of bees of Sri Lanka with new records - MAB Checklist and Handbook Series. Publication No. 23. Colombo: National Science Foundation. Krombein, K. V. & Norden, B. B., (2001). Notes on trap-nesting Sri Lankan wasps and bees (Hymenoptera: Vespidae, Pompilidae, Sphecidae, Colletidae, Megachilidae), Proc. of the Ent. Soc, 103(2), pp.274-281. Michener, C. D., (2000). The Bees of the World. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkin University Press. Punchihewa, R. W. K., (1994). Beekeeping for honey production in Sri Lanka: management of Asiatic Hive honeybee Apis cerana in its natural tropical monsoonal environment. Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka. Roubik, D. W., (1992). Ecology and Natural History of tropical bees. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sakagami, S. F. & Ebmer, P. A., (1987). Taxonomic notes on Oriental halictine bees of the genus Halictus (Subgen. Seladonia) (Hymenoptera Apoidea), Linzer Biol. Beitr, 192, pp.301-357. Sakagami, S. F., Ebmer, A. W. & Tadauchi, O., (1996). The Halictine bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. III. Sudila (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) Part 1. Esakia, 36, pp.143-189. Sakagami, S. F., Ebmer, A. W. & Tadauchi, O., (1998). The Halictine bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. III. Sudila (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) Part 2. Esakia, 38, pp.55-83. Sakagami, S. F., (1978). Tetragonula stingless bees of the Continental Asia and Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Series VI, Zoology, 21(2), pp.165-247. Sakagami, S. F., (1991). The halictid bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. II. Nesohalictus (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Zool. Sci., 8, pp.169-178. Snelling, R. R., (1980). New bees of the genus Hylaeus from Sri Lanka and India (Hymenoptera: Colletidae). Contributions in Science, (328), pp.1-18. Wijesekara, A., (2001). An annotated list of bees (Hymenoptera:Apodea: Apiformes) of Sri Lanka. Tijdschrift Voor Entomologie, 144, pp.145-158. 22 Table 03 : List of Bees in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Family: Colletidae Hylaeus krombeini Snelling, 1980 CR B2ab(iii) Hylaeus sedens Snelling, 1980 CR B2ab(iii) Family: Halicitidae Austronomia krombeini Hirashima, 1978 NT Austronomia notiomorpha Hirashima, 1978 NT Ceylalictus cereus (Nurse, 1901) EN Ceylalictus horni (Strand, 1913) CR Ceylalictus taprobanae (Cameron, 1897) EN B2ab(iii) Curvinomia formosa (Smith, 1858) EN B2ab(iii) Curvinomia iridiscens (Smith, 1857) EN B2ab(iii) Gnathonomia nasicana Bingham, 1897 EN B2ab(iii) Halictus (Seladonia) lucidipennis Smith, 1853 LC Halictus trincomalicus Cameron, 1903 CR B2ab(iii) Homalictus paradnanus (Strand, 1914) EN B1ab(iii) Homalictus singhalensis (Blüthgen, 1926) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Hoplonomia westwoodi (Gribodo, 1894) LC Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) amblypygus (Strand, 1913) VU B1ab(iii) Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) cire (Cameron, 1897) VU B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) clarum (Nurse, 1902) NT Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) semisculptum (Cockerell, 1911) CR Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) semisculptum (Cockerell, 1911) CR Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) vagans (Smith, 1857) VU B1ab(iii) Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) albescens (Smith, 1853) EN B1ab(iii) Lasioglossum (Evylaeus) carinifrons (Cameron, 1904) LC Lasioglossum (Nesohalictus) halictoides (Smith, 1859) VU Lasioglossum (Nesohalictus) serenum (Cameron, 1897) LC B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) Lasioglossum (Sudila) alphenum (Cameron, 1897) LC Lasioglossum (Sudila) aulacophorum (Strand, 1913) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Lasioglossum (Sudila) bidentatum (Cameron, 1898) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Lasioglossum (Sudila) kandiense (Cockerell, 1913) CR B2ab(iii) Lipotriches (Austronomia) ustula (Cockerell, 1911) EN B2ab(iii) Lipotriches austella (Hirashima, 1978) EN B1ab(iii) Lipotriches cromberi (Cockerell, 1911) EN B2ab(iii) Lipotriches edirisinghei Pauly, 2006 VU B1ab(iii) Lipotriches exagens (Walker, 1860) EN B1ab(iii) Lipotriches fulvinerva (Cameron, 1907) EN Lipotriches pulchriventris (Cameron, 1897) CR B2ab(iii) Lipotriches sp nr. Comperta (Cockerell, 1912) CR B2ab(iii) Nomia (Hoplonomia) strigata (Fabricius, 1793) CR B2ab(iii) Nomia biroi Friese, 1913 EN B1ab(iii) Nomia butteli Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii) Nomia crassipes Fabricius 1798 NT Nomia crassiuscula Friese, 1913 CR 23 B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Nomia elegantula Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii) Nomia matalea Starnd, 1913 EN B1ab(iii) Nomia oxybeloides Smith, 1875 EN B1ab(iii) Nomia puttalama Starnd, 1913 EN B1ab(iii) Nomia rufa Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii) Pachyhalictus bedanus (Blüthgen, 1926) CR B2ab(iii) Pachyhalictus kalutarae (Cockerell, 1911) VU B1ab(iii) Pachyhalictus sigiriellus (Cockerell, 1911) CR B2ab(iii) Pachyhalictus vinctus (Walker, 1860) CR B2ab(iii) Pseudapis oxybeloides (Smith, 1875) LC Sphecodes biroi Friese, 1909 CR B2ab(iii) Sphecodes crassicornis Smith, 1875 VU B1ab(iii) Steganomus nodicornis (Smith, 1875) EN B2ab(iii) Systropha tropicalis Cockerell, 1911 EN B2ab(iii) Anthidiellum ramakrishnae (Cockerell, 1919) CR B2ab(iii) Coelioxys angulata Smith, 1870 VU B1ab(iii) Coelioxys apicata Smith, 1854 CR B1ab(iii) Coelioxys capitata Smith, 1854 VU B1ab(iii) Coelioxys confusus Smith, 1875 EN B2ab(iii) Coelioxys fenestrata Smith, 1873 EN B1ab(iii) Coelioxys fuscipennis Smith, 1854 CR B2ab(iii) Coelioxys intacta Friese, 1923 CR B2ab(iii) Coelioxys minutus Smith, 1879 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Coelioxys nitidoscutellaris Pasteels, 1987 CR B2ab(iii) Coelioxys taiwanensis Cockerell, 1911 EN B1ab(iii) Euaspis edentata Baker, 1995 EN B2ab(iii) Heriades binghami Cameron, 1897 NT Lithurgus atratus Smith, 1854 VU B1ab(iii) Family: Megachilidae Megachile amputata Smith, 1858 CR B2ab(iii) Megachile ardens Smith, 1879 CR B2ab(iii) Megachile conjuncta Smith, 1853 NT Megachile disjuncta Fabricius, 1781 NT Megachile hera Bingham, 1897 VU B1ab(iii) Megachile kandyca Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii) Megachile lanata Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii) Megachile mystacea Fabricius, 1775 CR B2ab(iii) Megachile nana Bingham, 1897 VU B1ab(iii) Megachile nigricans Cameron, 1898 CR B2ab(iii) Megachile reepeni Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii) Megachile relata Smith, 1879 CR B2ab(iii) Megachile umbripennis Smith, 1853 VU B1ab(iii) Megachile vestita Smith, 1853 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Megachile vigilans Smith, 1878 EN B2ab(iii) 24 Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Family: Apidae Amegilla (Glossamegilla) violacea Lepeletier, 1841 VU B1ab(iii) Amegilla (Zebramegilla) fallax Smith, 1879 NT Amegilla (Zebramegilla) subcoerulea Lepeletier, 1841 CR B2ab(iii) Amegilla (Zonamegilla) cingulifera Cockerell, 1910 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Amegilla (Zonamegilla) comberi Cockerell, 1911 NT Amegilla (Zonamegilla) niveocincta (Smith, 1854) CR B2ab(iii) Amegilla (Zonamegilla) puttalama Strand, 1913 VU B1ab(iii) Amegilla (Zonamegilla) subinsularis (Strand) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Amegilla (Zonamegilla) zonata Linnaeus, 1758 VU B1ab(iii) Apis cerana Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii) Apis dorsata Fabricius, 1793 EN B2ab(iii) Apis lorea Fabricius, 1787 EN B2ab(iii) Braunsapis cupulifera Vachal, 1894 CR B2ab(iii) Braunsapis mixta Smith, 1852 LC Braunsapis picitarsis Cameron, 1902 EN Ceratina (Ceratinidia) hieroglyphica Smith, 1854 LC B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceratina (Pithitis) binghami Cockerell, 1910 LC Ceratina (Pithitis) smaragdula Fabricius, 1787 EN B2ab(iii) Ceratina (Simoceratina) tanganyicensis Strand, 1911 CR B2ab(iii) Ceratina (Xanthoceratina) beata Cameron, 1897 CR B2ab(iii) Nomada antennata Meade-Waldo, 1913 CR B2ab(iii) Nomada bicellula Schwarz, 1990 EN B1ab(iii) Nomada priscilla Nurse, 1902 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Nomada wickwari Meade-Waldo, 1913 CR B2ab(iii) Tetralonia commixtana Strand, 1913 CR B2ab(iii) Tetralonia fumida Cockerell, 1911 CR B2ab(iii) Tetralonia taprobanicola Strand, 1913 CR B2ab(iii) Thyreus ceylonicus Friese, 1905 NT Thyreus histrio Fabricius, 1775 NT Thyreus insignis Meyer, 1912 EN B2ab(iii) Thyreus ramosellus Cockerell, 1919 EN B2ab(iii) Thyreus surniculus Lieftinck, 1959 CR B2ab(iii) Thyreus takaonis Cockerell, 1911 LC Trigona iridipennis Smith, 1854 LC Xylocopa amethystina Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii) Xylocopa auripennis Lepeletier, 1841 CR B2ab(iii) Xylocopa bhowara Maa, 1938 VU B1ab(iii) Xylocopa bryorum Fabricius, 1775 CR B2ab(iii) Xylocopa confusa Perez, 1901 EN B1ab(iii) Xylocopa dejeanii Lepeletier, 1841 EN B1ab(iii) Xylocopa fenestrata Fabricius, 1798 NT Xylocopa nasalis Westwood, 1842 CR B2ab(iii) Xylocopa ruicornis Fabricius, 1804 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Xylocopa tenuiscapa Westwood, 1840 LC Xylocopa tranquibarica Fabricius, 1804 CR 25 B2ab(iii) The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Butterlies of Sri Lanka George van der Poorten Hammaliya Estate, Bandarakoswatte. Introduction The study of butterlies in Sri Lanka began with a short account of 7 species from the island by Sir J. Emerson Tennent in his book Ceylon: An account of the island, Volume 1 (1860). This was followed by a more comprehensive account on the butterlies of Sri Lanka by Frederick Moore in The Lepidoptera of Ceylon Volume 1 (1880-1881) and Volume 3 (188487). Several scientiic works such as Marshall & de Nicéville (1882-83), de Nicéville (1886, 1890), Manders (1899, 1903, 1904), Bingham (1905 & 1907), Ormiston (1924), Evans (1927 & 1932), Woodhouse (1942, 1949, 1950), and Talbot (1947) have contributed to furthering the knowledge on butterly fauna of Sri Lanka. However, much of the information in these books was based on the original writings of Moore with some added information generated by studies done in India and contributions by local naturalists including E. E. Green, Tunnard, Manders, Wiley and Ormiston. In 1998, d’Abrera published a book with short accounts on all of the species accompanied by color photographs. Since then several popular books and articles have been published on butterlies; most of them however, are based on available literature rather than new information. To date, 245 species of butterlies (Order Lepidoptera: Superfamily Papilionoidae) have been recorded from Sri Lanka, of which twenty-six species are endemic to the island. Sri Lanka shares most of its butterly fauna with peninsular India, with which it is zoographically related. In particular, there are several species regionally endemic to the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. Current taxonomic status The phylogenetic analysis of the butterlies and skippers of the world by Ackery et. al., (1999) in which they were classiied under three superfamilies (Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea and Papilionoidea), has been superceded by the work of van Nieukerken et. al., (2011) in which all seven families of butterlies, including the skippers, are now classiied in the superfamily Papilionoidae. In Sri Lanka, all species of butterlies and skippers are classiied under the following six families: Papilionidae (15 species), Pieridae (28 species), Nymphalidae (68 species), Riodinidae (1 species), Lycaenidae (84 species) and Hesperiidae (49 species). Of the 26 endemic species, 9 species each are found in the Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae families while the remaining 8 species belong to the families Papilionidae (2), Pieridae (2) and Hesperiidae (4). However, ongoing taxonomic work on the group may result in a change in the number of endemic species (Kunte, K., in prep.). Since the publication of 2007 IUCN Red List, two species new to Sri Lanka have been discovered: Catopsilia scylla (van der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012c.) and Cephrenes trichopepla (van der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012b, in press.). These two species are recent arrivals to the island from possibly Malaysia and Australia, respectively. In addition, Spindasis greeni is now considered a valid species. Some authors questioned its status as a species because it was originally described from only one specimen. However, new information conirms that it is indeed a valid species (van der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012a, in press). 26 Distribution The distribution of butterlies in Sri Lanka is largely determined by climate, topography and the underlying geology of the land, as these factors determine the types of vegetation that will grow in a particular area. Many species of butterlies are generalists and occur in a range of climatic zones because of their ability to survive on a wide range of larval and adult resources, and their ability to migrate or disperse widely. However, there are few species that display a very local and restricted distribution because they are constrained by one or more resources. The following describes the species restricted to speciic climatic zones, types of forests or grasslands in which they are found and the habitats within them (endemics are indicated by *). Arid zone North and north-west Coastal thorn scrub: Colotis fausta, Junonia hierta, Azanus ubaldus, and Colotis danae Meadows with seasonal looding: Byblia ilithyia South and south-east Coastal thorn scrub: Tarucas callinara Dry zone Dry mixed evergreen forest (north): Spindasis nubilus*, Tajuria jehana, Virachola isocrates Dry mixed evergreen forest (south-east): Gomalia elma, Graphium nomius Dry intermediate zone Savannah grassland habitats of the Uva and Sabaragamuwa provinces: Symphaedra nais, Ypthima singala*, Pratapa deva Wet zone: lowland Generalists: Parthenos sylvia, Papilio helenus, Nacaduba ollyetti*, Pachliopta jophon* Bamboo habitats: Mycalesis rama* Riparian habitats: Jamides coruscans*, Kallima philarchus*, Idea iasonia* Seepages and marsh habitats: Thoressa decorata* Dipterocarp forests: Rapala lankana, Arhopala ormistoni*, Horaga onyx, Horaga albimacula, Nacaduba calauria Mangrove habitats: Euploea phaenareta, Ideopsis similis Wet zone: submontane Generalists: Prioneris sita Riparian habitats: Doleschallia bisaltide, Celaenorrhinus spilothyrus* Rocky riparian habitats: Phalanta alcippe Bamboo thickets: Lethe dynsate*, Lethe drypetis Grasslands: Baracus vittatus*, Eurema laeta Wet zone: montane Generalists: Udara lanka*, Udara akasa, Spindasis greeni*, Vanessa indica, Parantica taprobana*, Cepora nadina, Spindasis greeni*, Argynnis hyperbius Bamboo habitats: Lethe daretis* Grassland habitats: Baracus vittatus*, Eurema laeta 27 Threats to butterlies The most signiicant threat to the butterly fauna of Sri Lanka is the disappearance and degradation of forest, grassland and coastal habitats due to human activity. In the wet zone, the greatest concerns include the ever-increasing illegal encroachment of human settlements, the illegal felling of trees for timber and irewood and the illegal expansion of tea and rubber cultivations into the protected forest reserves. In the dry and arid zones, the situation is similar, though it is the illegal cultivation of rice and other crops that threatens the butterly habitats. The coastal habitats of butterlies are threatened by a more recent phenomenon: the rapid development of hotels and resorts in many near-pristine areas of the coast. In addition to these general threats, there are speciic ones. For example, the introduction of the thorny non-native tree, Prosopis julilora, to the arid zones has eliminated the native lora, including the larval food plants and nectar sources of many species of butterlies, which were once common in that eco-system. In the southern arid zone, the incursion of Prosopis will have a dramatic impact on the survival of Tarucas callinara, which is entirely restricted to the coastal arid zone of the south and south-east. The situation in Mannar and Arippu is the same where the most affected species is Junonia hierta, a species entirely conined to the coastal belt of the arid zone of the north and north-west. Several other butterly species of the arid zone (e.g. Ixias pyrene and Colotis amata), which are also found in the dry zone, have undergone local extinctions in places where Prosopis has replaced the native thorn scrub. The Knuckles Conservation Area also faces several speciic threats. Pinus caribaea has become naturalized and is invading the natural grasslands, which are the habitats of butterlies such as Baracus vittatus, Eurema laeta, E. brigitta, and Mycalesis mineus. The native undergrowth of much of the forested areas has been taken over by the cultivation of Elettaria cardamomom and the naturalization of Cestrum nocturnum. In addition, the spread of these two species along streams as well has displaced much of the native vegetation. In particular, Asystasia chelonoides and Pseuderanthemum latifolium which are larval food plants of Doleschallia bisaltide have declined and continue to disappear in many stream habitats. Similarly, several species of Strobilanthes, which are the larval food plants of Kallima philarchus have also declined with the consequent adverse effects for the butterly. The threat faced by Symphaedra nais in the Nilgala-Bibile savanna grasslands is not one of invasion by foreign plant species, but one of yearly forest ires deliberately set by people living in the area and uncontrolled utilization of its food tree. The ires are set to allow for new growth of grass for improved grazing by animals and to promote lushing of the “beedi” tree, Diospyros melanoxylon. The newly matured leaves of this plant are used by the local people to manufacture a type of local cigarette called “Beedi”. These maturing leaves are also used by the larvae of S. nais as their food source. The harvesting of these leaves destroys ova and larvae in large numbers while adults perish under the ires set to the forests. The ires also prevent young trees from developing into mature seed-bearing trees. At times, entire branches are lopped off mature trees to make collecting the maturing leaves easier. These activities coupled with the dying off of mature trees will result in a deicit in the seed bank for the future generations of D. melanoxylon. The direct effects of ire, the harvesting of leaves and the likely disappearance or drastic reduction of D. melanoxylon from this habitat do not bode well for the survival of S. nais. 28 Another threat of increasing importance is the illicit removal of very young trees about 4–6 cm in diameter from the understorey of the wet zone forests for irewood, fences and other uses. Several small tree species such as Humboldtia laurifolia (larval host plant of Jamides coruscans) and several species of Polyalthia (larval food plants of Graphium doson and Graphium agamemnon) are entirely understorey plants and their removal along with other understorey plants will not only impact the larval food source but will also alter the composition of the understorey by inluencing its microclimate and thereby impacting shade-loving butterly species (Discophora lepida) and plant species (Thottea siliquosa, the sole larval food plant of Pachliopta jophon). The disappearance of suitable habitats and larval food plants in all climatic zones is relected in the reduced size of many populations of butterlies, particularly those that show seasonal mass movements. This is particularly evident during the mass movements of Appias galene, A. libythea, Catopsilia pomona, Hebomoia glaucippe and Papilo crino; the numbers seen today are but a fraction of what was seen a few decades ago. Conservation Of the 245 species of butterlies in Sri Lanka, 100 species (41%) are listed as threatened species (21 are critically endangered, 38 are endangered and 40 are vulnerable). A further 21 species are listed as Near Threatened. The status of 6 species was not analyzed because of lack of data on their occurrence and distribution. However, only Pachliopta jophon is listed as a globally threatened species (critically endangered) by the IUCN. This indicates the need to update the Global Red List with respect to the conservation status of the butterly fauna of Sri Lanka. These statistics also relect the dire consequences of many of the threats outlined above as well as the lack of information on the biology of many species of butterlies in Sri Lanka. The status designated to the butterlies in this report has been based on EOO and AOO and has not taken into consideration the rate of decline in numbers over several years (because of lack of data), although this is a very important criterion in determining the loss of ground by a species in its environment over time. Nonetheless, several species such as Rapala lankana, Horaga onyx, H. albimacula, Gangara lebadea, Nacaduba calauria, Junonia hierta, Tajuria arida, Spindasis greeni, Appias indra, and Cepora nadina, have been recorded in such low numbers and in so few locations over many years that these must certainly be considered the most critically endangered in the island and their conservation must be addressed with a sense of urgency. These butterlies have been sighted less than a half dozen times over the past 7 years since detailed records have been kept. Interestingly, these butterlies have also been historically very rare even 100 years ago (Ormiston, 1924) and the assessment of their status given here can be questioned until their biology is understood. They are also very rare in museum collections and the information available on the specimens is scanty. There is little or no information on what habitats they were found in and in which locations. All of these species are habitat specialists of the wet zone lowlands or montane forests and cannot survive outside pristine or near pristine forests as shown by the data collected by the Ministry of the Environment and several independent researchers. This highlights the importance of conserving the rain forests of the south and south-west, particularly those forest reserves that are under state control, which are probably the last refuges of these species. Another butterly, Catapaecilma major, falls into this category but it lies in the dry and intermediate zones. 29 At least for one butterly, Arhopala ormistoni, the mystery of its great rarity has been recently uncovered. This is a species of the dense Dipterocarp forests of the wet zone, and it spends its entire life high up in the canopy where it is very dificult to see and therefore record; it seldom descends to levels where it can be observed easily. This points to the importance of understanding the general biology of the butterlies before assessing the status and conservation importance. On the other hand, there are several species that are well adapted to altered landscapes and that survive outside forests very well. These include many species (e.g. Ypthima, Leptosia and Mycalesis) whose larvae feed on annual weed species that grow in abandoned lands and roadsides and their populations certainly seem to be increasing compared to the past. The establishment of butterly gardens in urban and non-urban areas has certainly encouraged these species. The private sector has been particularly active in the promotion of these butterly gardens for eco-tourism and it is hoped that the idea will spread to individuals, government and non-governmental institutions more rapidly. Fortunately, there is a push by the Ministry of the Environment to promote the idea of butterly gardens by organizing seminars, workshops and publications. More work need to be done to create awareness on butterly conservation in rural areas, particularly in villages that are bordering forests in the wet zone. Further, more funding opportunities should be created for butterly conservation projects to ensure long term survival of butterly fauna of Sri Lanka. Recommendations for Research and Conservation 1. 2. 3. 4. Establish an oficially recognized group of amateur and professional lepidopterists to work closely with designated biologists from the Ministry of the Environment and other afiliated institutions to act as a consultative body on issues relating to butterly conservation. This group must be empowered to carry out island-wide surveys to monitor population luctuations and to gather information on all aspects of butterly biology. Establish an oficial website with a comprehensive database containing historical and current information on the butterlies of the island. Initiate a project to gather data on the habitats, distribution, light periods, immature stages, and the general biology of the endangered and critically endangered species. The indings of such a study will enable identiication of areas that can be protected and enhanced for the conservation of the butterlies of Sri Lanka. Conduct DNA and genitalia studies to verify the taxonomic status of the endemic species and sub-species in Sri Lanka to compare with those of the Indian mainland, e.g. Tarucas callinara, Tarucas nara, Pelopidas agna, Pelopidas mathias, Halpe egena, Halpe ceylonica, Spindasis ictis, Spindasis elima, Spindasis nubilus, Acytolepis puspa and Acytolepis lilacea. References Ackery, P., de Jong, R. & Vane-Wright, R. I., (1999). The Butterlies: Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea and Papilionoidae. In: N.P. Kristensen, ed. 1999. The butterlies: Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea, and Papilionoidea. de Gruyter. Berlin. pp. 263–300. Kunte, K., (in press). A Systematic and Biogeographic Catalogue of Indian Butterlies: Butterly Diversity and Endemism in India’s Biodiversity Hotspots. Ormiston, W., (1924). The Butterlies of Ceylon. Colombo: H. W. Cave & Co. van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (in press, a). The biology of Spindasis greeni Heron, 1896 and a review of the genus Spindasis in Sri Lanka (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). The Journal of Research in Lepidoptera. 30 van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (in press, b). Cephrenes trichopepla (Lower, 1908): A new record for Sri Lanka with notes on its biology, life history and distribution (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). The Journal of Research in Lepidoptera. van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (2012). Catopsilia scylla (Linnaeus, 1763): A new record for Sri Lanka with notes on its biology, life history and distribution (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). The Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera, 45, pp.17-23. van Nieukerken, E. K., Kaila, L., Kitching, I. J., Kristensen, N. P., Lees, D. C., Minet, J., Mitter, C., Mutanen, M., Regier, J. C., Simonsen, T. J., Wahlberg, N., Yen, S-H., Zahiri, R., Adamski, D., Baixeras, J., Bartsch, D., Bengtsson, B. Å., Brown, J. W. S. R., Bucheli, D.R. Davis, J. De Prins, W. De Prins, M. E. Epstein, P. GentiliPoole, C. Gielis, P. Hättenschwiler, A. Hausmann, J. D. Holloway, A. Kallies, O. Karsholt, A. Y. Kawahara, S. J. C. Koster, M. Kozlov, V., Lafontaine, J. D., Lamas, G., Landry, J.-F., Lee, S., Nuss, M., Park, K.-T., Penz, C., Rota, J., Schintlmeister, A., Schmidt, B. C., Sohn, J.-C., Solis, M. A., Tarmann, G. M., Warren, A.D., Weller, S., Yakovlev, R. V., Zolotuhin, V. V. & Zwick. A., (2011). Order Lepidoptera Linnaeus, 1758. In: Z.-Q. Zhang, ed. 2011. Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classiication and survey of taxonomic richness. Zootaxa, 3148, pp.212-221. 31 Table 04 : List of Butterlies in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria CR* B1+2ac Family: Papilionidae Graphium agamemnon Linnaeus, 1758 E: Tailed Jay; S: Thudanga Pralapani LC Graphium antiphates Cramer, 1775 E: Fivebar Swordtail; S: Pancha iri kaga-waligaya EN Graphium doson Felder, 1864 E: Common Jay ; S: Pralapani LC Graphium nomius Esper, 1784 E: Spot Swordtail; S: Thith Kaga-waligaya VU Graphium sarpedon Linnaeus, 1758 E: Bluebottle ; S: Neelabomi LC Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius, 1775 E: Common Rose ; S: Sewwandiya LC Pachliopta hector Linnaeus, 1758 E: Crimson Rose; S: Arunu Sewwandiya LC Pachliopta jophon Gray, 1852 E: Sri Lanka Rose; S: Sri Lanka rosa papiliya EN Papilio clytia Linnaeus, 1758 E: Mime; S: Rawana Papiliya LC Papilio crino Fabricius, 1792 E: Banded Peacock; S: Mayurabada VU Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Lime Butterly; S: Dehirisiya LC Papilio helenus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Red Helen; S: Maha Kela Papiliya VU Papilio polymnestor Cramer, 1775 E: Blue Mormon ; S: Neela Parindaya LC Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 E: Common Mormon; S: Wesgaththi LC Troides darsius Gray, 1852 E: Sri Lanka Birdwing; S: Sri Lanka Maha Kurulu Piya Paliliya LC Appias albina Boisduval, 1836 E: Common Albatross; S: Dingupath Samanalaya LC Appias galene Cramer, 1777 E: Sri Lanka Lesser Albatross; S: Sri Lanka Thundu Dingupath Samanalaya LC Appias indra Moore, 1857 E: Plain Pufin; S: Dumbara-sudana CR Appias libythea Fabricius, 1775 E: Striped Albatross; S: Iri Sudana LC Appias lyncida Cramer, 1779 E: Chocolate Albatross; S: Dumburuwan Sudana LC Belenois aurota Fabricius, 1793 E: Pioneer ;S: Apsaravi LC Catopsilia pomona Fabricius, 1775 E: Lemon Emigrant; S: Dehi seriya LC Catopsilia pyranthe Linnaeus, 1758 E: Mottled Emigrant; S: Lapa seriya LC Catopsilia scylla Linnaeus, 1763 E: Orange Migrant LC B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) Family: Pieridae 32 B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Cepora nadina Lucas, 1852 E: Lesser Gull; S: Heen Panduru-sudana CR Cepora nerissa Fabricius, 1775 E: Common Gull; S: Lihini Samanalaya LC Colotis amata Fabricius, 1775 E: Small Salmon Arab; S: Punchi Rosa Sudana LC Colotis danae Fabricius, 1775 E: Crimson Tip; S: Rathu-thudu Sudda VU Colotis etrida Boisduval, 1836 E: Little Orange Tip; S: Heen Sudana NT Colotis aurora Cramer, 1780 E: Plain Orange Tip; S: Podu Tembiliwan Sudana VU B1ab(iii) Colotis fausta Olivier, 1807 E: Large Salmon Arab; S: Maha Rosa Sudana VU B1ab(iii) Delias eucharis Drury, 1773 E: Jezebel; S: Pilila Risiya LC Eurema blanda Boisduval, 1836 E: Three-spot Grass Yellow; S: Thun pulli Thruna Pithaya LC Eurema brigitta Stoll, 1780 E: Small Grass Yellow; S: Rubella Thruna pithaya LC Eurema hecabe Linnaeus, 1764 E: Common Grass Yellow; S: Thruna Pithaya LC Eurema laeta Boisduval, 1836 E: Spotless Grass Yellow; S: Nothith Thruna Pithaya VU B1ab(iii) Eurema ormistoni Moore, 1886 E: Sri Lanka One-spot Grass Yellow; S: Sri Lanka Kela kahakolaya VU B1ab(iii) Hebomoia glaucippe Linnaeus, 1758 E: Great Orange Tip; S: Maha Ramba Thuduwa) LC Ixias marianne Cramer, 1779 E: White Orange Tip; S: Ela Ramba Thuduwa LC Ixias pyrene Linnaeus, 1764 E: Yellow Orange Tip; S: Padu Ramba Thuduwa LC Leptosia nina Fabricius, 1793 E: Psyche; S: Manahari LC Pareronia ceylanica Felder, 1865 E: Dark Wanderer; S: Anduru seriya LC Prioneris sita Felder, 1865 E: Painted Sawtooth; S: Vichitra Maha-sudda EN Acraea violae Fabricius, 1807 E: Tawny Coster ; S: Viyola LC Argynnis hyperbius Linnaeus, 1763 E: Indian Fritillary; S: Indiyanu Alankarikaya EN Ariadne ariadne Linnaeus, 1763 E: Angled Castor; S: Naw-Risiya LC Ariadne merione Cramer, 1777 E :Common Castor; S: Podu Pathan-sariya VU B1ab(iii) Byblia ilithyia Drury, 1773 E :Joker; S: Kawataya VU B1ab(iii) Cethosia nietneri Felder, 1867 E :Ceylon Lace Wing; S:Lanka Seda-piyapatha LC Charaxes psaphon Westwood, 1848 E :Tawny Rajah; S: Maha Kumaraya NT Charaxes solon Fabricius, 1793 E :Black Rajah; S: Kalu Raja-kumaraya NT B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Family: Nymphalidae 33 B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) GCS Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Cirrochroa thais Fabricius, 1787 E :Yeoman; S: Kela Raththiya LC Cupha erymanthis Drury, 1773 E :Rustic; S: Raththiya LC Danaus chrysippus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Plain Tiger; S: Pahan Gomara LC Danaus genutia Cramer, 1779 E: Common Tiger; S: Agni Gomara LC Discophora lepida Moore, 1857 E: Southern Duffer; S: Dumburu Kewattaya VU B1ab(iii) Doleschallia bisaltide Cramer, 1777 E: Autumn Leaf; S: Yoda kela-kolaya EN B2ab(iii) Dophla evelina Stoll, 1790 E: Redspot Duke; S: Rath-ne LC Elymnias hypermnestra Linnaeus, 1763 E: Common Palmly; S: Ramba-thaliya LC Elymnias singhala Moore, 1875 E: Sri Lanka Palmly; S: Sri Lanka Thal-dumburuwa EN Euploea core Cramer, 1779 E: Common Indian Crow; S: Indu Kakaya LC Euploea klugii Moore, 1888 E: Brown King Crow; S: Raja Kaka-kotithiya LC Euploea phaenareta Schaller, 1758 E: The Great Crow; S: Yoda Kaka-kotithiya EN Euploea sylvester Fabricius, 1793 E: Double- branded Black Crow; S: De-iri Kakakotithiya NT Euthalia aconthea Cramer, 1777 E: Baron ; S: Sitano LC Euthalia lubentina Cramer, 1779 E: Gaudy Baron; S: Kela Achchilaya VU Hypolimnas bolina Linnaeus, 1756 E: Great Eggly; S: Maha-siwwa LC Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Danaid Eggly; S: Punchi-siwwa LC Idea iasonia Westwood, 1848 E: Sri Lanka Tree Nymph; S:Sri Lanka Pawenna VU B1ab(iii) Ideopsis similis Linnaeus, 1764 E: Blue Glassy Tiger; S:Maha Nil-kotithiya VU B1ab(iii) Junonia almana Linnaeus, 1758 E: Peacock Pansy; S: Mayura Pansaya LC Junonia atlites Linnaeus, 1758 E: Grey Pansy; S: Alu Pansaya LC Junonia hierta Fabricius, 1793 E: Yellow Pansy; S: Peetha Pansaya CR Junonia iphita Cramer, 1779 E: Chocolate Soldier; S: Miyuru-Hewa LC Junonia lemonias Linnaeus, 1758 E: Lemon Pansy; S: Pangiri Pansaya LC Junonia orithya Linnaeus, 1758 E: Blue Pansy; S: Nil Alankarikaya NT Kallima philarchus Westwood, 1848 E :Sri Lanka Blue Oakleaf; S: Sri Lanka Nil Kela-kolaya EN Kaniska canace Linnaeus, 1763 E: Blue Admiral; S: Nil Seneviya LC 34 GCS B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) NT Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Lethe daretis Hewitson, 1868 E: Sri Lanka Treebrown; S: Sri Lanka Gasdumburuwa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Lethe drypetis Hewitson, 1868 E: Tamil Treebrown; S: Maha- Gas-dumburuwa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Lethe dynsate Hewitson, 1868 E :Sri Lanka Forester; S: Sri Lanka Kela Gasdumburuwa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Lethe rohria Fabricius, 1787 E: Common Treebrown; S: Podu Gas-dumburuwa EN B2ab(iii) Libythea celtis Laicharting, 1782 E: Beak; S: Dumburu-thuduwa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Libythea myrrha Godart, 1819 E :Club Beak; S: Dandu Dumburu-thuduwa VU B1ab(iii) Melanitis leda Linnaeus, 1763 E: Common Evening Brown; S: Gomman-guruwa LC Melanitis phedima Cramer, 1780 E: Dark Evening Brown; S: Anduru Gomman-guruwa NT Moduza procris Cramer, 1777 E: Commander; S: Maha Selaruwa LC Mycalesis mineus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Dark-Brand Bushbrown; S: Anduru-lapa panduru Guruwa LC Mycalesis patnia Moore, 1857 E: Gladeye Bushbrown; S: Min-neth panduru Guruwa) LC Mycalesis perseus Fabricius, 1775 E: Common Bushbrown; S: Panduru Guruwa LC Mycalesis rama Moore, 1892 E: Sri Lanka Bushbrown; S: Sri Lanka Pandurudumburuwa EN Mycalesis subdita Moore, 1857 E: Sri Lanka Tamil Bushbrown; S: Sri Lanka Damila Panduru-dumburuwa LC Neptis hylas Linnaeus, 1758 E: Common Sailor; S: Selaruwa LC Neptis jumbah Moore, 1857 E: Chestnut-streaked Sailor; S: Wairan Selaruwa LC Orsotriaena medus Fabricius, 1775 E: Medus Brown; S: Iri Siw-mudda LC Pantoporia hordonia Stoll, 1790 E: Common Lascar; S: Kaha Selaruwa NT Parantica aglea Stoll, 1782 E: Glassy Tiger; S: Palingu Gomara LC Parantica taprobana Felder, 1865 E: Sri Lanka Tiger; S: Sri Lanka Nil-kotithiya EN Parthenos sylvia Cramer, 1775 E: Clipper; S: Yoda Kela Selaruwa LC Phalanta alcippe Cramer, 1780 E: Small Leopard; S: Punchi Thith-thambiliya CR Phalanta phalantha Drury, 1773 E: Leopard; S: Maha Diwi-Pulliya LC Polyura athamas Drury, 1770 E: Nawab; S: Kaha Kumaraya LC 35 GCS B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) NT Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Rohana parisatis Westwood, 1850 E: Black Prince; S: Kalu Kumaraya VU B1ab(iii) Symphaedra nais Forster, 1771 E: Baronet; S: Punchi Achchilaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Tirumala limniace Cramer, 1775 E: Blue Tiger; S: Neela Gomara LC Tirumala septentrionis Butler, 1865 E: Dark Blue Tiger; S: Anduruwan Nil-kotithiya NT Vanessa cardui Linnaeus, 1761 E: Painted Lady; S: Vichithra Alnkarikaya VU B1ab(iii) Vanessa indica Herbst, 1794 E: Indian Red Admiral; S: Rathu seneviya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Vindula erota Fabricius, 1793 E: Cruiser; S: Yoda Thambiliya NT Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson, 1864 E: White Four-ring; S: Sithiri Siwwa LC Ypthima singala Felder, 1868 E: Sri Lanka Jewel Fourring; S: Sri Lanka Ran Heen-dumburuwa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Acytolepis lilacea Hampson, 1889 E: Hampson's Hedge Blue; S: Hampson Gomu Neelaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Acytolepis puspa Horsield, 1828 E: Common Hedge Blue; S: Gomu Neelaya LC Amblypodia anita Hewitson, 1862 E: Purple Leafblue; S: Dam-path Neelaya NT Anthene lycaenina Felder, 1868 E: Pointed Ciliate Blue; S: Ul Kirana-neelaya LC Arhopala abseus Hewitson, 1862 E: Aberrant Bushblue; S: Kela Gas-neelaya EN Arhopala amantes Hewitson, 1862 E: Large Oakblue; S: Maha-siduru Neelaya LC Arhopala centaurus Doubleday, 1847 E: Centaur Oakblue; S: Samila Neelaya LC Arhopala ormistoni Riley, 1920 E: Sri Lanka Ormiston's Oakblue; S: Sri Lanka Siduru Neelaya CR Azanus jesous Guérin, 1847 E: African Babul Blue; S: Rata Neelaya LC Azanus ubaldus Stoll, 1782 E: Bright Babul Blue; S: Punchi neelaya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Bindahara phocides Fabricius, 1793 E: Plane; S: Visithuru Digupenda Neelaya EN B2ab(iii) Caleta decidia Hewitson, 1876 E: Angled Pierrot; S: Mulu Konangiya LC Castalius rosimon Fabricius, 1775 E: Common Pierrot; S: Konangiya LC Catapaecilma major Druce, 1895 E: Common Tinsel; S: Visithuru Gas-neelaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Catochrysops panormus Felder, 1860 E: Silver Forget-me-not; S: Rajatha Sadasiya CR B2ab(iii) Catochrysops strabo Fabricius, 1793 E: Forget-me-not; S:Sadasiya LC Family: Lycaenidae 36 B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) GCS Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Celastrina lavendularis Moore, 1877 E: Plain Hedge Blue; S: Sarala Gomu Neelaya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Cheritra freja Fabricius, 1793 E: Common Imperial; S: Digu-penda Gas-neelaya VU B1ab(iii) Chilades lajus Stoll, 1780 E: Lime Blue; S: Dehi-neelaya LC Chilades pandava Horsield, 1829 E: Plains Cupid; S: Meewana-sara LC Chilades parrhasius Fabricius, 1793 E: Small Cupid; S: Punchi Panu-neelaya LC Curetis thetis Drury, 1773 E: Indian Sunbeam; S: Wismi-keeta LC Deudorix epijarbas Moore, 1857 E: Cornelian; S: Podu Kirana-neelaya VU Discolampa ethion Westwood, 1851 E: Banded Blue Pierrot; S: Nil Konangiya LC Euchrysops cnejus Fabricius, 1798 E: Gram Blue; S: Mun-risiya LC Everes lacturnus Godart, 1824 E: Indian Cupid; S: Malavi Parasiya LC Freyeria putli Kollar, 1844 E: Grass Jewel; S: Palamini LC Horaga albimacula Wood-Mason & de Nicéville, 1881 E: Brown Onyx; S:Guru Agasthiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Horaga onyx Moore, 1857 E: Blue Onyx; S: Nil Agasthiya CR B2ab(iii) Hypolycaena nilgirica Moore, 1883 E: Nilgiri Tit; S: Niilgiri neelaya LC Ionolyce helicon Felder, 1860 E: Pointed Lineblue; S: Thuduri Neelaya CR Iraota timoleon Stoll,1790 E: Silverstreak Blue; S: Redee Gas-neelaya NT Jamides alecto Felder, 1860 E: Metallic Cerulean; S: Dili Seruliya LC Jamides bochus Stoll, 1782 E: Dark Cerulean; S: Anduru Seruliya LC Jamides celeno Cramer, 1775 E: Common Cerulean; S: Seruliya LC Jamides coruscans Moore, 1877 E: Sri Lanka Cerulean; S: Sri Lanka Seru-nilaya VU B1ab(iii) Jamides lacteata de Nicéville, 1895 E: Sri Lanka Milky Cerulean; S: Sri Lanka Ela Seruliya VU B1ab(iii) Lampides boeticus Linnaeus, 1767 E: Pea Blue; S: Munneelaya LC Leptotes plinius Fabricius, 1793 E: Zebra Blue; S: Sabaru Neelaya LC Loxura atymnus Stoll, 1780 E: Yamly; S: Kadala Samanalaya LC Megisba malaya Horsield, 1828 E: Malayan; S: Malalini LC Nacaduba berenice Herrich-Schäffer, 1869 E: Rounded 6-Lineblue; S: Wata Iri Neelaya DD Nacaduba beroe Felder & Felder, 1865 E: Opaque 6-Lineblue; S: Adisi-Iri Neelaya EN 37 B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) GCS Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Nacaduba calauria Felder, 1860 E: Dark Ceylon 6-Lineblue; S: Anduru Iri Neelaya DD Nacaduba hermus Felder, 1860 E: Pale 4-Lineblue; S: Sawri-neela NT Nacaduba kurava Moore, 1857 E: Transparent 6-Lineblue; S: Disi-Iri Neelaya VU B1ab(iii) Nacaduba ollyetti Corbet, 1947 E: Sri Lanka Woodhouse's 4-Lineblue; S: Sri Lanka Wanasi-neelaya CR B2ab(iii) Nacaduba pactolus Felder, 1860 E: Large 4-Lineblue; S: Maha Nil-Iriya NT Nacaduba sinhala Ormiston, 1924 E: Sri Lanka Pale Ceylon 6-Lineblue; S: Sri Lanka Hela Iri Neelaya VU Neopithecops zalmora Butler, 1870 E: Quaker; S: Samlani LC Petrelaea dana de Nicéville, 1883 E: Dingy Lineblue; S: Dingi Nil-Iriya EN B2ab(iii) Pratapa deva Moore, 1857 E: White Royal; S: Sudu Raja-nilaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Prosotas dubiosa Semper, 1879 E: Tailless Lineblue; S: Apus Iri Neelaya LC Prosotas nora Felder, 1860 E: Common Lineblue; S: Iri Neelaya LC Prosotas noreia Felder, 1868 E: White-tipped Lineblue; S: Sudu Nil-iriya EN Rapala iarbus Fabricius, 1787 E: Indian Red Flash; S: Rathu Debati DD Rapala lankana Moore, 1879 E: Malabar Flash; S: Kala Kiranaya CR Rapala manea Hewitson, 1863 E: Slate Flash; S: Anduru Kiranaya LC Rapala varuna Horsield, 1829 E: Indigo Flash; S: Nil Debati VU Rathinda amor Fabricius, 1775 E: Monkey-puzzle; S: Rathinda LC Spalgis epeus Westwood, 1851 E: Apely; S: Hanuman Samanalaya LC Spindasis elima Moore, 1877 E: Scarce Shot Silverline; S: Hiru Raja-thariya DD Spindasis greeni Heron, 1896 E: Sri Lanka Green's Silverline CR Spindasis ictis Hewitson, 1865 E: Ceylon Silverline; S: Hela Raja-thariya LC Spindasis lohita Horsield, 1829 E: Long -banded Silverline; S: Digu-iri Ridee-neelaya VU Spindasis nubilus Moore, 1887 E: Sri Lanka Clouded Silverline; S: Sri Lanka Wala Raja-thariya DD Spindasis schistacea Moore, 1881 E: Plumbeous Silverline; S: Lamba Raja-thariya VU Spindasis vulcanus Fabricius, 1775 E: Common Silverline; S: Raja-thariy LC Surendra vivarna Horsield, 1829 E: Common Acacia Blue; S: Andara Neelaya LC 38 B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii) GCS Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Tajuria arida Riley, 1923 E: Sri Lanka Indigo Royal; S: Sri Lanka Raja-neelaya CR Tajuria cippus Fabricius, 1798 E: Peacock Royal; S: Mayura Paramaya LC Tajuria jehana Moore, 1883 E: Plains Blue Royal; S: Podu Raja-neelaya CR Talicada nyseus Guérin-Méneville, 1843 E: Red Pierrot; S: Rathu Konangiya LC Tarucus callinara Butler, 1886 E: Butler's Spotted Pierrot; S: Thith Konangiya EN Tarucus nara Kollar, 1848 E: Striped Pierrot; S: Thith-iri Mal-neelaya LC Udara akasa Horsield, 1828 E: White Hedge Blue; S: Ela Gomu Neelaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Udara lanka Moore, 1877 E: Sri Lanka Hedge Blue; S: Sri Lanka Udara-neelaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Udara singalensis R. Felder, 1868 E: Singalese Hedge Blue; S:Singha Udara-neelaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Virachola isocrates Fabricius, 1793 E: Common Guava Blue; S: Diwletha LC Virachola perse Hewitson, 1863 E: Large Guava Blue; S:Maha Pera-neelaya VU Zesius chrysomallus Hübner, 1819 E: Redspot; S: Rathu pulliya LC Zizeeria karsandra Moore, 1865 E: Dark Grass Blue; S: Neela Kasandra LC Zizina otis Fabricius, 1787 E: Lesser Grass Blue; S: Thuru-thana Neelaya LC Zizula hylax Fabricius, 1775 E: Tiny Grass Blue; S: Heen-thana Neelaya LC E: Plum Judy; S: Dan-samanalaya LC Ampittia dioscorides Fabricius, 1793 E: Bush Hopper; S: Panduru Pimma LC Badamia exclamationis Fabricius, 1775 E: Brown Awl ; S: Guruleesa LC Baoris penicillata Moore, 1881 E: Sri Lanka Paintbrush Swift ; S: Si Lanka Thudusara CR B2ab(iii) Baracus vittatus Felder, 1862 E: Sri Lanka Hedge Hopper; S: Sri Lanka Gomu Pimma VU B1ab(iii) Bibasis sena Moore, 1865 E: Orange-Tailed Awl ; S: Ramba Thudu Leesa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Borbo cinnara Wallace, 1866 E: Wallace's Swift; S: Wolas-sariya LC Burara oedipodea Swainson, 1820 E: Branded Orange Awlet; S : Rambaleesa EN B2ab(iii) Caltoris kumara Moore, 1878 E: Blank Swift; S: Kalu Paha Sariya VU B1ab(iii) Caltoris philippina Herrich-Schäffer, 1869 E: Philippine Swift; S: Rata Sariya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) Family: Riodinidae Abisara echerius Stoll, 1790 Family: Hesperiidae 39 GCS Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Caprona alida de Nicéville, 1891 E: Ceylon Golden Angle; S: Lak-ran Mulla CR Caprona ransonnettii Felder, 1868 E: Golden Angle; S: Ran Mulla LC Celaenorrhinus spilothyrus R. Felder, 1868 E: Sri Lanka Black Flat ; S: Sri Lanka Kala Kunchika VU Cephrenes trichopepla Lower, 1908 E: Yellow Palm Dart LC Choaspes benjaminii Guérin-Méneville, 1843 E: Indian Awl King ; S:Raja-leesa VU Coladenia indrani Moore, 1866 E: Tricolour Pied Flat ; S: Triwarana Kunchika NT Gangara lebadea Hewitson, 1868 E: Banded Redeye; S: Irira-thasiya CR B2ab(iii) Gangara thyrsis Fabricius, 1775 E: Giant Redeye; S: Mara-thasiya VU B1ab(iii) Gomalia elma Trimen, 1862 E: African Marbled Skipper; S: Mabal Pimma CR B2ab(iii) Halpe ceylonica Moore, 1878 E: Ceylon Ace; S: Lanka-siya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Halpe egena Felder, 1868 E: Rare Ace; S: Dulabasiya EN B1ab(iii) Hasora badra Moore, 1858 E: Ceylon Awl; S:Hela Leesa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Hasora chromus Cramer, 1780 E: Common Banded Awl ; S: Iri-leesa LC Hasora taminatus Hübner, 1818 E: White Banded Awl; S: Sudu iri-leesa NT Hyarotis adrastus Stoll, 1780 E: Tree Flitter; S: Ruksariya LC Iambrix salsala Moore, 1866 E: Chestnut Bob; S: Guru Bobaya LC Matapa aria Moore, 1866 E: Common Redeye; S: Rathasiya VU B1ab(iii) Notocrypta curvifascia C. & R. Felder, 1862 E: Restricted Demon; S: Nethu Dassa VU B1ab(iii) Notocrypta paralysos Wood-Mason & de E: Common Banded Nicéville, 1881 Demon; S: Iri Dassa VU B1ab(iii) Oriens goloides Moore, 1881 E: Common Dartlet; S: Sariththa NT Parnara bada Moore, 1878 E: Smallest Swift ; S: Tikiri sariya NT Pelopidas agna Moore, 1866 E: Little Branded Swift ; S: Podi Iri-sariya NT Pelopidas conjuncta Herrich-Schäffer, 1869 E: Conjoined Swift ; S: Wihanga sariya VU Pelopidas mathias Fabricius, 1798 E: Small Branded Swift ; S: Thudu Iri-sariya NT Pelopidas thrax Hübner, 1821 E: Large Branded Swift; S: Maha Iri-sariya VU Potanthus confuscius C. & R. Felder, 1862 E: Tropic Dart; S: Gim-sara LC Potanthus pallida Evans, 1932 E: Indian Dart; S:Indu-sara DD Potanthus pseudomaesa Moore, 1881 E: Common Dart; S: Hela-sara VU 40 B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii) GCS Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Sarangesa dasahara Moore, 1866 E: Common Small Flat ; S: Kuda Kunchika NT Spialia galba Fabricius, 1793 E: Indian Skipper ; S: Indu-pimma LC Suastus gremius Fabricius, 1798 E: Indian Palm Bob ; S: Indu-thala Bobaya LC Suastus minuta Moore, 1877 E: Ceylon Palm Bob; S: Hela-thala Bobaya EN Tagiades japetus Stoll, 1781 E: Ceylon Snow Flat; S: Hima Kunchika LC Tagiades litigiosa Möschler, 1878 E: Water Snow Flat; S: Diya Kunchika VU B2ab(iii) Tapena thwaitesi Moore, 1881 E: Black Angle; S: Kalu Mulla EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Taractrocera maevius Fabricius, 1793 E: Common Grass Dart; S: Thana-sara LC Telicota bambusae Moore, 1878 E: Dark Palmdart ; S: Anduru Thala-sara VU Telicota colon Fabricius, 1775 E: Pale Palmdart; S: Thala-sara) NT Thoressa decorata Moore, 1881 E: Sri Lanka Decorated Ace; S: Sri Lanka Sithirasiya EN Udaspes folus Cramer, 1775 E: Grass Demon ; S: Thanapath Dassa LC GCS B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Note 1: Halpe ceylonica and H. egena may prove to be subspecies of H. homolea or seasonal forms Note 2: Pelopidas thrax may prove to be P. subochracea Note 3: Potanthus confuscius may prove to be P. satra Note 4: Telicota bambusae was previously erroneously identiied as T. ancilla 41 Criteria The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) in Sri Lanka Suresh P. Benjamin1, Ranil P. Nanayakkara2, Salindra K. Dayananda3 Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS), Hantana Road, Kandy 2 Biodiversity Education and Research, 3 Foundation for Nature Conservation and Preservation, Panadura 1 Introduction Spiders are found all over the world and have colonized almost all habitats. Most species of spiders are relatively small in size (around 2-10 mm in body length) while a few species may reach up to 90mm in size (Foelix, 2011). Platnick (2011) has compiled a catalog of all the spiders recorded to date which stands at, approximately, 42,000 species that belongs to 110 families. However, this is only a small fraction of the true diversity of this order as the spider fauna of most countries remains grossly understudied. The situation is the same in Sri Lanka that supports a highly diverse spider assemblage. To date, 501 species representing 48 families have been listed for Sri Lanka, including 256 (51.09%) endemic species (Platnick, 2011). Further, 11 species (not included in the list) that are only identiied upto genus level are also found in Sri Lanka which includes an additional family Deinopidae. However, this igure is likely to be a gross underestimate as spiders are perhaps one of the least studied invertebrate groups in Sri Lanka, even though they are one of the most conspicuous elements of the Sri Lankan forest landscape (Benjamin and Bambaradeniya, 2006). The exploration of Sri Lankan spider fauna began with the work of Pickard-Cambridge (1869), followed mainly by species descriptions by the French Arachnologist E. Simon who visited the island in 1892 to collect spiders (Pethiyagoda, 2007). Sri Lankan species have been regularly included in taxonomic revision of genera and families. However, the exclusive study of Sri Lanka spider fauna only began in the early 1990s (Benjamin and Bambaradeniya, 2006). Currently, the Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS) is conducting an island-wide survey of spiders. As this is a daunting task, the immediate focus is to make a complete collection of spiders that will form the basis for future detailed taxonomic studies. Taxonomy After the work done by early arachnologists such as Pickard-Cambridge, Pocock and Simon, there has been little interest in spider taxonomy of Sri Lanka. The work on Sri Lankan spiders was reinitiated in 1970s when investigations had been carried out on few selected spider families (Brignoli, 1972, 1975: Van Helsdingen, 1985). Wijesinghe (1987) has reviewed the spiders of Sri Lanka and prepared a preliminary checklist comprising of 402 species. During the last decade much has been done on spiders of Sri Lanka that has resulted in the revision of several genera and description of few new species (Benjamin, 2006; Benjamin, 2010; Benjamin and Jaleel, 2010; Kronestedt, 2010; Platnick et al., 2011). Further, these studies also indicated that older nominal species need to be revised and re-described (Benjamin & Hormiga, 2009; Dimitrov et al., 2009; Álvarez-Padilla & Benjamin, 2011). A comprehensive list of recent publications related to Sri Lankan spiders is given in Platnick (2011) and Benjamin (2006). 42 Distribution Spiders are found in all habitats, both natural and man-made. Benjamin (2006) has hypothised that the endemic Sri Lankan spider fauna are conined mostly to the intact natural forest remaining in the south-west and central high lands. Further, as in the case of other faunal groups, the endemic Sri Lankan spiders are thought to be closely related to Western Ghats in India. These hypotheses are supported by the results of a recent study (Benjamin, 2010). Conclusions and recommendations Spiders are one of the largest taxonomic groups that are present in Sri Lanka and they play a key role in both man-made and natural ecosystems as predators. However, more than 75% of the spider species assessed during the Red Listing process, have been listed under the Data Deicient (DD) category that indicates the huge gap that exist in the knowledge base on Sri Lankan spiders. The study of spiders in Sri Lanka is still in a neonate stage and many new genera and species await discovery, particularly from the northern part of the country as highlighted by the discovery of several new species which belong to the genus Poecilotheria (Nanayakkara & Vishvanath 2011). Particularly the genus Poecilotheria has drawn the attention of the scientiic community across the World and several studies were initiated by different researchers at various times within a period of 20 years. Therefore, conducting an island-wide survey on spiders has been identiied as a priority need. This activity can be coupled with the establishment of a reference collection at the National Museum as well as establishing a second reference collection in a state academic institution in order to facilitate the study of spiders. This activity can be funded through the National Science Foundation. Number of recent studies indicate the clear need to revise the taxonomy of the spider fauna of Sri Lanka. This reference collection can provide the basis for this activity. Further this can be coupled with training of new taxonomist. The only guide available on Sri Lankan spiders is a supericial treatment by Pocock (1900), published over a century ago. Therefore, production of an easy-to-use photographic identiication/ield guide for the spiders of Sri Lanka is highly recommended in order to popularize the study of spiders. Further, a web portal should be established for dissemination of information about the Sri Lankan spiders. Due to myths and folklore surrounding the spiders, particularly that of genus Poecilotheria (Tarantulas) due to its imagined virulent poison and its effects on humans, these creatures face summarily destruction whenever located. This is a great pity as spiders are in reality important biological control agents, making a signiicant contribution to the agriculture and the local populace. It is vitally important to educate the local community of the relevant areas on the need to conserve these creatures, as well as of the beneits that can be accrued from their presence and create awareness of the true facts and to dispel the myths. Pesticide use in Sri Lanka is still to be regulated; the pesticides Control of Pesticides Act addresses only threats to human health and not environmental health or impact on non-target organisms. Therefore, pesticides approved for use in Sri Lanka should also be assessed for impact on spiders as well as other non-target organisms before being approved for use in Sri Lanka. 43 Preliminary investigation carried out by Benjamin (2010) has demonstrated that long term survival of most of the endemic and threatened spiders depend on protecting the remaining natural ecosystems of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, as is the case for other taxonomic groups. Therefore, the key habitats necessary for spider conservation must be identiied and a plan should be drawn up to determine how these habitats can be protected in the future. References Álvarez-Padilla, F. & Benjamin, S. P., (2011). Phylogenetic placement and redescription of the spider genus Atelidea Simon, 1895 (Araneae, Tetragnathidae). Zootaxa, 2761, pp.51-63. Benjamin, S. P., (2010). Revision and cladistic analysis of the jumping spider genus Onomastus (Araneae: Salticidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 159, pp.711-745. Benjamin, S. P. & Bambaradeniya, C. N. B., (2006). Systematics and conservation of spiders in Sri Lanka: current status and future prospects. In: C. N. B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. The Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. pp. 70-76. Benjamin, S. P. & Hormiga, G., (2009). Phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic genus Labullinyphia van Helsdingen, 1985, with redescription of Labullinyphia tersa(Simon, 1894) from Sri Lanka (Araneae: Linyphiidae). Contributions to Natural History, 12, pp.161-181. Benjamin, S. P. & Jaleel Z., (2010). The genera Haplotmarus Simon, 1909 and Indoxysticus gen. nov.: two enigmatic genera of crab spiders from the Oriental region (Araneae: Thomisidae). Zootaxa, 117, pp.1-9. Dimitrov, D., Benjamin, S. P. & Hormiga, G., (2009). A revised phylogenetic analysis for the genus Clitaetra Simon, 1889 (Araneoidea, Nephilidae) with the irst description of the male of the Sri Lankan species Clitaetra thisbe Simon, 1903. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 159, pp.301-323. Foelix, R. F., (2011). Biology of Spiders. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Kronestedt, T., (2010). Draposa, a new wolf spider genus from South and Southeast Asia (Araneae: Lycosidae). Zootaxa, 2637, pp.31-54. Nanayakkara, R. & Vishvanath, N., (2011). Hitherto unrecorded species of Poecilotheria, (Tarantula) from Sri Lanka. ScinnoTech-Alert, [e-journal] 2(7), Available through: National Science Foundation Sri Lanka Web site <http:// www.nsf.ac.lk/newsletter/VOL2NO7/tarantula.pdf> Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). Pearls, spices and green gold: a history of biodiversity exploration in Sri Lanka. Colombo: WHT Publications. Pickard-Cambridge, O., (1869). Descriptions and sketches of some new species of Araneidea, with characters of a new genus. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 4, pp.52-74. Platnick, N. I., (2011). The World Spiders Catalog, Version 11.5, [online] Available through: American Museum of Natural History <http://research.amnh.org/entomology/spiders/ catalog81-87/index.html> Platnick, N. I., Duperre, N., Ott, R. & Kranz-Baltensperger, Y., (2011). The goblin spider genus Brignolia (Araneae, Oonopidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 349, p.131. Pocock, R. I., (1900). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida:I-XII. London: Taylor and Francis. Wijesinghe, D. P., (1987). The present status of spider taxonomy in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the workshop on “Present Status of Faunal Taxonomy in Sri Lanka”, Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, pp 7-19. 44 Table 05: List of Spiders in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Family: Agelenidae Tegenaria taprobanica Strand, 1907 DD Tegenaria domestica (Clerck, 1757) DD Family: Araneidae Anepsion maritatum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1877) Arachnura scorpionides Vinson, 1863 DD E: Scorpion spider Araneus enucleatus (Karsch, 1879) DD Araneus minutalis (Simon, 1889) Araneus mitiicus (Simon, 1886) DD E: Kidney garden spider/ Pale Orb Weaver Araneus obtusatus (Karsch, 1891) Argiope aemula (Walckenaer, 1841) LC LC DD E: Andrew’s Cross Spider; S: Kaha visithuru kathira dal viyanna Argiope aetherea (Walckenaer, 1841) LC DD Argiope anasuja Thorell, 1887 E: Signature Spider; S: Liyana dal viyanna LC Argiope catenulata (Doleschall, 1859) E: Grass cross spider; S: Thana kathira dal viyanna DD Argiope pulchella Thorell, 1881 DD Argiope taprobanica Thorell, 1887 DD Caerostris indica Strand, 1915 E: Indian Bark spider; S: Indu kadan makuluwa CR Chorizopes frontalis O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD Chorizopes mucronatus Simon, 1895 DD Cyclosa quinqueguttata (Thorell, 1881) DD Cyclosa biida (Doleschall, 1859) E: Long-bellied Cyclosa Spider LC Cyclosa insulana (Costa, 1834) E: Brown Lobed Spider LC Cyrtarachne perspicillata (Doleschall, 1859) DD Cyrtarachne raniceps Pocock, 1900 DD Cyrtophora cicatrosa (Stoliczka, 1869) DD Cyrtophora citricola (Forsskål, 1775) DD Cyrtophora exanthematica(Doleschall,1859) DD Cyrtophora moluccensis (Doleschall, 1857) E: Common Tent-web Spider LC Cyrtophora unicolor (Doleschall, 1857) DD Eriovixia laglaizei (Simon, 1877) LC Gasteracantha cancriformis (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Star Spider, Spiny-backed Orbweaver CR Gasteracantha geminata (Fabricius, 1798) E: Common Spiny orb-weavers/ Common Kite Spider; S: Podu Sarungal makuluwa LC Gasteracantha remifera Butler, 1873 DD Gea spinipes C. L. Koch, 1843 CR Gea subarmata Thorell, 1890 DD Glyptogona duriuscula Simon, 1895 DD Hypsosinga taprobanica (Simon, 1895) DD Macracantha arcuata (Fabricius, 1793) B2ab(iii) E: Long-horned Orb-weaver; S: Digu agathi sarungala makuluwa 45 CR B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Mangora semiargentea Simon, 1895 DD Neogea nocticolor (Thorell, 1887) CR Neoscona nautica (L. Koch, 1875) E: Brown sailor spider; S: Podu gewathu makuluwa Neoscona punctigera (Doleschall, 1857) DD DD E: Neoscona Orb Weaver Spider Ordgarius hobsoni (O. P.-Cambridge, 1877) B2ab(iii) LC Neoscona theisi (Walckenaer, 1841) Neoscona vigilans (Blackwall, 1865) Criteria CR B1+2ab(iii) DD Parawixia dehaani (Doleschall, 1859) DD Phonognatha vicitra Sherriffs, 1928 CR B2ab(iii) Poltys columnaris Thorell, 1890 CR B2ab(iii) Poltys illepidus C. L. Koch, 1843 DD Thelacantha brevispina (Doleschall, 1857) EN Ursa vittigera Simon, 1895 DD B1+2ab(iii) Family: Barychelidae Diplothele halyi Simon, 1892 DD Plagiobothrus semilunaris Karsch, 1891 DD Sason robustum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883) DD Sipalolasma ellioti Simon, 1892 DD Sipalolasma greeni Pocock, 1900 DD Family: Clubionidae Clubiona drassodes O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 E: Common Sac Spider EN Matidia lagellifera Simon, 1897 DD Matidia simplex Simon, 1897 DD Nusatidia bimaculata (Simon, 1897) DD Simalio lucorum Simon, 1906 DD Simalio phaeocephalus Simon, 1906 DD B1ab(iii) Family: Corinnidae Aetius decollatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1896 DD Coenoptychus pulcher Simon, 1885 CR Copa annulata Simon, 1896 DD Copa spinosa Simon, 1896 DD Koppe armata (Simon, 1896) DD Oedignatha afinis Simon, 1897 DD Oedignatha bicolor Simon, 1896 DD Oedignatha coriacea Simon, 1897 DD Oedignatha lavipes Simon, 1897 DD Oedignatha gulosa Simon, 1897 DD Oedignatha major Simon, 1896 DD Oedignatha montigena Simon, 1897 DD Oedignatha proboscidea (Strand, 1913) DD Oedignatha retusa Simon, 1897 DD Oedignatha scrobiculata Thorell, 1881 DD Oedignatha striata Simon, 1897 DD Orthobula impressa Simon, 1897 DD Sphecotypus taprobanicus Simon, 1897 DD 46 B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Trachelas oreophilus Simon, 1906 DD Trachelas quisquiliarum Simon, 1906 DD Utivarachna accentuata (Simon, 1896) DD Criteria Family: Ctenidae Ctenus ceylonensis O. P.-Cambridge, 1897 DD Ctenus karschi Roewer, 1951 DD Ctenus thorelli O. P.-Cambridge, 1897 DD Diallomus fuliginosus Simon, 1897 DD Diallomus speciosus Simon, 1897 DD Family: Dictynidae Anaxibia nigricauda (Simon, 1905) DD Atelolathys varia Simon, 1892 DD Dictyna turbida Simon, 1905 DD Dictynomorpha smaragdula (Simon, 1905) CR Rhion pallidum O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD B2ab(iii) Family: Dipluridae Indothele dumicola Pocock, 1900 DD Indothele lanka Coyle, 1995 DD Family: Eresidae Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch, 1891 DD Family: Hahniidae Alistra radleyi (Simon, 1898) DD Alistra stenura (Simon, 1898) DD Alistra taprobanica (Simon, 1898) DD Hahnia oreophila Simon, 1898 DD Hahnia pusio Simon, 1898 DD Family: Hersiliidae Hersilia pectinata Thorell, 1895 Hersilia savignyi Lucas, 1836 DD E: Comon Two Tailed Spider; S: Hersiliya makuluwa LC Hersilia sumatrana (Thorell, 1890) DD Hersilia tibialis Baehr & Baehr, 1993 DD Murricia crinifera Baehr & Baehr, 1993 DD Neotama variata (Pocock, 1899) DD Promurricia depressa Baehr & Baehr, 1993 DD Family: Idiopidae Heligmomerus taprobanicus Simon, 1892 DD Scalidognathus oreophilus Simon, 1892 DD Scalidognathus radialis (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) DD Family: Linyphiidae Atypena ellioti Jocqué, 1983 DD Atypena simoni Jocqué, 1983 DD Ceratinopsis monticola (Simon, 1894) DD Helsdingenia ceylonica (van Helsdingen, 1985) DD Labullinyphia tersa (Simon, 1894) EN Microbathyphantes palmarius (Marples, 1955) DD 47 B1+2ab(III) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Nematogmus dentimanus Simon, 1886 DD Neriene katyae van Helsdingen, 1969 DD Nesioneta benoiti (van Helsdingen, 1978) DD Obrimona tennenti (Simon, 1894) DD Trematocephalus simplex Simon, 1894 DD Trematocephalus tripunctatus Simon, 1894 DD Typhistes antilope Simon, 1894 DD Typhistes comatus Simon, 1894 DD Criteria Family: Liocranidae Argistes seriatus (Karsch, 1891) DD Argistes velox Simon, 1897 DD Paratus reticulatus Simon, 1898 DD Sphingius scutatus Simon, 1897 DD Family: Lycosidae Draposa atropalpis (Gravely, 1924) DD Draposa lyrivulva (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) DD Draposa subhadrae (Patel & Reddy, 1993) DD Hippasa greenalliae (Blackwall, 1867) DD Hippasa olivacea (Thorell, 1887) DD Hogna lupina (Karsch, 1879) DD Lycosa indagatrix Walckenaer, 1837 DD Lycosa nigrotibialis Simon, 1884 CR Lycosa yerburyi Pocock, 1901 DD Ocyale (cf)atalanta Audouni, 1826 DD Ocyale lanca (Karsch, 1879) DD Ocyale pilosa (Roewer, 1960) DD Pardosa birmanica Simon, 1884 CR Pardosa palliclava (Strand, 1907) DD Pardosa pseudoannulata (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) CR Pardosa pusiola (Thorell, 1891) DD Pardosa semicana Simon, 1885 DD Pardosa sumatrana (Thorell, 1890) DD Pardosa timidula (Roewer, 1951) DD Wadicosa quadrifera (Gravely, 1924) DD Zoica parvula (Thorell, 1895) DD Zoica puellula (Simon, 1898) DD B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Family: Mimetidae Mimetus indicus Simon, 1906 DD Mimetus strinatii Brignoli, 1972 DD Phobetinus sagittifer Simon, 1895 DD Family: Miturgidae Cheiracanthium incertum O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 DD Cheiracanthium indicum O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 DD Cheiracanthium insigne O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 CR 48 B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Cheiracanthium melanostomum (Thorell, 1895) LC Cheiracanthium taprobanense Strand, 1907 DD Criteria Family: Mysmenidae Mysmenella saltuensis (Simon, 1895) DD Phricotelus stelliger Simon, 1895 DD Family: Nemesiidae Atmetochilus fossor Simon, 1887 DD Family: Nephilidae Clitaetra thisbe Simon, 1903 NT E: Ornate Tree trunk Spider; S: Asia visithuru pathali makuluwa LC Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) E: Giant Wood Spider NT Nephilengys malabarensis (Walckenaer, 1841) E: Hermit Spider; S: Podu vayiram nives makuluwa LC Herennia multipuncta (Doleschall, 1859) Family: Nesticidae Nesticella aelleni (Brignoli, 1972) DD Family: Ochyroceratidae Merizocera brincki Brignoli, 1975 DD Merizocera cruciata (Simon, 1893) DD Merizocera oryzae Brignoli, 1975 DD Merizocera picturata (Simon, 1893) DD Psiloderces elasticus (Brignoli, 1975) DD Speocera taprobanica Brignoli, 1981 DD Family: Oecobiidae Oecobius cellariorum (Dugès, 1836) CR B2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) Family: Oonopidae Aprusia kataragama Grismado & Deeleman, 2011 Aprusia strenuus Simon, 1893 CR B2ab(iii) Aprusia veddah Grismado & Deeleman, 2011 CR B2ab(iii) Aprusia vestigator (Simon, 1893) EN B1ab(iii) Brignolia ambigua (Simon, 1893) DD Brignolia ratnapura Platnick et al., 2011 DD Brignolia sinharaja Platnick et al., 2011 CR Brignolia trichinalis (Benoit, 1979) ? DD Brignolia nigripalpis (Simon, 1893) DD Camptoscaphiella simoni Baehr, 2010 DD Epectris mollis Simon, 1907 DD Gamasomorpha microps Simon, 1907 DD Gamasomorpha subclathrata Simon, 1907 DD Gamasomorpha taprobanica Simon, 1893 DD Ischnothyreus bipartitus Simon, 1893 DD Ischnothyreus lymphaseus Simon, 1893 DD Orchestina dentifera Simon, 1893 DD Orchestina manicata Simon, 1893 DD Orchestina pilifera Dalmas, 1916 DD Orchestina tubifera Simon, 1893 DD Xestaspis sublaevis Simon, 1893 DD 49 B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Family: Oxyopidae Oxyopes ceylonicus Karsch, 1891 DD Oxyopes daksina Sherriffs, 1955 DD Oxyopes hindostanicus Pocock, 1901 DD Oxyopes javanus Thorell, 1887 E: White-Striped Lynx Spider; S: Sudu Iri Lynx makuluwa Oxyopes juvencus Strand, 1907 Oxyopes macilentus L. Koch, 1878 LC DD E: Yellow-Striped Lynx Spider; S: Kaha Iri Lynx makuluwa LC Oxyopes nilgiricus Sherriffs, 1955 DD Oxyopes ruisternis Pocock, 1901 DD Peucetia (cf)thalassina (Koch, 1846) Peucetia viridana (Stoliczka, 1869) DD E: Green Lynx Spider; S: Kola Lynx makuluwa CR B2ab(iii) Family: Palpimanidae Steriphopus macleayi (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD Family: Philodromidae Gephyrota virescens (Simon, 1906) DD Tibellus vitilis Simon, 1906 DD Family: Pholcidae Artema atlanta Walckenaer, 1837 DD Belisana benjamini Huber, 2005 DD Belisana keyti Huber, 2005 DD Belisana ratnapura Huber, 2005 DD Crossopriza lyoni (Blackwall, 1867) DD Holocneminus multiguttatus (Simon, 1905) DD Leptopholcus podophthalmus (Simon, 1893) DD Micropholcus fauroti (Simon, 1887) DD Modisimus culicinus (Simon, 1893) DD Pholcus (cf)opilionoides (Schrank, 1781) DD Pholcus fragillimus Strand, 1907 DD Sihala ceylonicus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) EN Smeringopus pallidus (Blackwall, 1858) DD Wanniyala agrabopath Huber & Benjamin, 2005 CR B1+2ab(iii) Wanniyala hakgala Huber & Benjamin, 2005 EN B1+2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) Family: Pisauridae Dolomedes boiei (Doleschall, 1859) DD Dolomedes karschi Strand, 1913 DD Perenethis sindica (Simon, 1897) DD Perenethis venusta L. Koch, 1878 DD Nilus albocinctus (Doleschall, 1859) DD Family: Psechridae Fecenia macilenta (Simon, 1885) EN Fecenia travancoria Pocock, 1899 DD Psechrus torvus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) LC Family: Salticidae Aelurillus kronestedti Azarkina, 2004 DD 50 B1ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Aelurillus quadrimaculatus Simon, 1889 DD Asemonea tenuipes (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) CR Ballus segmentatus Simon, 1900 DD Ballus sellatus Simon, 1900 DD Bianor angulosus (Karsch, 1879) DD Brettus adonis Simon, 1900 DD Carrhotus taprobanicus Simon, 1902 DD Carrhotus viduus (C. L. Koch, 1846) DD Chrysilla lauta Thorell, 1887 E: Elegant Golden Jumper EN Colaxes horton Benjamin, 2004 DD Colaxes wanlessi Benjamin, 2004 DD Cosmophasis olorina (Simon, 1901) DD Curubis annulata Simon, 1902 DD Curubis erratica Simon, 1902 DD Curubis tetrica Simon, 1902 DD Epidelaxia albocruciata Simon, 1902 DD Epidelaxia albostellata Simon, 1902 DD Epidelaxia obscura Simon, 1902 DD Epocilla aurantiaca (Simon, 1885) DD Euophrys declivis Karsch, 1879 DD Euryattus bleekeri (Doleschall, 1859) DD Euryattus breviusculus (Simon, 1902) DD Evarcha cancellata (Simon, 1902) DD Evarcha lavocincta (C. L. Koch, 1846) E: Horned Grass Jumper EN Flacillula lubrica (Simon, 1901) DD Gelotia lanka Wijesinghe, 1991 DD Harmochirus brachiatus (Thorell, 1877) DD Hasarius [arcigerus] Karsch, 1891 DD Hasarius adansoni (Audouin, 1826) E: Adanson’s House Jumper Criteria B2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) LC Hispo bipartita Simon, 1903 DD Hyllus semicupreus (Simon, 1885) NT Icius [discatus] Karsch, 1891 DD Irura pulchra Peckham & Peckham, 1901 DD Maevia [roseolimbata] Hasselt, 1893 DD Marengo crassipes Peckham & Peckham, 1892 DD Marengo inornata (Simon, 1900) DD Marengo nitida (Simon, 1900) EN B1+2ab(iii) Marengo rattotensis Benjamin, 2006 CR B2ab(iii) Marengo striatipes (Simon, 1900) DD Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831) E: Common House Jumper; S: Podu Niwes makuluwa LC Menemerus fulvus (L. Koch, 1878) E: Grey house Jumper; S: Alu Niwes makuluwa LC Modunda aeneiceps Simon, 1901 DD Myrmarachne bicurvata (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) DD 51 Scientiic Name Common Name Myrmarachne imbellis (Peckham & Peckham, 1892) NCS Criteria DD Myrmarachne maxillosa (C. L. Koch, 1846) E: Giant Ant-like Jumper; S: Kalu kadi makuluwa NT Myrmarachne melanocephala MacLeay, 1839 S: Sipi makuluwa LC Myrmarachne plataleoides (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) E: Kerengga/Red ant like Jumper; S: Dimi makuluwa LC Myrmarachne prava (Karsch, 1880) DD Myrmarachne spissa (Peckham & Peckham, 1892) DD Onomastus nigricaudus Simon, 1900 CR B2ab(iii) Onomastus pethiyagodai Benjamin, 2010 CR B2ab(iii) Onomastus quinquenotatus Simon, 1900 CR B2ab(iii) Onomastus rattotensis Benjamin, 2010 CR B2ab(iii) Panachraesta paludosa Simon, 1900 DD Panysinus semiermis Simon, 1902 DD Phaeacius wanlessi Wijesinghe, 1991 LC Phausina bivittata Simon, 1902 DD Phausina lavofrenata Simon, 1902 DD Phausina guttipes Simon, 1902 DD Phintella bifurcilinea (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) DD Phintella multimaculata (Simon, 1901) Phintella vittata (C. L. Koch, 1846) DD E: Banded Phintella; S: Wayiram kuru Pinum makuluwa Phintella volupe (Karsch, 1879) LC DD Phyaces comosus Simon, 1902 DD Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826) E: Larger Housely catcher; S: Yoda Makulu masimaara NT Plexippus petersi (Karsch, 1878) E: Common Housely catcher; S: Makulu masimaara LC Plexippus redimitus Simon, 1902 DD Portia albimana (Simon, 1900) DD Portia imbriata (Doleschall, 1859) Portia labiata (Thorell, 1887) DD E: White-mustached Portia; S: Sudu rewulathi Pinum makuluwa NT Ptocasius fulvonitens Simon, 1902 DD Rhene [tamula] (Karsch, 1879) DD Rhene albigera (C. L. Koch, 1846) LC Rhene lavicomans Simon, 1902 DD Saitis chaperi Simon, 1885 DD Sigytes paradisiacus Simon, 1902 DD Siler semiglaucus (Simon, 1901) E: Red and Blue Tiny Jumper; S: Nil Visithuru Pinum Makuluwa LC Simaetha cingulata (Karsch, 1891) DD Simaetha laminata (Karsch, 1891) DD Simaetha reducta (Karsch, 1891) DD Spartaeus spinimanus (Thorell, 1878) E: Spiny-legged Jumper; S: Katupa Pinum makuluwa Stagetillus taprobanicus (Simon, 1902) LC DD 52 Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Stergusa aurata Simon, 1902 DD Stergusa aurichalcea Simon, 1902 DD Stergusa stelligera Simon, 1902 DD Tamigalesus munnaricus Zabka, 1988 DD Telamonia dimidiata (Simon, 1899) E: Two-striped Telamonia; S: Yoda deiri Pinum makuluwa Telamonia sponsa (Simon, 1902) Thiania bhamoensis Thorell, 1887 Criteria LC DD E: Fighting Spider; S: Pora pinum makuluwa CR Thiania bhamoensis Thorell, 1887 DD Thiania pulcherrima C. L. Koch, 1846 DD Thyene imperialis (Rossi, 1846) CR Thyene concinna (Keyserling, 1881) DD Uroballus henicurus Simon, 1902 DD Uroballus octovittatus Simon, 1902 DD Viciria polysticta Simon, 1902 DD B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Family: Scytodidae Scytodes fusca Walckenaer, 1837 DD Scytodes lugubris (Thorell, 1887) LC Scytodes venusta (Thorell, 1890) DD Family: Segestriidae Ariadna oreades Simon, 1906 DD Ariadna taprobanica Simon, 1906 DD Family: Selenopidae Selenops radiatus Latreille, 1819 DD Family: Sicariidae Loxosceles rufescens (Dufour, 1820) DD Family: Sparassidae Heteropoda eluta Karsch, 1891 DD Heteropoda kandiana Pocock, 1899 DD Heteropoda leprosa Simon, 1884 DD Heteropoda subtilis Karsch, 1891 DD Heteropoda thoracica (C. L. Koch, 1845) DD Heteropoda umbrata Karsch, 1891 DD Heteropoda venatoria (Linnaeus, 1767) E: Domestic Huntsman Spider; S: Pulun kotta makuluwa LC Olios ceylonicus (Leardi, 1902) DD Olios greeni (Pocock, 1901) DD Olios hirtus (Karsch, 1879) DD Olios lamarcki (Latreille, 1806) DD Olios milleti (Pocock, 1901) E: Common Green Huntsman Spider; S: Podu kola Dahaganna LC Olios punctipes Simon, 1884 CR Olios senilis Simon, 1880 DD Pandercetes decipiens Pocock, 1899 DD Pandercetes plumipes (Doleschall, 1859) DD Rhitymna occidentalis Jäger, 2003 DD 53 B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Spariolenus taprobanicus (Walckenaer, 1837) DD Stasina nalandica Karsch, 1891 DD Stasina paripes (Karsch, 1879) DD Thelcticopis hercules Pocock, 1901 DD Criteria Family: Stenochilidae Stenochilus crocatus Simon, 1884 DD Family: Tetrablemmidae Brignoliella ratnapura Shear, 1988 DD Brignoliella scrobiculata (Simon, 1893) DD Gunasekara ramboda Lehtinen, 1981 DD Pahanga diyaluma Lehtinen, 1981 DD Shearella lilawati Lehtinen, 1981 DD Shearella selvarani Lehtinen, 1981 DD Tetrablemma medioculatum O. P.-Cambridge, 1873 DD Family: Tetragnathidae Atelidea spinosa Simon, 1895 EN Dolichognatha albida (Simon, 1895) DD Dolichognatha incanescens (Simon, 1895) DD Dolichognatha nietneri O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 DD Dolichognatha quinquemucronata (Simon, 1895) DD Dyschiriognatha dentata Zhu & Wen, 1978 DD Guizygiella melanocrania (Thorell, 1887) CR Leucauge argentata (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) DD Leucauge celebesiana (Walckenaer, 1841) DD Leucauge decorata (Blackwall, 1864) E: Decorative Leucauge; S: Kola Visithuru digu hanuka makuluwa LC Leucauge ditissima (Thorell, 1887) DD Leucauge lamperti Strand, 1907 DD Leucauge undulata (Vinson, 1863) Opadometa fastigata (Simon, 1877) DD E: Pear-Shaped Leucauge; S: Bathik digu hanuka makuluwa LC Schenkeliella spinosa (O. P.-Cambridge, 1870) DD Tetragnatha armata Karsch, 1891 DD Tetragnatha mandibulata Walckenaer, 1841 DD Tetragnatha maxillosa Thorell, 1895 DD Tetragnatha determinata Karsch, 1891 DD Tetragnatha foveata Karsch, 1891 DD Tetragnatha geniculata Karsch, 1891 DD Tetragnatha gracilis (Bryant, 1923) DD Tetragnatha planata Karsch, 1891 DD Tetragnatha tenera Thorell, 1881 DD Tetragnatha virescens Okuma, 1979 DD Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely, 1921 E: Common Long-jawed Orb weaver; S: Podu digu hanuka makuluwa Tylorida culta (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) LC DD 54 B1+2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name Tylorida striata (Thorell, 1877) E: Striated Tylorida Tylorida ventralis (Thorell, 1877) NCS Criteria CR B2ab(iii) DD Family: Theraphosidae Chilobrachys nitelinus Karsch, 1891 EN Plesiophrictus tenuipes Pocock, 1899 B1ab(iii) DD Poecilotheria fasciata (Latreille, 1804) E: Lemon Leg Tiger Spider; S: Thada kaha iri padathi divimakuluwa/ Yaksha divimakuluwa EN B2ab(iii) Poecilotheria ornata Pocock, 1899 E: Ornate Tiger Spider; S: Kaha iri padathi divimakuluwa EN B2ab(iii) Poecilotheria pederseni Kirk, 2001 E: Pederseni's Tiger Spider, Hambanthota Tiger Spider; S: Pedarsanige Diwimakuluwa EN B2ab(iii) Poecilotheria smithi Kirk, 1996 E: Smithi's Tiger Spider; S: Smithige Diwimakuluwa CR B2ab(iii) Poecilotheria subfusca Pocock, 1895 E: Ivory Birdeating Tiger Spider; S: Eth dala pahe iri padathi divimakuluwa EN B1+2ab(iii) Family: Theridiidae Argyrodes argentatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 DD Argyrodes issifrons O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 Argyrodes lavescens O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 DD E: Red and silver dew drop spider; S: Rathu ridee pinibidu makuluwa Argyrodes nasutus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 NT DD Argyrodes scintillulanus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 DD Ariamnes pavesii Leardi, 1902 DD Cephalobares globiceps O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD Chrysso nigra (O. P.-Cambridge, 1880) E: Cat’s eye Spider; S: Balal aes makuluwa EN B1+2ab(iii) Chrysso spiniventris (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) EN B1ab(iii) Coleosoma blandum O. P.-Cambridge, 1882 DD Coscinida gentilis Simon, 1895 DD Coscinida novemnotata Simon, 1895 DD Coscinida triangulifera Simon, 1904 DD Dipoena sertata (Simon, 1895) DD Emertonella taczanowskii (Keyserling, 1886) DD Enoplognatha oreophila (Simon, 1894) DD Euryopis brevis(Cambridge, 1870) DD Euryopis episinoides (Walckenaer, 1847) CR Janula taprobanicus (Simon, 1895) DD Kochiura aulica (C. L. Koch, 1838) DD Latrodectus erythromelas Schmidt & Klaas, 1991 DD Latrodectus hasselti Thorell, 1870 E: Red-back Spider CR Molione trispinosa (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD Moneta spinigera O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD Nesticodes ruipes (Lucas, 1846) DD Parasteatoda tepidariorum (C. L. Koch, 1841) Parasteatoda mundula (L. Koch, 1872) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) DD E: Comb-footed Platform Spider Parasteatoda tepidariorum (C. L. Koch, 1841) EN DD 55 B1+2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Phoroncidia nasuta (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD Phoroncidia septemaculeata O. P.-Cambridge, 1873 DD Phoroncidia testudo (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) DD Phoroncidia thwaitesi O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 DD Phycosoma spundana (Roberts, 1978) EN B1+2ab(iii) Platnickina mneon (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) CR B2ab(iii) Propostira quadrangulata Simon, 1894 DD Steatoda rufoannulata (Simon, 1899) DD Taphiassa punctigera Simon, 1895 DD Theridion albomaculosum O. P.-Cambridge, 1869 DD Theridion ceylonicus Dunlop & Jekel, 2009 DD Theridion gabardi Simon, 1895 DD Theridion modestum (Simon, 1894) DD Theridion nilgherinum Simon, 1905 DD Theridion nodiferum Simon, 1895 DD Theridion quadratum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1882) DD Theridion teliferum Simon, 1895 DD Theridula gonygaster (Simon, 1873) E: Cobweb Spider EN Theridula opulenta (Walckenaer, 1841) DD Thwaitesia margaritifera O. P.-Cambridge, 1881 DD B1ab(iii) Family: Theridiosomatidae Andasta semiargentea Simon, 1895 DD Ogulnius pullus Bösenberg & Strand, 1906 DD Theridiosoma genevensium (Brignoli, 1972) DD Family: Thomisidae Amyciae forticeps (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873) LC Ascurisoma striatipes (Simon, 1897) DD Boliscus decipiens O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD Borboropactus asper (O. P.-Cambridge, 1884) DD Camaricus formosus Thorell, 1887 DD Cymbacha simplex Simon, 1895 DD Diaea placata O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD Epidius longipalpis Thorell, 1877 DD Epidius parvati Benjamin, 2000 DD Holopelus piger O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD Indoxysticus minutus (Tikader, 1960) CR Lysiteles catulus Simon, 1895 DD Monaeses attenuatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD Monaeses cinerascens (Thorell, 1887) DD Monaeses greeni O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD Oxytate subvirens (Strand, 1907) E: Sri Lanka Elongated Green Crab Spider; S: Digu kola kakulu makuluwa NT Oxytate taprobane Benjamin, 2001 CR Pagida salticiformis (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883) DD 56 B2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Peritraeus hystrix Simon, 1895 DD Phrynarachne ceylonica (O. P.-Cambridge, 1884) DD Phrynarachne decipiens (Forbes, 1883) CR Phrynarachne fatalis O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD Phrynarachne rothschildi Pocock & Rothschild, 1903 DD Runcinia bifrons (Simon, 1895) DD Stiphropus sigillatus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883) DD Tagulis mystacinus Simon, 1895 DD Talaus oblitus O. P.-Cambridge, 1899 DD Tarrocanus capra Simon, 1895 DD Thomisus callidus (Thorell, 1890) DD Thomisus elongatus Stoliczka, 1869 DD Thomisus granulifrons Simon, 1906 DD Thomisus pugilis Stoliczka, 1869 DD Thomisus spectabilis Doleschall, 1859 DD Thomisus stoliczkai (Thorell, 1887) DD Tmarus fasciolatus Simon, 1906 DD Tmarus taiwanus Ono, 1977 CR Criteria B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Family: Titanoecidae Pandava laminata (Thorell, 1878) DD Family: Uloboridae Hyptiotes analis Simon, 1892 DD Miagrammopes ferdinandi O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD Miagrammopes thwaitesi O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 DD Uloborus bigibbosus Simon, 1905 DD Uloborus umboniger Kulczyn'ski, 1908* DD Zosis geniculata (Olivier, 1789) E: Grey house Spider/ Common house cribellate orb weaver; S: Podu peeru dal viyanna LC Family: Zodariidae Cryptothele ceylonica O. P.-Cambridge, 1877 DD Habronestes bradleyi (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) DD Hermippus cruciatus Simon, 1905 DD Suffasia attidiya Benjamin & Jocqué, 2000 CR Suffasia mahasumana Benjamin & Jocqué, 2000 DD Family: Zorocratidae Campostichomma manicatum Karsch, 1891 DD Family: Zoropsidae Devendra pardalis (Simon, 1898) DD Devendra pumilus (Simon, 1898) DD Devendra seriatus (Simon, 1898) DD 57 B2ab(iiii) Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda) in Sri Lanka M. M. Bahir and D. E. Gabadage Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 150/6 Stanley Thilakaratne Mawatha, Nugegoda Introduction The exploration of Sri Lanka’s freshwater crabs began 132 years ago with the description in 1880 of Thelphusa [Perbrinckia] enodis and Thelphusa [Ceylonthelphusa] rugosa by the American zoologist, J. S. Kingsley. This was followed by several studies by Rathbun, (1904) Roux (1915) and Fernando (1960). The irst revision of the freshwater crab fauna of Sri Lanka was carried out by Bott in 1970. A resurgence in the research interest on Sri Lanka’s freshwater crabs was observed in 1990’s following a joint exploration carried out by the National University of Singapore and the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka (Ng, 1994, 1995a, 1995b; Bahir, 1998, 1999; Ng & Tay, 2001; Bahir & Ng, 2005; Bahir & Yeo, 2005). Up to 1994, only eight valid species of freshwater crabs belonging to four genera were recognized from Sri Lanka. The extensive exploration work carried out by the National University of Singapore and the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka resulted in the discovery of many new species and genera of freshwater crabs taking the total number of species to 51 and genera to 7. Based on the present state of knowledge of the peninsular Indian carcinofauna (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Bahir & Yeo, 2005), 50 Sri Lankan freshwater-crab species and ive of the genera (Ceylonthelphusa, Perbrinckia, Mahatha, Clinothelphusa and Pastilla) are endemic to Sri Lanka while the two lowland genera, Oziothelphusa and Spiralothelphusa, are shared with southern India. All the Sri Lankan freshwater crabs belong to a single family, Gecarcinucidae. Distribution Sri Lanka supports a rich freshwater crab assemblage in comparison with other similar, wellstudied tropical Asian countries such as Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, which together have a territory about twice the extent of Sri Lanka, and yet about the same number of freshwater crab species (Ng, 1988), while Taiwan which is about little over half the size of Sri Lanka (36,000 km2) has 34 species (Ng et al., 2001). Another unique feature of Sri Lankan freshwater crabs is that they show 98.04% endemicity which has not been observed in any other faunal group in Sri Lanka. Nearly half the freshwater crabs known to date (23 species) are point endemics, rendering them extremely vulnerable to habitat loss, degradation and stochastic events. The reason as to why freshwater crabs show such a highly restricted distribution is unclear. However, this phenomenon has been observed to a lesser extent in other taxa with low mobility such as amphibians and reptiles as well. Out of the 51 known species of freshwater crabs 41 (80%) are restricted to the wet zone. Only 4.6% of the wet zone (800 km2) now contains natural forest. The wet zone of Sri Lanka also has a very high population density (700 per km2) one of the highest population densities observed in all of the global biodiversity hotspots of the world (Cincotta et al., 2000). Therefore, conserving freshwater crabs in such a human-dominated landscape is going to be a challenging task. 58 Threats Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species. Further, inlux of fertilizer and pesticides, local climate change (Schaefer, 1998), rainwater acidiication and increased erosion leading to sedimentation of water bodies can be sited as other major threats on the habitats of the freshwater crabs. The water yield in the freshwater systems is also inluenced to a great extent by the loss of forest cover due to encroachment and illegal timber extraction. Pesticides are key pollutants of many aquatic systems as these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon., 1980). Since nearly half the freshwater crab species (24) of Sri Lanka are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam et al., 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha-1 yr-1 of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB, 2003). A handful of freshwater-crab species have wide distributions and are clearly tolerant of land-use change, given that they persist in rice ields (e.g. Oziothelphusa spp.) and tea plantations (e.g. Ceylonthelphusa rugosa and Ceylonthelphusa soror). Even such species, however, could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes in the hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. Conservation Given the fact that most of the freshwater crabs have been discovered over the last two decades and they are poorly represented in museum collections, there is no reliable historical baseline against which to judge trends in distributions or population changes. Therefore it is not possible to ascertain whether there have been any recent extinctions in the freshwater crab fauna as has been recorded for lowering plants (~ 130 species: Dassanayake et al., 1980–2004); amphibians (19 species: Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005; Stuart et al., 2004; Meegaskumbura et al., 2012; Wickramasinghe et al., 2012); and freshwater ish (2 species: Pethiyagoda, 1994). However, according to the outcome of the current conservation status review of the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka, nearly 90% of the freshwater crabs in Sri Lanka are globally threatened with 66% being listed under the critically endangered category. Thus, conservation of the entire freshwater crab fauna of Sri Lanka, given its remarkable diversity, richness and endemism, is a matter of the highest priority. The urgency to take appropriate conservation action is more so given the fact that freshwater crabs are not targeted for exploitation in Sri Lanka and yet a high proportion of them are globally threatened. It is not clear whether the exceedingly small populations seen in many species of crabs are a natural phenomenon or have resulted due to a sudden decline. Further, it is not known whether the freshwater crabs naturally have a severely restricted distribution, resulting in the extremely small extents of occurrence that is observed for nearly 90% of the crabs in Sri Lanka or this situation has resulted due to habitat loss or some other driver operating on this taxa. As very little is known about the ecology of the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka, it is prudent to take the precautionary approach when determining strategies for conserving this fauna. Therefore, the conservation assessment made here should be accepted at face value, and recovery strategies devised accordingly, until more data become available to support the conclusion that each threatened species is in fact secure. 59 Nearly 80% of the known crab species of Sri Lanka are restricted to the wet zone where 95% of the forest cover has been converted for human use during the last century. The remaining forests are also severely fragmented with three fragments (Knuckles, Sinharaja and Peak Wilderness) accounting for half of the remaining forest cover and the balance are contained in > 100 fragments of varying size. Studies done in Brazil (Bierregaard et al., 2001; Ferraz et al., 2003) have shown that extreme rainforest fragmentation could lead to catastrophic declines and extinction of species within a short period of time. Therefore, the long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective landuse planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientiic data, implemented through sustained, long-term inancing mechanisms. Given the fact that conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain good water quality, it is of concern that water quality is deteriorating even in key natural habitats (Gunawardena et al., 1998). Many freshwater crabs are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters and will not survive when exposed to these factors. In Singapore for example, the small patch of primary forest of Bukit Timah Hill (~70 ha) has been suficient to maintain a thriving population of the endemic potamid Johora singaporensis (Ng, 1988; 1989; 1990). The same is also true for Parathelphusa reticulata, which is known to occur in only a small remnant patch of peat-swamp forest patch of less than ive hectares (Ng, 1989; 1990). Decade-long monitoring of these populations demonstrates that crab species will persist even in small habitat fragments if these are managed well, though exposed to extirpation by stochastic events (Brook et al., 2003). Recommended conservation actions The fact that exploration carried out during the last two decades alone has resulted in the description of 43 new species, provide strong support for the necessity of a national freshwater crab survey, leading to a gap analysis and the identiication of key habitats for conservation attention. It is also necessary to closely monitor at least the Critically Endangered species, especially to detect actions that could alter habitat, so that these could be treated before they impact on the population involved. Further, as discussed above, the long term conservation of freshwater crabs depends heavily on maintaining water quality of their habitat. Since one of the key drivers of freshwater habitat change is pesticides, it should become mandatory for all pesticides be assessed for impact on non-target organisms and the environment in general, and the labeling of such products should include information on environmental safeguards before being approved for use within Sri Lanka. Many of the freshwater crabs occur outside the protected area network in private lands (e.g. Perbrinckia armata, Perbrinckia callista and Clinothelphusa kakoota). Therefore, introducing legal and institutional reforms necessary to engage local communities in the in situ conservation of point-endemic freshwater crabs is an important step. At the same time it is necessary to establish an ex situ management programme to maintain captive populations of at least the Critically Endangered species. Finally, lack of information on many of the freshwater crab species signiies the need for promoting further research and awareness on this unique taxonomic group. Therefore, developing a user-friendly guide for identiication of freshwater crabs and conducting education and awareness programmes for school children, university students, policy makers and the civil society are also identiied as key elements of a successful campaign to conserve the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka. 60 References ADB, (2003). Sri Lanka: environmental statistics [pdf] Available at: <http://www.adb.org/ Documents/EDRC/Statistics/Environment/srilanka.pdf> Anonymous, (1980). Control of Pesticides Act. Colombo: Government Publications Bureau. Bahir, M. M., (1998). Three new species of montane crabs of the genus Perbrinckia (Crustacea, Parathelphusidae) from the central mountains of Sri Lanka. Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3, pp.197–212. Bahir, M. M., (1999). Description of three new species of freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parathelphusidae: Ceylonthelphusa) from the south-western rain forests of Sri Lanka. Journal of South Asian Natural History, 4, pp.117–132. Bahir, M. M. & Ng, P. K. L., (2005). Description of ten new species of freshwater crabs (Parathelphusidae: Ceylonthelphusa, Mahatha, Perbrinckia) from Sri Lanka. In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds. 2005. Contributions to Biodiversity Exploration and Research in Sri Lanka. The Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.47–75. Bahir, M. M. & Yeo, D. C. J., (2005). A revision of the genus Oziotelphusa Müller, 1887 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parathelphusidae), with descriptions of eight new species In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds. 2005. Contributions to Biodiversity Exploration and Research in Sri Lanka. The Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.77–120. Bierregaard, R. O., Gascon, C., Lovejoy T. E. & Masquita, R., (2001). Lessons from Amazonia: the ecology and conservation of a fragmented forest. New Haven: Yale University Press. Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D. J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M. M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P. K. L., Schneider, C. J., Oommen, O. V. & Milinkovitch, M. C., (2004). Local endemism within the Western Ghats–Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot. Science, 306(5695), pp.479–481. Bott, R., (1970). Die Süßwasserkrabben von Ceylon. Arkiv för Zoologi, 22, pp.627–640. Brook, B. W., Sodhi, N. S. & Ng, P. K. L., (2003). Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature, 424, pp.420–423. Cincotta, R. P., Wisnewski, J. & Engelman, R., (2000). Human populations in the biodiversity hotspots. Nature, 404, pp.990–992. Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. eds., (1980–2004). A revised handbook to the lora of Ceylon. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Fernando, C. H., (1960). The Ceylonese Freshwater Crabs (Potamonidae). Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences), 3(2), pp.191–222. Ferraz, G., Russel, G. J., Stouffer, P. C., Bierregaard, R. O., Pimm, S. L. & Lovejoy, T. E., (2003). Rates of species loss from Amazonian forest fragments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, pp.14069– 14073. Gunawardena, E. R. N., Rajapakshe, U., Nandasena, K. A. & Rosier, P. T. W., (1998). Water quality issues in the uplands of Sri Lanka. In: H.P.M. Gunasena, ed., 1998. Proceedings of the inal workshop: University of Peradeniya— Oxford Forestry Institute Link Project. Peradeniya: Faculty of Agriculture, Univ. Peradeniya, pp. 37–44. Hewawasam, T., von Blanckenburg, F., Schaller M. & Kubik, P., (2003). Increase of human over natural erosion rates in tropical highlands constrained by cosmogenic nuclides. Geology, 31(7), pp.597–600. Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2005). The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautusm Gistel, 1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae), with description of 27 new species. In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds., 2005. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. The Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.5–145. Meegaskumbura, M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Bowatte, G. & Meegaskumbura, S., (2012). Rediscovery of Pseudophilautus semiruber, a diminutive shrub frog (Rhacophoridae: Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 3229, 58-68. Ng, P. K. L., (1988). The freshwater crabs of peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Singapore: Department Zoology, National University of Singapore. Ng, P. K. L., (1989). Endemic freshwater crabs in Singapore: discovery, speciation and conservation. Singapore Institute of Biology Bulletin, 13, pp.4551. Ng, P. K. L., (1990). Endemic freshwater crabs and prawns of Singapore. In: L. M. Chou & P. K. L. Ng, eds., 1990. Essays in Zoology. Singapore: Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore. pp. 189–204. Ng, P. K. L., (1994). A note on the freshwater crabs of the genus Spiralothelphusa Bott, 1968 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Parathelphusidae), with description of a new species from Sri Lanka. Journal South Asian Natural History, 1(1), pp.27–30. 61 Ng, P. K. L., (1995a). A revision of the Sri Lankan montane crabs of the genus Perbrinckia Bott, 1969 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Parathelphusidae). Journal South Asian Natural History, 1(2), pp.129–174. Ng, P. K. L., (1995b). Ceylonthelphusa scansor, a new species of tree-climbing crab from Sinharaja Forest in Sri Lanka (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Parathelphusidae). Journal South Asian Natural History, 1(2), pp.175–184. Ng, P. K. L. & Tay, W. M. 2001. The freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka (Decapoda: Brachyura: Parathelphusidae). Zeylanica, 6: 113–199. Ng, P. K. L., Wang, C. -H., Ho P. -H. & Shih, H. -T. 2001. An annotated checklist of brachyuran crabs from Taiwan (Crustacea: Decapoda). National Taiwan Museum Special Publication Series, 11: 1–86, 8 pls. Pethiyagoda, R. 1994. Threats to the indigenous freshwater ishes of Sri Lanka and remarks on their conservation. Hydrobiologia, 285: 189–201. Rathbun, M. J. 1904. Les crabes d’eau douce. Nouvelles Archives du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, (4)6: 225–312. Roux, J., 1915. Sur les Potamoiden qui habitent l’ile Ceylan. Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 23(8): 361–383. Schaefer, D. 1998. Climate change in Sri Lanka? Statistical analyses of long-term temperature and rainfall records. In: Domroes, M. & Roth, H. (eds.), Sri Lanka: past and present — Archaeology, geography, economics — selected papers on German research. Margraf Verlag, Weikersheim. pp. 103–117. Stuart, S., Chanson, J. S., Cox, N. A., Young, B. E., Rodrigues, A. S. L., Fischman D. L. & Waller, R. W. 2004. Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science, 306: 1783–1786. Wickramasinghe, L. J., M., Vidanapathirana., D. R. & Wickramasinghe, N. 2012. Back from the dead: The world’s rarest toad Adenomus kandianua rediscovered in Sri Lanka. Zootaxa 3347: 63-68. 62 Table 06: List of Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Family: Gecarcinucidae Ceylonthelphusa alpina Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa armata (Ng, 1993) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa callista (Ng, 1995) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa cavatrix (Bahir, 1998) CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa diva Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa durrelli Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa kandambyi Bahir, 1999 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) NT Ceylonthelphusa kotagama (Bahir, 1998) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa nata Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa orthos Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa rugosa (Kingsley, 1880) NT Ceylonthelphusa sanguinea (Ng, 1995) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa savitriae Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Ceylonthelphusa sentosa Bahir , 1999 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC Ceylonthelphusa soror (Zehntner,1894) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC Ceylonthelphusa venusta (Ng,1995) CR B2ab(iii) NT Clinothelphusa kakoota Tay & Ng, 2001 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR Mahatha adonis Ng & Tay, 2001 NT Mahatha helaya Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Mahatha iora Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC B1ab(iii) LC Mahatha lacuna Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR Mahatha ornatipes (Roux,1915) NT Mahatha regina Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR Oziothelphusa ceylonensis (Fernando, 1960) NT Oziothelphusa dakuna Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Oziothelphusa gallicola Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) 63 LC B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Oziothelphusa hippocastanum (Muller, 1887) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU Oziothelphusa intuta Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Oziothelphusa kodagoda Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Oziothelphusa mineriyaensis Bott,1970 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC Oziothelphusa populosa Bahir & Yeo, 2005 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Oziothelphusa ritigala Bahir & Yeo, 2005 EN B1ab(iii) VU D2 Oziothelphusa stricta Ng & Tay, 2001 NT VU B1ab(iii) Pastilla ruhuna Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia cracens Ng,1995 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia enodis Kingsley,1880 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia fenestra Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) VU D2 Perbrinckia ido Bahir, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia gabadagei Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia glabra Ng, 1995 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia integra Ng, 1995 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU D2 Perbrinckia morayensis Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia nana (Bahir,1999) EN B1ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Perbrinckia punctata Ng, 1995 “Pulli Pathan Kakuluwa” Perbrinckia quadratus Ng & Tay, 2001 Perbrinckia rosae Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR Perbrinckia scitula Ng, 1995 CR B2ab(iii) LC Perbrinckia uva Bahir,1998 CR B2ab(iii) Spiralothelphusa fernando Ng, 1994 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Spiralothelphusa parvula (Fenando,1961) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Perbrinckia scansor (Ng, 1995) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC 64 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Land snails in Sri Lanka: K. B. Ranawana1 and T. G. M. Priyadarshana2 1 Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 2 10/8 Theleawala Road, Mount Lavinia Introduction Molluscs (snails and slugs) are the second most diverse animal phyla after arthropods (Solem, 1981; Emberton et al., 1997). Majority of the molluscs are aquatic (marine and freshwater), whereas only 25% comprise of terrestrial species (Emberton et al., 1997). Class Gastropoda is the largest class of mollusks, which is considered as the most successful of all molluscan classes and they have colonized a wide range of habitats including land, freshwater and marine environments. Prosobranchia, Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata are the three major subclasses of class Gastropoda. Majority of Opisthobranchs are marine inhabitants. Molluscs are important elements in the studies on mechanisms of evolution and examining the effects of ecology on evolutionary change (Crampton, 1932; Cain and Sheppard 1950; Cain and Currey, 1963; Cowie, 1992; Johnson et al., 1993). Their low vagility also makes them suitable as indicators for biogeographical studies of early tectonic events (Solem, 1981). Due to their low mobility, land snails have become models for studying the effects of pesticides and inluence of the activities of man in altering the environment. Of the 253 species of land snails recorded from the country, 166 species belong to Sub class Pulmonata and is represented by 28 families. The remaining 87 species belong to the subclass Prosobranchia, which is represented by four families. This indicates that the pulmonate group dominates land snails in Sri Lanka. The families Ariophantidae (mainly Cryptozona and Euplecta) with 50 species and Glessulidae (22 species) are the largest pulmonate families found in the country. Cyclophoridae (54 species) is the largest Prosobranch family. Taxonomy Taxonomic status of some of the land snail groups in Sri Lanka needs to be thoroughly revised. For instance ‘Digoniaxis’ cingalensis (Benson 1863) was described from a single specimen collected by Edgar Layard close to Matale, North of Kandy, Sri Lanka. The taxonomic status of D. cingalensis remains a mystery because the type species of the genus Digoniaxis Jousseaume, 1894 was found on a beach near Aden, Yemen, which proves to be a marine pyramidellid. Distribution A signiicant portion of Sri Lankan snail fauna consists of Gondwana relicts, with origins dating back prior to the breakup of the southern super-continent over 100 million years ago (Naggs et al., 2003). Sri Lankan land snails are considered as the most distinct in the South Asian Region, despite their faunistic afinities with the Indian mainland (Naggs et al., 2003). Species richness and endemicity are high among Sri Lankan land snails (Naggs et al., 2003). Of the 253 species of land snails recorded from the country, majority (205 species, approximately 81%) are categorized as endemic according to the current available data. Further ive land snail genera are considered to be endemic to Sri Lanka. These include four stylommatophoran 65 pulmonates, namely Ravana, Ratnadvipia, Acavus, Oligospira and cyclophorid prosobranch Aulopoma. These species show discontinued distribution and are restricted to few speciic habitats in the wet and southwestern portion of the island (Raheem, 2000). Of the land snail genera recorded from the island, 13 (Ruthvenia, Thysanota, Cryptozona, Euplecta, Mariaella, Eurychlamys, Corilla, Beddomea, Trachia, Leptopomodes, Micraulax, Tortulosa and Nicida) are restricted to Sri Lanka and Peninsular India, primarily to Western Ghats; approximately 50% of the 253 species recorded from the island belong to genera endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka. About 18 exotic land snails and slug species, most of which are agricultural pests, have also been recorded from the country during recent studies (Naggs et al., 2003). However, this has increased up to 21 species according to the most recent information. Studies done by Raheem et al. (2000) and Ranawana (2005) showed that the lowland rainforest zone and the montane rainforest zone in Sri Lanka have distinctive snail faunas. The lowland rainforest fauna is composed of a widely distributed element and a localized or restrictedrange component. Widely distributed lowland rainforest species include Cryptozona chenui, Ratnadvipia irradians, Acavus phoenix, Corilla adamsi, Beddomea albizonatus aggregate and Leptopoma semiclausum. These taxa range across most or all of the forested areas of the lowland wet zone while some species such as Ratnadvipia irradians occur in both forest and non forest habitats (Raheem et al., 2000). Threats Molluscs, together with other animals and plants, are facing a rapid process of extinction largely due to human activities, and the present extinctions of species occur in time spans of less than ten years (Kay, 1995). Majority of the terrestrial molluscs are forest dwellers, sensitive to habitat disturbance. Therefore, from the biodiversity conservation point of view they are of regional and global concern (Emberton, 1995; Tattersield et al., 2001). Habitat loss is the main threat faced by land snails in the country. Highly diverse areas such as lowland rainforests of the wet zone of the country are highly fragmented. Ground cover of the mountain regions such as in the Knuckles Region are cleared for cardamom cultivation. Most of the land snails are leaf litter inhabitants, thus clearance of forest loor is detrimental to their survival. Vast area of land in the wet and dry zones of Sri Lanka was inundated due to large scale dam construction for river diversion (especially the Mahaweli river) and hydroelectric generation. These development activities cause loss of habitats, either minimize the area available for a species or completely wipe out a species from a locality. Frequent ires in the grasslands, scrublands and forests are detrimental to the survival of land snails. This is evidenced by the record of very few snail species from the grasslands, where repeated ires occurs. Use of agrochemicals is also harmful to native land snail species found in association with human settlements. Species belonging to endemic genera such as Acavus and Ratnadvipia, found in synanthropic habitats are severely affected by agrochemicals. 66 Conservation Survival of highly diverse land snail fauna of Sri Lanka is therefore dependent on the effective conservation of the country’s remaining rainforest fragments in the lowland rainforests of wet zone and the montane forests as endemism is restricted to localized zones within these areas. The following recommendations are made to promote research and conservation activities of land snails of Sri Lanka (Ranawana, 2006). Conclusions and recommendations Some of the key recommendations include • Conduct research on the ecology and distribution of land snails of Sri Lanka, with particular emphasis on the endemic and relict taxa which in turn help to identify the land snail hotspots. • Develop plans for population restoration of endemic and relict species which are facing the danger of extinction due to habitat loss (such as development activities and inundation of land due to dam building). The affected taxa could be translocated to suitable areas having similar habitat conditions. • Establish strict regulation to control the entry of exotic land snails in to the country mainly through the import trade of vegetables and foliage plants. Attempts should be made to control these exotic species as much as possible before they colonize natural forest habitats in the country • Care should be taken to control the spread of some predatory gastropods, which has been introduced to the country in early 1950s to control Lissachatina fulica. Still, individuals of predatory gastropod Eustreptaxis kibweziensis are recorded from Peradeniya, where it was irst introduced. This predatory carnivore population has to be eradicated before it enters the natural habitats. • Increase the awareness of village communities and school children about the importance of land snails as an integral component of the ecosystem. The message that “not all snails are pests” should be clearly conveyed to the general public. The role of snails in breaking down leaf litter should be recognized. References Cain, A. J. & Currey, J. D., (1963). Area effects in Cepaea. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 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B., Grimm, B., Ranawana, K. B. & Kumburegama, N. P. S., (2003). Ancient relicts and contemporary exotics: faunal change and survivorship in Sri Lanka’s snail fauna. Slugs & Snails: Agricultural, Veterinary & Environmental Perspectives. British Crop Protection Council Symposium Proceedings, 80, pp.103 - 108. Raheem, D., Butterworth, T., Inglis, C., Priyadarshana, T. G. M. & Perera, L. J. K. R., (2000). Land snail diversity in Sri Lankan rainforest remnants. Ranawana, K. B., (in press). Patterns of diversity and ecology of land snails in the Knuckles region, Sri Lanka. Ranawana, K. B., (2006). Land snails in Sri Lanka. In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed., 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. pp. 84-99. Solem, A., (1984). A world model of land snail diversity and abundance. World – wide snails. In: A. Solem & A.C. van Bruggen, eds. 1984. Biogeographical studies on none-marine Mollusca. Leiden: Brill and Backhuya, pp.6 -62. Solem, A., (1981). Land snail biogeography: a true snail’s pace of change. In: G, Nelson & D. E. Rosen, eds. 1981. Vicariance biogeography: a critique, pp.197 – 237. Tattersield, P., Warui, C. M., Seddon, M. B. & Kiringe, J. W., (2001). Land - snail faunas of afromontane forests of Mount Kenya, Kenya: ecology, diversity and distribution patterns. Journal of Biogeography, 28(7), pp.843 -861. 68 Table 07: List of Land Snails in Sri Lanka Abbreviations: Scientiic NameEX (Exotic) Common Name Scientiic Name NCS Criteria B1+2ab(iii) Family: Pupilidae Microstele muscerda (Benson 1853) E: Muscerda’s Moss Snail CR Pupoides coenopictus (Hutton 1834) EX E: Coenopictus Moss Snail NE Gastrocopta mimula (Benson 1853) E: Sri Lanka Whorl Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Nesopupa cinghalensis (Guide 1914) E: Toothed Whorl Snail CR B1+2ab(iii) Pupisoma longstaffae (Godwm-Austen 1912) E: Sri Lanka Grass Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Family: Vertiginidae Pupisoma miccyla (Benson 1860) DD Family: Pyramidulidae E: Sri Lanka Rock Snail CR B1+2ab(iii) E: Sr Lanka Lesser Bulin EN B2ab(iii) Mirus proletaria (Pfeiffer 1855) EN B1+2ab(iii) Mirus stalix (Benson 1863) EN B1+2ab(iii) Pyramidula halyi (Jousseaume 1894) Family: Buliminidae Mirus panos (Benson 1853) Family: Cerastuidae Rachis punctatus (Anton 1839) EX E: Pipe Snail NE Rhachistia adumbratus (Pfeiffer 1855) E: Sri lanka Pipe Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) Rhachistia pulcher (Gray 1825) Family: Endodontidae E: Sri Lanka Philalanka Philalanka circumsculpta (Sykes 1897) EN B1+2ab(iii) Philalanka depressa (Preston 1909) EN B2ab(iii) Philalanka edithae (Preston 1909) CR B1ab(iii) Philalanka lamcabensis (Jousseaume 1894) CR B1+2ab(iii) Philalanka liratula (Pfeiffer 1860) CR B2ab(iii) Philalanka mononema (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii) Philalanka secessa (Godwin-Austen 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii) Philalanka sinhila (Godwin-Austen 1897) CR B2ab(iii) Philalanka thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii) Philalanka triilosa (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1ab(iii) CR B1+2ab(iii) CR B1+2ab(iii) EN B1+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Family: Charopidae E: Sri Lanka Micro Hairy Ruthvenia Ruthvenia biciliata (Pfeiffer 1854) Ruthvenia caliginosa (Sykes 1898) Ruthvenia clathratula (Pfeiffer 1850) E: Sri Lanka Micro Hairy Thysanota Thysanota elegans (Preston 1909) 69 Common Name Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Thysanota eumita (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii) Thysanota hispida (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii) E: Sri Lanka Door Snail EN B2ab(iii) E: Quick Gloss Glass Snail NE E: Garlic Glass Snail NE E: Sri Lanka Brilliant Granule EN B1+2ab(iii) Eurychlamys regulata (Benson 1860) EN B1+2ab(iii) Eurychlamys winifredae (Preston 1909) EN B1+2ab(iii) Family: Clausilioidae Phaedusa ceylanica (Benson 1863) Family: Gastrodontoidae Zonitoides arboreus (Say 1816) EX Family: Oxychilidae Oxychilus alliarius (Miller, 1822) EX Family: Euconulidae Eurychlamys layardi (Benson 1860) Family: Helicarionidae Kaliella barrakporensis (Pfeiffer 1853) EX E: Common Hive Snail NE Kaliella colletti (Sykes 1899) E: Sri Lanka Hive Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Kaliella delectabilis (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii) Kaliella leithiana (Godwin Austen 1883) EN B1+2ab(iii) Kaliella salicensis (Godwin Austen 1897) DD Sivella galerus (Benson 1856) CR B2ab(iii) Sivella hyptiocyclos (Benson 1863) CR B2ab(iii) Family: Ariophantidae Cryptozona bistrialis (Beck 1837) E: Common Translucent Snail LC Cryptozona ceraria (Benson 1853) E: Sri Lanka Hard Translucent Snail VU B1ab(iii) Cryptozona chenui (Pfeiffer 1847) VU B1ab(iii) Cryptozona juliana (Gray 1834) EN B1+2ab(iii) Cryptozona novella (Pfeiffer 1855) EN B2ab(iii) Cryptozona semirugata (Beck 1837) VU B1ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) Euplecta albizonata (Dohm 1858) CR B2ab(iii) Euplecta binoyaensis (Godwin Austen 1899) EN B1+2ab(iii) Euplecta colletti (Sykes 1897) EN B1+2ab(iii) Euplecta concavospira (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii) Euplecta emiliana (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii) Euplecta gardeneri (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii) Euplecta hyphasma (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii) Euplecta indica (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii) Euplecta isabellina (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii) Euplecta laevis (Blanford 1901) DD Euplecta lankaensis (Preston 1909) DD E: Glass Translucent Snail Euplecta acuducta (Benson 1850) 70 Common Name Scientiic Name NCS Criteria B1+2ab(iii) Euplecta layardi (Pfeiffer 1854) EN Euplecta neglecta (Preston 1909) DD Euplecta partita (Pfeiffer 1854) NT Euplecta phidias (Hanley & Theobald 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii) Euplecta prestoni (Godwin-Austen 1897) CR B1ab(iii) Euplecta rosamonda (Benson 1860) DD Euplecta scobinoides (Sykes 1897) CR B1ab(iii) Euplecta semidecussata (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii) Euplecta subopaca (Pfeiffer 1854) DD Euplecta trimeni (Jousseaume 1894) DD Euplecta turritella (Adams 1869) DD Euplecta travancorica (Benson 1865) NT Euplecta verrucula (Pfeiffer 1854) DD E: Sri Lanka Ratnadivipa Ratnadvipia edgariana (Benson 1853) Ratnadvipia irradians (Pfeiffer 1854) Ratnadvipia karui (Raheem & Naggs 2006) DD VU B1ab(iii) CR B1+2ab(iii) Ravana politissima (Pfeiffer 1854) E: Sri Lanka Ravana Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Mariaella dussumieri (Gray 1855) EX E: Common Shelled Slug NE Macrochlamys indica (Godwin Austen 1883) E: Macro Lucid Snail DD Macrochlamys kandiensis (Godwin-Austen 1883) E: Sri Lanka Macro Lucid Snail CR B1+2ab(iii) Macrochlamys nepas (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii) Macrochlamys perfucata (Benson 1853) DD Macrochlamys tratanensis (Jousseaume 1894) CR B2ab(iii) Macrachlamys umbrina (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B1+2ab(iii) Macrachlamys vilipensa (Benson 1853) DD Macrochlamys woodiana (Pfeiffer 1854) EN E: Sri Lanka Micro Lucid Snail Microcystina bintennensis (Godwin-Austen 1899) Microcystina lita (Sykes 1898) B1+2ab(iii) DD EN B1+2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) Satiella membranacea (Benson 1853) E: Sri Lanka Lucid Satiella Snail CR Sitala operiens (Sykes 1898) E: Sri Lanka Sitala Snail DD Sitala phyllophila (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii) Sitala pyramidalis (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii) Family Milacidae E: Smooth Jet Slug NE Deroceras reticulatum (Miller 1774) EX E: Gray Field Slug NE Deroceras laeve (Muller 1774) E: Marsh Slug NE Milax gagates (Draparnaud 1801) EX Family: Agriolimacidae EX 71 Common Name Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Family: Ferussaciidae Digoniaxis cingalensis (Benson 1863) LC Family: Glessulidae Glessula capillacea (Pfeiffer 1855) E: Corkscrew Snail CR B2ab(iii) Glessula ceylanica (Pfeiffer 1845) E: Sri Lanka Corkscrew Snail EN B2ab(iii) Glessula collettae (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii) Glessula deshayesi (Pfeiffer 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii) Glessula fulgens (Pfeiffer 1858) CR B1ab(iii) Glessula inornata (Pfeiffer 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii) Glessula lankana (Pilsbry 1908) EN B1+2ab(iii) Glessula layardi (Pilsbry 1908) CR B2ab(iii) Glessula nitens (Gray 1825) DD Glessula pachycheila (Benson 1853) DD Glessula pallens (Beddome 1906) CR B1+2ab(iii) Glessula panaetha (Benson 1860) CR B1+2ab(iii) Glessula parabilis (Benson 1856) EN B1+2ab(iii) Glessula prestoni (Gude 1914) CR B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) Glessula punctogallana (Pfeiffer 1852) EN Glessula pusilla (Beddome 1906) EX NE Glessula reynelli (Gude 1914) DD Glessula sattaraensis (Hanley & Theobald 1874) CR B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Glessula serena (Benson 1860) EN Glessula simoni (Jousseaume 1894) DD Glessula sinhila (Preston 1909) CR B1+2ab(iii) Glessula veruina (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii) Family: Subulinidae Subulina octona (Bruguiere 1789) EX E: Common Awl Snail NE Allopeas gracile (Hutton 1834) EX E: Graceful Awl Snail NE Allopeas layardi (Benson 1863) E: Sri Lanka Awl Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Allopeas mariae (Jousseaume 1894) CR B2ab(iii) Allopeas prestoni (Sykes 1898) CR B1+2ab(iii) Allopeas pussilus (Adams 1867) DD Allopeas sykesi (Pilsbry 1906) CR Paropeas achatinaceum (Pfeiffer 1846) EX E: Achatina’s Awl Snail NE Zootecus insularis (Ehrenberg 1831) EX E: Chrysalis Awl Snail NE E: Giant African Snail NE E: Eustreptex Hunter Snail NE Family: Achatinidae Lissachatina fulica (Bowdich 1822) EX Family: Streptaxidae Eustreptexis kideziensis (Smith 1895) EX 72 B2ab(iii) Common Name Scientiic Name E: Sri Lanka Hunter Snail Indoartemon cingalensis (Benson 1853) Indoartemon gracilis (Collet 1898) Indoartemon layardianus (Benson 1853) NCS Criteria CR B2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) Perrottetia peroteti (Petit de la Saussaye 1841) E: Perrotte’s Hunter Snail DD Perrottetia ravanae (Blanford 1899) E: Sri Lanka Ravana’s Hunter Snail DD Gulella bicolor (Hutton 1834) EX E: Two-toned Hunter Snail NE Sinoennea planguncula (Benson 1863) E: Plangucula’s Hunter Snail DD Acavus haemastoma (Lennaeus 1758) E: Sri Lanka Red mouthed Lustful Snail EN Acavus phoenix (Pfeiffer 1854) E: Arabian Lustful Snail NT Acavus superbus (Pfeiffer 1850) E: Superb Lustful Snail VU B1ab(iii) Oligospira polei (Collet 1899) E: Sri Lanka White Lip Blunted Snail EN B2ab(iii) Oligospira skinneri (Reeve 1854) E: Sri Lanka Small Blunted Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Oligospira waltoni (Reeve 1842) E: Sri Lanka Common Blunted Snail VU B1ab(iii) E: Sri Lanka Toothed Lip Snail Family: Acavidae B2ab(iii) Family: Corillidae Corilla adamsi (Gude 1914) EN B1+2ab(iii) Corilla beddomeae (Hanley 1875) EN B1+2ab(iii) Corilla carabinata (Ferussac 1821) EN B1+2ab(iii) Corilla colletti (Sykes 1897) VU B1ab(iii) Corilla erronea (Albers 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii) Corilla fryae (Gude 1896) DD Corilla gudei (Sykes 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii) Corilla humberti (Brot 1864) CR B1+2ab(iii) Corilla lesleyae (Barnacle 1959) EN B1+2ab(iii) Corilla odontophora (Benson 1865) CR B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) CR B1+2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) Family: Camaenidae Beddomea albizonatus (Reeve 1849) E: Sri Lanka Beddomea Snail Beddomea ceylanicus (Pfeiffer 1846) Beddomea intermedius (Pfeiffer 1855) Beddomea trifasciatus (Gmelin 1786) E: Strawberry Snail Trachia fallaciosa (Ferussac 1821) Trachia vittata (Muller 1774) 73 Common Name Scientiic Name NCS Criteria E: Sri Lanka Landouria EN B1+2ab(iii) E: Asian Tramp Snail NE E: Amber Snail CR E: Glossy Pillar Snail NE E: Hedgehog Slug NE Laevicaulis alte (Femssac 1821) E: Leatherleaf Slug LC Semperula maculata (Tempieton 1888) E: Tropical Leatherleaf Slug LC Landouria radleyi (Jousseaume 1894) Family: Bradybaenidae Bradybaena similaris (Femssac 1822) EX Family: Succineidae Succinea ceylanica (Pfeiffer 1855) B2ab(iii) Family: Cochlicopidae Cochlicopa lubrica (Muller 1774) EX Family: Arionidae Arion intermedius (Normand 1852) EX Family: Veronicellidae Semperula siamensis (Martens 1867) LC Family: Cyclophoroidea Cyclophorus alabastrinus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii) Cyclophorus ceylanicus (Pfeiffer 1849) E: Sri Lanka Large Operculate Snail VU B1ab(iii) Cyclophorus involvulus (Muller 1774) E: Involvulus Operculte Snail EN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) Cyclophorus menkeanus (Philippi 1848) Aulopoma grande (Pfeiffer 1855) E: Grande’s Operculate Snail VU B1ab(iii) Aulopoma helicinum (Chemnitz 1786) E: Helicinum Operculate Snail VU B1ab(iii) Aulopoma itieri (Guerin 1847) E: Itier’s Operculate Snail EN B1ab(iii) Aulopoma sphaeroideum (Dohrn 1857) E: Sphaeroid’s Operculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Cyathopoma album (Beddome 1875) E: Cyathopom’s Operculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii) Cyathopoma artatum (Sykes 1897) DD Cyathopoma ceylanicum (Beddome 1875) EN Cyathopoma colletti (Sykes 1898) DD Cyathopoma conoideum (Sykes 1898) DD Cyathopoma innocens (Sykes 1899) CR B2ab(iii) Cyathopoma leptomita (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii) Cyathopoma mariae (Jousseaume 1894) DD Cyathopoma ogdenianum (Preston 1909) CR Cyathopoma perconoideum (Preston 1909) DD Cyathopoma prestoni (Sykes 1897) CR Cyathopoma serendibense (Preston 1903) DD Cyathopoma turbinatum (Sykes 1897) DD Cyathopoma uvaense (Preston 1909) DD 74 B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Japonia binoyae (Sykes 1897) Common Name NCS E: Japonia’s Operculate Snail DD Japonia occulta (Sykes 1897) Japonia vesca (Sykes 1897) E: Leptopoma’s Operculate Snail Leptopoma apicatum (Benson 1856) Leptopoma elatum (Pfeiffer 1852) Criteria CR B1+2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii) DD DD E: Leptopomoid’s Operculate Snail Leptopoma semiclausum (Pfeiffer 1855) EN Leptopomoides conulus (Pfeiffer 1855) DD Leptopomoides lammeus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B1+2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) Leptopomoides halophilus (Benson 1851) DD Leptopomoides orophilus (Benson 1853) DD Leptopomoides poecilus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B1+2ab(iii) Leptopomoides taprobanensis (Preston 1909) CR B1+2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) E: Micraulax Opeculate Snail Micraulax coeloconus (Benson 1851) Scabrina brounae (Sykes 1898) Scabrina liratula (Preston 1909) E: Hairy Operculate Snail DD Theobaldius annulatus (Pfeiffer 1847) E: Theobald’s Operculate Snail LC Theobaldius bairdi (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii) Theobaldius cadiscus (Benson 1860) CR B2ab(iii) Theobaldius cratera (Benson 1856) DD Theobaldius cytopoma (Benson 1860) EN B1+2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) Theobaldius layardi (Adams 1868) VU Theobaldius liliputianus (Preston 1909) DD Theobaldius loxostoma (Pfeiffer 1854) CR Theobaldius parapsis (Benson 1853) DD B1+2ab(iii) Theobaldius parma (Benson 1856) EN B1+2ab(iii) Theobaldius subplicatulus (Beddome 1875) VU B1ab(iii) Theobaldius thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii) Pterocyclus bifrons (Pfeiffer 1855) DD E: Ptero’s Operculate Snail Pterocyclus bilabiatus (Sowerby 1835) EN Pterocyclus cingalensis (Benson 1853) NT Pterocyclus cumingi (Pfeiffer 1851) NT Pterocyclus troscheli (Benson 1851) NT B1+2ab(iii) Family: Diplomatinidae E: Sri Lanka Nicida’s Operculate Snail Nicida catathymia (Sykes 1898) NT Nicida ceylanica (Beddome 1875) CR B1+2ab(iii) Nicida delectabilis (Preston 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii) Nicida lankaensis (Preston 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii) Nicida pedronis (Beddome 1875) DD 75 Common Name Scientiic Name Nicida prestoni (Sykes 1897) NCS Criteria CR B2ab(iii) Family: Pupinidae E: Sri Lanka Tortu’s Operculate Snail CR B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa austeniana (Benson 1853) Tortulosa aurea (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii) Tortulosa barnaclei (Tomlin 1928) DD Tortulosa blanfordi (Dohrn 1862) DD Tortulosa colletti (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii) Tortulosa congener (Sykes 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa connectens (Fulton 1903) DD Tortulosa cumingi (Pfeiffer 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa decora (Benson 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa duplicata (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii) Tortulosa eurytrema (Pfeiffer 1852) DD Tortulosa greeni (Sykes 1899) EN B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa haemastoma (Pfeiffer 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa hartleyi (Tomlin 1928) DD Tortulosa layardi (Pfeiffer 1851) EN Tortulosa leucocheilus (Adams & Sowerby 1866) DD Tortulosa marginata (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa nevilli (Sykes 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii) Tortulosa nietneri (Nevill 1871) DD Tortulosa prestoni (Sykes 1905) DD Tortulosa pyramidata (PfeifFer 1852) EN Tortulosa rugosa (Fulton 1904) DD Tortulosa smithi (Sykes 1905) CR B2ab(iii) Tortulosa sykesi (Fulton 1904) CR B2ab(iii) Tortulosa templemani (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii) Tortulosa thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1852) CR B2ab(iii) Family: Truncatellidae Truncatella ceylanica (Pfeiffsr 1856) DD 76 B2ab(iii) B1+2ab(iii) The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Fishes in Sri Lanka Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake IUCN Sri Lanka, 53, Horton Place, Colombo 7. Introduction Sri Lanka supports a rich freshwater ish assemblage that comprises of 91 species including 50 endemics (Bailey and Gans, 1998; Goonatialke, 2007; Silva et al., 2008; Meegaskumbura, et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda, 1991; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008b; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c; Silva et al., 2011; Pethiyagoda et al., 2012; Watson, 1998). Other than these indigenous species, 24 exotic species have been introduced to the island, mainly to boost the inland ishery (Goonatilake, 2007). Senanayake and Moyle (1982) have identiied four major Ichthyological zones (Southwestern, Mahaweli, Dry and Transition) according to the distribution patterns of freshwater ish in Sri Lanka. Out of these four zones, Southwestern and Mahaweli zones bear the highest freshwater ish diversity in the island. Taxonomy The island’s freshwater ish fauna has received signiicant attention from early European ichthyologists that dates back to early 19th Century. Georges Cuvier and Achille Valenciennes described several species of ish (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828–49) from Sri Lanka based on a single collection made in 1827 near the Kinniyar hot springs by the French explorer A. Reynaud. However, the irst local exploration of the ish fauna by an expert took place in the early 1860s, when the Dutch ichthyologist P. Bleeker described several new species of freshwater ish based on a collection from the Gin River basin. In the early 1900’s Bleeker’s work has been followed by a German ichthyologist, George Duncker, who explored several localities including Gin river basin that led to the compilation of irst checklist of Sri Lankan freshwater ishes (Duncker, 1912). These early efforts on ish exploration by European ichthyologists were followed in the mid 20th Century by local naturalists of whom the most notable being P.E.P. Deraniyagala who has described several new species and produced the irst illustrated book on Sri Lankan freshwater ish (Deraniyagala, 1952). His work has been followed by Mendis (1954) and Munro (1955). The irst systematic exploration of the island’s freshwater ish fauna was carried out during the late 1970s by Ranil Senanayake for his doctoral dissertation that has led to a comprehensive review of the conservation status of freshwater ishes for the irst time in Sri Lanka (Senanayake, 1980; Senanayake and Moyle, 1982). This work was followed by a more extensive survey on freshwater ish by the Wildlife Heritage Trust that has led to the discovery of many new species of freshwater ish (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1991; Meegaskumbura, et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008b; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c; Pethiyagoda et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2008; Silva et al., 2011). Taxonomic nomenclature of freshwater ish has also been extensively revised during the past two decades, the most recent being the taxonomic revision of the genus Puntius by Pethiyagoda et al. (2012) that has resulted in the splitting of this genus into four genera, namely Puntius, 77 Pethia, Systomus and, Dawkinsia. Likewise, revision of the Genera Rasbora (Silva et al., 2011) and Danio (Kevin et al., 2010) resulted in some species of genus Rasbora being placed under the genus Rasboroides and all species of genus Danio being placed under the genus Devario. Further, what was listed as Chela ceylonensis was split in to three species and placed under the genus Labuca (Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a). Also, species names of several species have also been revised over the past decade. For instance, Puntius ilamentous, Puntius amphibious, Macroganthus aral, Labeo porcellus and Channa marulius have been renamed as Puntius singhala, Puntius kamalika, Macrognathus pentophthalmos, Labeo lankae and Channa ara respectively (Pethiyagoda & Kottelat, 1991; Silva et al., 2008 and Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c; Pethiyagoda, 1994). Distribution Senanayake and Moyle (1982) have proposed four major Ichtyological zones (Southwestern, Mahaweli, Dry and Transition) based the on distribution pattern of freshwater ishes. Of these the South Western and Mahaweli zones support the highest diversity in freshwater ish while the Dry Zone species have a higher afinity with the freshwater ish in the Indian peninsula. Number of species such as Pethia bandula (Minipura at Kegalle District) and Stiphodon martenstyni (Atweltota near Matugama) and Rasboroides nigromaginata are only known from a single location (point endemics). Further, some species such as Dawkinsia srilankensis, Laubuca insularis, Systomus martenstyni, Labeo isheri and Labeo lankae are only known from a single river basin. However, species such as Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi, Devario pathirana, Rasbora wilpita which were also thought to be restricted to a single river basin, namely the Nilwala basin, have been shown to occur also in the Kelani river basin. Threats Arguably, the freshwater ish are the most vulnerable taxonomic group as most of the threatened or endemic freshwater species are found in streams that are lying outside the Protected Area Network of Sri Lanka. Therefore these habitats are highly susceptible to various threats such as forest clearance, gem mining, expanding agriculture, large and small scale hydro projects, exposure to chemical pollutants including agrochemicals and sedimentation due to soil erosion. Several species such as Ophisternon bengalense, Systomus martenstyni, Labeo isheri and Labeo lankae have become threatened during the past few decades due to loss of their habitat, land reclamation or habitat conversion as a result of reservoir projects. Further, natural processes such as spread of alien invasive plant species such as like Annona gabra, Eichornia crassipes bring about rapid habitat changes that make these marsh habitats less suitable for freshwater ish. The water quality of many of the suburban water bodies have also undergone drastic changes due to accumulation of toxic compounds discharged by industries. A case in point is the Attidiya-Bellanwila Sanctuary where the number of freshwater species recorded has changed from 54 to a mere 8 species (Goonatilake unpublished data, 2012) within a span of about 20 years due to pollution and spread of invasive alien plant species. On the other hand, in rural areas heavy use of agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizer has contributed to the population decline of at least two endemic ish species, Pethiya bandula and Aplocheilus dayi and several species of indigenous ish. Intentional and accidental introduction of invasive alien 78 ish species such as Chitala chitala (Clown knife ish) and Hypostomus plecostomus (Suckermouth catish) is posing a major threat to native fresh water ishes (Gunawardane, 2002). Number of endemic species have a high demand in the aquarium trade and hence overexploitation of naturally occurring populations for export has resulted in marked reduction in their populations and in some instances to local extinctions. Further, destructive ishing techniques such as the use of Kala wel (a plant that is toxic to ish), Dynamite and other chemicals such as anti-lice compounds by local communities to capture ish lead to complete wipe-out of all the ish in a water hole. Therefore, such ishing methods should be banned and discouraged through awareness-raising among local communities. Conservation As mentioned earlier, most of the threatened and endemic freshwater ish are found in habitats located outside the Protected Area Network. These habitats are under high human pressure. Therefore, they need to be protected; especially their catchment areas that will decide the water yield as well as the quality of water. Any type of development affecting these habitats needs to be clearly assessed before granting approval. Further, species oriented conservation programmes and habitat oriented conservation programmes should be developed for at least the critically endangered species. As most of the species occur outside the protected areas the local communities have to be involved in conservation of these species. Such a programme has been successfully implemented for Pethia bundula that has resulted in curtailing of illegal collection of the ish and the recovery of the population. Likewise conservation action plans should be drawn up for all identiied threatened species. Ex-situ breeding programmes should also be established with the aim of boosting dwindling wild population. However, translocation or reintroduction programmes should be planned with utmost care to prevent hybridisation and introduction of diseases to the population. Thus far, a number of translocations have been attempted in Sri Lanka with the aim of conserving threatened species. Some of these translocation programmes have been highly successful while some have failed to achieve the desired objectives. Therefore, these programmes should be carefully reviewed to document the lessons learnt before attempting further translocations. Research gaps and research needs The recent ield surveys in both the dry and wet zone, and phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that there still are new species to be discovered. Therefore, island-wide systematic surveys should be carried out to document the distribution and ecological conditions necessary for freshwater ishes of Sri Lanka. The baseline data generated from such as a survey can be used to make proper assessments of the conservation status of species as well as to draw up species conservation plans. Lack of inancial support is the main obstacle for such a systematic island-wide survey. A model already exists in the neighbouring India, where they have a dedicated zoological survey to gather baseline data not only for ishes but for other taxonomic groups as well. The National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka had such a programme in the 1980’s which needs to be resurrected. 79 Conclusions and recommendations Sri Lanka has a rich freshwater ish fauna of which more than 50% are endemic species. However, nearly 50% freshwater ish are also listed as threatened species due to a number of threats. Therefore, it is important to develop a conservation action plan for the endemic and threatened freshwater ish of Sri Lanka. Such an action plan should irst identify priority list of species as well as critical habitats of freshwater ish that require immediate conservation action. This should be followed with preparation and implementation of species speciic recovery plans. The implementation of such plans requires large investments and therefore, possibility of private sector involvement in inancing such recovery plans should be pursued. Also, a national programme to protect catchments as well as enforce river and stream reservations is another identiied need which will beneit not only ish but other terrestrial species as well. As most of the species occur in human dominated landscapes a conservation model involving local communities in conservation of freshwater ish should be developed, at least for the restricted range species. At the same time, the ex situ breeding programmes should obtain the expertise available in the ornamental ish industry, especially to develop breeding techniques for threatened species that are dificult to breed in captivity. All pesticides approved for release in Sri Lanka should be assessed for impact on non-target organisms and the environment in general, and the labelling of such products should include information on environmental safeguards. Further, all future intentional release of exotic ishes should be preceded by an environmental impact assessment involving speciic safeguards against invasiveness, and at the same time a ban should be imposed on importation of exotic ish species that are known to be invasive in other countries. Also, international agencies that fund development projects must be appraised of the negative consequences that can arise due to isheries development projects in Sri Lanka References Bailey, R. M. & Gans, C., (1998). The new synbranchid ishes, Monopterus roseni from Peninsular India and M. desilvai from Sri Lanka. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, 726, p.18. Cuvier, G. & Valenciennes, A., (1842). Histoire naturelle des poissons, vol. 16. Paris: P. Bertrand. xx+472 pp., pls 465–487. Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1952). A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon, 1: ishes. Colombo: National Museum. Duncker, G., (1912). Die Susswasserische Ceylons. Jahrb. Hamburg Wiss. Anst., Beiheft 2, 29 (2): pp.241–272. Goonatilake, S. de A., (2007). Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka. Goonatilake, S. de A., (2012). Personal records. [ield records] (Personal communication, 2012). Gunawardane, J., (2002). Occurrence of Chitala chitala (Syn. Notopterus chitala) in native freshwater habitats. Sri Lanka Naturalist, 5(1), pp.6-7. Tang, K. L., Agnew, M. K., Hirt, M. V., Sado, T., Schneider, L. M., Freyhof, J., Sulaiman, Z., Swartz, E., Vidthayanon, C., Miya, M., Saitoh, K., Simons, A. M., Wood, R. M. & Mayden, R. L., (2010). Systematics of the subfamily Danioninae (Teleostei: Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 57(1), pp.189-214. Kottelat, M. & Pethiyagoda, R., (1991). Descriptions of three new species of cyprinid ishes from Sri Lanka. In: R. Pethiyagoda., 1991. Freshwater ishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. Meegaskumbura, M., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2008). Puntius reval, a new barb from Sri Lanka (Teleostei; Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19 (2), pp.141-152. Mendis, A. S., (1954). Fishes of Ceylon. Colombo: Fisheries Research Station. Munro, I. S. R., (1955). The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of Ceylon. Canberra: Department of External Affairs. Pethiyagoda, R. & Kottelat, M., (2005). A review of the barbs of the Puntius ilamentosus group (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) of southern India and Sri Lanka. In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds. 2005. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka: The Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement 12. pp.127–144. 80 Pethiyagoda, R., (1991). Freshwater ishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. Pethiyagoda, R., Kottelat, M., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Meegaskumbura, M., (2008a). A review of the genus Labuca in Sri Lanka, with description of three new species (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19 (1), p. 726. Pethiyagoda, R., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Meegaskumbura, M., (2008b). Puntius kelumi, a new species of cyprinid ish from Sri Lanka (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19, pp. 201- 214. Pethiyagoda, R., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Kariyawasam, L., (2008c). The Sri Lankan spiny eel, Macrognathus pentophthalmos (Teleostei: Mastacembelidae), and its enigmatic decline. Zootaxa, 1931, pp.37–48. Pethiyagoda, R., Meegaskumbura, M. & Maduwage, K., (2012). A synopsis of the South Asian ishes referred to Puntius (Pisces: Cyprinidae.) Ichthyol. Explor. Fresh waters, 23 (1), pp.69-95. Senanayake, F. R., (1980). The biogeography and ecology of the inland ishes of Sri Lanka. PhD. University of California. Senanayake, F. R. & Moyle, P. B., (1982). Conservation of freshwater ishes of Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation, 22, pp.181-195. Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2008). Puntius kamalika, a new species of barb from Sri Lanka (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Zootaxa, 1824, pp.55–64. Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2011). A review of the genus Rasbora in Sri Lanka, with description of two new species (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 21, pp.27- 50. Watson, R. E., (1998). Stiphodon martenstyni, a new species of freshwater goby from Sri Lanka (Teleostei: Gobiidae: Sicydiini). Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3(1), pp.69-78. 81 Table 08: List of Freshwater Fish in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Amblypharyngodon grandisquamis Jordan & Starks, 1917 E:Sri Lanka Large Silver Carplet; S:Gangiliya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Amblypharyngodon melettinus (Valenciennes,1844) E: Silver Carplet; S: Soraya LC LC Dawkinsia singhala (Dunker, 1912) syn. Puntius singhala E: Sri Lanka Filamented Barb; S:Damkola pethiya LC LC Dawkinsia srilankensis (Senanayake,1985) syn. Puntius srilankensis E:Sri Lanka Blotched Filamented Barb ; S:Dankuda pethiya CR B2ab(iii) CR Devario aequipinnatus (McClelland, 1839) E:Sri Lanka Knuckles Danio; S:Dumbara saalaya, Damkola saalaya CR B2ab(iii) LC Devario malabaricus (Jerdon,1849) E:Giant Danio; S:Rath kailaya, Damkola saalaya LC Devario pathirana (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1990) E:Sri Lanka Barred Danio; S: Pathirana saalaya CR Esomus thermoicos (Valenciennes,1842) E:Sri Lanka Flying Barb; S:Ravul dandiya, Thatu dandiya LC Garra ceylonensis Bleeker,1863 E:Sri Lanka Stone Sucker; S:Gal paanduruva, Gal paandiya VU Garra phillipsi Deraniyagala, 1933 E:Sri Lanka Philips' Garra; S:Gal paanduruva, Gal paandiya DD DD Labeo dussumieri (Valenciennes,1842) E:Common Labeo; S:Hiri kanaya, Gan kanaya LC LC Labeo isheri Jordan & Starks,1917 E:Sri Lanka Mountain Labeo; S:Loku gadaya, Kalu gadaya, Weli gadaya, Gadaya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Labeo lankae Deraniyagala, 1952 E:Sri Lanka Orange-Fin Labeo; S:Thambalaya, CR Thambalaya vanna, Hiri kanaya B2ab(iii) CR A1c+2c, C1 E: Sri Lanka Knuckles Laubuca; S: Dumbara karaadaya CR B2ab(iii) E: Sri Lanka Blue Laubuca; S: Nilkara kara-adaya VU B1ab(iii) E:Sri Lanka Ruhunu Laubuca; S: Ruhunu kara-adaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Criteria Family: Cyprinidae Laubuca insularis Pethiyagoda, Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage & Meegaskumbura, 2008 Laubuca lankensis (Deraniyagala, 1960) Laubuca ruhuna Pethiyagoda, Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage & Meegaskumbura, 2008 82 LC B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) LC B2ab(iii) EN Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Laubuca varuna Pethiyagoda, Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage & Meegaskumbura, 2008 E:Sri Lanka Varuna Laubuca; Varuna karaadaya CR B2ab(iii) Pethia bandula (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1991) syn. Puntius bandula E:Sri Lanka Bandula Barb; S: Bandula pethiya, Jayanthiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1+2c, C1 Pethia cumingii (Gunther, 1868) syn. Puntius cumingii E: Sri Lanka Cuming's Barb; S:Depulliya, Pothya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LR/cd Pethia melanomaculata (Deraniyagala, 1956) syn. Puntius melanomaculatus E: Sri Lanka tic tac Barb; S: Pothaya VU B1ab(iii) Pethia nigrofasciata (Gunther, 1868) syn. Puntius nigrofasciatus E:Sri Lanka Black Ruby Barb; S:Bulath hapaya, EN Manamaalaya B2ab(iii) Pethia reval (Meegaskumbura, Silva, E: Sri Lanka Redined Maduwage & Pethiyagoda, 2008) Barb; syn. Puntius reval S: Ratuwaral pothaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Puntius bimaculatus (Bleeker,1863) E:Redside Barb; S: Ipili kadaya LC Puntius dorsalis (Jerdon,1849) E:Long-Snouted Barb; S:Katu pethiya, Katu kuriya, Rathu varal pethiya LC Puntius kamalika Silva, Maduwage & Pethiyagoda, 2008 E: Sri Lanka Kamalica's EN Barb; S: Mada pethiya B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Puntius kelumi Pethiyagoda, Silva, Maduwage & Meegaskumbura, 2008 E: Sri Lanka Redeye Barb; S: Rathu-es katupethiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Puntius layardi (Günther, 1868) E: Sri Lanka Layards bard; S: Leyardge katupethiya DD Puntius tetraspilus (Günther, 1868) E: Sri Lanka four spot Long snouted bard; S: Siu tit katupethiya DD Puntius thermalis (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1844) E:Swamp Barb; S:Kota pethiya: S: Kota pethiya LC Puntius titteya Deraniyagala 1929 E:Sri Lanka Cherry Barb; S: Le thiththaya EN Puntius vittatus (Day,1865) E:Silver Barb; S: Bandi thiththaya, Podi pethiya, Ipili kadaya LC E: Sri Lanka Armitagi Rasbora; S: Rakvana dandiya CR Rasbora armitagei Silva, Maduwage & Pethiyagoda, 2010 Rasbora dandiya (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1844) E:Broad line Strip Rasbora; LC S: Dandiya, Kudamassa Rasbora microcephalus (Jerdon, 1849) E:Narrow line Rasbora S: Kiri dandiya, Kudamassa 83 LC LR/cd LC LC B2ab(iii) LR/cd LC B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Rasbora naggsi Silva, Maduwage & Pethiyagoda, 2010 Sri Lanka Naggasi Rasbora; S: Belihuloya dandiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Rasbora wilpita Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1991 E:Sri Lanka Wilpita Rasbora; S: Wilpita dandiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1+2c Rasboroides atukorali (Deraniyagala, 1943) E: Horadandia athukorale; S: Horadandia VU B1ab(iii) Rasboroides nigromaginata Meinken, 1957 E: Sri Lanka blackline golden Rasbora; S: Kaluiri halmaldandiya CR B2ab(iii) Rasboroides vateriloris (Deraniyagala,1930) E: Sri Lanka Golden Rasbora; S:Halmal dandiya, Halmal thiththaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LR/cd Systomus pleurotaenia (Bleeker,1863) syn. Puntius pleurotaenia E: Sri Lanka BlackLined Barb; S:Heetha mathsaya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LR/cd Systomus asoka (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1989) syn. Puntius asoka E:Sri Lanka Asoka Barb; S: Ran manissa, Asoka pethiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN A1c, B1+2c Systomus martenstyni (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1991) syn. Puntius martenstyni E:Sri Lanka Martenstyn's Barb; S: Dumbara pethiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1+2c Systomus spilurus (Günther, 1868) syn. Puntius spilurus E: Sri Lanka Olive Barb; S: Sri Lanka mas pethiya DD Systomus timbiri (Deraniyagala, 1963) syn. Puntius timbiri E: Sri Lanka thibiri Barb; S: Sri Lanka pethiya DD Tor khudree Sykes, 1841 E:Mahseer; S: Lehella, Horapolaya NT EN A2acde E:Sri Lanka Tiger Loach; S: Wairan ahirava, Pol ahirava EN Family: Balitoridae Acanthocobitis urophthalmus (Gunther, 1868) E:Sri Lanka Banded Mountain Loach; Schistura notostigma (Bleeker,1863) S:Kandu ahirava, Pol ahirava, Gomara ahirava B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LR/cd B2ab(iii) EN NT Family: Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi (Deraniyagala,1956) E:Sri Lanka Jonklaas's Loach; S:Ahirava, Wairan ahirava CR Lepidocephalichthys thermalis (Valenciennes,1846) E:Common Spiny Loach; S:Ahirava, Wairan ahirava LC LC E:Long-Whiskered Catish; Anguluwa, Maana ankutta LC LC Family - Bagridae Mystus gulio (Hamilton,1822) 84 B1+2c, C1 Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Mystus vittatus (Bloch,1794) E: Striped Dwarf Catish; S: Iri ankutta, Hiri ankutta LC E: Sri Lanka Dwarf Catish; S: Sri Lanka ankutta EN E: Yellow Catish; S: Path ankutta LC E:Sri Lanka Walking Catish; S:Magura,Vel magura, Kaha magura NT Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch,1794) E: Butter Catish; S: Walapoththa, Penavalaya,Kokassa LC Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) E:Shark Catish; S:Walaya, Maha Walaya EN E:Stinging Catish; S:Hunga, Kaha hunga, Le hunga LC Awaous melanocephalus (Bleeker,1849) E: Scribbled Goby; S:Bali Weligowwa LC Glossogobius giuris Hamilton, 1822 E:Bar-Eyed Goby; S:Maha weligowwa, Bali weligemba LC Oligolepis acutipennis (Valenciennes, 1837) E: Sharptail goby; S: Weligowwa DD Schismatogobius deraniyagalai Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1989 E:Redneck Goby; S:Kata rathu weligowwa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Sicyopterus griseus Day,1878 E:Stone Goby; S:Maha gal weligowwa CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Sicyopterus halei (Day,1888) E:Red-Tailed Goby; S:Gal weligowwa CR B2ab(iii) DD Sicyopus jonklaasi (Klausewitz & Henrich,1986) E:Sri Lanka Lipstick Goby; S:Thol rathu weligowwa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) DD Stenogobius malabaricus (Day,1865) E:Malabar Goby; S:Weligowwa DD Stiphodon martenstyni Watson,1998 E:Sri Lanka Martenstyn's Goby; S: Weligowwa CR(PE) Anguilla bicolor Mc Clelland, 1844 E:Level Finned Eel; S:Mada aandha, kakkutu aandha, kalapu aandha LC LC Anguilla nebulosa Mc Clelland, 1844 E:Long Finned Eel; S: Vairan aandha, polmal aandha, kabaraaandha, kaha aandha, pulli aandha LC LC Mystus ankutta Pethiyagoda, Silva & Maduwage, 2008 Mystus seengtee (Sykes, 1839) Criteria GCS LC B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Family: Claridae Clarias brachysoma Gunther 1864 Family: Siluridae NT B2ab(iii) NT Family: Heteropneustidae Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch,1797) LC Family: Gobiidae B2ab(iii) Family: Anguillidae 85 Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede, 1803) E:Marbled Spiny Eel; S:Gan theliya, Oya theliya LC Macrognathus pentophthalmos Gronow Sri Lanka spiny eel CR(PE) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Monopterus desilvai Bailey & Gans, 1998 E:Sri Lanka Lesser Swamp Eel; S:Dumburu potta aandha, potta aandha CR B2ab(iii) Ophisternon bengalense Mc Clelland, 1844 E:'Asian Swamp Eel; S:Potta aandha CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Channa ara (Deraniyagala,1945) E:Sri Lanka Giant Snakehead; S:Aara, Kalumaha, Gangara EN B2ab(iii) Channa gachua (Bleeker,1877) E: Brown Snakehead; S:Paradal kanaya, kanaya LC Channa orientalis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) E:Smooth-Breasted Snakehead; S:Kola kanaya, Gas kanaya VU Channa punctata (Bloch,1794) E:Spotted Snakehead; S:Mada kanaya, mada ara, madakariya LC LC Channa striata (Bloch,1793) E:Murrel; LC S: Loola, Halpath maha LC Criteria GCS Family: Mastacembelidae LC Family: Synbranchidae LC Family: Channidae LC B1ab(iii) Family: Aplocheilidae Aplocheilus dayi (Steindachner, 1892) E:Sri Lanka Day's Killiish; S:Uda handaya EN Aplocheilus parvus (Raj,1919) E:Dwarf Panchax; S:Kalapu handaya, Uda handaya LC Aplocheilus werneri Meinken, 1966 E:Sri Lanka Werneri's Killiish; S: Iri handaya EN E:Freshwater Gar Fish; S:Yonna NT LC Etroplus suratensis (Bloch, 1785) E:Green Chromide; LC S:Koraliya, Mal koraliya LC Etroplus maculatus (Bloch, 1785) E:Orange Chromide; S:Kaha koraliya, Ralliya, Ran koraliya LC LC Belontia signata (Gunther 1861) E:Sri Lanka Combtail; S: Thalkossa, Pulutta, Kola moda NT LR/cd Malpulutta kretseri Deraniyagala, 1937 E:Sri Lanka Ornate Paradise Fish; S: Malpulutta CR B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Family: Belonidae Xenentodon cancila Hamilton, 1822 Family: Cichlidae Family: Belontidae 86 B2ab(iii) LR/cd Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Pseudosphromenus cupanus (Cuvier, 1831) E:Spike Tailed Paradise Fish; LC S: Pulutta, Thalkossa, Thal kadaya LC E:Climbing Perch; S:Kaavaiya, Pol kaavaiya LC DD Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822) E: Upside-down Sleeper; S: Uduppuva, Vaniya LC LC Eleotris fusca (Forster, 1801) E:Brown Gudgeon, Dusky Sleeper; S: Puwakbadilla LC LC Oryzias dancena (Hamilton 1822) E: Common Blue Eye; Indian riceish; S: Handi hadaya DD LC Oryzias carnaticus (Jerdon, 1849) E: Spotted Riceish S: Handi hadaya DD LC Criteria GCS Family: Anabantidae Anabas testudineus (Bloch,1795) Family: Eleotridae Family: Adrianichthyidae 87 Criteria The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Amphibians in Sri Lanka Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi1 and Madhava Meegaskumbura2 1 Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya 2 Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya Introduction Knowledge on Sri Lanka’s amphibians has increased rapidly during the past decade. The irst review of this fauna, Kirtisinghe, (1957) recognized 35 species. This igure was increased to 53 species by Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996) based on examination of museum materials and the preliminary indings of a ield survey that commenced in 1993. This ield survey has resulted in a complete re-evaluation of the Amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. Further, this survey facilitated the re-discovery of several species that had otherwise been known only from type specimens collected in the 19th century. In 1998, Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, based on the indings of their extensive ield survey, announced that Sri Lanka’s amphibian fauna might comprise of as many as 250 species, a igure that was subsequently revised to ~ 140 species by Meegaskumbura et al., (2002). To date, descriptions of 111 valid amphibian species have been published (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005; Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005; Mendis, 2012). This includes 95 endemic species and three endemic genera, Adenomus, Lankanectes and Nannophrys. Bossuyt et al., (2004) demonstrated conclusively that the Sri Lankan Philautids have long been isolated from the Indian group, with no biotic exchange having taken place between the island and the mainland populations in the past ~ 500,000 years. The presence of ancient lineages of amphibians in Sri Lanka was also demonstrated by Roelants et al., (2004), who showed that the endemic genus Lankanectes diverged from the mainstream of Ranidae before the IndiaSri Lanka plate separated from the Madagascar plate in the Upper Cretaceous. Sri Lanka’s Amphibian fauna are therefore important not just for their species richness, but also for their representation of ancient lineages. Conservation In year 2004, the conservation status of all species of amphibians described and considered valid world-wide, including 94 species from Sri Lanka, has been carried out (The Global Amphibian Assessment). This analysis has shown that out of the 34 species of amphibians conirmed as extinct worldwide in the past 500 years, 21 are from Sri Lanka. These comprise of 19 species belonging to genus Pseudophilautus, and one species each of the endemic genera Adenomus and Nannophrys. However, Wickramasinghe et al., (2012) have re-discovered Adenomus kandianus and reported the possible rediscovery of Pseudophilautus stellatus, another species that had been listed as extinct in Sri Lanka, which will bring down the number of species that are listed as extinct in Sri Lanka to 19. The amphibians are not exploited for commercial purposes in Sri Lanka. Yet, many species of amphibians are running a high risk of becoming extinct. Habitat loss is the main threat faced by the amphibian fauna. The vast majority of the amphibians are restricted to the south-western wet zone quarter of the island (Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996), where more than 95% 88 of the original forest cover has now vanished. Only ~ 800 km² of relatively undisturbed forest now remain in the wet zone, and even this is severely fragmented. Three fragments (Knuckles, Sinharaja, Peak Wilderness) account for half of these forests while the balance 400 km² are contained in > 100 fragments of varying size, many of which exist only on maps. Clearly, fragmentation is a threat and needs to be addressed through the active management of habitat quality at key sites, and through the establishment of habitat corridors between them. Fragmentation per se, is however, unlikely to be the only signiicant threat. Pesticide use in Sri Lanka is still to be regulated; the Control of Pesticides Act addresses only threats to human health and not environmental health or impact on non-target organisms. Taken together with massive erosion from sloping lands, aquatic ecosystems in general are at grave risk, and these risks remain un-assessed to date. The extent of air pollution too, is yet to be assessed in Sri Lanka except in the context of human health in urban areas. Acid rain and mist have been implicated in forest die-back in many other countries. The single report there has been of this phenomenon in Sri Lanka (Gunawardena et al., 1998), has largely been ignored by the conservation establishment even though forest die-back has been reported in several key amphibian habitats in Sri Lanka including Horton Plains, Peak Wilderness and Knuckles. While threats to amphibians mentioned above are self-evident, the causes for the extreme rarity of many species and the extinction of relatively high number of species (19 or ca. 17% of the reported species) are as yet not fully understood. In a phase during which new species continue to be discovered, it could be argued that a discussion of either rarity or extinction is inappropriate, and that rare and even “extinct” species could be discovered with further exploration as evidenced by rediscovery of Adenomus kandianus by Wickramasinghe et al., (2012). However, given the record of exploration of the last decade, Sri Lanka is now one of the better-explored countries with respect to amphibians. The population declines observed in many parts of the world have, as yet, not been observed in Sri Lanka, but this could be because no populations have been monitored over suficiently long periods of time. Further, amphibian species may be under-sampled in surveys because their populations are in any case small, or because individuals are otherwise dificult to locate (e.g. cryptic coloration; small size; restriction to arboreal or canopy habitats; lack of prominent vocalisation in males). Therefore, it is imperative that monitoring be carried out, at least in major bio-geo-climatic zones and prominent habitats within these zones. In addition to monitoring populations, it is also necessary to acquire data on parameters known to pose threats to amphibians, such as UV radiation, water quality, climatic variation, and infection by known pathogens such as the oomycete, Saprolegnia ferax (Kiesecker et al., 2001) and the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatids (Blaustein et al., 1994; Pounds et al., 2006). Research needs While keeping and breeding amphibians as a hobby is commonplace in much of the developed world, it is both illegal and unfashionable in Sri Lanka. Two consequences of this are a lack of popular empathy with amphibians (which are, by and large, treated with revulsion), and 89 a lack of human resources skilled and interested in managing captive populations. Captive breeding and reintroduction are clearly actions of last resort, but given a track record of 19 extinctions and many more species being listed as threatened, it is one that needs to be considered at least for some Sri Lankan species. A starting point would be the accumulation of local climatic and water quality data, together with in situ observations of activity patterns, diet resource utilization, breeding behaviour and larval development, together with an assessment of threats at each life-history stage. Such a programme would also need to examine possible in situ options, such as improved upstream water-quality management and the maintenance of riparian vegetation. With these data in hand, an informed judgment could be made with regard to restoring degraded former habitats for a rigorous reintroduction programme. Even if ex situ measures were not to be implemented immediately, the importance of developing the methodologies for this cannot be over-emphasized. The keys provided by Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996); Manamenrda-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda (2005) and Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi (2005) facilitate the identiication of all currently known Sri Lankan amphibians. With names and diagnoses available for these species, reliable work could commence on assessing populations, habitat requirements and distributions with a view to improving conservation practices. By offering only protection, the present regulatory framework discourages engagement with this fauna by scientists and interested citizens. The threats to amphibians in Sri Lanka however, will persist regardless of how effectively they are protected. The need of the hour is science-based conservation that seeks to address threats such as environmental pollution, climate changes and habitat degradation. References: Blaustein, A. R., Hokit, D. G., O’Hara, R. K. & Holt, R. A., (1994). Pathogenic fungus contributes to amphibian losses in the Paciic Northwest. Biological Conservation, 67(3), pp.251–254. Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D. J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M. M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P. K. L., Schneider, C. J., Oommen O. V. & Milinkovitch, M. C., (2004). Local endemism within the Western Ghats–Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot. Science, 306(5695), pp.479–481. Dutta, S. K. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (1996). The amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Gunawardena, E. R. N., Rajapakshe, U., Nandasena, K. A. & Rosier, P. T. W., (1998). Water quality issues in the uplands of Sri Lanka. In: H.P.M. Gunasena, ed. 1998. Proceedings of the inal workshop: University of Peradeniya — Oxford Forestry Institute Link Project. Peradeniya: Faculty of Agriculture, Univ. Peradeniya, pp.37–44. Kiesecker, J. M., Balustein A. R. & Belden, L. K., (2001). Complex causes of amphibian population declines. Nature, 410, pp.681–684. Kirtisinghe, P., (1957). The Amphibia of Ceylon. Colombo: Published by the author. Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2005). The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautus Gistel, 1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae), with description of 27 new species. Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.163–303. Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (2005). Descriptions of eight new species of shrub frogs (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae: Philautus) from Sri Lanka. Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.305–338. Meegaskumbura, M., Bossuyt, F., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., Bahir, M., Milinkovitch, M. C. & Schneider, C. J., (2002). Sri Lanka: an amphibian hotspot. Science, 298(5592), p.379. Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., (2011). Two new species of shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae: Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 2747, pp.1–18. Pethiyagoda, R. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (1998). Occasional Papers of the Wildlife Heritage Trust, 2: Evaluating Sri Lanka’s amphibian diversity. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. 90 Pounds, J. A., Bustamante, M. R., Coloma, L. A., Consuegra, J. A., Fogden, M. P. L., Foster, P. N., Marca, E. L., Masters, K. L., Merino-Viteri, A., Puschendorf, R., Ron, S. R., Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. A., Still, C. J. & Young, B. E. (2006). Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature, 439, pp.161-167. Roelants, K., Jiang, J. & Bossuyt, F., (2004). Endemic ranid (Amphibia: Anura) genera in southern mountain ranges of the Indian subcontinent represent ancient frog lineages: evidence from molecular data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 31(2), pp.730–740. Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Vidanapathirana, D. R. & Wickramasinghe, N., (2012). Back from the dead: The world’s rarest toad Adenomus kandianus rediscovered in Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 3347, pp.63–68. Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Munindradasa, D. A. I. & Fernando, P., (2012). A new species of Polypedates Tschudi (Amphibia, Anura, Rhacophoridae) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 3498, pp.63–80. 91 Table 09: List of Amphibians in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Adenomus dasi ManamendraArachchi & Pethiyagoda, 1998 E:Das's dwarf toad; S: Das ge kuru gemba CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii)) Adenomus kandianus (Günther, 1872) E:Kandy dwarf toad; S:Mahanuwara kuru gemba CR B2ab(iii) EX E:Kelaart's dwarf toad; Adenomus kelaartii (Günther, 1858) S: Kelaartge kuru gemba VU B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Duttaphrynus atukoralei Bogert & Senanayake, 1966 E:Atukorale's toad S:Atukoralage gemba NT Duttaphrynus kotagamai Fernando & Dayawansa, 1994 E:Kotagama's toad; S:Kotagamage gemba EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Duttaphrynus melanostictus Schneider, 1799 E:Common toad; S:Gey gemba LC Duttaphrynus noellerti Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 1998 E:Nollert's toad; S: Nollertge gemba EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Duttaphrynus scaber Schneider, 1799 E:Schneider's toad; S:Schneiderge gemba VU B1ab(iii) Kaloula taprobanica (Parker, 1934) E:Sri Lankan bullfrog; S:Visithuru rathu gemba LC Microhyla karunaratnei Fernando & Siriwardhane, 1996 E:Karunaratne's narrow-mouthed frog; S: Karunaratnege muva patu madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii) Microhyla ornata (Duméril & Bibron, 1841) E:Ornate narrow mouthed frog; S:Visithuru muva patu madiya LC Microhyla rubra (Jerdon, 1854) E:Red narrow mouthed frog; S:Rathu muva LC patu madiya Microhyla zeylanica Parker & Hill, 1949 E:Sri Lanka narrow mouthed frog; S:Lanka muva patu madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1+2 Ramanella nagaoi ManamendraArachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001 E:Nagao's ramanella; S:Nagaoge mota hombu madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) VU D2 Ramanella obscura (Günther, 1864) E:Obscure ramanella; S: Dumburu mota hombu madiya VU B1ab(iii) Ramanella palmata (Parker, 1934) E:Parker's ramanella; S:Parkerge mota hombu madiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Ramanella variegata (Stoliczka, 1872) E:Variegated ramanella; S:Bada sudu mota hombu madiya LC Family: Bufonidae Family: Microhylidae 92 Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Uperodon systoma (Schneider, 1799) E:Marbled baloon frog; S:Baloon madiya LC Hylarana gracilis Gravenhorst, 1829 E:Sri Lanka wood frog; S:Lanka diya madiya LC Hylarana aurantiaca Boulenger, 1904 E:Golden frog; S:Ranvan diya madiya EN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) Hylarana temporalis (Günther, 1864) E:Bronzed frog; S:Thambavan diya madiya NT Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider, 1799) E:Indian skipper frog; S:Uthpathana madiya LC Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson, 1834) E:Indian green frog; S:Sayangili pala madiya LC Fejervarya greenii (Boulenger, 1904) E:Sri Lanka frog; S:Lanka kandukara madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Fejervarya kirtisinghei Manamendra-Arachchi & Gabadage, 1994 E:Kirtisinghe's frog; S: Kirtisinghege madiya VU B1ab(iii) Fejervarya cf. syhadrensis (Annandale, 1919) E:Common paddy ield frog; S:Vel madiya LC Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon, 1853) E:Jurdon's bullfrog; S:Jurdonge diya madiya LC Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin, 1802) E:Indian bullfrog; S:Indiya diya madiya DD Nannophrys ceylonensis (Günther, 1868) E:Sri Lankan rock frog; S:Lanka galpara diya madiya EN VU B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Nannophrys guentheri Boulenger, 1882 E:Gunther's rock frog; S: Guntherge galpara diya madiya EX Nannophyrus marmorata Kirtisinghe, 1946 E:Marbled rock frog; S:Dumbara galpara diya madiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii) Nannophrys naeyakai Fernando, S. S., Wickramasingha, L.J.M. & Rodrigo, R.K., 2007 E:Sri Lanka Tribal rock frog CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Sphaerotheca breviceps (Schneider, 1799) E:Short-headed burrowing frog; S:Thunhichi veli diya madiya LC Sphaerotheca rolandae (Dubois, 1983) E:Roland's burrowing frog; S:Lapavan veli diya madiya LC E:Corrugated water frog; S:Vaka reli diya madiya VU Family: Ranidae Family: Dicroglossidae B2ab(iii) EX Family: Nyctibatrachidae Lankanectes corrugatus (Peters, 1863) 93 B1ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Pseudophilautus abundus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Labugama shrub frog; S:Labugama panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus adspersus (Günther, 1872) E:Thwaites's shrub frog; S:Thwaitesge panduru madiya EX GCS Criteria Family: Rhacophoridae EX E:Horton Plains shrub Pseudophilautus alto Manamendrafrog; S:Mahaeliya Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus asankai Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Asanka's shrub frog; S: Asankage panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus auratus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Golden shrub frog; S:Ranwan panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus caeruleus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Blue thigh shrub frog; S:Nil kalawethi panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus cavirostris (Günther, 1869) E:Hollow-snouted shrub frog; S:Hirigadu panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus cuspis Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Sharp-snouted shrub frog; S: Thiyunu hombu EN panduru madiya B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus decoris Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Elegant shrub frog; S:Bhushana panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus dimbullae (Shreve, 1940) E:Dimbulla shrub frog; S:Dimbulla panduru madiya EX EX Pseudophilautus eximius (Shreve, 1940) E:Queenwood shrb frog; S:Queenwood panduru madiya EX EX Pseudophilautus extirpo Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Blunt-snouted shrub frog; S:Mota-hombu panduru madiya EX EX Pseudophilautus femoralis (Günther, 1864) E:Leaf-nesting shrub frog; S:Pala panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus fergusonianus (Ahl, 1927) E:Ferguson's shrub frog; S:Fergusonge panduru madiya VU B1ab(iii) Pseudophilautus folicola Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Leaf dwelling shrub frog; S:Vakutu kola panduru madiya VU Pseudophilautus frankenbergi Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Frankenberg's shrub frog; S:Frankenbergge panduru madiya Pseudophilautus fulvus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Knuckles shrub frog; S:Dumbara panduru madiya 94 EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Pseudophilautus halyi Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Pattipola shrub frog; S:Pattipola panduru madiya EX Pseudophilautus hallidayi Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Halliday's shrub frog; S::Hallidayge panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) Pseudophilautus hoffmanni Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Hoffman's shrub frog; S:Hoffmange panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus hoipolloi Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Anthropogenic shrub frog; S:Gevathu panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus hypomelas (Günther, 1876) E:Webless shrub frog; S:Patala rahith apnduru madiya EX EX Pseudophilautus leucorhinus (Lichtenstein, Weinland & Von Martens, 1856) E:White-nosed shrub frog; S:Sudu nasethi panduru madiya EX EX Pseudophilautus limbus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Haycock shrub frog; S:Haycock panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii) Pseudophilautus lunatus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Handapan Ella shrub frog; S:Handapan ella CR panduru madiya B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus macropus (Günther, 1869) E:Bigfoot shrub frog; S:Vishala padethi panduru madiya B1ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus malcolmsmithi (Ahl, 1927) E:Malcomsmith's shrub frog; S:Malcomsmithge EX panduru madiya Pseudophilautus microtympanum (Günther, 1859) E:Small eared shrub frog; S:Kudakan panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus mittermeieri Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Mittermeier's shrub frog; S:Mittermeierge panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Pseudophilautus mooreorum Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Moore's shrub frog; S:Moorige panduru madiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus nanus (Günther, 1869) E:Southern shrub frog; S:Dakunu diga panduru madiya EX EX E:Pointed-snouted Pseudophilautus nasutus (Günther, shrub frog; S:Ul hombu EX 1869) panduru madiya EX CR Criteria GCS Criteria EX EX Pseudophilautus nemus Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Whistling shrub frog; S:Urahanbana panduru CR madiya B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus ocularis Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Golden-eyed shrub frog; S:Ranwan-es ethi panduru madiya B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus oxyrhynchus (Günther, 1872) E:Sharp-snouted shrub frog; S:Thiyunu hombu EX panduru madiya 95 CR EX Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Pseudophilautus papillosus Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Papillated shrub frog; S:Dive-getithathi panduru madiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus pleurotaenia (Boulenger, 1904) E:Side-striped shrub frog; S:Pathi thirethi panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus popularis Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Common shrub frog; S:Sulabha panduru madiya NT EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus poppiae Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Poppy's shrub frog; S:Poppyge panduru madiya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus procax Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Cheeky shrub frog; S:Kammule pellamethi panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus regius Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Polonnaruwa shrub frog; S:Rajarata panduru madiya VU B1ab(iii) Pseudophilautus reticulatus (Günther, 1864) E:Reticulated thigh shrub frog; S:Jalabha panduru madiya EN B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus rugatus (Ahl, 1927) E:Farnland shrub frog; S:Farnland panduru madiya EX Pseudophilautus rus Megaskumbura & ManamendraArachcchi, 2005 E:Kandian shrub frog; S:Nuwara panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus sarasinorum (Müller, 1887) E:Muller's shrub frog; S:Mullerge panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus schmarda (Kelaart, 1854) E:Schmarda's shrub frog; S:Gorahendi panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus semiruber (Annandale, 1913) E:Annandale's shrub frog; S:Annandalege panduru madiya DD Pseudophilautus silus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Pug-nosed shrub frog; S:Mukkan hombu ethi panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus silvaticus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Forest shrub frog; EN S:Kela panduru madiya B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus simba Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Sinharaja shrub frog; S:Sinharaja panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus sordidus Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Grubby shrub frog; S:Anduru lapavan panduru madiya VU B1ab(iii) Pseudophilautus stellatus (Kelaart, 1853) E:Spotted shrub frog; CR S:Pulli sahitha panduru (PE) madiya Pseudophilautus steineri Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Steiner's shrub frog; S:Steinerge panduru madiya 96 CR EX EX B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Pseudophilautus stictomerus (Günther, 1876) E:Orange canthal shrub frog; S:Thembilihombu ethi panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus stuarti Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Stuart's shrub frog; S:Stuartge panduru madiya CR B2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus temporalis (Günther, 1864) E:Striped-snouted shrub frog; S:Hombu thirethi panduru madiya EX EX Pseudophilautus variabilis (Günther, 1859) E:Gunther's shrub frog; S:Guntherge panduru EX madiya EX Pseudophilautus viridis Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Dull-green shrub frog; S:Anduru kola panduru madiya Pseudophilautus zal ManamendraArachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:White blotched shrub frog; S:Sudu pulli ethi EX panduru madiya EX Pseudophilautus zimmeri Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Rummassala shrub frog; S:Rummassala panduru madiya EX EX Pseudophilautus zorro Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005 E:Gannoruwa shrub frog; S:Gannoruwa panduru madiya CR Pseudophilautus pardus Meegaskumbura, M., ManamendraArachchi, K & Pethiyagoda, R., 2007 E:Leopard shrub frog EX EX Pseudophilautus maia Ferguson, 1876 EX EX Pseudophilautus singu Meegaskumbura, M., ManamendraArachchi, K & Pethiyagoda, R., 2009 EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B2ab(ii,iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus schneideri E:Schneider's shrub Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra- frog; S:Schneiderge Arachchi, K., 2011 panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Pseudophilautus hankeni E:Hanken's shrub frog; Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra- S:Hankenge panduru Arachchi, K., 2011 madiya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii) Pseudophilautus tanu Meegaskumbura, M., ManamendraArachchi, K & Pethiyagoda, R., 2009 E: Sri Lanka petite frog EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Polypedates cruciger Blyth, 1852 E:Common hourglass tree frog; S:Sulabha pahimbu gas madiya LC Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834) E:Spotted tree frog; S:Pulli gas madiya LC Polypedates ranwellai Wickranasinghe, Munindradasa & Fernando, 2012 E: Ranwellas tree frog CR B2ab(iii) Taruga eques Günther, 1858 E:Mountain hourglass tree frog; S:Kandukara gas madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) 97 GCS Criteria EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name Taruga fastigo ManamendraArachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001 Taruga longinasus (Ahl, 1931) NCS Criteria GCS Criteria E:Morningside tree frog; S:Ensal watta gas CR madiya B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii) E:Long-snouted tree frog; S:Dik hombu gas madiya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Ichthyophis glutinosus (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Ceylon caecilian; S: Kaha hiridanda VU B1ab(iii) Ichthyophis orthoplicatus Taylor, 1965 E:Pattipola caecilian; S:Dumburu hiridanda EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) Ichthyophis pseudangularis Taylor, 1965 E:Lesser yellow banded caecilian; S: Kuda kaha hiridanda EN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii) Family: Icthyophiidae 98 The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Reptile Fauna in Sri Lanka L. J. Mendis Wickramasinghe Herpetological Foundation of Sri Lanka, 31/5, Alwis Town, Hendala, Wattala, Sri Lanka Introduction Since the description of the irst reptile, Cylindrophis maculate (syn. Anguis maculata) from Sri Lanka by Carl Linnaeus in 1754, large number of reptile species have been recorded from Sri Lanka (Batuwita and Bahir, 2005; Batuwita and Pethiyagoda, 2007; Das, et al. 2008; Deraniyagala 1953 and 1955; de Silva 1980; de Silva 1990; Gans & Fetcho, 1982; Gower and Maduwage 2011; Greer, 1991; Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007; Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998; Smith 1933, 1935 & 1943, Smith et al. 2008; Taylor 1950a, 1950b & 1953, Wall 1921; Wickramasinghe, et al. 2009, Wood et.al., 2012). These published works indicates that Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich reptile fauna. The current list of reptile fauna of Sri Lanka comprise of 211 species of which 59% (124) are considered as endemic species. The reptile fauna can be further categorized in to 103 species of serpentoid reptiles (49 endemic) belonging to 10 families, one Subfamilie and 40 genera (ive endemic - Pseudotyphlops, Aspidura, Balanophis, Cercaspis and Haplocercus), and 108 species of tetrapod reptiles (76 endemic) belonging to 12 families with 34 genera (six endemic - Ceratophora, Cophotis, Lyriocephalus, Chalcidoseps, Nessia and Lankascincus). Taxonomy Since the publication of the 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka, 24 new species have been added to the list of reptiles in Sri Lanka. Out of these, 17 are new to science that includes four species of serpentoid reptiles Calliophis haematoetron (Smith et al. 2008), Rhinophis erangaviraji (Wickramasinghe, et al. 2009), Rhinophis lineatus, and Rhinophis zigzag (Gower and Maduwage 2011), and 13 species of tetrapod reptiles Cnemaspis amith, C. clivicola, C. kallima, C. latha, C. menikay, C. pava, C. phillipsi, C. pulchara, C. punctata, C. silvula, C. upendrai (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007), Lankascincus greeri (Batuwita and Pethiyagoda 2007), Eutropis tammanna (Das, et al. 2008). The remaining seven species has resulted due to three re-validations Hypnale zara (Gray, 1849) by Maduwage et al. 2009 and Dendrelaphis schokari (Kuhl, 1820) by Rooijen & Vogel 2008 and Hemidactylus pieresii Kelaart, 1853 by Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2012, a probable new species Hypnale sp. ‘amal’ (Maduwage et al. 2009), two new records for Sri Lanka Hydrophis fasciatus (Abyerami and Sivashanthini 2008) and Chalcides cf. ocellatus that resulted in a range extension of the genus Chalcides from India to Sri Lanka (Karunarathna et al. 2008), and inally Enhydris enhydris (Schneider, 1799) was included since a specimen from Sri Lanka (CAS 12767) was examined and identiied by Murphy & Voris (2005) from the California Academy of Science. Number of taxonomic revisions has taken place during the last decade resulting in changes in reptile nomenclature at family, genus and species level. Nine genera belonging to the family Colubridae which consisted of 22 genera earlier have been placed under two other families based on molecular studies (genera Cerberus, Enhydris and Gerarda are included in family Homolapsidae, and genera Amphiesma, Atretium, Argyrogena, Aspidura, Balanophis, Macropisthodon,and Xenochrophis are included in family Natricidae Vidal et al. 2009; Zaher et al. 2009). Genus level name changes included Sphenomorphus dorsicatenatus being changed to Lankascincus dorsicatenatus (Batuwita and Pethiyagoda, 2007), all members of the genus Mabuya being placed under the genus Eutropis (Mausfeld and Schmitz, 2003), and Cosymbotus platyurus being changed to Hemidactylus platyurus (Carranza and Arnold, 2006). Several species level name changes have also been affected resulting in Lissemys punctata 99 been changed to L. ceylonensis (Praschag et al. 2011), Hemidactylus brookii parvimaculatus to H. parvimaculatus (Bauer et al. 2010a), Hemidactylus maculates hunae to H. hunae (Bauer et al. 2010b), Hemidactylus triedrus lankae to H. lankae (Bauer et al. 2010), Hypnale nepa to H. zara (Maduwage et al. 2009) and Geckoella triedrus (Günther, 1864) to Cyrtodactylus triedra (Wood, et al. 2012). Further, several species have been removed from the list of reptiles in Sri Lanka due to taxonomic revisions. For instance, Hypnale walli, has been declared as a junior synonym of Hypnale nepa (Maduwage et al. 2009), Boiga ranawanei, as a junior synonym of Boiga beddomei (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2007) and Cnemaspis ranwellai, as a junior synonym of Cnemaspis scalpensis (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007). Distribution The name changes mentioned above have also resulted in status changes of number of species, where Lissemys ceylonensis, Hemidactylus hunae, and H. lankae are now listed as species endemic to Sri Lanka (Praschag et al. 2011; Bauer et al. 2010). Further, Wickramasinghe et al., (2011) have shown that Dasia halianus is also endemic to Sri Lanka. In addition number of recent studies has provided evidence to change the previously known distribution pattern of several species of reptiles. For instance, Cnemaspis kandianus and C. tropidagastur that were formerly considered to have a wide distribution in Sri Lanka is now known to be conined to Kandy district and certain parts of the Matale district (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007). Likewise, Dendrelaphis tristis, who was thought to have a wide distribution, has now been conined to the dry and arid zones, but may be rarely found from the wet zone, while the species commonly found in the wet zone was re-validated as D. schokari who can also rarely be found from the dry zone of the island, but never in the arid zone. On the other hand the distribution range of number of species such as C. podihuna (Karunarathna et al 2010), C. molligodai, and C. silvulai, (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011a, 2012), Calodactylodes illingworthorum, (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011b), Liopeltis calamaria (Karunarathna and Perera 2010), Lankascincus greeri (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011a, Karunarathna et al 2012; Peabotuwage et al 2012) has been expanded with the availability of new information. Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) was not included in the current list despite the fact that several authors (Das & de Silva 2005; Somaweera 2006; Somaweera & Somaweera 2009) have included the species in their publications, due to the fact that there is no evidence for its landing sights and no sight records for the species in the island’s surrounding oceans. Threats Deforestation, leading to loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation are the main threats faced by reptile fauna of Sri Lanka. The rate of forest depletion and loss of wild life habitats in Sri Lanka is considered one of the highest in South Asia with more than 50% of the forest cover being lost during the last century alone. Loss of forest cover is especially prominent in the dry zone of Sri Lanka which may be the reason for low level of endemicity observed in the reptile fauna. This idea is further supported by the fact that most of the dry zone restricted endemic reptiles are found in forests associated with isolated hills (Cnemaspis ritigalaensis in Ritigala, Cnemaspis kumarasinghei in Moneragala and Cnemaspis podihuna in Lahugala), which are perhaps the only forests patches that have been preserved untouched by man for centuries. Majority of the endemic and threatened reptiles are restricted to the Lowland and Montane forests that are fast disappearing is identiied as the biggest threat to the reptile fauna of Sri Lanka. In addition, mortality related to man-made forest ires, application of agrochemicals, road kills, non selective killing of snakes and predation by farm and domestic animals have also been identiied as threats faced by the reptile fauna. 100 The crocodile populations are under increased threat and have even attracted the attention of the international scientiic community. Once again, habitat loss and habitat fragmentation resulting due to ever expanding human population and rapid development projects that brings these animals into conlict with humans is considered as the main threat to the two crocodile populations in Sri Lanka. Capture and relocation, the main management tool used at present to mitigate such conlicts, cannot be considered as an effective conservation measure as the remaining natural habitats cannot absorb more animals as they are already near their carrying capacity. Therefore the next best option would be to devise an alternate location for them such as a ‘crocodile sanctuary’ so that their destiny will not have to end at the hands of humans. Conservation Less than 33% of the Sri Lankan reptiles are listed in the global list of threatened species. Out of the species of reptiles that are globally assessed, most are listed under the Data Deicient (DD) category. The main reason for this low representation in the global threatened list is the lack of data on many species of reptiles endemic to Sri Lanka, especially species belonging to Typhlopidae, Uropeltidae, and Hydrophidae snake families. Most of the species belonging to family Uropeltidae except species with single records have been assessed in the current list. Since systematic studies for the families Typhlopidae, and Hydrophidae have only commenced recently, species of these families were placed under the DD category for the time being until more information becomes available. No speciic conservation programmes have been carried out for reptiles of Sri Lanka except for sea turtles. There is a need to formulate species recovery plans for at least identiied critically endangered and endangered species and their habitats (Erdelen 2012). Further there are habitats that support unique reptile species assemblages such as Aruwakkalu which is the type locality of four burrowing reptiles species Rhinophis dorsimaculatus (Orange shield tail), Rhinophis porrectus (Willey’s earth snake), and Nessia hickanala (Sharkhead snakeskink) which is being mined extensively by the Cement industry. Such habitats have to be identiied and preserved to ensure long term conservation of the reptile fauna of Sri Lanka. Research Needs Absence or lack of accurate data on many species of Sri Lankan reptiles is the major impediment in correctly assessing their current conservation status as well as preparing species speciic conservation action plans for the threatened reptile species. Most of the studies done to date have focussed mainly on the distribution of reptiles with little attention being paid to study the ecology and biology of at least the threatened and endemic reptile species. Therefore, a research agenda needs to be prepared for the reptiles identifying the priority areas that need to be focussed in order to facilitate research that will address the present information gaps in reptile fauna of Sri Lanka. Further, there is practically no information available on the reptile fauna of Northern and North-eastern parts of the island due to three decades of civil war that existed in the region. It should be noted that some species of Typhlops that have been described from this region has not been recorded after their initial descriptions (Taylor, 1947; Smith, 1943). Also reptile fauna found in the isolated mountains in the dry zone needs to be investigated further as studies done to date have shown that the natural forests associated with such isolated hills may be the last refugees for the herpetofauna inhabiting the dry zone (Wickramasinghe & Munindradasa 2007; Gower & Maduwage 2011). A systematic study of the distribution of reptile fauna in Sri Lanka is also a major research need as 22 reptile species 101 have not been recorded after their initial description and 12 species have not been recorded for nearly a century. Further, the type localities of many reptile species are given as Ceylon or the name of a major town, which is not precise and prevents a proper assessment of the status of such species. Study of systematics of the reptile fauna is also another identiied need especially the taxonomic status of the marine snake fauna of Sri Lanka which has not been revised for the past 52 years since the work done by Deraniyagala (1955). Since then, virtually no in-depth study on systematic has been carried out by scientists on marine snake fauna in coastal waters of Sri Lanka. References: Abyerami, S. & Sivashanthini, K., (2008). 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The Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, 53(1): 143–147. Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). Boiga ranawanei, a junior synonym of Boiga beddomei. Zeylanica, 7(1), pp.123–124. Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Batuwita, S. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). A taxonomic revision of the Sri Lankan daygeckos (Reptilia: Gekkonidae: Cnemaspis), with description of new species from Sri Lanka and southern India. Zeylanica, 7(1), pp.9–122. Mausfeld, P. & Schmitz, A., (2003). Molecular phylogeography, intraspeciic variation and speciation of the Asian scincid lizard genus Eutropis Fitzinger, 1843 (Squamata: Reptilia: Scincidae): taxonomic and biogeographic implications. Organism Diversity and Evolution, 3, pp.161–171. Peabotuwage, I., Bandara, I. N., Samarasinghe, D., Perera, N., Madawala, M., Amarasinghe, C., Kandambi, H. K. D. & Karunarathna, D. M. S. S., (2012). Range extension for Duttaphrynus kotagamai (Amphibia: Bufonidae) and a preliminary checklist of herpetofauna from the Uda Mäliboda Trail in Samanala Nature Reserve, Sri Lanka. Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, 5(2), pp.52–64. Praschag, P., Stuckas, H., Päckert, M., Maran, J. & Fritz, U., (2011). Mitochondrial DNA sequences suggest a revised taxonomy of Asian lapshell turtles (Lissemys Smith, 1931) and the validity of previously unrecognized taxa (Testudines: Trionychidae). Vertebrate Zoology, 61 (1), pp.147–160. Smith, M. A., (1933). The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata. London: Taylor & Francis. Smith, M. A., (1935). The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II. Sauria. London: Taylor & Francis. Smith, M. A., (1943). The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, including the Whole of the Indo-Chinese SubRegion. Reptilia and Amphibia Vol. III. Serpents. London: Taylor & Francis. Smith, E., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., & Somaweera, R., (2008). A new species of coral-snake of the genus Calliophis (Squamata: Elapidae) from the Central Province of Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 1847, pp.19–33. Somaweera, R., (2006). Sri Lankawe Sarpayin [in Sinhala]. Colombo: WHT Publications. Somaweera, R., & Somaweera, N., (2009). An overview of Sri Lankan sea snakes with an annotated checklist and ield key. Taprobanica, 1(1), pp.43–54. Taylor, E. H., (1950). Ceylonese Lizards of the Family Scincidae. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 33(13), pp.481–518. Taylor, E. H., (1950). A Brief Review of Ceylonese Snakes. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 33(14), pp.519–603. Taylor, E. H., (1953). A Review of the Lizards of Ceylon. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 35(12), pp.1525–1585. Vidal, N., Rage, J-C., Couloux, A., & Hedges, B., (2009). Snakes (Serpentes). In: S. B. Hedges & S. Kumar, ed. 2009. The Timetree of Life. Oxford University Press, pp.390–397 Wall. F., (1921). Ophidia Taprobanica or the Snakes of Ceylon. Colombo: H.R. Cottle, Govt. Printer. Wood, P. L., Heinicke, M. P., Jackman, T. R., & Bauer, A. M., (2012). Phylogeny of bent-toed geckos (Cyrtodactylus) reveals a West to East pattern of diversiication. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 65(3), pp.992–1003. Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Vidanapathirana, D. R., Wickramasinghe, N., & Ranwella, P. N., (2009). A New Species of Rhinophis Hemprich, 1820 (Reptilia: Serpentes: Uropeltidae) from Rakwana massif, Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 2044, pp.1–22. Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Wickramasinghe, N. & Kariyawasam, L., (2011). Taxonomic status of the arboreal Skink Lizard Dasia halianus (Haly & Nevill, 1887) in Sri Lanka and the redescription of Dasia subcaeruleum (Boulenger, 1891) from India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 3(8), pp.1961–1974. Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Wickramasinghe, N. & Kariyawasam, L., (2011). 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Journal of Threatened Taxa, 3(8), pp.1961–1974. 103 Table 10: List of Reptiles in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria VU A1a, C2a Family: Crocodylidae Crocodylus palustris Lesson, 1831 E: Mugger crocodile / Marsh crocodile; S: Hala kimbula; T: Kulathi Muthalei NT Crocodylus porosus Schneider,1801 E: Saltwater crocodile / Estuarine crocodile; S: Gata kimbula; T: Semmukku Muthalei EN E: Black turtle; S: Gal ibba; T: Amai, Karuppu Amai LC Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Loggerhead sea turtle; S: Olugedi kasbaeva / Kannadi kasbaeva; T: Perunthalai Amai EN B2ab(iii) EN A1abd Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Green turtle; S: Gal kasbaeva / Mas kasbaeva / Vali kasbaeva; T: Pal Amai EN B2ab(iii) EN A2bd Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766) E: Hawksbill sea turtle; S: Pothu kasbaeva / Leli kasbaeva; T: Nanja Amai EN B2ab(iii) CR A2bd Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829) E: Olive ridley sea turtle; S: Batu kasbaeva / Mada kasbaeva; T: Pul Amai EN B2ab(iii) VU A2bd E: Leatherback sea turtle; S: Dara kasbaeva / Tun Dara kasbaeva; T: Dhoni Amai EN B2ab(iii) CR A1abd E: Indian star tortoise; S: Mevara ibba/ Taraka ibba; T: Katu Amai NT E: Flapshell turtle; S: Kiri ibba; T: Pal Amai LC Calotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Green garden lizard; S: Pala katussa; T: Pachai Karata LC Calotes ceylonensis (Müller, 1887) E: Painted lip lizard; S: Tholavisituru katussa NT Calotes desilvai Bahir & Maduwage, 2005 E: Desilvas’ whistling lizard / Desilvas’ forest lizard; S: Desilvage sivuruhandalana katussa CR B2ab(iii) Calotes liocephalus Günther, 1872 E: Crestless lizard; S: Kondu datirahita katussa EN B2ab(iii) Calotes liolepis Boulenger, 1885 E: Whistling lizard / Forest lizard; S: Sivuruhandalana katussa NT B2ab(iii) LR/lc Family: Bataguridae Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger, 1812) LR/ nt Family: Cheloniidae Family: Dermochelidae Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) Family: Testudinidae Geochelone elegans (Schoepff, 1795) LR/lc Family: Trionychidae Lissemys ceylonensis (Gray, 1856) Family: Agamidae 104 EN B1+2bc Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria VU B1ab EN B1+2bc B1ab(iii) Calotes nigrilabris Peters, 1860 E: Black cheek lizard; S: Kalu kopul katussa EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Calotes versicolor (Daudin, 1802) E: Common garden lizard; S: Gara katussa LC Ceratophora aspera Günther, 1864 E: Rough horn lizard; S: Raluang katussa / Kuru angkatussa EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Ceratophora erdeleni Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi. 1998 E: Erdelen’s horn lizard; S: Erdelenge angkatussa CR B1ab(iii) Ceratophora karu Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi. 1998 E: Karunaratne’s horn lizard; S: Karunaratnage angkatusua CR B1ab(iii) Ceratophora stoddartii Gray, 1835 E: Rhinohorn lizard; S: Kagamuva angkatussa EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Ceratophora tennentii Günther and Gray, 1861 E: Leafnose lizard; S: Pethi angkatussa. CR B2ab(iii) Cophotis ceylanica Peters, 1861 E: Pygmy lizard; S: Kandukara kurukatussa EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cophotis dumbara Samarawickrama, Ranawana, Rajapaksha, Ananjeva, Orlov, Ranasinghe & Samarawickrama, 2006 E: Knuckles pygmy lizard; S: Dumbara kurukatussa CR B2ab(iii) CR Lyriocephalus scutatus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Lyre head lizard / Humpsnouted lizard; S: Gatahombu katussa / Karamal bodiliya VU B1ab(iii) NT Otocryptis nigristigma Bahir & Silva, 2005 E: Black spotted kangaroo lizard; S: Wiyali Pinum katussa LC Otocryptis wiegmanni Wagler, 1830 E: Sri Lankan kangaroo lizard; S: Gomu talikatussa / Pinum katussa / LC Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier, 1829 E: Fanthroated lizard; S: Pulina talikatussa / Vali katussa LC E: Sri Lankan chameleon; S: Bodilima / Bodiliya EN B2ab(iii) Calodactylodes illingworthorum Deraniyagala, 1953 E: Lankan golden gecko; S: Maha galhuna EN B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis alwisi Wickramasinghe & Munundradasa, 2007 E: Alwis’s day gecko; S: Alwisge divasarihuna NT Cnemaspis amith ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Amith’s day gecko; S: Amithge divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis clivicola ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Montain day gecko; S: Kandukara divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis gemunu Bauer, De Silva, greenbaum & Jackman, 2007 E: Gemunu’s day gecko; S: Gemunuge divasarihuna CR B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis kallima ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Gammaduwa day gecko; S: Gammaduva divasarihuna CR B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis kandiana (Kelaart, 1853) E: Kandyan day gecko; S: Kandukara divasarihuna EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis kumarasinghei Wickramasinghe & Munundradasa, 2007 E: Kumarasinghe’s day gecko; S: Kumarasinghege divasarihuna EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) LC Family: Chameleonidae Chamaeleo zeylanicus Laurenti, 1768 Family: Gekkonidae 105 LC Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Cnemaspis latha Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Elegant day gecko; S: Bushana divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis menikay ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Jewel day gecko; S: Ratna divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis molligodai Wickramasinghe & Munundradasa, 2007 E: Molligod’s day gecko; S: Molligodage divasarihuna EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis pava Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Little day gecko; S: Kuda divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis phillipsi ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Phillip’s day gecko; S: Phillipge divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis podihuna Deraniyagala, 1944 E: Dwarf day gecko; S: Kuda divasarihuna / Podi galhuna VU B1ab(iii) Cnemaspis pulchra ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Rakvana day gecko; S: Rakvana divasarihuna CR B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis punctata ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Dotted day gecko; S: Thith divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis retigalensis Wickramasinghe & Munundradasa, 2007 E: Ritigala day gecko; S: Ritigala divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cnemaspis samanalensis Wickramasinghe & Munundradasa, 2007 E: Peakwilderness day gecko; S: Samanaola divasarihuna CR B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis scalpensis (Ferguson, 1877) E: Gannoruva day gecko; S: Gannoruva divasarihuna EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis silvula ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Forest day gecko; S: Vana divasarihuna EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cnemaspis tropidogaster (Boulenger, 1885) E: Roughbelly day gecko; S: Ralodara divasarihuna DD Cnemaspis upendrai ManamendraArachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007 E: Upendra’s day gecko; S: Upendrage divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii) Cyrtodactylus cracens Batuwita & Bahir, 2005 E: Narrow headed forest gecko; S: Hisa-patu Mukalam huna EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cyrtodactylus edwardtaylori Batuwita & Bahir, 2005 E: Taylors forest gecko; S: Taylorge mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii) Cyrtodactylus fraenatus (Günther, 1864) E: Great forest gecko; S; Maha halae huna / Mukalam huna CR B1ab(iii) Cyrtodactylus ramboda Batuwita & Bahir, 2005 E: Ramboda forest gecko; S; Ramboda mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii) Cyrtodactylus soba Batuwita & Bahir, 2005 E: Knuckles forest gecko; S: Dumbara mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii) Cyrtodactylus subsolanus Batuwita & Bahir, 2005 E: Rakwana forest gecko; S: Rakwana mukalam huna CR B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Cyrtodactylus triedra (Günther, 1864) E: Spotted bowinger gecko; S: Pulli vakaniyahuna VU B1ab(iii) Geckoella collegalensis (Beddome, 1870) E: Collegal rockgecko; S: Collegalge vakaniyahuna DD 106 GCS LC DD NT Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Geckoella yakhuna (Deraniyagala, 1945) E: Blotch bowinger gecko / Demon gecko; S: Lapavan vakaniyahuna / Yak huna VU Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1834) E: Four-claw gecko; S: Caturanguli huna LC Hemidactylus depressus Gray, 1842 E: Kandyan gecko; S: Hali gehuna LC LC Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel in Duméril & Bibron, 1836 E: Common house-gecko; S: Sulaba gehuna LC LC Hemidactylus hunae Deraniyagala, 1937 E: Spotted giant-gecko / Rock gecko; S: Davanta tit huna EN Hemidactylus lankae Deraniyagala, 1953 E: Termite hill gecko; S; Humbas huna LC Hemidactylus leschenaultii Duméril & Bibron, 1836 E: Bark gecko / Sycamore gecko; S: Kimbul huna / Gas huna / Kumbuk huna LC Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Deraniya- E: Spotted housegecko; gala, 1953 S: Pulli gehuna B1ab(iii) B1ab(iii) LC Hemidactylus pieresii Kelaart, 1853 E: Pieresii’s housegecko; S; Pimburu huna EN Hemidactylus platyurus (Schneider, 1792) E: Frilltail gecko; S: Nagutavakarali huna DD Hemidactylus scabriceps (Annandale, 1906) E: Scaly gecko; S; Korapotu huna DD B1ab(iii) DD E: Slender gecko; Hemiphyllodactylus typus Bleeker, 1860 S: Sihin huna VU B1ab(iii) Lepidodactylus lugubris (Duméril & Bibron, 1836) E: Scaly-inger gecko / Mourning gecko; S: Salkapa huna VU B1ab(iii) Ophisops leschenaultii Milne- Edwards, 1829 E: Leschenault’s Snake eye lizard; S: Panduru sarpakshi katusa CR B2ab(iii) Ophisops minor (Deraniyagala, 1971) E: Lesser snake eye lizard; S: Kuda sarpakshi katusa CR B2ab(iii) Chalcides cf. ocellatus Forskal, 1775 E: White spotted skink; S: Sudu-pulli hikanala DD Chalcidoseps thwaitesii (Günther, 1872) E: Fourtoe snakeskink; S: Caturanguli sarpiyahikanala CR Family: Lacertidae Family: Scincidae Dasia halianus (Haly & Nevill in: Nevill, E: Haly’s treeskink; S: Helige 1887) rukhiraluva B2ab(iii) NT Eutropis beddomii (Jerdon, 1870) E: Beddome’s stripe skink; S: Vairan hikanala EN B2ab(iii) Eutropis bibronii (Gray, 1838) E: Bibron’s sand skink; S: Vali hikanala EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Eutropis carinata (Schneider, 1801) E: Common skink; S: Sulaba hikanala LC Eutropis loweri Taylor, 1950 E: Taylor’s skink; S: Taylorge hikanala EN Eutropis macularia (Byth, 1853) E: Bronzegreen little skink; S: Pingu hikanala LC Eutropis madaraszi Méhely, 1897 E: Spotted skink; S: Pulli hikanala VU 107 B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria Eutropis tammanna Das, de Silva & Austin, 2008 E: Tmmanna skink; S: Tammanna hikanala LC Lankascincus deignani (Taylor, 1950) E: Deignan’s lankaskink; S: Deignange lakhikanala EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Lankascincus deraniyagalae Greer, 1991 E: Deraniyagal’s lankaskink; S: Daraniyagalge lakhikanala EN B2ab(iii) Lankascincus dorsicatenatus (Deraniyagala, 1953) E: Catenated litter skink; S: Damwal singitihikanala EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Lankascincus fallax (Peters, 1860) E: Common lankaskink; S: Sulaba lakhikanala LC Lankascincus gansi Greer, 1991 E: Gans’s lankaskink; S: Gansge lakhikanala VU B1ab(iii) Lankascincus greari Batuwita & Pethi- E: Geer’s lanka skink; yagoda, 2007 S: Geerge lakhikanala EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Lankascincus munindradasai Wickramasinghe, Rodrigo, Dayawansa & Jayantha, 2007 E: Munidradasa’s lanka skink; S: Munindradasage lakhikanala CR B1ab(iii) Lankascincus sripadensis Wickramasinghe, Rodrigo, Dayawansa & Jayantha, 2007 E: Sripada forest skink; S: Sripakandu duburu hikanala CR B2ab(iii) Lankascincus taprobanensis (Kelaart, 1854) E: Smooth lanka skink; S: Sumudu lakhikanala EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Lankascincus taylori Greer, 1991 E: Taylor’s lanka skink; S: Telorge lakhikanala EN B2ab(iii) Lygosoma punctatus (Gmelin, 1799) E: Dotted skink; S: Tit hiraluhikanala LC Lygosoma singha (Taylor, 1950) E: Taylor’s skink; S: Taylorge hiraluhikanala DD Nessia bipes Smith, 1935 E: Smith’s snakeskink; S: Smithge sarpahiraluva EN Nessia burtonii Gray, 1839 E: Threetoe Snakeskink; S: Triyanguli sarpahiraluva LC Nessia deraniyagalai Taylor, 1950 E: Deraniyagala’s snakeskink; S: Derniyagalage sarpahiraluva DD Nessia didactylus (Deraniyagala, 1934) E: Two toe snakeskink; S: Dvayanguli sarpahiraluva EN Nessia hickanala Deraniyagala, 1940 E: Sharkhead snakeskink; S: Morahis sarpahiraluva CR B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Nessia layardi (Kelaart, 1854) E: Layard’s snakeskink; S: Leyardge sarpahiraluva EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Nessia monodactylus (Gray, 1839) E: Toeless snakeskink; S: Ananguli sarpahiraluva EN B2ab(iii) Nessia sarasinorum (Müller, 1889) E: Sarasin’s snakeskink; S: Sarasinge sarpahiraluva VU B1ab(iii) Sphenomorphus dussumieri (Duméril & Bibron, 1839) E: Dussumier’s litter skink; S: Salkasahita singitihikanala DD Sphenomorphus megalops (Annandale, 1906) E: Annandale’s litter skink; S: Annandalege singitihikanala DD GCS Criteria EN B1ab(iii) NT LC Family: Varanidae Varanus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) E: Land monitor; S; Talagoya LC LC Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) E: Water monitor; S: Kabaragoya LC LC 108 Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Family: Acrochordidae Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider, 1799) E: Wart snake; S: Diya goya/ Redi naya VU B2ab(iii) E: Sand boa; B: Vali pimbura, kota pimbura VU B2ab(iii) E: Indian python; S: Pimbura LC LC Family: Boidae Gongylophis conica (Schneider, 1796) Family: Pythonidae Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) LR/ nt Family: Cylindrophidae Cylindrophis maculata (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Pipe snake, S: Depath naya NT Family: Natricidae Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Buff striped keelback; S: Aharukuka LC B1ab(iii) Aspidura brachyorrhos (Boie, 1827) E: Boie’s roughside; S: Le madilla VU B2ab(iii) Aspidura copei Günther, 1864 E: Cope’s roughside; S: Kalumedilla DD Aspidura deraniyagalae Gans & Fetcho, 1982 E: Deraniyagala’s roughside; S: Kandu madilla CR B1ab(iii) Aspidura drummondhayi Boulenger, 1904 E: Drummond – Hay’s roughside; S: Ketiwalmadilla EN B2ab(iii) Aspidura guentheri Ferguson, 1876 E: Guenther’s roughside; S: Kudamadilla NT B1ab(iii) Aspidura trachyprocta Cope, 1860 E: Common roughside; S: Dalawa madilla EN B2ab(iii) Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) E: The Olive keelback watersnake; S: Diyawarna. LC Balanophis ceylonensis (Günther, 1858) E: Sri Lanka keelback; S: Nihaluwa EN Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) E: The green keelback; S: Palabariya NT Xenochrophis asperrimus (Boulenger, 1891) E: The checkered keelback; S: Diya polonga / Diya bariya LC Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) E: Checkered Keelback; S: Diya bariya LC Cerberus rynchops (Schneider, 1799) E: Dog-faced water snake; S: Kuna diya kaluwa. LC Gerarda prevostianus (Eydoux & Gervais, 1837) E: Gerard’s water snake; S: Prevostge diyabariya EN Enhydris enhydris (Shneider, 1799) E: Rainbow mud snake; S: Dedunu diyabariyawa DD Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) E: Green vine snake; S: Ahaetulla LC Ahaetulla pulverulenta (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) E: Brown vine snake; S; Henakandaya LC Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) E: Banded racer; S: Wal gerandiya DD Boiga barnesii (Günther, 1869) E: Barnes’s cat snake, S: Panduru mapila VU DD LC NT B1ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Family: Homalopsidae LC B2ab(iii) Family: Colubridae 109 B1ab(iii) LC Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name Boiga beddomei (Wall, 1909) E: Beddoms cat snake; S: Kaha mapila NT Boiga ceylonensis (Günther, 1858) E: Sri Lanka cat snake; S: Nidi mapila LC Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) E: Forsten’s cat snake; S: Naga mapila NT LC Boiga trigonatus (Schneider, 1802) E: Gamma cat snake; S: Ran mapila LC LC Cercaspis carinata (Kuhl, 1820) E: The Sri Lanka wolf snake; S: Dhara radanakaya EN B2ab(iii) Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw, 1802) E: Ornate lying snake; S: Polmal karawala, Malsara VU B1ab(iii) Chrysopelea taprobanica Smith, 1943 E: Striped lying snake; S: Dangara danda LC Coeloganthus helena (Daudin, 1803) E: Trinket snake; S: Katakaluwa LC Dendrelaphis bifrenalis (Boulenger, 1890) E: Boulenger’s bronze back; S: Pandura haldanda NT Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus (Gray, 1834) E: Gunther’s bronze back; S: Viri haldanda VU Dendrelaphis oliveri (Taylor, 1950) E: Oliver’s bronze back; S: Oliverge haldanda DD Dendrelaphis schokari (Kuhl, 1820) E: Schokari’s bronze back; S: Schokarige haldanda LC Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) E: Common bronze back; S: Tura haldanda LC Dryocalamus gracilis (Günther, 1864) E: The scarce bridal; S: Megata radanakaya DD Dryocalamus nympha (Daudin, 1803) E: Bridal snake; S: Geta Radanakaya / Geta karawala LC Haplocercus ceylonensis Günther, 1858 E: The black spine snake / Mould snake; S: Kurunkarawala. EN Liopeltis calamaria (Günther, 1858) E: Reed snake; S: Punbariya NT Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Wolf snake, house snake; S: Alu radanakaya LC Lycodon osmanhilli Taylor, 1950 E: Flowery wolf snake; S: Mal radanakaya LC Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) E: Shaw’s wolf snake; S: Kabara radanakaya LC Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) E: Common kukri snake/ Banded Kukri; S: Arani dath ketiya LC E: Templeton’s kukri snake; Oligodon calamarius (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Kabara dath ketiya EN Oligodon sublineatus Duméril & Bibron, 1854 E: Dumerul’s kuki snake; S: Pulli dath ketiya LC LC Oligodon taeniolata (Jerdon, 1853) E: Variegated kukri snake / Russell’s kukri snake; S: Wairi dattketiya LC LC Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Rat snake; S: Gerandiya. LC 110 NCS Criteria GCS DD LC B1ab(iii) DD B2ab(iii) LC B2ab(iii) DD Criteria Scientiic Name Sibynophis subpunctatus (Duméril & Bibron, 1854) Common Name NCS Criteria E: Jerdon’s polyodent; S: Dathigomaraya NT Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) E: The common krait; S: Thel karawala/ Maga maruwa LC B2ab(iii) Bungarus ceylonicus Günther, 1864 E: Sri Lanka krait / Ceylon krait; S: Mudu karawala/ Hath karawala VU B1ab(iii) Calliophis haematoetron Smith, Manamendra-Arachchi & Somaweera, 2008 E: Red bellied coral snake; S: Bada rathu depath kaluwa CR B2ab(iii) Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802) E: Sri Lanka coral snake; S: Depath kaluwa NT Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Indian cobra; S: Naya/ Nagaya LC Astrotia stokesii (Gray in Stokes, 1846) E: Stoke’s sea snake; S: Mahavalakkadiya LC Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin, 1803) E: Hook nose sea snake; S: Valakkadiya LC Hydrophis bituberculatus Peters, 1872 E: Peter’s sea snake; S: Peterge muhudunaya DD Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin, 1803 E: The chitul; S: Wairan muhudunaya LC Hydrophis fasciatus (Schneider, 1799) LC Family: Elapidae Family: Hydrophidae Hydrophis gracilis (Shaw, 1802) E: John’s sea snake; S: Kudahis Muhudu naya LC Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray, 1849) E: Persian Gulf seasnake; S: Persiyanu bokke muhudu naya LC Hydrophis mammilaris (Daudin, 1803) DD Hydrophis ornatus (Gray, 1849) E: Gray’s sea snake; S: Grayge Muhudu naya LC Hydrophis spiralis (Shaw, 1802) E: Narrow banded sea snake; S: Sihin Mudhu naya LC Hydrophis stricticollis Günther, 1864 E: Guenther’s sea snake; S: Guntherge muhudunaya DD Kerilia jerdonii Gray, 1849 E: Jerdon’s sea snake; S: Jerdonge Muhudu naya LC Lapemis curtus (Shaw, 1802) E: Shaw’s sea snake; S: Shawge kuda muhudunaya LC Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus, 1766) E: Yellow bellied sea snake; S: Badakaha muhudu naya LC Praescutata viperina (Schmidt, 1852) E: Schmidt’s sea snake; S: Polon muhudunaya LC Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) E: Common blind snake; S: Dumuta kanaulla LC Typhlops ceylonicus Smith, 1943 E: Smith’s blind snake; S: Smithge kanaulla DD Typhlops lankaensis Taylor, 1947 E: Lanka blind snake; S: Lak kanaulla CR Family: Typhlopidae 111 B2ab(iii) GCS Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name E: Pied typhlops; S: Dewarna Typhlops leucomelas Boulenger, 1890 kanaulla NCS CR Criteria GCS B2ab(iii) Typhlops malcolmi Taylor, 1947 E: Malcolm’s blind snake; S: Malcomge kanaulla DD Typhlops mirus Jan in: Jan & Sordelli, 1860 E: Jan’s blind snake; S: Heenkanaulla. CR B1ab(iii) Typhlops porrectus Stoliczka, 1871 E: Stoliczka’s blind snake; S: Stoliczkage kanaulla EN B1ab(iii) +B2ab Typhlops tenebrarum Taylor, 1947 E: Taylor’s blind snake; S: Taylorge kanaulla DD Typhlops veddae Taylor, 1947 E: Veddha’s blind snake; S: Veddage kanaulla DD Typhlops violaceus Taylor, 1947 E: Violet blind snake; S: Dan kanaulla DD Platyplectrurus madurensis Beddome 1877 E: Madura blind snake; S: Madura kanaulla DD Pseudotyphlops philippinus Schlegel, 1839 E: Large shield tail; S: Maha bimulla EN B2ab(iii) Rhinophis blythii Kelaart, 1853 E: Blyth’s earth snake; S: Gomarathudulla EN B1ab(iii) +B2ab Rhinophis dorsimaculatus Deraniyagala, 1941 E: Orange shield tail; S: Thambapani walga ebaya DD Rhinophis drummondhayi (Wall, 1921) E: Drummond-Hay’s earth snake; S: Thapothudulla EN B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii) +B2ab Family: Uropeltidae Rhinophis erangaviraji Wickramasing- E: Viraj’s shieldtail snake or he, Vidanapathirana, Wickramasinghe Eranga Viraj’s Rhinophis; & Ranwella, 2009 S: Eranga Virajge thudulla Rhinophis homolepis Hemprich, 1820 E: Kelaarts earth snake; S: Depaththudulla EN B1ab(iii) +B2ab Rhinophis lineatus Gower & Maduwage, 2011 E: Striped rhinophis; S: Dick-iri thudulla CR B2ab(iii) Rhinophis oxyrynchus (Schneider, 1801) E: Schneider’s earth snake; S: Ulthudulla LC Rhinophis philippinus (Cuvier, 1829) E: Cuvier’s earth snake; S: Cuvierge walga ebaya EN Rhinophis porrectus Wall, 1921 E: Willey’s earth snake; S: Digthudulla DD Rhinophis punctatus Müller, 1832 E: Muller’s earth snake; S: Ticthudulla DD Rhinophis tricoloratus Deraniyagala, 1975 E: Deraniyagala’s shield tail; S: Deraniyagalage walga ebaya CR B1ab(iii)+B2ab Rhinophis zigzag Gower & Maduwage, 2011 E: Zigzag Rhinophis; S: Ack-wack thudulla CR B2ab(iii) Uropeltis melanogaster Gray, 1858 E: Black shield tail; S: Kaluwakatulla EN B1ab(iii)+B2ab Uropeltis phillipsi (Nicholls, 1929) E: Phillips’s shield tail; S: Iriwakatulla EN B2ab(iii) Uropeltis ruhunae Deraniyagala, 1954 E: Ruhunu shield tail; S: Ruhunuwakatulla DD 112 NT LC B1ab(iii) +B2ab Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Family: Viperidae Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) E: Russell’s viper; S: Tith Polonga/ Gata polaga LC Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) E: Saw scale viper; S: Vali polonga VU Hypnale hypnale (Merrem, 1820) E: The Merrem’s Hump nose viper; S: Polonthelissa LC Hypnale nepa (Laurenti, 1768) E: Merrem’s hump-nosed viper; S: Polonthelissa/ Kunakatuwa EN B2ab(iii) Hypnale zara (Gray, 1849) E: Stripe-necked hump-nosed viper; S: Wayiram gelathi Kunakatuwa VU Biab(iii) Hypnale sp. ‘amal’ Maduwage, Silva, Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2009 E: Amal’s Hump nose viper; S: A: Amalge polonthelissa CR B2ab(iii) Trimeresurus trigonocephalus (Sonini et Latreille, 1801) E: Green pit viper; B: Pala polonga LC 113 B2ab(iii) LC Criteria The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Birds in Sri Lanka Devaka K Weerakoon1 and Kithsiri Gunawardena2 1 Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3 2 3E, Kynsey Road, Colombo 8 Introduction The early formal Sri Lankan literature does not carry detailed descriptions on birds other than casual references. Since the 14th century birds have been extensively featured in Sinhalese poetry Sandesha Kavya. Detailed documentation of the Sri Lankan avifauna began in the 16th century with the arrival of Europeans such as Ribeiro, Baldaeus, Queyroz and Knox. However, the irst formal account of a Sri Lankan species, Sri Lanka Lorikeet, was given by George Edwards (1743) in his book Natural History of Uncommon Birds. The systematic study of the avifauna of Sri Lanka began in the mid 18th century with major contributions from naturalists such as Loten, Joinville, Templeton, Layard, Kelaart and Holdsworth. Then came the monumental four volume publication by Capt. Vincent Legge, A History of the Birds of Ceylon, which remains the most comprehensive account on the birds of Sri Lanka to date. Since then the knowledge on Sri Lankan avifauna has been updated periodically by many ornithologists such as Murray, Wait, Baker, Ripley, Whistler, Henry, Phillips, Kotagama, Rasmussen, Anderton and Warakagoda Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna that stands at 453 species at present. This include 240 species of birds that are known to breed in Sri Lanka, of which 33 are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic species while some ornithologists consider only 27 species as endemic and the remaining 6 are considered as proposed endemics. Further, 21 species that are listed as breeding residents, also have migrant populations which also include migrants of different races of the species that occur in the country. The remaining 213 species are migrants of which 72 species are encountered rarely and therefore considered as vagrants. It should be noted that only 240 resident birds have been evaluated in this Red List. Taxonomy The taxonomy of Asian birds has been subject to many changes over the last two decades, consequent to increased research efforts and new methodologies which were adopted in avian taxonomy. This resulted in several changes in the scientiic nomenclature of Birds of Sri Lanka. Kotagama et. al. (2006) recognized sixty four families representing the bird species present in Sri Lanka based on Sibley & Monroe (1990). Since then, twenty new families have been added, due to elevation of subfamilies or tribes to full family status (Tribes Haematopodini, Recurvirostrini, Stercorariini, Artamini, Rhipidurini, Dicrurini, Monarchini, Dicaeini were upgraded to family level while tribe Oriolini has been split and upgraded to two families, Oriolidae and Campephagidae which also include members of the tribe Vangini. Further, subfamilies Dromadinae, Hydrobatinae, Aegithininae, Turdinae, Passerinae, Motacillinae, Ploceinae, Estrildinae and Emberizinae are upgraded to family level. Subfamily Garrulacinae and tribe Timaliini are placed in the family Timaliidae). Members of ive families have been “lumped” with other existing families (Dendrocygnidae, Megalaimidae, Centropodidae and Batrachostomidae now placed in Anatidae, Ramphastidae, Cuculidae and Podargidae 114 respectively). Further, Halcyonidae and Cerylidae are placed in the family Alcedinidae and members of family Irenidae are placed in family Chloropseidae). Therefore, the avifauna of Sri Lanka is currently represented by 79 families (Dickinson, 2003). Many species level taxonomic changes have also been affected recently, due to either lumping or splitting of existing species. These include splitting of Phoenicopterus ruber into P. roseus and P. ruber (Knox et al., 2002); Corvus macrorhynchos into C. levaillantii and C. macrorhynchos (Sibley & Monroe, 1990); Hirundo tahitica into H. domicola and H. tahitica (Sibley & Monroe, 1990); Mirafra assamica into M. afinis, M. assamica, M. erythrocephala and M. microptera (Alström, 1998); Chloropsis cochinchinensis into C. jerdoni, C. cochinchinensis, and C. kinabaluensis (Wells et al., 2003); Sula dactylatra into S. dactylatra and S. granti (AOU, 2000); Spilornis minimus into S. klossi and S. cheela (Rasmussen & Anderton (2005); Spizaetus cirrhatus into S. cirrhatus and S. loris (Gjershaug et al., 2004); Otus scops into O. senegalensis (Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993), O. sunia (AOU, 1998), O. alius (Rassmussen, 1998) and O. scops; Acrocephalus stentoreus into A. stentoreus and A. orinus (Bensch & Pearson, 2002); Seicercus burkii into S. burkii, S. valentini, S. whistleri, S. soror and S tephrocephalus (Alström & Olsson, 1999) and S. omeiensis (Martens et al., 1999); Lonchura malacca into L. malacca and L. atricapilla (AOU, 2000). Further, Pomatorhinus horsieldii has been split into P. melanurus and P. horsieldii (Collar, 2006; Rasmussen & Anderton, 2005), of which P. melanurus is listed as endemic to Sri Lanka. Like wise, Dicrurus paradiseus has been split into D. paradiseus and D. lophorinus of which the latter is endemic to Sri Lanka. Zoothera dauma imbricata previously considered as a subspecies is now recognized as a distinct species, Z. imbricata that is endemic to Sri Lanka (Collar, 2005; Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). Number of species that has been listed for Sri Lanka has been lumped together with other species. These include lumping of Coturnix chinensis and C. adansonii into C. chinensis (Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993); Pufinus bannermani, P. persicus and P. subalaris into P. lherminieri (Brooke, 2004); Butorides sundevalli and B. striatus into B. striata (AOU, 2003); Egretta garzetta and E. dimorpha into E. garzetta (Kushlan & Hancock, 2005); Copsychus malabaricus and C. stricklandii into C. malabaricus (Collar, 2004); Motacilla alba and M. lugens into M. alba (AOU, 2005); Anthus richardi, A. cinnamomeus, A. camaroonensis and A. latistriatus into A. richardi (Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993). Distribution Sri Lanka is divided into 6 Avifaunal Zones based on the distribution patterns of the resident bird species (Kotagama, 1993). These include the Northern or Indian zone that shares many similarities with the South Indian avifauna; Low country wet zone, Mid country wet zone and Hill country wet zone that contain most of the endemic and threatened species; Dry zone and the Uva zone, which contain mostly common bird species as well as few rare species that are restricted to these zones. The Northern avifaunal zone has not been accessible for nearly 30 years due to the conlict that existed in the area. However, following the culmination of the war in 2009 these areas have once again become accessible which has resulted in a wealth of new information about Sri Lankan avifauna. 115 Threats In Sri Lanka, wild birds are rarely exploited as a source of food. However, there is an emerging trend which began in the recent past of capturing some of the species for the illegal pet trade. As in the case of all other taxa, habitat loss is the main threat faced by the birds of Sri Lanka. Nearly one third of all the resident birds in Sri Lanka are forest birds including all the endemic species. Out of the endemic birds, more than 60% are restricted to the forests in the wet zone. These forests are being rapidly depleted to support the needs of the burgeoning human population. Therefore, loss of forest cover and fragmentation of forests are the main threats faced by the birds of Sri Lanka. Wetlands are also an important bird habitat in Sri Lanka with nearly 25% of the resident birds and more than 75% of the migrants depend on such habitats. Many of these wetland habitats are adversely impacted due to conversion, changes in salinity and hydrology, pollution of water ways, spread of invasive species (e.g. spread of Prosopis julilora in Bundala and Wankalai, Annona glabra in Bellanwila-Attidiya), expansion of prawn farming and salt production. As a result, species richness and the carrying capacity of many wetland habitats have declined rapidly. Even though land use change has impacted most bird species in a detrimental manner, some species such as Lonchura spp., Psittacula kramerii, Stigmatopelia chinensis, Corvus splendens, Centropus chinensis have shown a marked increase in their range and numbers. Research Needs Compared to other taxonomic groups, birds have received a great deal of attention from both amateur and professional bird watchers. However, information available on birds is restricted mostly to their distribution while, for most birds, especially the threatened species, information on their biology and ecology is inadequate. This has been identiied as a serious impediment in formulating species speciic conservation plans for threatened species in Sri Lanka. Even though the taxonomy of many species of birds have been revised based on regional revisions, a number of taxonomic issues, especially the status of the proposed endemic species, remain unresolved at present. While taking stringent measures to preserve the existing habitat, establishment of a captive breeding programme for the threatened endemic birds, preferably in the National Zoological gardens as well as at such a facility in the hill country for the hill species, is also a critical need, if it becomes necessary in the future to conduct reintroduction or population enhancement as a conservation measure. Lastly, a systematic monitoring mechanism of the critical bird species, important bird habitats and large breeding colonies needs to be established for Sri Lanka. References Alström, P., (1998). Taxonomy of the Mirafra assamica complex. Forktail, 13, pp.97-107. Alström, P. & Olsson, U., (1999). The golden-spectacled warbler: a complex of sibling species, including a previously undescribed species. Ibis, 141, pp.545-568. AOU., (1998). Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists’ Union. AOU., (2000). Forty-second supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds. The Auk, 117(3), pp.847-858. AOU., (2003). Forty-fourth supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds. The Auk, 120(3), pp.923-931. 116 AOU., (2005). Forty-sixth supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds. The Auk, 122(3), pp.1026-1031. Bensch, S. & Pearson, D., (2002). The Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus revisited. Ibis, 144, pp.259267. Brooke, M., (2004). Albatrosses and petrels across the world. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Collar, N. J., (2004). Species limits in some Indonesian thrushes. Forktail, 20, pp.71-87. Collar, N. J., (2005). Family Turdidae (Thrushes). In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliot, & D.A. Christie, eds. 2005. Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 10. Cuckoo-shrikes to Thrushes. Barcelona: Lynx Editions. pp.514-810. Collar, N. J., (2006). A partial revision of the Asian Babblers (Timaliidae). Forktail, 22, pp.85-112. Dickinson, E. C., (2003). The Howard and Moore complete checklist of the birds of the world. 3rd edition. London: Christopher Helm. Dowsett, R. J. & Forbes-Watson, A. D., (1993). Checklist of birds of the Afrotropical and Malagasy regions. Liege, Belgium: Tauraco Press. Gjershaug, J. O., Kvalfy, K., Rfv, N., Prawiradilaga, D. M., Suparman, U. & Rahman, Z., (2004). The taxonomic status of Flores Hawk Eagle Spizaetus loris. Forktail, 20, pp.55-62. Kaluthota, C. D. & Kotgama, S. W., (2009). Revised avifaunal list of Sri Lanka. Occasional Paper No. 2 of the Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. Colombo: FOGSL. pp 25. Knox, A. G., Collinson, M., Helbig, A. J., Parkin, D. T. & Sangster, G., (2002). Taxonomic recommendations for British birds. Ibis, 144, pp.707-710. Kotagama, S. W., (1993). Wildlife conservation and development of the south east dry zone. In The South-east dry Zone of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Agrarian Research and Training Institute. Kotagama, S. W., De Silva, R. I., Wijayasinha, A. S. & Abeygunawardane, V., (2006). Avifaunal list of Sri Lanka. In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of taxonomy, research and conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. pp. 164-203. Kushlan, J. A. & Hancock, J. A., (2005). Bird families of the world 14: The herons. U.K.: Oxford University Press. Martens, J., Eck, S., Päckert, M. & Sun, Y. H., (1999). The Golden-spectacled Warbler Seicercus burkii - A species swarm (Aves: Passeriformes: Sylviidae) Part 1. Zool. Abh. Staatl. Mus. Tierk. Desden, 50, pp.281-327. Rasmussen, P. C., (1998). A new scopsowl from Great Nicobar Island. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club, 118, pp.141-153. Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C., (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol, 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Editions. Sibley, C. G. & Monroe, B. L., (1990). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. Warakagoda, D. & Sirivardana, U., (2009). The avifauna of Sri Lanka: An over view of the current status. Taprobanica, 1(1), pp. 28-35. Warakagoda, D., Inskipp, I., Inskipp, T. & Grimmett, R., (2012). Birds of Sri Lanka. Christopher Helm, an imprint of Bloomsberry Publishing Plc. Wells, D. R., Dickinson, E. C. & Dekker, R. W. R. J., (2003). A preliminary review of the Chloropseidae and Irenidae. Zool. Verh., 344, pp.25-42. 117 Table 11: List of Birds in Sri Lanka Abbreviations: Scientiic NamePE (Possibly Endemic) * Only the breeding population has been considered in this assessment Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby, 1828) E:Painted Francolin; S: Thith Ussa-watuwa; T: Varna cowthari. CR B1ab(iii) LC Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin, 1789) E:Grey Francolin; S: Alu Ussa-watuwa; T: Cowthari. NT Coturnix chinensis Linnaeus, 1766 E:Blue Quail; S: Nil piriwatuwa, Wil-watuwa; T: Neelamaarbuk kaadai. EN B2ab(iii) LC Perdicula asiatica (Latham, 1790) E:Jungle Bush-quail; S: Wana panduru watuwa, Wil watuwa; T: Kaatuputhar kaadai. CR B2ab(iii) LC Galloperdix bicalcarata (Forster, 1781) E:Sri Lanka Spurfowl; S: Sri Lanka haban kukula; T: Sinnak kaatuk koli. NT LC Gallus lafayetii Lesson, 1831 E: Sri Lanka Junglefowl; S: Sri Lanka Wali kukula; T: Kattu-koli LC LC Pavo cristatus Linnaeus, 1758 E:Indian Peafowl; S: Monara; T: Neela mayil. LC LC Family: Phasianidae LC Family: Anatidae Dendrocygna javanica (Horsield, 1821) E:Lesser Whistling-duck; S: Heen thamba seruwa; T: Siriya seelkani siravi. LC LC Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin, 1789) E:Cotton pygmy -goose; S: Mal seruwa; T: Kullathara. NT LC Anas poecilorhyncha Forster, JR 1781* E: Spot-billed Duck; S: Thithhota tharava CR E: Barred Buttonquail; S: Punchi bola watuyuruwa; T: Kadai LC LC Dendrocopos nanus (Vigors, 1832) E:Brown-capped Woodpecker; S:Bora isasi piri-kerala, Mal Kerella; T: Sinna marang kothi. LC LC Dendrocopos mahrattensis (Latham, 1801) NT E:Yellow-crowned Woodpecker; S: Kahasilu Piri -kerala; T: Manjal nettri marang kothi. LC Celeus brachyurus (Vieillot, 1818) E:Rufous Woodpecker; S: Borath anu-kerela, Dumburu Kerela; T: Karunchirappu marang kothi. LC B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Family: Turnicidae Turnix suscitator (Gmelin, 1789) Family: Picidae 118 LC Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Picus chlorolophus Vieillot, 1818 E:Lesser Yellownape; S: Heen kahagelasi Kerela, Konde -kaha Kerela; T: Manjal pidari siru marang kothi. NT Picus xanthopygaeus (Gray & Gray, 1846) E:Streak-throated Woodpecker; S: Irigela Kerela; T: Sethil vayittru marang kothi. EN Dinopium benghalense (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Black-rumped Flameback; S: Ginipita pili-kerela, Pita-rang Kerela; T: Siriya pon muthuhu marang kothi. LC Chrysocolaptes lucidus (Scopoli, 1786) PE E:Greater Flameback ; S:Lepita maha-kerela, Mukalang Kerela; T: Periya ponmuthuhu marang kothi. LC Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert, 1783) E:White -naped Woodpecker; S: Sudugelesi mahakerela, Maha-rang Kerela; T: Karumuthuhu marang kothi. VU Criteria GCS LC B1ab(iii) +2abI(iii) LC LC B2ab(iii) Family: Ramphastidae Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin, E:Brown-headed Barbet; 1788) S: Polos Kottoruwa; T: Paluppu thalai kukkuruvan. LC LC Megalaima lavifrons (Cuvier, 1816) E:Sri Lanka Yellow-fronted Barbet; S: Sri Lanka kahamunath Kottoruwa, Mukalang Kottoruwa; T:Ilankai manjal kuruttu kukkuravan. LC LC Megalaima rubricapillus (Gmelin, 1788) PE E: Crimson-fronted Barbet ; S: Rathmunath Kottoruwa, Mal Kottoruwa; T: Sennettri kukkuravan. LC LC Megalaima haemacephala (Müller, 1776) E: Coppersmith Barbet; S: LC Rathlaya Kottoruwa, Mal Kottoruwa; T: Senmaarbu Kukkuruvan LC Ocyceros gingalensis (Shaw, 1811) E: Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill; LC S: Sri Lanka Alu Kandetta; T: Ilankai naarai irattai chondu kuruvi. LC Anthracoceros coronatus (Boddaert, 1783) E: Malabar Pied Hornbill; S: Poru Kandetta; T: Malabar karuppuvellai iruvaayan. LC NT E:Eurasian Hoopoe; S: Poroluwa; T: Kondalthi. LC LC Family: Bucerotidae Family: Upopidae Upupa epops Linnaeus, 1758 119 Criteria Scientiic Name NCS Common Name Criteria GCS Family: Trogonidae Harpactes fasciatus (Pennant, E:Malabar Trogon; S: 1769) Lohavannichcha, Ginikurulla; T: Malabar theekakai. NT LC LC Family: Coraciidae Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Indian Roller; S:Dumbonna; T: Panankadai, Kottai-kili LC Eurystomus orientalis (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Asian Dollarbird; S: Dumkava; T: Pulupporukki EN Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Common Kingisher; S: Mal Pilihuduwa; T: Siriya neela meen kothi. LC Alcedo meninting Horsield, 1821 E:Blue-Eared Kingisher; S: Nilkan Pilihuduwa; T: Neela kaathu meen kothi. CR Ceyx erithaca (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Black-Backed Kingisher; S:Pitakalu Heen-pilihuduwa, Rang Pilihuduwa; T: Siru meen kothi. NT LC Pelargopsis capensis (Linnaeus, 1766) E: Stork-billed Kingisher; S:Manathudu maha pilihuduwa; T: Parutha alahu meen kothi. LC LC Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus, 1758) E:White-Throated Kingisher; S:Gelasudu medi-pilihuduwa; T: Ven marabu meen kothi. LC LC Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Pied Kingisher; S: Gomara pilihuduwa; T: Siriya karuppu vellai meen kothi. LC LC Merops orientalis Latham, 1802 E:Little Green Bee-eater; S:Punchi binguharaya; T: Siriya pachai panchuruttaan. LC LC Merops leschenaulti Vieillot, 1817 E:Chestnut-headed Beeeater; S:Thambalahis binguharaya; T: Senthalai panchuruttan. LC LC Merops philippinus Linnaeus, 1766* E: Blue-tailed Bee-eater; S: Nilpenda binguhariya CR Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert, 1783) E:Pied Cuckoo; S:Gomara kondakoha; T:Kadalai kuyil. LC Cuculus varius Vahl, 1797 E:Common Hawk-cuckoo; S:Ukusu kokilaya; T: Kuyil EN Cacomantis sonneratii (Latham, 1790) E:Banded Bay Cuckoo; S:Vaira anukoha; T: Sempaluppu vari kuyil. NT B2ab(iii) LC Family: Alcedinidae LC B2ab(iii) LC Family: Meropidae B1ab(iii)+ +2ab(iii) LC Family: Cuculidae 120 LC B2ab(iii) LC LC Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name Surniculus lugubris (Horsield, 1821) E:Drongo Cuckoo; NT S:Kavudukoha; T:Karichan kuyil. Eudynamys scolopaceus (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Asian Koel; S:Kovula; T: Asia Kuyil. LC LC Phaenicophaeus viridirostris (Jerdon, 1840) E:Blue-faced Malkoha; S: Wathanil malkoha; T: Neela muha malkoha. LC LC Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii (Lesson, 1830) E:Sirkeer Malkoha; S:Pathan Malkoha; T: Sevvalahu malkoha. VU B1ab(iii) LC Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus (Pennant, 1769) E:Sri Lanka Red-faced VU Malkoha; S:Sri Lanka Watharathu Malkoha; T: Ilankai semmuka malkoha. B1ab(iii) VU Centropus sinensis (Stephens, 1815) E:Greater Coucal; S:Atikukula; T: Periya sembaham. Centropus chlororhynchus Blyth, 1849 E:Sri Lanka Green-billed EN Coucal; S:Sri Lanka Bata Atikukula; T: Ilankai pachai alahu sembaham. Cuculus micropterus Gould, 1838 * E:Indian Cuckoo; S: Indu kokilaya LC LC Loriculus beryllinus (Forster, 1781) E:Sri Lanka Hanging Parrot; S:Sri Lanka giramaliththa; T: Ilankai sinna kili. LC LC Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Alexandrine Parakeet; S: Labu girawa; T:Periya pachai Kili LC LC Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, 1769) E:Rose-ringed Parakeet; S:Rena girawa; T: Pachai Kili LC LC Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Plum-headed Parakeet; S:Pandu girawa; T: Senthalai Kili. NT LC Psittacula calthropae (Blyth, 1849) E:Sri Lanka Emeraldcollared Parakeet; S:Sri Lanka Alu girawa; T: Ilankai naadu Kili. NT LC Collocalia unicolor (Jerdon, 1840) E:Indian Swiftlet; S:Indu upa-thurithaya, Wehilihiniya; T: Sinna ulavaaran. LC LC Hirundapus giganteus (Temminck, 1825) E:Brown-backed Needletail; S:Pitabora katu-thurithaya; T: Paluppu muthuhu mulvl ulavaaran. NT Cypsiurus balasiensis (Gray, 1829) E:Asian Palm-swift; S:Asia LC thal-thurithaya; T: Panai ulavaaran. NCS Criteria LC GCS C2a(i) LC B2ab(iii) VU Family: Psittacidae Family: Apodidae 121 Criteria LC B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Tachymarptis melba (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Alpine Swift; S:Alpine piri-thurithaya; T: Alphine ulavaaran. EN B2ab(iii) LC Apus afinis (Gray, 1830) E:Little Swift; S: Punchi thurithaya; T: Naadu ulavaaran. LC E:Crested Treeswift; S: Silu ruk-thurithaya; T: Kondai ulavaaran. LC Tyto alba (Scopoli, 1769) E:Barn Owl; S: Atu wesbassa, Bakamuna; T: Koohai aanthai. NT Phodilus badius (Horsield, 1821) E:Oriental Bay-owl; S:Peradigu gurubassa; T: Kaatu sempaluppu aanthai. EN Otus sunia Hodgson, 1836 E:Oriental Scops-owl; S:Peradigu kanbassa; T: Keelai theya sevi aanthai. NT Otus bakkamoena Pennant, 1769 E:Collared Scops-owl; S: Karapati Kanbassa; T: Pattaikaluthu sevi aanthai. LC Otus thilohoffmanni Warakagoda & Rasmussen, 2004 E:Sri Lanka Serendib Scops-owl; S: Sri Lanka pandu kanbassa; T: Ilankai serendib sevi aanthai. EN Bubo nipalensis Hodgson, 1836 E:Spot-Bellied Eagleowl; S:Ukusubakamuna, Ulama; T:Pullivayittru kaluhu aanthai. NT LC Ketupa zeylonensis (Gmelin, 1788) E:Brown Fish-owl; S:Bora kevulbakamuna; T: Meen pidi aanthai. LC LC Strix leptogrammica Temminck, 1831 E:Brown Wood-owl; S:Bora Wanabakamuna; T: Paluppu kaatu aanthai. NT LC Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell, 1833) E:Jungle Owlet; S:Wana Upabassa; T: Kaatu siru aanthai. NT LC Glaucidium castanonotum (Blyth, 1846) E:Sri Lanka Chestnutbacked Owlet; S:Sri Lanka Pitathambala Upabassa; T: Ilankai semmanjal muthuhu siru aanthai. VU Ninox scutulata (Rafles, 1822) E:Brown Hawk-owl; S:Dumburu Ukusubassa; T: Vettaikara aanthai. LC LC E:Frogmouth; S:Madimuhuna; T: Ceylon thavalai vaayan. LC LC Criteria LC Family: Hemiprocnidae Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell, 1833) Family: Tytonidae LC B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) LC Family: Strigidae LC B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) B1ab(iii) EN NT Family: Podargidae Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth, 1846 Family:Caprimulgidae 122 B1ab(ii,iii); C2a(i) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Caprimulgus indicus Latham, 1790 E:Grey Nightjar; S: Alu bimbassa; T: Kaatu pakki. VU B1ab(iii) LC Caprimulgus atripennis Jerdon, 1845 E:Jerdon's Nightjar; S: Digupenda bimbassa; T: Jerdon pakki. LC LC Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham, 1790 E:Indian Nightjar; S: Indu Bimbassa; T: Siru pakki. LC LC Columba livia Gmelin, 1789 E;Rock Pigeon; S: Pareviya; T:Maada Puraa. CRconsidering only wild population B2ab(iii) LC Columba torringtoniae (Blyth & Kelaart, 1853) E:Sri Lanka WoodPigeon; S:Sri Lanka Maila Paraviya (Mailagoya); T: Ilankai karuppup Puraa. VU B1ab(iii) VU Stigmatopelia chinensis (Scopoli, 1786) E:Spotted Dove; S: Alu-kobeiya; T: Pulli Puraa. LC LC Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky, 1838) E:Eurasian Collared Dove; S: Mala kobeiya; T: Panjavaran Puraa. NT LC Chalcophaps indica (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Emerald Dove; S: Neela kobeiya; T: Pathekai Puraa. LC LC Treron bicinctus (Jerdon, 1840) E:Orange-breasted Green-pigeon; S: Layaran batagoya; T: Orange maarbu Pachai Puraa. LC LC Treron pompadora (Gmelin, 1789) PE E:Pompadour Green Pigeon; S: Pitadam Batagoya; T: Sambal nettri Pachai Puraa. LC LC Treron phoenicopterus (Latham, 1790) E:Yellow-footed GreenPigeon; S: Ranpa Batagoya; T: Manjal kaal pachai puraa. CR Ducula aenea (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Green Imperial-Pigeon; S: Nil Mahagoya; T: Pachai arasa Puraa. LC Gallirallus striatus (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Slaty-breasted Rail; S:Layalu Geli-reluwa; T: Saambal maarbu sambang koli. VU Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant, 1769) E:White-breasted LC Waterhen; S: Layasudu korawakka; T: Ven maarbu kaanaang koli. Porzana fusca (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Ruddy-breasted Crake; S: Layarathu vil-keralaiya; T: Sem maarbu kaanaang koli. Criteria Family: Columbidae B2ab(iii) LC LC Family: Rallidae 123 VU B2ab(iii) LC LC B2ab(iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) Scientiic Name Common Name Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin, 1789) E:Watercock; S:Korawa; T: NT Thaneer kolli. LC Porphyrio porphyrio (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Purple Swamphen; S:Dam madi-kithala; T: Neela thodai koli. LC LC Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus, E:Common Moorhen; 1758) S: Podu galinuwa, Wil kukkula; T: Thaalai koli. LC LC Fulica atra Linnaeus, 1758 E:Common Coot; S: Podu kithala; T: Nama koli. LC LC Rallina eurizonoides Lafresnaye, 1845* E: Slaty-legged Crake; S: Alupa keraliya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) E:Greater Painted-Snipe; S:Raja ulu-kaswatuwa; T: Mayil ullaan. VU B2ab(iii) NCS Criteria GCS LC Family: Rostratulidae Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus, 1758) Family: Jacanidae E:Pheasant-Tailed Jacana; LC S: Savul-diyasana, Pan kukula; T: Neela vaal illaik koli. LC Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Eurasian Thick-Knee; S:Golu-kirala; T: Perungkanni. LC LC Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier, 1829) E:Great Thick-Knee; S: Gal kirala; T: Valaimukku perungkanni. LC LC E: Black-Winged Stilt; S:Kalupiya ipalpava, Kalapu-kirala; T: Nedungkaal ullaan. LC LC Charadrius dubius Scopoli, 1786 E:Little Ringed Plover; S:Punchi mala oleviya; T: Sinna pattani uppuk kothi. VU B2ab(iii) LC Charadrius alexandrinus Linnaeus, 1758 E:Kentish Plover; S:Kent oleviya; T: Kentish pattani uppuk kothi. VU B2ab(iii) LC Vanellus malarbaricus (Boddaert, 1783) E:Yellow-Wattled Lapwing; LC S:Kaha yatimal kirala; T: Manjal mooku aart kaati. LC Vanellus indicus (Boddaert, 1783) E:Red-Wattled Lapwing; S:Rath yatimal kirala; T: Sihappu mooku aart kaati. LC LC Glareola maldivarum Forster, 1795 E:Oriental Pranticole; S: Mala javasariya; T: Thotkuruvi. EN B2ab(iii) LC Glareola lactea Temminck, 1820 E:Small Pranticole; S:Ounchi javasariya; T: Sinna Thotkuruvi. VU B1ab(iii) LC Cursorius coromandelicus Gmelin, 1789 E: Indian Courser; S: Javalihiniya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli, 1786) Family: Burhinidae Family: Recurvirostridae Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus, 1758) Family: Charadriidae Family: Glareolidae 124 Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Sterna bergii Lichtenstein, 1823 E:Great Crested Tern; S:Maha konda muhudulihiniya; T: Periya kondai aalaa. NT Sterna nilotica Brehm,1830* E:Gull-billed Tern; S: Galuthudu muhudulihiniya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Sterna caspia Pallas, 1770* E: Caspian Tern; S:kaspiya muhudulihiniya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Sterna dougallii Montagu, 1813 E: Roseate Tern; S:Arunu muhudulihiniya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Sterna hirundo Linnaeus, 1758* E: Common Tern; S: Podu muhudulihiniya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Sterna albifrons Pallas, 1764* E: Little Tern; S: Punchi muhudulihiniya VU B2ab(iii) LC Sterna saundersi Hume, 1877* E: Saunder's Tern; S: Sondara muhudulihiniya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Sterna anaethetus Scopoli, 1786* E: Bridled Tern; S: Katakali CR muhudulihiniya B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Sterna fuscata Linnaeus, 1766* E: Sooty Tern; S: Dumbutu CR muhudulihiniya B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC E: Crab Plover; S: kakuluoleviya CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Aviceda jerdoni (Blyth, 1842) E:Jerdon's Baza; S: Bora saratakussa, Kurulugoya; T: Jerdon parunthu. EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) LC Pernis ptilorhyncus (Temminck, 1821) E:Oriental HoneyBuzzard; S: Silu bambarakussa, Rajaliya; T: Then parunthu. NT LC Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines, 1789) E:Black-Winged Kite; S: Kaluuris pathanakussa, kurulugoya; T: Karunthol parunthu. NT LC Milvus migrans (Boddaert, 1783) E: Black Kite; S: Bora parakussa, Ukussa; T: Karum parunthu. LC Haliastur indus (Boddaert, 1783) E:Brahminy Kite; S:Bamunu piyakussa, Ukussa; T: Sem parunthu. LC LC Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin, 1788) E:White-Bellied Seaeagle; S: Kusa alli muhudukussa; T: Ven vayitru kadat kaluhu. LC LC Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus (Horsield, 1821) E:Grey-Headed Fish-eagle; S: Aluhis masukussa, Wewa rajaliya; T: Siriya sambalthalai meen kaluhu. NT NT Criteria GCS Family: Laridae LC Family: Dromadidae Dromas ardeola Paykull, 1805* Family: Accipitridae 125 Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Spilornis cheela (Latham, 1790) E:Crested Serpent-eagle; S: Silu sarapakussa; T: Kondai paambu kaluhu. LC Accipiter trivirgatus (Temminck, 1824) E:Crested Goshawk; S:Silu kurulugoya, kurulugoya; T: Kondai valooru. VU Accipiter badius (Gmelin, 1788) E:Shikra; S:Kurulugoya; T: Valooru. LC Accipiter virgatus (Temminck, 1822) E:Besra; S: Besra kurulugoya; T: Kaatuk kaluhu. VU Ictinaetus malayensis (Temminck, 1822) E:Black Eagle; S: Kalukussa, kalu rajaliya; T: Karung kaluhu. NT Hieraaetus kienerii (G.de Sparre, 1835) E:Rufous-bellied Eagle; S:Kusarath rajaliya; T: Sevvayitru kaluhu. NT Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin, 1788) E:Changeable Hawkeagle; S: Perali kondakussa, Konde Rajaliya; T: Niram marum kaluhu. LC Spizaetus nipalensis Hodgson, 1836 E:Mountain Hawk-eagle; S:Hel kondakussa, Maha konde Rajaliya; T: Malai kaluhu. VU B1ab(iii) Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, 1758 E:Common Kestrel; S: Podu ukusugoya; T: Sivappu valooru. EN B2ab(iii) LC Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771 E:Peregrine Falcon, Shahin Falcon; S: Para ukusugoya; T: Periya rasali. VU B2ab(iii) LC E:Little Grebe; S:Punchi gembithuruva; T: Sinna mookulippan. LC LC E:Oriental Darter; S:Ahikava; T: Paambu thara. LC NT Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot, 1817) E:Little Cormorant; S:Punchi diyakava; T: Siriya neerkaham. LC LC Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens, 1826 E:Indian Cormorant; S: Indu diyakava; T: Naduthoura neerkaaham. LC LC Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Great Cormorant; S: Maha diyakava; T: Periya neerkaaham. NT LC Criteria GCS LC B1ab(iii) LC LC B2ab(iii) LC LC Family: Falconidae Family: Podicipedidae Tachybaptus ruicollis (Pallas, 1764) Family: Anhingidae Anhinga melanogaster Pennant, 1769 Family: Phalacrocoracidae Family: Ardeidae 126 Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Little Egret; S:Punchi anu-koka, sudu-kokka; T: Sinna kokku. LC LC Ardea cinerea Linnaeus, 1758 E:Grey Heron; S: Alu kokka; T: Sambal kokku. LC LC Ardea purpurea Linnaeus, 1766 E:Purple Heron; S: Karaval kokka; T: Senneela kokku. LC LC Casmerodius albus (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Great Egret; S:Sudumaha kokka; T: Periya kokku LC LC Mesophoyx intermedia (Wagler, 1829) E:Intermediate Egret; S: Sudu medi-kokka; T: Naduthara kokku. LC LC Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Cattle Egret; S:Gerikokka, Harak kokka; T: Unnik kokku. LC LC Ardeola grayii (Sykes, 1832) E:Indian Pond-heron; S:Kana kokka; T: Mudaiyan. LC LC Butorides striata (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Striated Heron; S:Palakokka; T: Siriya pachchai kokku. LC LC Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Black-Crowned Nightheron; S:Rekana- kokka; T: Irak kokku. NT LC Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin, 1789) E:Yellow Bittern; S: Kaha meti-kokka; T: Manjal kuruhu. NT LC Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin, 1789) E:Cinnamon Bittern; S:Kurundu meti-kokka; T: Seng kuruhu. NT LC LC LC Ixobrychus lavicollis (Latham, E:Black Bittern; 1790) S:Kalu meti-kokka; T: Karung kuruhu. Criteria GCS Family: Threskiornithidae Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham, 1790) E:Black-headed Ibis; S:Hisakalu dekettha; T: Vellai arivaal mookan. LC NT Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus, 1758 E:Eurasian Spoonbill; S: Hendialava; T: Karandi vaayan. LC LC E:Spot-billed Pelican; S:Thithhota pasthuduwa; T: Pullialahu koolikkada. LC NT Mycteria leucocephala (Pennant, 1769) E:Painted Stork; S:Lathuvakiya; T: Manjalmooku naarai. LC NT Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert, 1783) E:Asian Openbill; S: Vivarathuduwa; T: Naththai-kuththi-narai LC LC Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert, 1783) E:Wooly-Necked Stork; S: Padili manava; T: Venkaluthu naarai. NT LC Family: Pelecanidae Pelecanus philippensis Gmelin, 1789 Family: Ciconiidae 127 Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (Latham, 1790) E:Black Necked Stork; S:Ali manava; T: Karungkaluthu naarai. CR B2ab(iii) NT Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsield, 1821) E:Lesser Adjutant; S:Heen bahuru-manava; T: Siriyapotha. VU B2ab(iii) VU Criteria A2cd+3cd+4cd Family: Chloropseidae Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth, 1844) E:Jerdon's Leafbird; LC S:Jaradan kolarisiya, Girakurulla; T: Jerdon pachaichittu. LC Chloropsis aurifrons (Temminck, 1829) E:Golden Fronted Leafbird; S:Ran nalal kolarisiya; T: Pachaichittu. LC LC E:Long Tailed Shrike; S:Dikpenda sabaraiththa; T: Neela vaal keechaan. VU B1ab(iii) Urocissa ornata (Wagler, 1829) E:Sri Lanka Magpie; S:Sri Lanka Kahibella; T: Ilankai neela kuruvi. VU B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) Corvus splendens Vieillot, 1817 E:House Crow; S: Colomba kaputa; T: Kaakai. LC LC Corvus levaillantii Lesson, 1831 E:Jungle Crow; S:Kalu kaputa; T: Andang kaakai. LC LC E;Ashy Woodswallow; S:Alu vanalihiniya; T: Sambal kaatu thakai vilaan. LC LC LC LC Family: Laniidae Lanius schach Linnaeus, 1758 Family: Corvidae VU Family: Artamidae Artamus fuscus Vieillot, 1817 Family: Oriolidae Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus, E:Black Hooded Oriole; 1758) S:Kahakurulla; T: Karunthalai maangkuyil. Family: Campephagidae Coracina macei (Lesson, 1831) E:Large Cuckooshrike; S: Maha kovulsaratiththa; T: Periya kuyil keechaan. LC LC Coracina melanoptera (Rüppell, 1839) E:Black-headed Cuckooshrike; S:Kaluhis kovulsaratiththa; T: Karunthalai kuyil keechaan. LC LC Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Small Minivet; S:Punchi miniviththa; T: Sinna min sittu. LC LC Pericrocotus lammeus (Forster, 1781) E:Scarlet Minivet; S:Dilirath miniviththa; T: Sihappu min sittu. LC LC Hemipus picatus (Sykes, 1832) E:Bar Winged Flycatcher Shrike; S:Wairapiya masisaratiththa, Panu kurulla; T: Karuppu vellai eepidi keechaan. LC LC 128 B1ab(ii,iii,iv) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin, 1789) PE E:Common Woodshrike; S: Podu vanasaratiththa; T: Kaatu keechaan. LC LC E:White-browed Fantail; LC S:Bamasudu pavanpenda; T: Venpuruva visirivaal eepidippaan. LC Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot, 1817 E:Black Drongo; S:Kalu kavuda; T: Karung karichaan. LC LC Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus, 1758) E:White-bellied Drongo; S:Kavuda; T: Venvayittru karichaan. LC LC Dicrurus paradiseus (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Greater Racket-tailed Drongo; S:Maha kavuda; T: Thuduppuval karichaan. NT Dicrurus lophorhinus Vieillot, 1817 E: Sri Lanka Crested Drongo VU Hypothymis azurea (Boddaert, 1783) E:Black-naped Monarch; S: Kalu gelasi radamara; T: Karumpidari arasaee pidipaan. LC LC Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Asian Paradise Flycatcher; S: Asia rahanmara, Redi hora; T: Arasavaal eepidipaan. LC LC Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Common Iora; S:Podu iorava; T: Manjal chittu. LC LC Aegithina nigrolutea (Marshall, 1876) E:White-tailed Iora; S:Pendasudu iorava; T: Venvaal chittu. VU B1ab(iii) Myophonus blighi (Holdsworth, 1872) E:Sri Lanka Whistling Thrush, Arrenga; S: Sri Lanka arangaya; T: Ilankai seezhkai oli paadum kuruvi. EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii) EN Zoothera spiloptera (Blyth, 1847) E:Sri Lanka Spot winged Thrush; S:Sri Lanka thithpiya thirasikaya, Wal avichchiya; T: Ilankai pullichiraku paadum kuruvi. VU B1ab(iii) NT Zoothera imbricata E.L. Layard, 1854 E:Sri Lanka Scaly Thrush; S: Sri Lanka kayuru thirasikaya; T: Ilankai ponnira poong kuruvi. EN B2ab(iii) NT Turdus merula Linnaeus, 1758 E:Eurasian Blackbird; S: Kalu bimsariya; T: Malaichittaan. EN B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii Criteria GCS Criteria Family: Rhipiduridae Rhipidura aureola Lesson, 1830 Family: Dicruridae B1ab(iii) Family: Monarchiidae Family: Aegithinidae Family: Turdidae 129 B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Eumyias sordidus (Walden, 1870) E:Sri Lanka Dull Blue Flycatcher; S:Sri Lanka anumasimara; T: Ilankai neela vettivaat kuruvi. VU B1ab(iii) NT Cyornis tickelliae Blyth, 1843 E:Tickell's Blue Flycatcher; LC S: Layaran nil-masimara, Kopi kurulla; T: Tickell neela ee pidippaan. LC Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Oriental Magpie Robin; S: Polkichcha; T: Karuppu vellai solaippadi. LC LC Copsychus malabaricus (Scopoli, 1788) E:White Rumped Shama; S: Vana Polkichcha; T: Solanippaadi. LC LC Saxicoloides fulicatus (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Indian Robin; S: Kalukichcha, Kalu polkichcha; T: Karunj chittu. LC LC Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Pied Bushchat; S: Gomara sitibichcha; T: Karuppu vellai puthar chittu. EN Culicicapa ceylonensis Swainson, 1820 E: Grey- headed canarylycatcher; S: Aluhis kahamasimaaraa LC Sturnus albofrontatus (Layard, 1854) E:Sri Lanka White Faced Starling; S: Sri Lanka vathasudu sarikava; T: Ilankai soorai kuruvi. EN Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Common Myna; S: Myna; T: Naakanavai. LC Gracula ptilogenys Blyth, 1846 E:Sri Lanka Myna; S: Sri Lanka Salalihiniya; T: Ilankai myna. VU Gracula religiosa Linnaeus, 1758 E:Hill Myna; S: Salalihiniya; T: Malai naakanavai. LC LC E:Velvet Fronted Nuthatch; S: Villuda yatikuriththa; T: Velvet nettri maram irangi. LC LC E:Great Tit; S: Maha tikiriththa; T: Periya pattaari kuruvi. LC Hirundo domicola Jerdon, 1844 E:Hill Swallow; S: Kandu wehilihiniya; T: Paciic thakaivilaan. VU Hirundo hyperythra Blyth, 1849PE E:Red rumped swallow; S: Nithambarath wehilihiniya; T: Sivanthapitta thakaivilaan. LC Criteria Family: Muscicapidae B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii LC LC Family: Sturnidae B1ab(iii) +2ab(iii VU LC B1ab(iiii) NT Family: Sittidae Sitta frontalis Swainson, 1820 Family: Paridae Pavus major Linnaeus, 1758 Family: Hirundinidae 130 B1ab(iiii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Pycnonotus melanicterus (Gmelin, 1789) PE E:Black-crested Bulbul; S: Kalu isasi kondaya; T: Karungkondai sinnaan. LC LC Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Red-vented Bulbul; S:Kondaya; T: Sinnaan. LC LC Pycnonotus penicillatus Blyth, 1851 E:Sri Lanka Yellow-eared Bulbul; S: Sri Lanka kahakan kondaya; T: Ilankai manjal sevikkondai kuruvi. VU Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson, 1841) E:White Browed Bulbul; S:Bamasudu Kondaya; T: Ven puruva sinnaan. LC LC Iole indica (Jerdon, 1839) E:Yellow Browed Bulbul; S: Bamakaha Kondaya; T: Manjal puruva sinnaan. LC LC Hypsipetes leucocephalus (Gmelin, 1789) E:Asian Black Bulbul; S:Kalu piri-kondaya; T: Karung sinnaan. LC LC Cisticola juncidis (Rainesque, E:Zitting Cisticola; 1810) S: Iri Pavansariya; T: Naatu visirivaal kathir kuruvi. LC LC Prinia hodgsonii Blyth, 1844 E:Gray-breasted Prinia; S: Layalu prinia; T: Frankkin kathir kuruvi. LC LC Prinia sylvatica Jerdon, 1840 E:Jungle Prinia; S: Vana prinia, Hambu kurulla; T: Kaatu kathir kuruvi. LC LC Prinia socialis Sykes, 1832 E:Ashy Prinia; S:Alu prinia; T: Sambal kathir kuruvi. LC LC Prinia inornata Sykes, 1832 E:Plain Prinia; S: Sarala prinia; T: Kathir kuruvi. LC Criteria GCS Family: Pycnonotidae B1ab(iiii) +2ab(iii) NT Family: Cisticolidae Family: Zosteropidae Zosterops ceylonensis Holdsworth, 1872 E:Sri Lanka White Eye; NT S: Sri Lanka sithasiya, Mal kurulla; T: Ilankai ven vilik kuruvi. LC Zosterops palpebrosus (Temminck, 1824) E:Oriental White Eye; S:Peradigu sithasiya; T: Vellai kanni. LC LC Family: Sylviidae B1ab(iiii) +2ab(iii) NT Bradypterus palliseri (Blyth, 1851) E:Sri Lanka Bush Warbler; EN S: Sri Lanka vanaraviya; T: Ilankai pattrai thinnung kuruvi. Acrocephalus stentoreus (Ehrenberg, 1833) E:Clamorous Reed Warbler; S: Gos panraviya; T:Periya nanal kathir kuruvi. NT LC Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant, 1769) E:Common Tailorbird; S: Battichcha; T: Thaiyat kaara kathir kuruvi. LC LC 131 Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Garrulax cinereifrons Blyth, 1851 E:Sri Lanka Ashy-headed Laughingthrush; S:Sri Lanka hisalu upademalichcha; T: Ilankai saambal thalai punnahaikum paadum kuruvi. EN B1ab(iiii) +2ab(iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v); C2a(i) Pellorneum fuscocapillus (Blyth, 1849) E:Sri Lanka Brown Capped Babbler; S: Sri Lanka Boraga piridemalichcha; T: Ilankai kabilakulla velaikkara kuruvi. LC LC Pomatorhinus melanurus Blyth, 1847 E:Sri Lanka Scimitar Babbler; S: Sri Lanka de-demalichcha; T: Ilankai koduvaal velaikkara kuruvi. LC LC Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin, 1831) E:Tawny-bellied Babbler; S: Kusakaha landudemalichcha; T: Karunj chirappu vayittru silamban. LC LC Rhopocichla atriceps (Jerdon, 1839) E:Dark Fronted Babbler; S: Vathaduru pandurudemalichcha, Parandelkurulla; T: Karunthalai chilamban. LC LC Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin, 1789) E:Yellow Eyed Babbler; S:Nethkaha thanademalichcha; T: Manjal kan silamban. LC LC Turdoides rufescens (Blyth, 1847) E:Sri Lanka Orange Billed Babbler; S:Sri Lanka rathu-demalichcha; T: Ilankai sev valuhu velaikkara kuruvi. VU Turdoides afinis (Jerdon, 1845) E:Yellow Billed Babbler; S:Demalichcha; T: Manjal alahu silamban. LC LC Mirafra afinis Blyth, 1845 E:Jerdon's Bushlark; S:Panduru gomaritta; T: Jerdan puthar vaanam paadi. LC LC Eremopterix griseus (Scopoli, 1786) E:Ashy Crowned Sparrow Lark; S: Kirulalu Bimritta; T: Sambal thalai vaanam paadi. LC LC Alauda gulgula Franklin, 1831 E:Oriental Skylark; S: Peradigu ahsritta; T: Vaanam paadi. LC LC E:Thick Billed Flowerpecker; S:Mathudu pililichcha; T: Parutha alahu malar kothi. NT LC Family: Timaliidae B1ab(iiii) +2ab(iii) NT Family: Alaudidae Family: Dicaeidae Dicaeum agile (Tickell, 1833) 132 Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Dicaeum vincens (Sclater, 1872) E:Sri Lanka White Throated Flowerpecker; S:Sri Lanka Pililichcha; T: Ilankai venthondai malar kothi. VU B1ab(iiii) +2ab(iii) NT Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Latham, 1790) E:Pale Billed Flowerpecker; S:Lathudu Pililichcha; T: Dickel malar kothi. LC LC Nectarinia zeylonica (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Purple Rumped Sunbird; S:Nithamba dam sutikka; T: Oothapitta thenchittu. LC LC Nectarinia asiatica (Latham, 1790) E:Purple Sunbird; S: Dam sutikka; T: Ootha thenchittu. LC LC Nectarinia lotenia (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Long Billed Sunbird; S: Dikthudu Sutikka; T: Loten thenchittu. LC LC Family: Nectariniidae Family: Passeridae Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, E:House Sparrow; 1758) S:Gekurulla; T: Chittukkuruvi. LC Family: Motacillidae Anthus rufulus Vieillot, 1818 E:Paddyield Pipit; S:Keth waratichcha; T: Vayal nettaikkaadi. LC LC Ploceus manyar (Horsield, 1821) E:Streaked Weaver; S:Pan Wadukurulla; T: Karung keetru thookanaang kuruvi. NT LC Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Baya Weaver; S:Ruk Wadukurulla; T: Thookkanaang kuruvi. LC LC Lonchura malabarica (Linnaeus, 1758) E:White Throated Munia; S:Sarala Weekurulla; T:Ven thondai sillai. VU Lonchura striata (Linnaus, 1766) E:White Rumped Munia; S:Nithamba sudu Weekurulla; T: Ven muthuhu sillai. LC LC Lonchura kelaarti (Jerdon, 1863) E:Black Throated Munia; S:Gelakalu Weekurulla; T: Karunthondai sillai. VU LC Lonchura punctulata (Linnaeus, 1758) E:Scaly Breasted Munia; S: Laya kayuru Weekurulla; T:Pulli sillai. LC LC Lonchura malacca (Linnaeus, 1766) E:Tricoloured Munia; S: Thepaha Weekurulla; T: Karunthalai sillai. LC LC Family: Ploceidae Family: Estrildidae 133 B2ab(iiii) LC Criteria The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Mammals in Sri Lanka Devaka K. Weerakoon Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3 Introduction The irst systematic account of the mammals of Sri Lanka was done by Kelaart (1852). Thereafter, Phillips (1935) has written a more extensive review of the mammals of Sri Lanka which, even though somewhat outdated in terms of information, remains the standard reference work for the mammals of Sri Lanka even at present. After Phillips, several attempts have been made to revise the taxonomic status of the country’s mammals. Some of these reviews have focused speciically on the Sri Lankan situation (Hill, 1939; Eisenberg and Mckay, 1970; Hill, 1980; Mckay 1984) while others treated the country’s mammals in a regional context (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1966; Corbet and Hill, 1992). In addition, there are a number of reviews that have focused on speciic taxonomic groups (Moore, 1960; Ellerman, 1961; Musser, 1981; Bates & Harrison, 1997; Marshall, 1977; Sirinivasulu and Pradhan, 2003; Chakraborty et al., 2004; Sirinivasulu and Jordan, 2004; Sirinivasulu and Sirinivasulu, 2004; Sirinivasulu et al., 2004a and Sirinivasulu et al., 2004b). Taxonomy A total of 144 species and subspecies of mammals were described from Sri Lanka from 1758 to1965. Of these, 24 are currently considered as valid species. According to literature, there are 95 species of indigenous mammals in Sri Lanka, of which 21 species are endemic to the island. Another 12 species have been introduced to Sri Lanka by humans, of which four species, namely Bubalis bubalis, Equus caballus, Equus asinus and Rattus norvegicus, have well established feral populations. The endemic status of the Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew, Feroculus feroculus had to be revised as it has been reported from equivalent bioclimatic zones in Kerala & Tamil Nadu provinces of India (Pradhan et al., 1997). At the same time recent revisions of the South Asian murids (Sirinivasulu and Pradhan, 2003; Dissanayake, 2012) and primates (Walker and Molur, 2004) have indicated that Funambulus layardi, Funambulus obscurus and Loris tardigradus are endemic to Sri Lanka. Further, revision of the genus Moschiola (Groves & Meijaard, 2005) and the species Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Groves et al., 2009) resulted in splitting of the two previously known species into ive endemic species, Moschiola meminna, Moschiola kathygre, Paradoxurus aureus, Paradoxurus stenocephalus and Paradoxurus montanus. Finally, another species of shrew, Crocidura hikmiya, has been added to the list of endemic species of Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura et al., 2007), bringing the total number of endemic species to 21. Most revisions of Sri Lankan mammals have been based mainly on museum collections rather than detailed ield studies. The work of Phillips therefore remains the only truly reliable source even today, even though advances in systematics during recent years have made some of his nomenclature obsolete and, as noted above, the endemic status of several species of mammals have changed. Other aspects that need to be resolved are the subspeciic status of some Sri Lankan mammals and the status of two species of small mammals described by Deraniyagala (1958 and 1964), Podihik kura and Gatamiya weragami. 134 Several Sri Lankan mammals are represented by sub species whose status have not been clearly established. Therefore, these sub species were not considered during the present conservation assessment. However, some of the sub species are quite rare in Sri Lanka eg. Loris tardigradus nycticeboides, Macaca sinica opisthomeles, Semnopithecus vetulus monticola even though the species itself is found in abundance. Therefore, if these sub species are to be conserved as genetically stable units in the future, the correct sub species status has to be clearly resolved. Both Gatamiya weragami and Podihik kura are not currently considered in the list of Sri Lankan mammals. Corbett and Hill (1992) consider that the former is probably a synonym of Mus booduga, while the description of the latter was based on a juvenile specimen of Suncus murinus. However, Deraniyagala placed P. kura in the subfamily Soricinae, which possess reddish incisor enamel, while the subfamily Crocidurinae, to which Suncus belongs, has white enamel. The status of Podihik, at least, needs to be re-examined. All these taxonomic issues point to the need to carry out a systematic review of the taxonomy of Sri Lankan mammals based on detailed ield collections as well as existing museum specimens. Distribution Eisenberg and McKay (1970) proposed a system for classifying the habitats of mammals in Sri Lanka based on the climate map of Muller-Dombois and Sirisena (1967); they recognized seven mammalian zones, namely monsoon scrub jungle in the northwest (A1) and southeast (A2), monsoon forest and grassland (B), inter monsoon forest (C), rain forests and grasslands below 3000 feet (D1), between 3000-5000 feet (D2) and above 5000 feet (D3). Out of these, most of the endemic and threatened mammals of Sri Lanka are restricted to the zones D1, D2 and D3. However, these three zones remain poorly explored, especially zones D2 and D3. As recent studies have lead to the description of at least 5 new endemic species during the last ive years alone from these three zones, a detailed survey of the mammals in these three zones is a timely need. Research gaps related to the taxonomy of mammals of Sri Lanka Most of the research on mammals of Sri Lanka has been biased towards the large charismatic animals with little emphasis on the small mammals. Many of the small mammals have not been recorded in recent times and their present status remains unknown. Furthermore, many areas of Sri Lanka, such as the north, northwest, isolated hills in the dry zone and the montane regions (especially, the Knuckles Range and Sinharaja), have not been properly surveyed and may harbour species that are not recorded to date. It is extremely important, therefore, for Sri Lanka to establish a systematic survey program for the country’s mammals (for both terrestrial and marine), with a special emphasis on small mammals, under the auspices of the national museum or any other relevant government agency. Such a survey would bring a wealth of information on the mammalian fauna of Sri Lanka as well as provide the basis to resolve many of the taxonomic issues we face today. 135 Conservation issues pertaining to mammals of Sri Lanka Even though many, perhaps most, of the mammals show a wide distribution within Sri Lanka, a majority of the endemic and threatened mammals are conined to the wet zone and especially, the montane zone where habitat loss and degradation are taking place at a rapid rate. Furthermore, fragmentation of habitats also has a detrimental effect on mammal populations, especially small mammals who have low mobility. Expansion of human settlements into forested areas has resulted in an inlux of pest species (house rat and brown rat) and domestic predators (cat and dog) into the remaining natural habitats. These compete with indigenous species as well as increase the predator pressure on already stressed natural populations. A number of small predators, such as the ishing cat and the mongoose, live in small urban forests and marshes which are at risk of being converted to human use, endangering these small urban populations. Increased mortality due to hunting and conlict also remains a major concern, especially for the large charismatic species. References: Bates, P. J. J. & Harrison, D. L., (1997). Bats of the Indian sub-continent. London: Harrison Zoological Museum. Chakraborty, S., Sirinivasalu, C., Sirinivasalu, B., Pradhan, M. S. & Nameer, P. O., (2004). Checklist of insectivores (Mammalia: Insectivora) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1361-1371. Corbet, G. B. & Hill, J. E., (1992). Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1958). Ceylon Administration Reports for 1957 (Part IV) Education E3-E23 Part 1. Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1964). Some aspects of the Fauna of Ceylon. Journal Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 9(1), pp.165-220 Dissanayake, R. & Tatsuo, O., (2012). The systematics of the dusky striped squirrel Funambulus sublineatus (Waterhouse, 1838) (Rodentia: Sciuridae) and its relationship to Layard’s Squirrel Funambulus layardi Blyth 1849. J. Nat. Hist., 46(1-2), pp.91-116 Eisenberg, J. F. & Mckay, G. M., (1970). An annotated checklist of the recent mammals of Ceylon with keys to species. Ceylon Journal of Science, 8(2), pp.69-99. Ellerman, J. R., (1961). The fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon: Mammalia, Rodentia. Volume 3. 2nd Edition. Culcutta: Zoological Survey of India. Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S., (1966). Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals. 2nd Edition. London: British museum of Natural History. Groves, C. P. & Meijaard, E., (2005). Interspeciic variation in Moschiola, the Indian chevrotain. Rafles Bulletin of Zoology, 12, pp.413-421. Groves, C. P. & Rajapaksha, C. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (2009). The taxonomy of the endemic golden palm civet of Sri Lanka. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 155, pp.238–251. Hill, J. E., (1980). The mammals of Sri Lanka. Spolia Zeylanica, 35, pp.203-211. Hill, W. C. O., (1939). A revised checklist of the mammals of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science, 21(2), pp.139-184. Kelaart, E. F., (1852). Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae: Being contributions to the Zoology of Ceylon. Colombo: Printed for the Author. Marshall, J. T. Jr., (1977). A synopsis of Asian species of Mus (Rodentia: Muridae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 158, pp.173-220. Mckay, G. M., (1984). Ecology and biogeography of mammals. In: C.H. Fernando. ed. 1984. Biogeography and Ecology of Sri Lanka. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, pp.413-429. Meegaskumbura, S., Meegaskumbura, M., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Schneider, C. J., (2007). Crocidura hikmiya, a new shrew (Mammalia: Soricomorpha: Soricidae) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 1665, pp.19– 30 Moore, J. C., (1960). Squirrel geography of the Indian subregion. Systematic Zoology, 9(1), pp.1-17. Muller-Dombois, D. & Sirisena, V. A., (1967). Climate map of Ceylon. Colombo: Ceylon Survey Department, Ceylon. Musser, G. G., (1981). Results of the Archbold expeditions number 105. Notes on sytematics of Indo-malayan murid rodents, and descriptions of new genera and species from Ceylon, Sulawesi, and the Philippines. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 168, pp.225-234. 136 Phillips, W. W. A., (1935). Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon- Ceylon Journal of Science. London: Dulau & Company. Pradhan, M. S., Sharma, R. M. & Shanker, K., (1997). First record of Kelaart’s Long-clawed Shrew Feroculus feroculus (Kelaart) from peninsular India. Mammalia, 61(3), pp.448-450. Shanker, K. & Sukumar, R., (1998). Community structure and demography of small-mammal populations in insular montane forests in southern India. Oecologia, 116, pp.243-251. Sirinivasalu, C. & Pradhan, M. S., (2003). Checklist of murids (Mammalia: Rodentia: Muridae) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 18(12), pp.1286-1310. Sirinivasalu, C. & Jordan, M. J. R., (2004). Checklist of dipodids, myoxids, and hystricids (Mammalia: Rodentia: Dipodidae, Myoxidae, and Hystricidae) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1346-1350. Sirinivasalu, C. & Sirinivasalu, B., (2004). Checklist of scandents and pholidots (Mammalia: Scandentia and Pholidota) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1372-1374. Sirinivasalu, C., Chakraborty, S. & Pradhan, M. S., (2004a). Checklist of sciurids (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1351-1360. Sirinivasalu, C., Sirinivasalu, B., Chakraborty, S., Pradhan, M. S. & Nameer, P. O., (2004b). Checklist of lagomorphs (Mammalia: Lagomorpha) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1375-1380. Walker, S. & Molur, S., (2003). Summary of the status of the South Asian primates - Extracted from the Status of South Asian Primates: Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (C.A.M.P.) Work shop report 2003. Coimbatore, India: Zoo Outreach Organisation and CBSG-South Asia and WILD. Notes on the Marine Mammals of Sri Lanka The maritime zone of Sri Lanka is inhabited by 30 species of marine mammals. Even though it has been known that marine mammals inhabited the ocean around Sri Lanka as far back as the 14th century based on the writings of the travelers, the scientiic study of the marine mammals has only begun in the 1980’s. Therefore, what is known about the diversity, ecology and conservation of marine mammals is based on information gathered by research carried out during the last three decades. The 30 species of marine mammals recorded in Sri Lankan waters are classiied under two orders, Cetartiodactyla (includes 29 species of whales, dolphins and porpoises in ive families) and Sirenia (includes 1 species of Dugong). As indicated above, the research studies on Marine Mammals in Sri Lanka has only started during the last three decades. Even these are mostly short-term studies due to funding restrictions, logistical restrictions in studying large ranging oceanic animals and lack of access to certain parts of the ocean due to security reasons. However, in order to reach a clear understanding of large ranging mammals such as whales and dolphins long term studies are necessary. Due to the lack of information, the national status of marine mammals has not been assessed and only their global status is listed in this paper. The biggest threat to the marine mammals inhabiting the oceans around Sri Lanka is posed by the isheries industry. Large numbers of Dolphins and Dugongs are killed each year both directly and indirectly (by-catch) by isherman. In addition, increased shipping trafic, marine pollution by both land based and marine based sources, habitat destruction, especially shallow near shore habitats such as sea grass beds are the other major threats faced by marine mammals. Even though Sri Lanka’s maritime zone is nearly eight times larger than its land area, there is a major discrepancy in the allocation of areas for conservation as evidenced by the fact that there are only four Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka as opposed to more than 100 protected areas declared on land under the management of Department of Wildlife Conservation and Forest Department. These four protected areas are primarily aimed at conserving coral reefs and are poorly enforced at present. During the past decade Sri Lanka has gained a reputation as an ideal site for whale and dolphin watching, both among local and foreign tourists. However, at present there are no regulations in place to control or monitor the whale watching industry and as such it may pose a major threat to the marine mammals, especially the larger whales. Lessons learned from other countries indicate that poorly regulated whale watching can have adverse impacts on the marine mammal populations. As Sri Lanka plans to expand its tourist industry in the coming years, marine mammals can prove an important economic resource as it can be marketed as a major tourism experience. Therefore, it is critically important that Sri Lanka pays more attention towards protecting its marine mammals. 137 Table 12: List of Mammals in Sri Lanka Scientiic Name Common Name NCS E: Pangolin; S: Kaballewa NT Crocidura horsieldi (Tomes, 1856) E: Horsield’s shrew; S: Kunuhik-miya CR B2ab(iii) DD Crocidura miya Phillips, 1929 E: Sri Lanka long-tailed shrew; S: Sri Lanka Kunuhik-miya CR B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B2ab(iii) Feroculus feroculus (Kelaart, 1850) E: Kelaart’s longclawed shrew; S: Pirihik-miya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1+2ab(ii,iii) Solisorex pearsoni Thomas, 1924 E: Sri Lanka Pearson’s longclawed shrew; S: Sri Lanka Mahik-miya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Suncus etruscus (Savi, 1822) E: Pigmy shrew; S: Podi Hik-miya EN B1ab(iii) LC Suncus fellowes-gordoni Phillips,1932 E: Sri Lanka pigmy shrew; S: Sri Lanka Podi Hik-miya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Suncus montanus (Kelaart, 1850) E:Sri Lanka Highland shrew; S:Sri Lanka Kandu Hik-miya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) VU B2ab(ii,iii) Suncus murinus (Linnaeus, 1766) E: Common musk shrew; S: Podhu Hik-miya LC LC Suncus zeylanicus Phillips, 1928 E: Sri Lanka jungle shrew; S: Sri Lanka Kele Hik-miya DD EN E: Long-armed sheath-tailed bat; S: Dikba Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825 Kepulum- vavula EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Taphozous melanopogon Temminck, 1841 E: Black-bearded sheath-tailed bat; S: Ravulkalu Kepulum- vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC Saccolaimus saccolaimus Temminck, 1838 E: Pouch-bearing sheath-tailed bat; S: Maha Kepulum- vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC Criteria GCS Criteria Family : Manidae Manis crassicaudata Gray, 1827 NT Family : Soricidae Crocidura hikmiya Meegaskumbura, Meegaskumbura, Pethiyagoda, Manamendra-arachchi & Schneider, 2007 Family : Emballonuridae 138 B2ab(iii) Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Hipposideros ater Temleton, 1848 E: Bicolored leaf-nosed bat; S: Depata Pathnehe-vavula LC Hipposideros fulvus Gray, 1838 E: Fulvousleaf nosed bat; S: Malekaha Pathnehe-vavula EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Hipposideros galeritus Cantor, 1846 E: Dekhan leaf-nosed bat; S: Kesdiga Pathnehe-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850 E: Great leafnosed bat; S: Maha Pathnehe-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC Hipposideros speoris (Schneider, 1800) E: Schneider’s leaf-nosed bat; S: Kesketi Pathnehe-vavula LC Megaderma lyra Geoffroy, 1810 E: Greater False Vampire bat; S: Boru Leyvavula VU B1ab(iii) LC Megaderma spasma (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Lesser False Vampire bat; S: Kandiga Boru Ley-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC Tadarida aegyptiaca (Geoffroy, 1818) E: Continental wrinkled-lip bat; S: Mahadive Rallithol-vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC Chaerephon plicatus (Buchnnan, 1800) E: Common wrinkled-lip bat; S: Podhu Rallithol-vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC Cynopterus brachyotis (Muller, 1838) E: Lesser dognosed fruit bat; S: Heen Thalavavula EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl, 1797) E: Short-nosed fruit bat; S: Thalavavula LC LC Pteropus giganteus (Brunnich, 1782) E: Flying fox; S: Ma-vavula LC LC Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest, 1820) E: Fulvous fruit bat; S: Rath dumburu pala vavula LC LC E: Great horseshoe bat; S: Maha Ashladan-vavula VU Criteria GCS Family : Hipposideridae LC LC Family : Megadermatidae Family : Molossidae Family : Pteropodidae Family : Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus beddomei Anderson, 1905 139 B1ab(iii) LC Criteria Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Rhinolophus rouxii Temminck, 1835 E: Rufous horseshoe bat; S: Borath Ashladan-vavula LC LC Hesperoptenus tickelli (Blyth, 1851) E: Tickle’s bat; S: Awara-vavula DD LC Kerivoula hardwickii (Horseield, 1824) E: Malpas’s bat; S: Rathbora Kehel-vavula CR Kerivoula picta (Pallas, 1767) E: Painted bat; S: Visithuru Kehel-vavula NT Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1819) E: Long-winged bat; S: Dickpiyavavula EN Myotis hasseltii (Temminck, 1840) E: Brown bat; S: Bora-vavula NT LC Murina cyclotis Dobson, 1872 E: Tube-nosed bat; S: Nalanehevavula NT LC Falsistrellus afinis (Dobson, 1871) E: Chocolate bat; S: Bora kosetavavula CR B2ab(iii) LC Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Kelaart, 1852) E: Kelaart’s pipistrel; S: Rathbora koseta-vavula EN B2ab(iii) LC Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838) E: Indian pipistrel; S: Indu kosetavavula VU B1ab(iii) LC Pipistrellus tenuis (Temminck, 1840) E: Pigmy pipistrel; S: Heen kosetavavula LC Scotophilus heathii Horseield, 1831 E: Great yellow bat; S: Maha kaha-vavula VU Scotophilus kuhlii Leach, 1821 E: Lesser yellow bat; S: Heen kaha-vavula DD LC Macaca sinica (Linnaeus, 1771) E: Sri Lanka toque monkey; S: Sri Lanka Rilawa LC EN Semnopithecus priam Blyth, 1844 E: Grey langur; S: Eli-wandura LC NT Semnopithecus vetulus (Erxleben, 1777) E:Sri Lanka Purple-faced langur; S: Sri Lanka kaluwandura EN E: Grey slender loris; S: Alu Unahapuluwa NT Criteria GCS Criteria Family : Vespertillionidae B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC B2ab(iii) LC B1ab(iii) LC Family : Cercopithecidae B2ab(iii) EN Family : Lorisidae Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908 140 LC A2cd A2cd+3cd+4cd Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Sri Lanka red slender loris; S: Sri Lanka Rath Unahapuluwa VU B1ab(iii) EN C2a(i) Family : Canidae E: Jackal; S: Nariya / Hiwala LC LC Felis chaus Gueldenstaedt, 1776 E: Jungle cat; S: Wal Balala NT LC Panthera pardus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Leopard; S: Kotiya/ Diviya EN B2ab(iii) NT Prionailurus rubiginosus (Geoffroy, 1831) E: Rusty-spotted cat; S: Kola Diviya / Balal Diviya EN B2ab(iii) VU C2a(i) Prionailurus viverrinus (Bennett, 1833) E: Fishing cat; S: Handun Diviya EN B2ab(iii) EN A2cd+4cd Herpestes brachyurus Gray, 1837 E: Brown mongoose; S: Bora Mugatiya LC Herpestes edwardsii (Geoffroy, 1818) E: Grey mongoose; S: Alu Mugatiya LC LC Herpestes smithii Gray, 1837 E: Black-tipped or Ruddy mongoose; S: Rath Mugatiya / Hothambuwa LC LC Herpestes vitticollis Bennett, 1835 E: Stripe-necked or badger mongoose; S: Maha Mugatiya / Gal Mugatiya VU B1ab(iii) LC E: Otter; S: Diyaballa VU B1ab(iii) NT E: Sloth bear; S: Walaha EN B2ab(iii) VU Paradoxurus hermaphoditus (Pallas, 1777) E: Palm cat; S: Uguduwa LC Paradoxurus aureus Cuvier, 1822 E: Golden Palm Civet EN B2ab(iii) Paradoxurus stenocephalus Groves, Rajapaksha & Manamendra-Arachchi, 2009 E: Golden Dryzone Palm Civet CR B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) Paradoxurus montanus Kelaart, 1852 E: Sri Lankan Brown Palm Civet EN Viverricula indica (Desmarest, 1817) E: Ring-tailed civet; S: Urulewa Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758 Family : Felidae Family : Herpestidae Family : Mustelidae Lutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758) Family : Ursidae Melursus ursinus (Show & Nodder, 1791) Family : Viverridae 141 LC LC B2ab(iii) LC A2cd+4cd;C1 Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria E: Elephant; S: Etha / Aliya EN B2ab(iii) EN A2c E: Wild buffalo; S: Kulu Haraka / Wal Meema VU B2ab(iii) EN A2cde+ 3cde+4cde; C1 Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) E: Spotted deer; S: Tith Muwa LC Axis porcinus (Zimmermann, 1777) E: Hog deer; S: Vil Muwa / Gona Muwa CR Rusa unicolor Kerr, 1792 E: Sambur; S: Gona NT Family : Elephantidae Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 Family : Bovidae Bubalus arnee (Kerr, 1792) Family : Cervidae E: Barking deer; S: Olu Muwa / Muntiacus muntjak (Zimmermann, 1780) Weli Muwa LC B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) VU NT Family : Suidae E: Wild boar; S: Wal Ura LC LC Moschiola meminna Erexleben, 1777 E: Sri Lanka mouse-deer; S: Sri Lanka Meminna LC LC Moschiola kathygre Groves & Meijaard, 2004 E: Sri Lanka pigmy mousedeer; S: Sri Lanka Kuru Meminna VU Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 Family : Tragulidae B1ab(iii) LC Family : Hystricidae Hystrix indica (Kerr, 1792) E: Porcupine; S: Ittewa LC LC Bandicota bengalensis (Gray 1835) E: Mole rat; S: Heen Uru-miya LC LC Bandicota indica (Bechstein, 1800) E: Malabar bandicoot; S: Uru-miya LC LC Madromys blanfordi (Thomas, 1881) E: White-tailed rat; S: Waligasudumiya EN B2ab(iii) LC Golunda ellioti Gray, 1837 E: Bush rat; S: Panduru-miya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Millardia meltada (Gray, 1837) E: Soft-furred ield rat; S: Kesmudu Keth-miya EN B2ab(iii) LC Mus booduga (Gray, 1837) E: Field mouse; S: Wel Heenmiya LC Family : Muridae 142 LC A2cd+3cd+4cd Scientiic Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Mus fernandoni (Phillips, 1932) E: Sri Lanka spiny mouse; S: Sri Lanka katu Heen-miya EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii) Mus mayori (Thomas, 1915) E: Sri Lanka spiny rat; S: Sri Lanka Depahe Katu Heen-miya EN B2ab(iii) VU B2ab(iii) Mus musculus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Indian house mouse; S: Ge Heen-miya/ Koseta-miya LC Rattus montanus Phillips, 1932 E: Nelu rat; S: Sri Lanka Nelu Miya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Rattus rattus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Common rat; S: Podu Ge Miya LC B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) Rattus tanezumi Temminck, 1844 NT Srilankamys ohiensis (Phillips, 1929) E: Sri Lanka bicolored rat; S: Sri Lanka Depehe-miya Vandeleuria nolthenii Phillips, 1929 E: Sri lanka longtailed tree mouse; S: Sri Lanka Gasmiya CR B2ab(iii) EN Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett, 1832) E: Long-tailed tree mouse; S: Gas-miya VU B1ab(iii) LC Tatera indica (Hardwicke, 1807) E: Antelope rat; S: Weli-miya LC Petaurista philippensis (Elliot, 1839) E: Giant lying squirrel; S: Ma-hambawa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) LC Petinomys fuscocapillus (Jerdon, 1847) E: Small lying squirrel; S: Heenhambawa EN B1ab(iii)+ 2ab(iii) NT E: Sri Lanka lame-striped jungle squirrel; S: Sri Lanka Mukalan Leena VU B1ab(iii) VU EN LC Family : Pteromyidae Family : Sciuridae Funambulus layardi (Blyth, 1849) E: Palm squirrel; Funambulus palmarum (Linnaeus, 1766) S: Leena LC Funambulus obscurus (Pelzein & Kohl, 1886) E: Dusky-striped jungle squirrel; S:Punchi Leena VU Ratufa macroura (Pennant, 1769) E: Giant squirrel; S: Dandu-leena LC NT E: Black-naped hare; S: Wal Hawa LC LC LC B1an(iii) VU Family : Leporidae Lepus nigricollis Cuvier, 1823 143 A3c+4c; B1ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) Scientiic Name Common Name GCS Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede, 1804 E: Mink Whale; S: Minki thalmasa LC Balaenoptera borealis Lesson, 1828 E: Sei Whale; S: Sei thalmasa EN Criteria Family: Balaenopteridae A1ad Balaenoptera edeni Anderson, 1879 E: Bride's whale; S: Bridege thalmasa DD Balaenoptera musculus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Blue whale; S: Nil thalmasa EN A1abd Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Fin Whale; S: Waral thalmasa EN A1d Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781) E: Hump-backed Whale; S: Molli thalmasa LC E: Sperm Whale; S: Manda thalmasa VU Kogia breviceps (Balaninville, 1838) E: Pygmy Sperm Whale; S: Kurumanda thalmasa DD Kogia sima (Owen, 1866) E: Dwarf Sperm Whale; S: Mitimanda thalmasa DD Indopacetus paciicus Longman, 1926 E: Longman’s Beaked Whale; S: Longmange hota ul thalmasa DD Mesoplodon densirostris Blainville, 1817 E: Blainville's beaked Whale; S: Blanvilge hota ul thalmasa DD Mesoplodon hotaula Nishiwaki & Kamiya, 1958 E: Ginko-toothed Beaked Whale; S: Japan hota ul thalmasa DD Zpihius cavirostris Cuvier, 1823 E: Cuvier's beak Whale; S: Cuvierge hota ul thalmasa LC Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758 E: Common Dolphin; S: Podu mulla LC Feresa attenuata Gray, 1875 E: Pygmy Killer Whale; S: Kuru minimaru thalmasa DD Globicephala macrorhyncus Gray, 1846 E: Short-inned Pilot Whale; S: Keti waral niyamu thalmasa DD Grampus griseus (Cuvier, 1812) E: Rissos Dolphin/ Grey Dolphin; S: Malina mulla LC Family: Physeteridae Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758 A1d Family: Kogiidae Family: Ziphiidae Family: Delphinidae Lagenodelphis hosei Fraser, 1957 E: Fraser's Dolphin; S: Keti hota mulla LC Orcinus orca (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Killer whale; S: Minimaru thalmasa DD Peponocephala electra (Gray, 1846) E: Melon headed Whale; S: Puhu lolu mulla LC Pseudorca crassidens (Owen, 1846) E: False Killer Whale; S: Wyaja minimaru thalmasa DD Sousa chinensis (Osbeck, 1765) E: Indo-paciic hump-back Dolphin; S: Kabara mulla NT Stenella attenuata (Gray, 1846) E: Spotted Dolphin; S: Thith mulla LC Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen, 1833) E: Striped Dolphin; S: Wyiram mulla LC Stenella longirostris (Gray, 1828) E: Spinner Dolphin; S: Sannali mulla DD Steno bredanensis (Lesson, 1828) E: Rough-toothed Dolphin; S: Ralu dath mulla LC Tursiops truncatus (Monotagu, 1821) E: Bottle nosed Dolphin; S: Digasumbu mulla LC Tursiops aduncus (Ehrenberg, 1833) E: Indo-paciic Bottlenosed Dolphin; S: Indu digasumbu mulla DD E: Finless Porpoise; S: Awaral mulla VU A2cde E: Dugong; S: Muhudu Ura VU A2bcd Family: Phocoenidae Neophocaena phocaenoides (Cuvier, 1829) Family: Dugongidae Dugong dugong (Muller, 1776) 144 Analysis of Faunal Groups Devaka Weerakoon Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03 Altogether 748 inland indigenous vertebrate species were assessed. However, the 30 marine mammals were excluded from the analysis due to insuficient data. For them only the global listing is provided. Out of these 345 (46%) species were evaluated to be Nationally Threatened (Table 1). Among the threatened vertebrate species, 233 (68%) are endemic to Sri Lanka. Nineteen species of endemic amphibians have not been recorded in Sri Lanka during the past 100 years, and these were considered as Extinct. Further, two species of ish, one species of amphibian and 1 species of reptile were listed as possibly extinct as there are no recent records for this species. Of the surviving inland vertebrates, 122 species are Critically Endangered: i.e., one in every 6 species of inland indigenous vertebrates of Sri Lanka is currently facing a high risk of extinction (CR) in the wild. Among the total endemic vertebrate species, 92 (29%) are Critically Endangered, 98 (31%) are Endangered and 39 (12%) are Vulnerable. Among the vertebrate fauna, the highest number of threatened species was recorded among reptiles (107 or 31%), followed by amphibians, birds, mammals and freshwater ish. One in every two species of freshwater ish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals and one in every ive species of birds in the island are currently facing the risk of becoming extinct in the wild. Among the selected groups of inland invertebrate fauna evaluated, the highest number of threatened species was recorded among the Land snails (179), followed by bees, butterlies, spiders, dragonlies, ants and freshwater crabs (Table1). However, within a single group of invertebrates evaluated, the highest proportion of threatened species was recorded among the freshwater crabs (90% of the total crab species recorded to date), where one in every two species in Sri Lanka is currently facing an immediate and extremely high risk of extinction (CR) in the wild. Of the vertebrate species evaluated, ive freshwater ish, three amphibians, 15 reptiles, 35 birds and seven mammals were assessed as Near Threatened (NT). Similarly, among the evaluated invertebrate species, eight spiders, ive freshwater crabs, 17 dragonlies, 12 bees, 21 butterlies and 12 land snails were evaluated as Near Threatened. Among the inland vertebrate species evaluated, nine freshwater ish, one amphibian, 27 reptiles and six mammals were included in the Data Deicient category. Among the invertebrate species assessed, 394 spiders, 11 dragonlies, 109 ants, 06 butterlies and 36 land snails had to be included in the Data Deicient category, because they lacked suficient distribution data within Sri Lanka. The number of species listed in the data deicient category is extremely high among the spiders and ants as very little information exists about members of these two groups. However, they were included in the assessment to encourage further study of these two economically important taxonomic groups. 145 Table 1. Conservation status of the assessed vertebrates and invertebrates of Sri Lanka (Endemics are shown in brackets) Taxonomic Group EX CR (PE) Spiders CR EN 41 (14) 21 (10) VU NT DD LC Total Species Total Threatened 8 (2) 394 (231) 37 501(257) 62(24) 51(50) 46(45) 11 (5) 29 (1) 118 (47) 61(40) 109 (25) 26 194 (33) 59(8) 12 130 106 Freshwater crabs 34 (34) 12 (11) Dragonlies 26 (22) 18 (14) 17 (4) Ants 25 (5) 18 (3) 16 Bees 48 38 20 12 Butterlies 21 (5) 38 (10) 40 (7) 21 6(1) 119 (3) 245 (26) 99 (22) Land Snails (Excluding 21 not evaluated) 80 (70) 76 (72) 23 (20) 12 (10) 36 (32) 5 (1) 253 (205) 179 (162) 2 (2) 19 (16) 19 (17) 5 (4) 5 (3) 9 (5) 32 (3) 91 (50) 45 (39) 1 (1) 34 (34) 28 (27) 10 (9) 3 (3) 1 15 (2) 111(95) 73 (71) 1 (1) 38 (36) 50 (39) 18 (11) 15 (7) 27 (15) 62 (15) 211 (124) 107 (87) Birds 18 18 (7) 31 (11) 35 (3) 138 (6) 240 (27) 67 (18) Mammals (Excluding the 30 marine mammals) 13 (6) 25 (8) 15 (4) 7 (0) 29 (2) 95 (21) 53 (18) Freshwater ish Amphibians Reptiles (Including marine reptiles) 19 (19) 5 (5) 17 (1) 6 (1) An analysis of the geographical distribution of threatened vertebrate fauna in the different administrative districts in the island (Table 2) revealed that districts in the lowland wet zone (ie., Ratnapura, Galle, Matara, Kalutara, Kegalle) and the central highlands (Kandy, Nuwara-Eliya, Matale, Badulla) harbour a higher number of threatened taxa. According to information compiled during this study, the highest number of threatened vertebrate fauna occur in the Ratnapura District. The analyses also show clearly that districts in the Northern Province (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaitivu, Vavuniya) and the Eastern Province (Ampara, Batticaloa and Trincomalee) lack suficient distribution data, compared to other areas of the island. 146 Table 2. The geographic distribution of threatened vertebrates in Sri Lanka District Freshwater Fish Amphibians CR EN VU CR Ampara 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (1) 1 (1) Anuradhapura 1 (1) 3 (2) 4 (3) Badulla 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) Colombo 3 (2) 14 (12) 3 (2) Galle 4 (3) 18 (17) 3 (2) Gampaha 2 (1) 10 (9) 2 (1) Hambantota 1 (1) 1 (1) EN Reptiles VU CR CR EN VU 4 (2) 7 (3) 1 (0) 2 (0) 11 (1) 3 (1) 1 (0) 6 (0) 12 (1) 12 (1) 57 (18) 6 (1) 18 (10) 11 (4) 10 (2) 88 (52) 5 (3) 8 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 5 (4) 14 (12) 5 (3) 2 (0) 1 (1) 7 (6) 6 (6) 2 (1) 3 (0) 2 (0) 11 (3) 3 (1) 4 (1) 58 (34) 20 (19) 8 (8) 11 (10) 13 (8) 10 (5) 16 (10) 8 (2) 10 (3) 129 (94) 3 (2) 3 (1) 3 (1) 5 (2) 3 (1) 6 (2) 35 (21) 6 (3) 11 (6) 10 (2) 7 (1) 66 (21) 4 (4) 1 (1) 1 (0) 147 16 (14) 3 (2) Kandy 5 (5) 2 (1) 3 (3) Kegalle 4 (2) 15 (13) 2 (2) 32 (11) 2 (2) 2 (2) 7 (5) VU 3 (2) Jaffna Kalutara CR EN 1 (0) 1 (0) 5 (1) 7 (0) 20 (6) 3 (0) 1 (0) 3 (0) 9 (9) 8 (5) 8 (4) 17 (10) 1 (0) 5 (2) 9 (3) 97 (62) 15 (6) 19 (11) 1 (1) 12 (4) 6 (2) 144 (108) 11 (7) 17 (11) 2 (2) 8 (3) 94 (72) 1 (0) 9 (8) 5 (5) 13 (13) 12 (12) 8 (8) 9 (7) 25 (23) 13 (10) 1 (1) 10 (9) 5 (5) 1 (1) 9 (9) 9 (7) 2 (0) 4 (3) 1 (0) 9 (0) 0 (0) Kilinochchi 2 (1) Kurunegala Mannar Total VU 1 (0) 3 (3) Mammals EN 1 (0) Batticaloa Birds 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (0) 2 (1) 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (0) 2 (0) 4 (0) 1 (0) 3 (1) 1 (0) 6 (2) 1 (0) 1 (0) 6 (0) 2 (0) 10 (2) 23 (7) 9 (2) 5 (1) 96 (55) 6 (4) 15 (11) 5 (2) 8 (3) 96 (75) 5 (1) 69 (31) 1 (0) Matale 4 (4) 2 (2) 5 (5) 5 (5) 8 (7) 7 (6) 8 (8) 8 (6) Matara 4 (3) 10 (10) 3 (2) 2 (2) 13 (12) 6 (6) 2 (2) 12 (11) 10 (7) Monaragala 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (4) 3 (1) 6 (5) 11 (8) 4 (0) 6 (0) 14 (4) 10 (3) Mullaitivu 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) 11 (1) 2 (1) Nuwara Eliya 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 7 (7) 7 (6) 18 (15) 10 (7) Polonnaruwa 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 4 (3) 1 (1) 3 (2) 6 (5) Puttalam 1 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (0) 6 (2) Ratnapura 6 (5) 15 (13) 2 (2) 8 (8) 13 (12) 23 (21) 12 (9) 2 (0) 11 (3) 2 (0) 10 (5) 16 (10) 1 (0) 3 (1) 5 (2) Trincomalee 1 (1) 1 (0) Vavuniya 1 (1) 1 (0) 12 (12) 19 (19) 17 (16) 27 (26) 2 (1) 1 (0) 6 (0) 2 (0) 4 (3) 26 (10) 18 (1) 22 (3) 1 (0) 6 (0) 14 (6) 8 (3) 107 (78) 6 (1) 18 (10) 5 (1) 6 (1) 59 (32) 2 (0) 5 (0) 3 (0) 27 (7) 15 (5) 12 (3) 166 (127) 5 (1) 1 (0) 36 (18) 1 (1) 11 (3) Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Pteridophyte Flora of Sri Lanka R.H.G. Ranil and D.K.N.G. Pushpakumara University of Peradeniya Introduction The recorded history of exploration of pteridophytes in Sri Lanka dates back to 1672-1675 when Poul Hermann had collected a few fern specimens which were irst described by Linneus (1747) in Flora Zeylanica. The majority of Sri Lankan pteridophytes have been collected in the 19th century during the British period and some of them have been published as catalogues and checklists. However, only Beddome (1863-1883) and Sledge (1950-1954) had conducted systematic studies and contributed signiicantly to today’s knowledge on taxonomy and diversity of Sri Lankan pteridophytes (Beddome, 1883; Sledge, 1982). Thereafter, Manton (1953) and Manton and Sledge (1954) reported chromosome numbers and some taxonomic issues of selected Sri Lankan Pteridophytes. Recently, Shaffer-Fehre (2006) has edited the volume 15 of the revised handbook to the lora of Ceylon on pteridophyta (Fern and Fern Allies). The local involvement of pteridological studies began with Abeywickrama (1956; 1964; 1978), Abeywickrama and Dassanayake (1956); and Abeywickrama and De Fonseka, (1975) with the preparations of checklists of pteridophytes and description of some fern families. Dassanayake (1964), Jayasekara (1996), Jayasekara et al., (1996), Dhanasekera (undated), Fenando (2002), Herat and Rathnayake (2004) and Ranil et al., (2004; 2005; 2006) have also contributed to the present knowledge on Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. However, only recently, Ranil and co workers initiated a detailed study on biology, ecology and variation of tree ferns (Cyatheaceae) in Kanneliya and Sinharaja MAB reserves combining ield and laboratory studies and also taxonomic studies on island-wide Sri Lankan fern lora. As a result, Ranil et al. (2010a; 2010b) have described two new pteridophyte species from Sri Lanka and identiied conservation priorities for Sri Lankan tree ferns in 2011 (Ranil et al., 2011). Ranil et al., (in prep.) reviewed and revised the list of endemic pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. Currently, about 348 pteridophyte taxa from 30 families have been recorded from Sri Lanka, of which 50 taxa are reported to be endemic to the country (Shaffer-Fehre, 2006). Among Asian countries, Sri Lanka is second only to Taiwan in terms of the number of pteridophyte species per 10,000 km2 (Ranil et al., 2008a). Geographical isolation, and a wide range of climatic, elevational and soil type variation in Sri Lanka may have resulted in rich diversity of pteridophyte lora as well along with exceptionally high level of endemism. It is reported that Sri Lankan pteridophytes have strong phyto-geographical relationships with South Indian species. Further, both the Sri Lankan and the South Indian pteridophyte lora also have phytogeographical relationship with three regions, namely the Sino-Himalayan lora, the Malesian lora from South East Asia, and an African element connected with the Seychelles, Mascarenes, Madagascar and East Africa (Fraser-Jenkins, 1984). Despite historical and recent information on pteridophyte lora of Sri Lanka, this is the irst instance that the pteridophyte lora has been assessed based on the national Red Listing criteria. 148 Taxonomy The present knowledge of ptridophytes is largely based on Shaffer-Fehre (2006) which is mainly based on morphology and specimens of existing herbarium collections rather than new information. It has been prepared during 1993-1995 period but published in 2006. However, with the advancement of plant molecular studies, taxonomic status of many fern species have changed and many revisions have been made. On the other hand, recently an extensive ield survey of South Indian fern lora has been carried out, though such information has not been widely published yet. Recent review of endemic pteridophyte lora in Sri Lanka parallel to information generated through South Indian survey via personal communication revealed that the changes of number of endemic taxa from 50 (Shaffer-Fehre, 2006) to 44 (Ranil et al., in prep.). All these indicated the need of a systematic review of the taxonomy of Sri Lankan pteridophytes based on detailed ield works and existing herbarium collections and also considering with advances of taxonomy and systematics due to molecular studies on pteridophytes. For the red listing process, except for three families, namely Aspleniaceae, Cyatheaceae and Thelypteridaceae (where there is no agreement among pteridologists to place Sri Lankan species within families, hence followed Shaffer-Fehre (2006), all species have been arranged based on the linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes and ferns proposed by Christenhusz et al., (2011). Changes of genera and families according to Christenhusz et al. (2011) are given in Table 1. Table 1: Changes of genera and families based on recent classiication proposed by Christenhusz et al. (2011). Flora of Ceylon (2006) by Shafer-Fehre (2006) Redlist (2012) based on Christenhusz et al. (2011) Antrophyum Vitariaceae Pteridaceae Arthropteris Oleandraceae Tectariaceae Athyrium Woodsiaceae Athyriaceae Bolbiis Lomariopsidaceae Dryopteridaceae Ceratopteris Parkeriaceae Pteridaceae Deparia Woodsiaceae Athyriaceae Diplazium Woodsiaceae Athyriaceae Elaphoglossum Lomariopsidaceae Dryopteridaceae Hypodemaium Woodsiaceae Hypodemaiaceae Leucostegia Davalliaceae Hypodemaiaceae Lindsaea Dennstaediaceae Lindsaeaceae Loxogramme Loxogrammaceae Polypodiaceae Lygodium Schizaeaceae Lygodiaceae Monogramma Vitariaceae Pteridaceae Nephrolepis Oleandraceae Nephrolepidaceae Pteridrys Dryopteridaceae Tectariaceae Sphenomeris Dennstaediaceae Lindsaeaceae Tectaria Dryopteridaceae Tectariaceae Teratophyllum Lomariopsidaceae Dryopteridaceae Vitaria Vitariaceae Pteridaceae Grammiidaceae Polypodiaceae Taxa Genera Family Grammiidaceae 149 Distribution Limited research has been conducted to identify distribution of pterdophyte lora in Sri Lanka. About 81% of pteridophyte specimens in the National Herbarium have been collected from the wet zone area of the country (Jayasekera and Wijesundara, 1993). The wet zone which accounts for only one third of the country’s total land area also contains almost all endemic pteridophytes except one species (Ranil et al., in prep.). Further, study on distribution pattern of endemic pteridophyte lora of Sri Lanka revealed that those are more-or-less equally distributed among the wet zone areas of the up, mid and low countries with 34, 31 and 32 taxa, respectively (Ranil et al., 2008a). Majority of endemic pteridophytes (78%) of Sri Lanka had been collected from the Central Province where Nuwara Eliya district alone provided the highest number of endemic taxa collected with 34 taxa followed by Sabaragamuwa and Southern provinces. Even though some species occur in a few districts, their known occurrence has been limited only to a few isolated localities (i.e. Cyathea hookeri, C. sinuata, C. sledgei and C. srilankensis; Ranil et al., 2010a; 2010b). Long duration of rainfall and high relative humidity associated with elevational gradient may be one of the reasons for the presence of higher number of endemic taxa in the wet zone and the Central Province. In addition, close proximity to the Botanical Gardens of Peradeniya and Hakgala had also inluenced a higher number of species collections from the Central Province and Nuwara Eliya district. A B C Endemic and endangered tree ferns in lowland rainforests. A: B: C: Cyathea sledgei Ranil et al.,: A recently described new endemic tree fern species in Kanneliya MAB reserve. Cyathea srilankensis Ranil: A recently discovered new endemic tree fern species in Beraliya proposed forest reserve. Cyathea sinuata Hook. & Grew.: The only known simple leaf tree ferns in the world. A B Two endemic ferns species in southern lowland rainforests. A: B: Tectaria thwaitesii (Bedd.) Ching: An endemic fern species in roadside banks of Kottawa forest reserve. Oreogrammits sledgei (Parris) Parris: An endemic fern species grows on moist rock in Sinharaja world heritage site. 150 Threats Vast majority of pteridophyte lora and almost all endemic pteridophytes in Sri Lanka are conined to the wet zone areas of the lowland, sub montane and montane regions. However, most of the remaining forests in the wet zone area are fragmented and small. They are continued to be degraded due to illegal encroachment and suffer further fragmentation due to higher population densities in such areas. The area is highly subjected to habitat loss, spread of alien-invasive species, soil erosion and environmental pollution. These are considered as the most immediate threats to the pteridophyte lora of Sri Lanka. In areas such as the Knuckles region, the forest understorey which is the main habitat for pteridophytes has been cleared for cardamom cultivation whereas in Udawattakele forest understorey is invaded by alien-invasive species; also make signiicant threats to regeneration of pteridophytes. Another threat of increasing importance is the illicit removal and over exploitation of ornamentally important rare ferns from the wild. These problems will be worsening by change of climate and increasing human population pressure. Conservation issues The effective conservation of Sri Lankan pteridophyte lora will depend largely on how effective the conservation of natural forests in the wet zone areas of the country. For this, minimizing of fragmentation and habitat loss through effective land use planning and a sound policy framework is a must. Further, according to the present Red Listing, of the 335 pteridophyte species, 219 species (66%) are listed as threatened species (20, 41, 87 and 71 species are critically endangered and possibly extinct (CR(PE)) critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN) and vulnerable (VU). Another 40 species are listed as near threatened (NT). This highlighted that, in addition to conservation of natural forests in the wet zone areas, monitoring of populations of at least threatened species is a necessary to understand effectiveness of the in situ conservation of pteridophyte lora. At present, ex situ conservation is limited to a few local species at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya and Botanic Gardens of Hakgala and Henerathgoda. Therefore, strengthening of ferneries of the network of the National Botanic Gardens is urgently required as a supplementary conservation measure for Sri Lankan pteridophytes. Research gaps and needs Further enhancement of current knowledge and understanding of pteridophytes lora needs several measures. As highlighted a comprehensive taxonomic revision need to be carried out in the light of recent loral survey in the South Asia and recent advances of taxonomy due to use of molecular investigations. A close collaboration between pteridologists in India (as well as elsewhere) and Sri Lanka is a pre-requisite. Much of the specimens of pteridophytes have been collected from 1847 to 1900 by European pteridologists and deposited in herbaria of elsewhere than the National Herbarium. Thus, an island-wide loristic survey on pteridophyte taxa is urgently required in Sri Lanka which helps to revise the taxonomy, distribution and other conservation issues of the island pteridophyte lora. Upgrading of the collection of the National Herbarium is also a must and should be carried out parallel to the loristic survey. Further, recent work by Ranil et al., (2008b) provides encouraging results on domestication of C. walkerae and need to expand to other species which has commercial potentials. Public awareness programs on the conservation and sustainable use of pteridophytes should also be initiated promoting in situ and ex situ conservation. 151 Conclusions and Recommendations Lowland rainforests, sub-montane and montane forests are the major natural vegetation types supporting the biodiversity of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. However, these ecosystems are heavily affected by various biotic and abiotic inluences and already highly fragmented. Increasing population pressure and climate change further worsen the situation. These facts highlight the importance of conserving the remaining forest ecosystems of the wet zone of the country. 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An illustrated guide to the fern lora of Knuckles conservation area. Forest Department, Digana. Jayasekara, P. (1996). The Hymenophyllaceae of Sri Lanka. In: J.M. Camus, M. Gibby and R.T. Johns (eds.). Pteridology in Perspective, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 173-174. Jayasekera, P.W.B. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (1993). A herbarium survey of Pteridophytes of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Forty Ninth Annual Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, December 1993. Part 1-Abstracts. Vidya Mandiraya, Vidya Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka. pp. 66. Jayasekara, P., Herat, R.T. and Weerasinghe. (1996). Rediscovery of three rare ferns species from low land rain forest. PHYTA 4(1): 47-51. Linnaeus, C. (1747). Flora Zeylanica. Laurentius Salvius, Holmaiae. Manton, I. (1953). The cytological evolution of the fern lora of Ceylon. Symposia Society of Experimental Biology 7: 174-175. Manton, I. and Sledge, W.A. (1954). 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Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society 84: 1-30. 153 Table 13: Summary of the Status of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka (Endemics are shown in bracket) Family Aspleniaceae EX EW CR (PE) CR 4 (1) EN VU NT DD 3 6 (1) 7 4 Athyriaceae 3 9 7 4 Blechnaceaea 2 1 1 Cyatheaceae 1 5 1 Total Total Threatened Species LC 1 5 16 (1) 29 (2) 2 19 (3) 26 (5) 2 4 6 7 (4) 7 (5) Davalliaceae 1 1 1 1 1 3 5 Dennstaedtiaceae 3 2 1 1 3 4 10 (1) Dryopteridaceae 1 6 12 7 2 25 (6) 31 (8) 1 1 Equisetaceae 3 1 Gleicheniaceae 1 Hymenophyllaceae 4 9 Hypodematiaceae 1 Isoetaceae 1 5 1 Lindsaeaceae 4 3 2 Lycopodiaceae 1 7 3 1 1 1 Lygodiaceae Marattiaceae 1 Marsileaceae Oleandraceae 1 1 8 9 6 Osmundaceae Polypodiaceae 7 6 1 4 8 8 2 1 1 9 (2) 12 (2) 11 14 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 1 9 9 2 14 2 17 1 Selaginellaceae 2 2 1 Schizaeaceae 1 (1) 46 (9) 1 1 13 (4) 46 (4) 0 1 2 2 (1) 9 (1) 3 7 (1) 12 (2) 4 1 5 21 (2) 34 (6) 88 (11) 70 (12) 40 (9) 12 (1) 63 (1) 200 (33) 336 (49) 1 1 3 3 Thelypteridaceae 3 2 9 10 21 (5) 42 (10) 154 5 1 (1) 22 (5) 1 Tectariaceae Totals 6 1 1 1 2 Psilotaceae Pteridaceae 1 2 19 (3) 1 1 1 0 18 (3) 1 1 Nephrolepidaceae Ophioglossaceae 1 1 Table 14: List of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka (Endemic species are marked in Bold letters ) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Huperzia ceylanica (Spring) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia hamiltonii (Spreng.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. S: Maha-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia phyllantha (Hook. & Arn.) Holub S: Maha-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia pinifolia Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia pulcherrima (Hook. & Grev.) Pichi.-Serm. S: Kuda-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia serrata (Thunb. ex Murray) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia squarrosa (G. Forst.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia subulifolia (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Huperzia vernicosa (Hook. & Grev.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya DD GCS Family : Lycopodiaceae Lycopodiella caroliniana (L.) Pichi.-Serm. Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pichi.-Serm. NT S: Badal-hanassa, LC Badal-wanassa Lycopodium japonicum Thunb. ex Murray EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lycopodium wightianum Wall. ex Grev. & Hook. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Isoetaceae Isoetes coromandelina L.f. LC Family : Selaginellaceae Selaginella calostachya (Hook. & Grev.) Alston NT Selaginella ciliaris (Retz.) Spring LC Selaginella cochleata (Hook. & Grev.) Spring LC Selaginella crassipes Spring NT Selaginella integerrima (Hook. & Grev.) Spring NT Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring NT Selaginella latifolia (Hook. & Grev.) Spring VU Selaginella praetermissa Alston NT Selaginella wightii Hieron. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Equisetaceae Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher Family : Ophioglossaceae Botrychium daucifolium Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. S: Thani-wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Ophioglossum costatum R.Br. S: Ek-pethi-pium EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Ophioglossum gramineum Willd. Ophioglossum nudicaule L.il. S: Diya-gabbalu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Ophioglossum pendulum L. S: Pati-dhathu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Ophioglossum petiolatum Hook. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Ophioglossum reticulatum L. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) 155 LC Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Psilotaceae Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. Family : Marattiaceae Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. S: Wal-meda NT EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Abrodictyum obscurum (Blume) Ebihara & K.Iwats. (Syn: Selenodesmium obscurum (Blume) Copel.) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Crepidomanes bipunctatum (Poir.) Copel. (Syn: Crepidomanes bilabiatum (Nees & Blume) Copel.) CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Crepidomanes campanulatum (Roxb.) Jayasekara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Crepidomanes intramarginale (Hook.il & Grev.) Copel. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Crepidomanes kurzi (Bedd.)Tagawa & Iwatsuki CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Crepidomanes kurzii (Bedd.) Tagawa & K. Iwats. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Crepidomanes proliferum (Blume) Bostock (Syn: Gonocormus prolifer (Blum.) Prantl) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Crepidomanes saxifragoides (C.Presl.) P.S.Green (Syn:Gonocormus saxifragoides (Presl.) Bosch) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Didymoglossum bimarginatum (Bosch) Ebihara & K.Iwats. (Syn: Microgonium bimarginatum Bosch) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Didymoglossum exiguum (Bedd.) Copel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Didymoglossum motleyi (Bosch) Ebihara & K.Iwats. (Syn: Microgonium motleyi Bosch) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Didymoglossum wallii (Thwaites) Copel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Hymenophyllum denticulatum Sw. (Syn: Meringium denticulatum (Sw.) Copel.) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hymenophyllum exsertum Wall. ex Hook. (Syn: Mecodium gardneri (Bosch) Jayasekara) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hymenophyllum javanicum A.Sperng. (Syn: Mecodium javanicum (Spreng.) Copel.) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hymenophyllum macroglossum Bosch (Syn: Meringium macroglossum (Bosch) Copel.) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hymenophyllum nitidulum (Bosch) Ebihara & K.Iwats. (Syn:Microtrichomanes nitidulum (Bosch) Copel.) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Marattia fraxinea Smith Family : Osmundaceae Osmunda collina Sledge Family : Hymenophyllaceae Hymenophyllum pallidum (Blume) Ebihara & K.Iwats. (Syn: Pleuromanes pallidum (Blume) C.Presl.) Hymenophyllum polyanthos (Sw.) Sw. (Syn: Mecodium polyanthos (Sw.) Copel.) NT Family : Gleicheniaceae Dicranopteris lineairs (Burm.f.) Underw. var. linearis S: Kakilla Dicranopteris lineairs (Burm.f.) Underw. var. montana S: Kakilla 156 LC DD GCS Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Lygodiaceae Lygodium circinnatum (Burm. f.) Sw. S: Maha-pamba VU Lygodium lexuosum (L.) Sw. S: Pamba-wel NT Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. S: Pamba-wel LC Family : Schizaeaceae Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw. NT Family : Marsileaceae Marsilea coromandelina Willd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Hathara pethiya LC Cyathea crinita (Hook.) Copel. S: Gini-hota, Giniwatara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyathea gigantea (Wall. ex Hook.) Holttum S: Gini-hota, Giniwatara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyathea hookeri Thwaites S: Gini-hota, Giniwatara CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyathea sinuata Hook. & Grev. S: Gini-hota, Giniwatara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyathea sledgei Ranil, Pushpakumara & Fras.Jenk. S: Gini-hota, Giniwatara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyathea srilankensis Ranil S: Gini-hota, Giniwatara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea caudata Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea cultrata (Willd.) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea ensifolia subsp. ensiofolia Sw. LC Lindsaea glandulifera Alderw. DD Lindsaea hetrophylla Dryand. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea odorata Roxb.var. odorata EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea orbiculata (Lam.) Mett. ex Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea repens (Bory)Thwaites var. pectinata (Blume) Mett. ex Kuhn CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea schizophylla (Baker) H.Christ CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea venusta Kaulf. ex Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lindsaea walkerae Hook. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Sphenomeris chinensis var. chinensis (L.) Maxon LC Marsilea minuta L. Family : Cyatheaceae Cyathea walkerae Hook. S: Gini-hota, Giniwatara Family : Lindsaeaceae Family : Dennstaedtiaceae Dennstaedtia scabra (Wall. ex Hook.) T.Moore VU Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J.Sm. LC Hypolepis glandulifera Brownsey & Chinnock LC Microlepia dubia (Roxb.) C.V.Morton CR(PE) Microlepia majuscula (Lowe) T.Moore CR(PE) Microlepia platyphylla (D.Don) J.Sm. CR(PE) 157 B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Microlepia rhomboidea (Hook.) C.Presl ex Prantl CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Microlepia speluncae (L.) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Microlepia strigosa (Thunb. ex Murray) C.Presl CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Pteridium revolutum (Blume) Nakai Common name S: Waralla, Ankakilla, Monara Kakilla GCS LC Family : Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum L. LC Acrostichum speciosum Willd. DD Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link VU Adiantum capillus- veneris L. LC Adiantum caudatum L. S: Thuda-vediya LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Adiantum labellulatum L. EN Adiantum hispidulum Sw. LC Adiantum indicum J. Ghatak NT Adiantum philippense L. LC Adiantum zollingeri Mett. ex Kuhn LC Anogramma leptophylla (L.) Link CR(PE) Antrophyum plantagineum (Cav.) Kaulf. NT Antrophyum reticulatum (G.Forst.) Kaulf. LC Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. NT Cheilanthes anceps Blanf. VU Cheilanthes bicolor (Roxb.) Griff. ex Fras.-Jenk. DD Cheilanthes bullosa Kunze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cheilanthes krameri Franch. & Sav. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cheilanthes opposita Kaulf. LC Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.f.) Sw. LC Cheilanthes thwaitesii Mett. ex Kuhn LC Coniogramme serra Fée VU Doryopteris concolor (Langsd. & Fisch.) Kuhn NT Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.) T.Moore (Syn:Parahemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Panigrahi ) LC Idiopteris hookeriana (Agardh) T.G.Walker NT Monogramma paradoxa (Fée) Bedd. CR(PE) Pellaea boivinii Hook. CR(PE) Pellaea falcata (R.Br.) Fée CR(PE) Pteris argyraea T.Moore EN Pteris biaurita L. LC Pteris confusa T.G.Walker LC Pteris cretica L. EN Pteris ensiformis Burm.f. LC Pteris gongalensis T.G.Walker CR Pteris longipes D.Don CR(PE) 158 B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Pteris mertensioides Willd. CR(PE) Pteris multiaurita J.Agardh LC Pteris praetermissa T.G.Walker VU Pteris quadriaurita Retz. LC Pteris reptans T.G.Walker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pteris tripartita Sw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Pteris vittata L. LC Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw. VU Vittaria elongata Sw. NT Vittaria microlepis Hieron. NT Vittaria scolopendrina (Bory) Thwaites NT B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Aspleniaceae Asplenium aethiopicum (Burm. f.) Bech. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium afine Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium bipinnatum (Sledge) Philcox VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium cheilosorum Kunze ex Mett. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium decorum Kunze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium decrescens Kunze LC Asplenium disjunctum Sledge CR(PE) Asplenium ensiforme Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. VU Asplenium erectum (Bory ex Willd.) in L. LC Asplenium excisum C. Presl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium formosum Willd. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium gardneri Baker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium grevillii Hook. & Grev. CR(PE) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd. NT Asplenium indicum Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium laciniatum D.Don EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium longipes Fée EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium nidus L. S: Gal-Palu NT Asplenium nitidum Sw. CR(PE) Asplenium normale D.Don NT Asplenium obscurum Blume CR Asplenium pellucidum Lam. CR(PE) Asplenium polyodon G.Frost. LC Asplenium serricula Fée LC Asplenium tenerum G.Forst. LC Asplenium tenuifolium D.Don CR Asplenium unilaterale Lam. NT Asplenium yoshinagae Makino CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Asplenium zenkerianum Kunze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) 159 B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Family : Thelypteridaceae Amauropelta hakgalensis Holttum DD Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Amphineuron opulentum (Kaulf.) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Amphineuron terminans (Hook.) Holttum LC Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Jermy LC Christella hispidula (Decne.) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Christella meeboldii (Rosenst.) Holttum CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Christella papilio ( C.Hope ) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Christella parasitica (L.) H.Lév. LC Christella subpubescens (Blume) Holttum EN Christella zeylanica (Fée) Holttum CR(PE) Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H.Ito NT Macrothelypteris torresiana (Gaudich.) Ching NT Metathelypteris laccida (Blume) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Parathelypteris beddomei (Baker) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pneumatopteris truncata (Poir.) Holtt. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pronephrium articulatum (Houlston & T.Moore) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Pronephrium gardneri Holttum CR(PE) Pronephrium thwaitesii (Hook.) Holttum CR(PE) Pronephrium triphyllum (Sw.) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pseudocyclosorus tylodes (Kunze) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pseudophegopteris pyrrhorhachis (Kunze) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sphaerostephanos arbuscula (Willd.) Holttum LC Sphaerostephanos subtruncatus (Bory) Holttum CR Sphaerostephanos unitus (L.) Holttum LC Stegnogramma pozoi (Lag.) K.Iwats var. petiolata (Ching) Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Thelypteris conluens (Thunb.) T.Morton EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Trigonospora angustifrons Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Trigonospora calcarata (Blume) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Trigonospora caudipinna (Ching) Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Trigonospora ciliata (Wall. ex Benth.) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Trigonospora glandulosa Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Trigonospora obtusiloba Sledge NT Trigonospora zeylanica (Ching) Sledge NT Family : Blechnaceae Blechnum colensoi (Hook f.) N.A.Wakef. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Blechnum divis (Kunze) Christenh. (Syn: Doodia dives Kunze) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Blechnum orientale L. S: Baru-koku Blechnum spinulosum Poir. (Syn: Doodia caudata ( Cav.) R. Br.) LC CR 160 B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Blechnum zeelandicum Christenh. (Syn: Doodia squarrosa Col.) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Beddo. LC Family : Athyriaceae Athyrium anisopterum Christ EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Athyrium cumingianum (C. Presl) Ching EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Athyrium hohenackerianum (Kunze) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Athyrium praetermissum Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Athyrium puncticaule (Blume) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Athyrium setiferum C. Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Athyrium solenopteris (Kunze) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Athyrium wardii (Hook) Mak. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Deparia boryana (Willd.) M. Kato VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Deparia lancea (Thunb. ex Murray) Fraser-Jenk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Deparia petersenii ( Kunze ) M.Kato subsp. petersenii NT Deparia polyrhizos (Baker) Seriz. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Deparia zeylanica (Hook) M. Kato. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Diplazium beddomei C. Chr. NT Diplazium brachylobum (Sledge) Manickam & Irudayaraj DD Diplazium cognatum (Hieron.) Sledge EN Diplazium decurrens Bedd. NT Diplazium dilatatum Blume LC Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. NT Diplazium javanicum (Blume) Makino EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Diplazium muricatum (Mett.) Alderw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Diplazium paradoxum Fée EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Diplazium polypodioides Blume LC Diplazium procumbens Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Diplazium sylvaticum (Bory) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Diplazium travancoricum Bedd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Hypodematium crenatum (Forssk.) Kuhn in von Decken subsp. crenatum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Leucostegia immersa C.Presl DD B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Hypodematiaceae Family : Dryopteridaceae Arachniodes amabilis (Blume) Tindale EN Arachniodes aristata (Forst.f.) Tindale LC Arachniodes tripinnata (Goldm.) Sledge NT Bolbitis angustipinna (Hayata) H.Ito CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Bolbitis appendiculata subsp. appendiculata (Willd.) K.Iwats. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Bolbitis subcrenata ( Hook. & Grev. ) Ching in C.Chr. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Ctenitis thwaitesii Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Diacalpe aspidioides Blume EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) 161 B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Dryopsis obtusiloba (Bak.) Holttum & Edwards VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dryopteris approximata Sledge CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Dryopteris deparioides (T. Moore) Kuntze. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dryopteris hirtipes (Blume) Kuntze. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dryopteris macrochlamys (Fée) Fras.-Jenk. LC Dryopteris pulvinulifera (Bedd.) Kuntze. EN Dryopteris sledgei Fraser-Jenk. CR(PE) Dryopteris sparsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Kuntze. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dryopteris wallichiana subsp. madrasensis (Fraser-Jenk.) Fraser-Jenk. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Elaphoglossum angulatum (Bl.) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Elaphoglossum ceylanicum Krajina ex Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Elaphoglossum commutatum (Mett. ex Kuhn) Alderw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Elaphoglossum spathulatum (Bory) T.Moore CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lastreopsis rufescens (Bl.) Ching EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lastreopsis tenera (R.Br.) Tindale VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Polystichum amabile (Blume) J.Sm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Polystichum anomalum (Hook. & Arn.) J. Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Polystichum biaristatum (Blume) T.Moore VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Polystichum harpophyllum (Zenker ex Kunze) Sledge NT Polystichum mucronifolium (Blume) C.Presl. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Polystichum piceo-paleaceum Tag. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Polystichum walkerae (Hook.) Sledge NT Teratophyllum aculeatum Mett.; Kuhn var. aculeatum CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Nephrolepidaceae Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott DD Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl NT Nephrolepis falcata (Cav.) C.Chr. VU Nephrolepis hirsutula (G. Forst.) C.Presl LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Tectariaceae Arthropteris palisotii (Desv.) Alston EN Pteridrys syrmatica (Willd.) C.Chr. & Ching DD Pteridrys zeylanica Ching in C.Chr. & Ching CR(PE) Tectaria coadunata (J.Sm.) C.Chr. EN Tectaria decurrens (C.Presl) Copel. LC Tectaria devexa (Kunze ex Mett.) Copel. CR Tectaria paradoxa (Fée) Sledge LC Tectaria polymorpha (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Tectaria subtriphylla (Hook. & Arn.) Copel. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Tectaria thwaitesii (Bedd.) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Tectaria trimenii (Bedd.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) 162 B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria LC Tectaria zeilanica (Houtt.) Sledge Family : Oleandraceae Oleandra musifolia (Blume) C. Presl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Davallia denticulata Mett. ex Kuhn var. denticulata VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Davallia hymenophylloides Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Davallia pulchra D.Don CR(PE) Davallia repens Kuhn LC Davallia solida Sw. CR Family : Davalliaceae B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Polypodiaceae Calymmodon glabrescens Copel. NT Chrysogrammitis glandulosa (J.Sm.) Parris CR(PE) Ctenopterella (?) thwaitesii (Bedd.) Parris (Syn: Ctenopteris thwaitesii (Beddome) Sledge) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ctenopterella blechnoides (Grev.) Parris (Syn: Ctenopteris blechnoides(Grev.) W.H.Wagner & Grether) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ctenopterella cornigera (Baker) Parris (Syn: Xiphopteris cornigera (Baker) Copel.) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Dasygrammitis mollicoma (Nees & Blume) Parris (Syn: Ctenopteris mollicoma (Nees & Blume) Kunze) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Smith S: Benduru LC Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T.Moore S: Benduru EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Lepisorus amaurolepidus (Sledge) Bir & Trikha LC Lepisorus mucronatus (Fée) Li Wang (Syn: Belvisia mucronata (Fée) Copel var mucronata) DD Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching LC Lepisorus spicatus (L.f.) Li Wang (Syn:Belvisia spicata (L.f) Mirbel ex Copel.) NT Leptochilus decurrens Blume LC Leptochilus macrophyllus var. pedunculatus (Hook. & Grev.) Noot VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Loxogramme cuspidata (Zenker) Price EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Loxogramme parallela Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Microsorum insigne (Blume) Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Microsorum membranaceum (D.Don) Ching NT Microsorum membranifolium (R. Br.) Ching LC Microsorum pteropum (Blume) Copel. CR Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel. NT Microsorum scolopendrium (Burm. f.) Copel. LC Oreogrammitis attenuata (Kunze) Parris (Syn:Grammitis attenuata Kunze) EN 163 B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Oreogrammitis medialis (Baker) Parris (Syn:Grammitis medialis (Baker) Ching ) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oreogrammitis reinwardtii (Blume) Parris (Syn:Grammitis reinwardtii Blume) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Oreogrammitis sledgei (Parris) Parris (Syn:Grammitis sledgei Parris) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oreogrammitis wallii(Beddome) Parris (Syn: Grammitis wallii(Bedd.) Copel.) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Oreogrammitis zeylanica(Fée ) Parris (Syn: Grammitis zeylanicaFée) NT Pleopeltis lanceolata Kaulf. EN Prosaptia alata (Blume) Christ LC Prosaptia ceylanicaParris CR Prosaptia contigua (G.Forst.) C.Presl LC Prosaptia obliquata (Blume) Mett. LC Pyrrosia ceylanica (Giesenh.) Sledge CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Pyrrosia gardneri (Mett.) Sledge Pyrrosia heterophylla (L.) Price B2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Panam-pethi, Kasi-pethi LC Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farw. LC Pyrrosia pannosa (Mett .ex Kuhn) Ching NT Pyrrosia porosa (C.Presl) Hovenkamp var. porosa LC Radiogrammitis beddomeana(Alderw.) Parris (syn: Grammitis beddomeana(Alderw.) Ching) CR(PE) Scleroglossum pusillum(Blume) Alderw. DD Scleroglossum sulcatum(Kuhn) Alderw. CR Selliguea montana (Sledge) Hovenkamp LC Tomophyllum epaleatum (Parris) Parris (Syn: Ctenopteris epaleata Parris) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) Tomophyllum perplexum (Parris) Parris (Syn: Ctenopteris perplexa Parris) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Tomophyllum repandulum (Mett.) Parris (Syn: Ctenopteris repandula (Mett.) C.Chr. & Tardieu) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) 164 B2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Present Status of Dry-zone Flora in Sri Lanka Anoma Perera, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya. A. Introduction to the ecosystem The dry land of Sri Lanka which is classically described as the dry and intermediate zones of the country, extends over about 66% of the total is land area, but nearly 85% of the natural vegetation-cover of the country exists within this region (Legg and Jewell, 1995). Three major natural terrestrial vegetation types are found in the dry land of Sri Lanka; viz, dry forests, savanna and grasslands. Depending on the variability in their location, climate, edaphic characteristics and biotic impacts, it appears that several sub-categories of the above vegetation types can be identiied. Dry forest ecosystems Sri Lankan dry forests are a part of the tropical rainforest biome. These exhibit characteristic features of tropical semi-deciduous or tropical seasonal forests of the world vegetation types described by Longman and Jenik (1987), in Archibold, (1995). Tropical semi-deciduous forests grow in low moisture conditions (e.g. annual rain fall < 1200 mm) and are mainly found in Bundala National Park (Figure 1), southern part of Yala National Park and north-eastern part of Wilpaththu National Park. Presence of deciduous or leaf exchanging species in the forest canopy is a salient feature of these forests. In contrast, tropical seasonal forests (Figure 2) occur in areas where comparatively higher rainfall (mean annual rainfall of 1200-1500 mm) is received and the major portion of the dry forests of the country falls into this forest category. These forests grow taller than tropical semideciduous forests and show a clear stratiication. Moreover, some evergreen species may be present in the canopy. However, the deviations in recorded physical features such as soil type and elevation (Alwis and Eriyagama, 1969) as well as the slope of the terrain appear to result in spatial heterogeneity in the soil moisture contents. This has resulted in the formation of different forest communities which deviated from the typical Manilkara hexandra-Chloroxylon swietenia-Drypetes sepiaria community of lowland tropical seasonal forests. It has been reported that most of the dry forests in the lowlands had grown after the destruction of hydraulic civilization in the area around 13th century (Brohier, 1941; de Rosayro, 1961) and therefore, are secondary in origin. Also, these forests are heavily disturbed by human activities such as timber logging and frequent shifting cultivation (de Jong et al., 2001; de Rosayro, 1961; Perera et al., 1995; Perera, 2001a) resulting in secondary forests or successional forests at different ages (de Rosayro, 1961; Perera, 1998, 2001a). Natural regeneration of Sri Lankan dry forest species is reported to be very poor (de Rosayro, 1959; Holmes, 1957; Perera et al., 1995; Perera, 2001a; Rutnam, 1959) which is attributed to the poor quality and quantity of the seed rain (Perera, 1998, 2004), soil seed bank (Perera, 1998a, 2000, 2004, 2005) and the seedling bank (Perera, 2001b, 2004). Repeated disturbances in secondary forests and lack of regeneration of high forest species may result in scrub jungle plagioclimaxes through delected succession but these are not a true climax vegetation type of the dry land of Sri Lanka. Such 165 scrub jungles grow up to 3-4 m and mainly consist of deciduous or semi-deciduous species forming a single stratum (Figure 3). Savanna ecosystems Savanna ecosystems of Sri Lanka are situated in the dry and intermediate zones of Sri Lanka at elevations between 300-1000 m (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). Savanna is a vegetation type in the tropics in which grasses form a conspicuous ground cover (Archibold, 1991). According to Cole (1986), tropical savannas are classiied into several structural formations by considering features such as the major life form categories dominating them, the height and density of trees, spacing between trees and the height and cover of grasses. It appears that, the savannas found in Sri Lanka could be described as Savanna woodlands (Figures 4 & 5) as the spacing of the trees is about or a little higher than the diameters of the tree crowns with a considerable extent of tall mesophytic grass cover. Tall trees (> 8 m high) of deciduous and semi-deciduous species together with tall mesophytic grasses (> 80 cm high) are common in Sri Lankan savanna woodlands. These occur as patches of varying sizes of about 2-1000 ha, spreading intermittently with dry forests (G.G.C. Premalal and G.A.D. Perera, unpublished data) but depending on their loristic and some abiotic features, these can be assigned into two major types as upland savanna and lowland savanna woodlands. Upland savanna woodlands (Figure 5) occur at the slope of the central massif at Balangoda while the lowland savanna woodlands (Figure 6) are found at Nilgala, Nellikele and Bibile in Monaragala district. Careya arborea, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia bellirica and T. chebula are prominant members of these ecosystems but towards higher elevations, Anogeissus latifolius occur more frequently than in the lowlands (G.G.C. Premalal and G.A.D. Perera, unpublished data). However, the two savanna ecosystem types, i.e. in lowland and upland savanna woodlands show differences in the vegetation structure, density of individuals and species abundance rather than the loristic composition of the woody perennials. Grassland ecosystems Grassland ecosystems in the dry land of Sri Lanka include both edaphic climaxes and disclimaxes of anthropogenic origin. Of these, the edaphic climaxes are mainly governed by the depth of the soil and the soil moisture content which is an artifact of frequent or occasional looding, their close proximity to water bodies, rivers, abandoned irrigation tanks, and water holes and/or due to soil characteristics such as the presence of alluvial soil. Four major grassland ecosystem types can be identiied in the dry land of Sri Lanka namely, dry (Damana) grasslands, occasionally looded dry grasslands, seasonally looded damp grasslands and grassland disclimaxes maintained by ire and/or grazing. Natural grasslands (edaphic climaxes) are more diverse compared to grassland disclimaxes. Moreover, the grasslands occur at wetter conditions contain many different grass and sedge species. Damana grasslands are reported as natural edaphic climaxes formed due to edaphic features but prolonged periods of drought in these areas may also contribute in the formation of these grasslands (Sezchowycz, 1954). The presence of saline soil with high osmotic pressure in 166 Figure 1. Tropical semi-deciduous forest in Bundala National Park with a single species (Manilkara hexandra) dominant canopy Figure 2. Tropical seasonal forest at the western part of the Wilpattu National Park (a) dry season (b) wet season Figure 3. Scrubland plagioclimaxes at Bundala National Park Figure 4. An upland savanna woodland at Belihuloya (Photograph by courtesy of Mr. G.G.C. Premalal) Figure 5. A lowland savanna woodland at Nilgala (Photograph by courtesy of Mr. G.G.C. Premalal) 167 the soil solution and the insolubility of soil minerals such as iron, phosphorus and magnesium are given as reasons for the formation of edaphic climaxes. These could be artifacts of impenetrable ‘C’ horizon in the soil proile and subsequent water logging during wet conditions and bad aeration (Sezchowycz, 1954). These are mainly dominated with Imperata cylindrica and Cymbopogon nardus but the presence of scattered or clumped trees (e.g. M. hexandra, Limonia acidissima) is a salient feature of this ecosystem. Villus found in Wilpaththu National Park, and at the Mahaweli lood plains are a speciic natural, grass dominated, wetland ecosystem found in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Swampy areas in villus are surrounded by seasonally looded damp grasslands while occasionally looded dry grasslands are located next to these up to the forest edge. On the other hand, grassland disclimaxes are recorded to have originated after the destruction of forests in the past and subsequent repeated cultivation and accompanying frequent burning and heavy grazing (de Rosayro, 1961; Pemadasa, 1990). Imperata cylindrica is a common species in such grasslands but in some areas, such as Udawalawe National Park, these have been replaced by Panicum maximum. Annual herbs such as Croton hirtus, Eleutheranthera ruderalis grow with perennials such as Tephrosia purpurea, Abutilon indicum and some Poaceae species and as a result, a clear seasonal variation in the vegetation can be observed. However, Heteropogon contortus may dominate if the grasslands are intensively and annually burnt over a long period of time (Perera and Wijesooriya, 2007). B. Prominent plants (families) In Dry forest ecosystems Euphorbiaceae species are the most prominent in dry forest vegetations and their proportional abundance is high in areas where more harsh environments exist (Table below). Drypetes sepiaria is a universally distributed Euphorbiaceae member which dominates the forest understorey. M. hexandra (Sapotaceae) is also a unique species in the dry zone which dominate in dry areas but the species is either rare or absent in cooler and moist conditions. In comparatively wetter areas, a mixture of Annonaceae, Ebenaceae, Melastomataceae and Sapindaceae species tend to grow more frequently with some Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae or Sapotaceae species. The composition of species and plant families in secondary forests do not vary much with the forest type, their location and the abiotic conditions. At early seral stages, individuals of Euphorbiaceae (e.g. Flueggea leucopyrus, Figure 6c), Rubiaceae (e.g. Catunaregam spinosa, Tarenna asiatica) and Rhamnaceae (e.g. Ziziphus oenoplia) are prominant but Rubiaceae (e.g. Benkara malabarica, Haldina cordifolia) Tiliaceae (e.g. Diplodiscus verrucosus, Grewia spp.), Verbenaceae (e.g. Premna spp.) and Sterculiaceae (e.g. Pterospermum suberifolium) species are prominent in late seral forests. Scrub jungle plagioclimaxes contains many species that are common in early seral secondary forests but Fabaceae (e.g. Cassia auriculata, Figure 6a; Dichrostachys cinerea, Figure 6b), Euphorbiaceae (e.g. Flueggea leucopyrus, Figure 6c) and Rhamnaceae species dominate in them. 168 Prominent plant families in dry forests of Sri Lanka Major forest type Prominent plant families Tropical semi-deciduous forests Euphorbiaceae, Sapotaceae Euphorbiaceae, Sapotaceae, Rutaceae, Lauraceae, Sapindaceae, Ebenaceae, Melastomataceae, Annonaceae, Myrtaceae Tropical seasonal forests* Secondary forest under succession Fallow forests <5 yr old Early seral vegetation Late seral vegetation Scrub jungles (Plagioclimaxes) progressive Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae, Malvaceae Euphorbiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae Rubiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Verbenaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Rhamnaceae * prominent plant families may vary with the locality/available soil moisture content In Savanna ecosystems A peculiar feature of the woody lora common to all savanna woodlands is the dominance of the members of the families Combretaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Lecythidaceae. Poaceae, Asteraceae and Malvaceae species are prominent in the herbaceous component. In Grassland ecosystems As the name implies, these ecosystems are dominated with Poaceae members. For instance, around 60% of the individuals in damana and dry land grassland disclimaxes are Poaceae species. The rest mainly consists of Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae species. More than 75% of the species in occasionally looded dry land grasslands belong to the family Poaceae but there are several Cyperaceae and Fabaceae species as well (Perera and Wijesooriya, 2007). In contrast, Cyperaceae and Poaceae species are prominent in seasonally looded damp grasslands. C. Distribution A peculiar feature in the lowland dry land of Sri Lanka is that many natural forest plant species, especially more light demanding species are rather common in all over the dry land of the country but their abundance may vary from region to region or over the available soil moisture gradients. Dry forests at comparatively high precipitation or soil moisture levels are richer in species and harbour more endemic species than the very dry areas of the island. Thus, the tropical seasonal forests are richer in species than the tropical semi-deciduous forests while northern lowland is richer in species than its eastern and southern counterparts. Similarly, the riparian and hill forest communities are rich in species with the presence of many endemic species (Alwis and Eriyagama,1969; Fernando, 2010; Jayasuriya, 1984; Jayasingham and Wijesundara, 2007). Presence of evergreen tropical rain forest species of the country is a typical feature of these dry zone hill forests (Fernando, 2010; Jayasuriya, 1984; Jayasingham and Wijesundara, 2007) while these harbour plants and animals rarely encountered in the plains below (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). 169 (b) Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae) (c) Flueggea leucopyrus (Euphorbiaceae) (a) Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae), Figure 6. Common scrubland species Forests in drier areas of the country possess comparatively a high taxic diversity in terms of plant genera which are mostly represented by a single species. For instance, 48 plant species were recorded from Bundala National Park which belongs to 47 plant genera. In contrast, the forests that grow in moist areas are rich in species but the diversity of plant genera decreases due to the presence of congeneric species. For instance, Dimocarpus gardneri and D. longan and Strychnos minor and S. trichocalyx grow in Kilinochchi forest which is comparatively wetter than the forests at Bundala. Figure 7 Derris parvilora, an endemic liana species with magniicent inlorescences 170 According to the plant records available in the Flora of Ceylon (Dassanayake and Fosberg (1980-2004), 43 woody plants endemic to the country grow in the dry land of Sri Lanka. These include 26 tree, 2 liana and 15 shrub species. Of these, 33 are also found from the wet zone of the country but 10 species have been reported only in the dry land . However, 7 of the 10 species are restricted to wet localities in the lowlands or in hill forests of the intermediate zone but the other 3 species, i.e. Canthium puberulum, Diplodiscus verrucosus and Memecylon petiolatum are recorded only from the dry zone. Some endemic species such as Derris parvilora (Figure 7 ) produce magniicent inlorescences and thus have a potential ornamental value. Point endemics are not common in the dry land of the country as in the wet zone. Three point endemic species, each known only from a single site <100 km2 are reported mostly at comparatively wetter places in the intermediate zone of the country. Of these, Wrightia lavidorosea (Apocynaceae) and Hopea brevipetiolaris (Dipterocarpaceae) are found from Dolukanda while Oplismenus thwaitesii (Poaceae) is found at Nalanda (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). Hopea cordifolia (Dipterocarpaceae) is also a noteworthy endemic species found from the southern part of the country, restricted to the gallery forest along the Walawe Ganga and Kirindi Oya and their tributaries in the dry zone of the Uva Province. D. Threats Habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation are among the major threats in the wilderness areas of the Sri Lankan dry land which are among the most threatened ecosystems of the country. Conversion of natural ecosystems to other land use types is a noteworthy threat in the dry zone at present. Thus, the extent of savanna woodlands in Nilgala Valley has been reduced (Jayasingham and Wijesundara, 2007) while the damana grasslands of Ampara have been fragmented due to the establishment of human settlements. Similarly, a considerable area under natural dry forests has been destroyed for socio-economic developmental projects in addition to clearance for shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation is proven to be an inappropriate agricultural practice resulting in the depletion of biodiversity in dry forests (Perera 2001) but the practice still continues illegally. Selective logging of canopy dominants is also a major harmful anthropogenic activity in dry forests. Extraction of canopy dominant timber species such as Diospyros ebenum and Manilkara hexandra has led to the decrease in their population densities in the wild. Selective logging would also change the forest microclimate so that the climax forest species are not naturally regenerated satisfactorily in the wild. For instance, Chloroxylon swietenia, is becoming rarer in the wild due to heavy selective logging and consequent lack of adequate parent trees for seed production, and also due to heavy seed predation (Perera, 1998). Over-extraction of fruits of Terminalia bellirica, T. chebula and Phyllanthus emblica in savanna ecosystems (Jayasingham and Wijesundara, 2007) and the unsustainable harvesting of fruits of Dialium ovoideum and M. hexandra in dry forests are severe threats as these may cause a reduction of the availability of propagules for their perpetuity in the wild. Repeated disturbances in any disturbed ecosystem may lead to formation of disclimaxes. Thus, grassland disclimaxes are retained by annual ires (Figure 8a) while frequent clearance and/or burning in degraded dry forests would lead to formation of scrub jungle plagioclimaxes dominated with light demanding shrub species. These repeated disturbances prevent the recolonization of climax vegetation but may facilitate alien exotics to invade the area. Several invasive plant species are reported in different dry land ecosystems and these invaders may 171 (b) Prosopis julilora invaded land in Bundala forest. (a) Fire in a P. maximum dominated grassland at Mawuara, Udawalawe Figure 8 Figure 10. Die-back of M. hexandra in Bundala National Park (Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Udaya Gunarathne) Figure 9. The dreadful invader: Bambusa bambos in Minneriaya Forest vary from region to region. Thus, Prosopis julilora is found in coastal dry forests at Hambanthota and Mannar districts (Figure 8b) while Bambusa bambos is a common invader in Minneriya and Girithale forests in Polonnaruwa district (Figure 9). In contrast, Lantana camara is universally distributed across the whole dry land of the country. Heavy grazing and trampling by feral cattle and buffaloes are serious threats in occasionally looded dry land grasslands and seasonally looded damp grasslands. Frequent grazing and trampling expose the soil and facilitate the seeds of invasive species to grow. These ungulates act as the seed dispersal agents of invasive species as well. Thus, L. camara invades in grasslands at Udawalawe National Park while P. julilora has invaded the areas closer to lagoons in Hambanthota District. Forest die-back is commonly seen in tropical semi-deciduous forests where the canopy dominant M. hexandra trees are dying back (Figure 10). As the canopy of these forests consists of only M. hexandra, its die-back would affect the forest structure and the micro-climate and 172 is very likely to devastate this ecosystem in the near future. Change of the global climate may exaggerate this situation but this has not been adequately examined so far. All the above mentioned threats directly or indirectly lead to the extinction of threatened species from the dry land of the country. More than forty locally threatened plant species are found from the dry land of Sri Lanka. Threats in the dry land habitats pose a greater impact on endemic and rare plant species. For instance, nearly 30% of the endemic plants that grow in the Sri Lankan dry land are under a the threat of extinction. E. Conservation priorities Conservation of dry zone terrestrial ecosystems is of prime importance for conserving the species in these habitats. Using satellite imagery analyses, Legg and Jewel (1995) stated that closed forests of the dry land of Sri Lanka covers 524,900 ha . The majority of these are protected by the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department of Sri Lanka. However, the wilderness is still being converted to other land uses from time to time while unplanned and uncontrolled human activities are playing a signiicant role in their degradation. Therefore, policies should be formulated and implemented to halt the conversion of wilderness areas to other land use types and to prevent selective logging, shifting cultivation and cattle ranching in protected areas. Moreover, the strengthening of relevant institutions is vital for the protection of these ecosystems. F. Research gaps and research needs Some ecosystems of the country, especially the savanna and grassland ecosystems, are not adequately investigated. The exact locations and the extent of these ecosystems are not accurately documented while the ecological data required in preparing management guidelines of these ecosystems hardly exist. The species composition, the eco-physiological requirements of constituent species, biotic and abiotic factors that affect species composition, distribution and vegetation successions and disturbance responses in these ecosystems should be examined. Compared to these, the dry forest ecosystems have been studied to a certain extent, but more studies should be conducted to ill certain gaps in the knowledge. Thus, future research should focus on the eco-physiological requirements of dry forest plant species, pollination biology and diseases as well as pathogens. Moreover, it is vital to investigate the impacts of climate change and the potential for carbon sequestration in all these major dry land ecosystems. Also, the restoration of degraded dry land ecosystems and sustainable harvesting mechanisms for non-timber forest products should also be investigated in depth. G. Conclusions and recommendations Dry forests, savanna and grasslands are the three major natural terrestrial vegetation types found in the dry land of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity in these ecosystems are adversely affected by various biotic and abiotic inluences such as habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation, biotic invasions, forest die-back, over-extraction of forest products and climate change. These facts highlight the importance of conserving the remaining natural dry land ecosystems of the country. Protection of dry zone ecosystems should be strictly followed without converting the remaining natural dry zone ecosystems to other land use types. Human impacts especially, the shifting cultivation, selective logging and grazing by feral cattle should be stopped by 173 implementing proper regulations. Meanwhile, the local people should be directed to establish home gardens and to incorporate timber, medicinal, fodder and fuel wood species in their home gardens. The institutes responsible for preventing illegal human activities in natural ecosystems and conserving these should be further strengthened by providing basic infrastructure and human resources. However, it is also essential to conduct further research to ill the gaps of knowledge of Sri Lankan dry land ecosystems while rehabilitating the degraded ecosystems. H. References Alwis, K. A. de and Eriyagama, G.J. 1969. Some observations on soil-vegetation relationships in the lowland dry zone of Ceylon. Ceylon Forester, Vol. ix: Nos. 1&2. pp 53-71. Archibold, O.W. 1995. Ecology of world vegetation. Chapman and Hall, USA. pp 510. Brohier, R.L. 1941. The history of irrigation and agricultural colonization in Ceylon: The Tamankaduwa District and the Elahera-Minneriya canal. Tharanjee Prints, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. pp 62. Cole, M.M. 1986. The savannas: Biogeography and Geobotany. Academic Press Inc. USA. Pp 438. Dassanayake, M.D. and Fosberg, F.R. 1980-2004. A revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Vol. I-XV, Amerind Publishers, New Delhi, India. de Jong, W., Chokkalingam, U. and Perera G.A.D. 2001. The evolution of swidden fallow secondary forests in Asia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 13(4): 800-815. de Rosayro R.A. 1950. Ecological conceptions and vegetational types with special reference to Ceylon. Tropical Agriculturist. 106: 108-121. de Rosayro R.A. 1959. Editorial notes: The place of forestry in the dry zone. Ceylon Forester, 4: 1-3. de Rosayro R.A. 1961. The nature and the origin of secondary vegetational communities in Ceylon. Ceylon Forester, 5: 23-49. Fernando, R.H.S.S. 2010. Biodiversity of ecological communities and the biogeography of their species in three isolated hills in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. Postgraduate Institute of Science, Peradeniya. Greller, A.M and Balasubramanium, S. 1980. A preliminary loristic-climatic classiication of the forests of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester, 14 (3/4): 163-169. Gunatilleke, Nimal., Pethiyagoda, Rohan and Gunatilleke, Savitri. 2008. Biodiversity of Sri Lanka. J.Natn.Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka. 36 Special Issue: 25-62. Holmes 1956. The broad pattern of climate and vegetation distribution in Ceylon. Ceylon Foester, 3 (3-4): 265-288. Holmes CH (1957) The natural regeneration of the wet and dry evergreen forests of Ceylon. Ceylon Forester, 3: 111-127. Jayasingham, T. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. 2007. Sustainability of medicinal plant extraction and its impacts of savannah grassland ecology in Nilgala. Protected Area Management and Wildlife Conservation Project, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. pp 37. Jayasuriya, AHM. 1984. Flora of Ritigala Strict nature Reserve. The Sri Lanka Forester, 16 : 60-156 Legg, C. and Jewell, N. 1995. A 1:50,000-scale forest map of Sri Lanka: the basis for a National Forest Geographic system. The Sri Lanka Forester, special issue. pp 3-24. Pemadasa, M.A. 1990. Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India. Journal of Biogeography, 17: 395-400. Perera, D., Brown N.D. and Burslem D.F. 1995. Restoring the degraded dry zone woodlands of Sri Lanka. ITTO Tropical Forest Update, 5: 8-10. Perera, G.A.D. 1998. Regeneration and succession following shifting cultivation of dry tropical deciduous forests of Sri Lanka. D.Phil thesis, University of Oxford, UK. Perera, G.A.D. 2001 a. Secondary forest situation in Sri Lanka: a review. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 13(4): 768-785. Perera, G.A.D. 2001 b. Vegetation and the Regeneration of moist deciduous forests at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. Phyta, Journal of the Peradeniya University Botanical Society, Sri Lanka, 5(1): 9-16. Perera, G.A.D. 2004. Factors affecting the vegetation succession of moist-deciduous forests at Sigiriya Sanctuary, Sri Lanka. Abstracts of the 9th Annual Forestry and Environment Symposium, University of Sri Jayawardenapura , Sri Lanka. p 21. Perera, G.A.D. 2005. Diversity and Dynamics of the soil seed bank of a tropical deciduous forest at Sigiriya Sanctuary, Sri Lanka. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 46 (1):65-78. Perera, G.A.D. and Wijesooriya, S.M. 2007. Protected Area Management and Wildlife Conservation Project, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. pp 1-46. Rutnam P.W. 1959. Growth of plants under the shelter of natural forests in the dry zone. Ceylon Forester, 4: 224226. Sezchowycz, R. W. 1954. Some observations on climate, soil & forest climax. Ceylon Forester, (N.S.) 1(2), 58-66. 174 Present status of Lowland Wet Zone Flora of Sri Lanka H. S. Kathriarachchi Department of Plant Sciences, University of Colombo Introduction Sri Lanka has an outstanding biodiversity because of its tropical climate, soil, topographical variations, geographical location and its striking biogeographic history. Together with the Western Ghats in India, Sri Lanka is considered as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots in the world because of the high degree of endemism in fauna and lora and serious amount of habitat loss (Ashton et al., 1997; Gunatilleke et al., 2004). The diverse array of ecosystems in Sri Lanka harbors a wealth of plant species and they provide a habitat for many other species as yet undiscovered. Sri Lanka also has a diversity of climatic and loristic regions showing spatial variations in rainfall, altitude and soil. Lowland wet zone represents the area below 1,000 m in elevation, spreading in the southwestern quarter of Sri Lanka (Figure 1), mainly in the Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Kegalle districts and part of Ratnapura (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b; Ministry of Forestry and Environment, 1999). Flora of the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka is largely distributed in the tropical lowland rainforests - forests below 1,000 m altitude (Figure 1). These forests have an aseasonal wet climate and generally receive 2500 – 5000 mm of mean annual rain fall without prominent dry spells. Mean annual temperature is about 27oC at sea level. The lowland wet zone forests are classiied by de Rosayro (1950) as wet evergreen forest climax by Koelmeyer (1957) and Holmes (1956) as wet tropical evergreen forests . These forests are conined to 2.14% (141,506 ha) of the total land area of Sri Lanka (Ministry of Forestry and Environment, 1999). SRI Figure. 1 Map showing the forests in the south-west of Sri Lanka. Blue = Fragmented lowland rain forests remaining in Sri Lanka, Green = Montane rain forests, Brown = Intermediate zone forests, Yellow = Dry zone forests (Source: Somasekaram et al., 1997). 175 Floristic richness in Sri Lanka is signiicantly high in the lowland regions compared to the other parts of the country. Even within the wet zone, the distribution of indigenous loristic elements shows remarkable localization and one quarter of the angiosperm lora of Sri Lanka is endemic and also concentrated in the perhumid southwest of the island (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1990). Floristic elements in the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka are relic and primeval in origin. Their origin dates back to the Deccan plate and shares Gondwana-Deccan ancestry and are, by far, the most species-rich biome in the whole of south Asia (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987a). Remnants of these Deccan lora are now restricted to the fragments of lowland wet zone in Sri Lanka and the south west region of India, and important in revealing biogeographic history of South Asia. Prominent plant taxa Dipterocarpus community and the Mesua-Shorea (Doona) community are the two prominent loristic comminutes in Sri Lankan lowland wet zone forests that comprise of dominant lowland wet zone lora. In addition to that, lowland wet zone lora also exists in Campnosperma and other species community and Vitex-Dillenia-Chaetocarpus-Anisophylla community, especially in the early successional secondary forests (de Rosayro, 1942; Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b). Dominant plant species of these loristic communities are listed in the table below. Dominant plant species of the different loristic communities in lowland wet zone forests in Sri Lanka (de Rosayro, 1942; Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b). Floristic community Dominant plant species Dipterocarpus community Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Dipterocarpus hispidus, Vitex pinnata, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Dillenia retusa, Dillenia triquetra, Myristica dactyloides, Semecarpus gardneri Mesua-Shorea (Doona) community Mesua ferrea, Mesua thwaitesii, Shorea trapezifolia, Shorea zeylanica, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Palaquium petiolare, Mangifera zeylanica, Myristica dactyloides, Garcinia echinocarpa, Agrostistachys coriacea, Lasianthus strigosus, Aporusa lindleyana, Humboldtia laurifolia Campnosperma and other species community Campnosperma zeylanica, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Palaquium petiolare, Myristica dactyloides, Dillenia triquetra, Gaertnera vaginans, Schumacheria castanaefolia, Thottea siliquosa, Syzygium neesianum, Vitex-DilleniaChaetocarpusAnisophylla community Vitex pinnata, Dillenia triquetra, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Anisophyllea cinnamomoides, Dillenia retusa, Myristica dactyloides, Semecarpus gardneri, Gyrinops walla, Cullenia spp., Mangifera zeylanica, Ochna wightiana, Xylopia championii, Garcinia echinocarpa, Diospyros insignis, Gaertnera vaginans, Thottea siliquosa Schumacheria castanaefolia, Humboldtia laurifolia, Syzygium corymbosum, Symplocos spicata Dipterocarpaceae, Clusiaceae, Myrtaceae, Bombacaceae, Dilleniaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Sapotaceae are the dominant plant families in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka. 176 Distribution High degree of endemism is a distinctive feature of wet zone lora in Sri Lanka. Distribution of endemic species in different climatic zones of Sri Lanka reveal that the wet lowlands harbour 156 endemic tree species, 82 shrub species and 88 endemic herbs having the highest number of endemics among all the climatic zones in Sri Lanka (Peeris, 1975; Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1990). Many of the endemic lora in the lowland wet zone shows distinctive and extraordinary localized patterns of species distribution conined to a single forest or a single cluster of forests blocks within a highly dissected and variable topographic landscape from lowland coastal plains to high altitude regions (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987a; Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991). Most of these endemic taxa have very low population densities. 17% of the wet zone lowland endemic lora is conined to the south-western front ranges of the southern block hills (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987a). Stemonoporus moonii, a species of an endemic genus, and Mesua stylosa are only recorded in Walauwatta-Waturana fresh water swamp forest in Bulathsinghala. Most of the endemic Dipterocarps, and Clusiaceae species also show very restricted distribution patterns. Flora of lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka shows a great specialization and are subjected to strong habitat-based selection, resulting in many of the species with special ecological and environmental niches and allowed closely related species to co-exist by occupying different ecological niches. Sympatric distributions of congeneric species are remarkable features of most tropical rainforests, also common among the lowland wet zone lora in Sri Lanka (Gunatilleke et al., 2006). Species of Shorea section Doona, common canopy dominants in lowland wet zone forests in Sri Lanka are good examples for sympatric distribution. Distribution of lowland wet zone lora shows striking variations in relation to environmental factors; disturbance, soil and altitude (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b). De Rosyro (1942) also identiied that soils play an important role for species distribution in lowland wet zone in Sri Lanka. Dipterocarpus consociation is best distributed in coastal plains, valleys, and lower slopes of lowland hills and rarely occurs above 750 m. Mesua-Shorea (Doona) community is characteristic on skeletal soils on steep slopes between 450 – 900 m. Threats and conservation priorities Sri Lanka also has one of the densest human populations in Asia, with the result that much of its original forests have been cleared for settlement, cultivation and production of timber. The forest cover has decreased from 84% in 1881 to 23.9% in 1992 (Anon., 1995). Out of this, only about 141,506 ha (2.14%) of lowland rain forests are now remaining in the island are fragmented, degraded and isolated throughout the lowland wet zone in Sri Lanka. Habitat destruction, fragmentation of natural habitats, introduction of exotic or invasive species, and over-exploitation of forest resources are some of the direct threats to the lowland wet zone ecosystem. The wet zone forests of Sri Lanka are still the most productive timber yielding forests. As a result, most of them have been already reduced to isolated fragments (Gunatilleke and 177 Gunatilleke, 1991). High population density of the lowland wet zone and the development activities associated with the rapid increase of population and extensive dependence on subsistence agriculture have caused considerable pressure on this biologically rich ecosystem of the country. Human encroachment by communities living in the peripheral areas is another major threat for this ecosystem. Habitat disturbance together with the fragmentation of the forests caused several negative impacts to the ecosystem, for instance restricted dispersal, isolation of populations, genetic erosion etc. Considering the loristic wealth of lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka, in situ conservation of nationally and globally threatened endemic plant species with special emphasis on their population sizes should have high priority. A study conducted in nine different sites of lowland wet zone revealed that 93% of endemic plant species are either endangered, vulnerable, or rare according to the IUCN Red List criteria (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991). To provide in situ conservation for many of these threatened endemics, the preservation of representative samples of rain forests in different regions is strongly recommended (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991). In the past, natural forests were largely used for the extraction of timber. Little attention was then paid to other useful resources, largely non-timber, that were traditionally being extracted by the peripheral communities around forests. However, these non-timber resources contributed to the livelihood of the local people, who depended on the forests for their food, medicine and other domestic requirements for generations (Anon., 1995; Gunatilleke et al., 1994). Conservation of non-timber forest products through an effective buffer zone management system around the lowland wet zone forests would certainly reduce the pressure on the ecosystem. Sri Lanka has a strong tradition in conservation practiced by communities in harmony with, and partial dependence on, the natural forests. Thus, it provides an excellent setting to examine how these tropical rain forests can be managed for multiple uses, following a system that is socially acceptable, ecologically sustainable and economically viable (Gunatilleke et al., 1994). The multiple use management of natural forests, aims to increase the sustainable low of both timber and non-timber forest products, while maintaining their value for non-product services such as biodiversity conservation, soil and water conservation, amenity and sociocultural values from natural forests for the beneit of the rural people (Gunatilleke et al., 1995). Experience and the scientiic and technical expertise in multiple use forest management systems are currently lacking in Sri Lanka. Buffer zones can be recognized as one of the most suitable and important areas to implement multiple use forest management, while providing a variety of goods and services. Research gaps and research needs Considerable amount of research has been carried out, especially on lowland wet zone lora, over the last 3-4 decades. These studies have substantially increased our understanding on of the distribution of species, ecology, forest dynamics and silvicultural and management practices of this ecosystem. However, following research gaps could be identiied; - Systematics and inventory of lower plants in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka Phylogenetics and evolutionary studies on plant taxa to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships, biogegraphic history etc. 178 - Taxonomic research on closely related and problematic plant taxa using molecular markers Population studies on threaten plant species Phenology and reproductive biology of plants Research on natural compounds obtained from lowland wet zone lora Ethnobotanical research Conclusions Lowland wet zone lora of Sri Lanka are extraordinary in terms of species richness, distribution, high degree of endemism and their biogeographic history. Dipterocarpaceae, Clusiaceae, Myrtaceae, Bombacaceae, Dilleniaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Sapotaceae are some of the dominant plant families in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka. They dominate the lowland rainforests that are fragmented, degraded and isolated throughout the lowland wet zone in Sri Lanka. Habitat destruction, fragmentation of natural habitats, introduction of exotic or invasive species, and over exploitation of forest resources are some of the direct threats to the lowland wet zone ecosystem. Conservation of nationally and globally threatened endemic plant species with special emphasis on their population sizes is an urgent need. Multiple-use forest management systems can be successfully applied to manage these ecosystem in a sustainable manner. Research on lowland wet zone lora has substantially increased our understanding on the value and the importance this ecosystem. However, research has to be more strengthened and extended to fully appreciate and implement meaningful conservation strategies for this precious ecosystem. References Anon. (1995). Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan. Forestry planning unit, Ministry of agriculture, land and forestry, Colombo. Ashton, P.M., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Zoyza, N., Dassanayake, M.D., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., & Wijesundara, S. (1997). A ield guide to the common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. WHT Publications (Pvt) Ltd., Sri Lanka. De Rosayro, R.A. (1942). The soils and ecology of the wet evergreen forests of Ceylon. The Tropical agriculturist, 98:4–35. De Rosayro, R.A. (1950). Ecological conceptions and vegetational types with special reference to Ceylon. The Tropical agriculturist, 56:108–121. Gunatilleke, C.V.S & Ashton P.S. (1987a). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I. Historical plant geography. Journal of Biogeography, 14: 249–285. Gunatilleke, C.V.S & Ashton P.S. (1987b). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon II. The ecological biogeography of the lowland endemic tree lora. Journal of Biogeography, 14: 295–327. Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1990). Distribution of loristic richness and its conservation in Sri Lanka. Conservation Biology, 4: 21-31. Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1991). Threatened woody endemics of the wet lowlands of Sri Lanka and their conservation. Conservation Biology, 55: 17-36. Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Abeygunawardena, P. (1994). An interdisciplinary research initiative towards sustainable management of forest resources in lowlands rain forest of Sri Lanka. Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 4: 95-114. Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I. A.U.N. & Ashton, P.M.S. (1995). Rain forest reseach and conservation: the Sinharaja experience in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Forester, XXII (1&2): 49-60. Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Ethugala, A.U.K., & Esufali, E. (2004). Ecology of Sinharaja rain Forest and the Forest Dynamics Plot in Sri Lanka’s natural World Heritage Site. WHT publications (Pvt) Ltd., Sri Lanka. 179 Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Esufali, S., Harms, K.E., Ashton, P.M.S., Burslem, D. F.R.P. & Ashton, P.S. (2006). Species–habitat associations in a Sri Lankan dipterocarp forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 22: 371–384. Hollems, C.H. (1956). The broad pattern of climate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester, 2: 209-225. Koelmeyer, K.O. (1957). Climatic classiication and distribution of vegetation in Ceylon. The Ceylon forester, 3: 144 - 163. Ministry of Forestry and Environment (1999). Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka – A framework of Action. Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Sri Lanka. Peeris, C.V.S (1975). The ecology of endemic tree species of Sri Lanka in relation to their conservation. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Aberdeen, UK. Somasekaram, T., Perera, M. P., de Silva, M. B. G., & Godellawatta, H. (Eds.). (1997). Arjuna’s Atlas of Sri Lanka. Arjuna Consulting Co. Ltd., Sri Lanka, 32-35. 180 Present Status of Montane Forests in Sri Lanka Siril Wijesundara Department of National Botanic Gardens Peradeniya. siril.wijesundara@gmail.com In Sri Lanka the montane forests, also known as upper montane forests, occur at elevations beyond 1500 m above mean sea level. They share an average temperature of about 16 degrees Celsius and rainfall of above 2000 mm without any marked dry periods, and humidity above 80%. It is characterized by a short canopy of about 13 m, with a dense shrub layer of about 3-4 m. Gnarled and twisted trees with rounded (umbrella-shaped) crowns with tiny, leathery leaves to accommodate the strong winds that prevail. High density of epiphytes, epiphylls, mosses, bryophytes and lichens are commonly found. Soils are red-yellow podzols. Keena (Calophyllum walkeri), Damba (Syzygium revolutum) and S. rotundifolium make the abundant tree species with Wal sapu (Magnolia nilagrica), Mihiriya (Gordonia ceylanica). Gregariously lowering Nelu (Strobilanthes spp.) form a prominent shrub layer, while Usnea (Old man’s beard) is a distinct lichen; epiphytic orchids such as Eria bicolor, Robiquetia brevifolia, and ilmy ferns are common; Sudu Binara (Exacum walkeri) is a distinct herbaceous lower. Pigmy forests or elin forests are found on top of Hakgala, Totapola and Knuckles, made of stunted trees of Ilex, Eurya, Syzygium and shrubs such as Rhodomyrtus, Osbeckia, and Hedyotes (Wijesundara, 1991) Montane forests once formed a more or less continuous cover or cap extending over almost the entire third peneplain of Sri Lanka, encompassing the Pedro, Totapola and Adam’s peak ranges, and the isolated Knuckles range (de Rosayro, 1946). At present only 3000 ha of montane forests are left in the island. In addition to their role in water retention and release in catchment areas in this country, montane forests are also the home of about 500 endemic plant species which constitute about 50% of all the endemics in Sri Lanka (Peeris, 1975). Trees in the montane forests are covered with mosses and lichens enabling them to intercept mist effectively. According to some hydrological studies done, 25% of the precipitation received by the montane forests in Horton Plains is due to mist interception (Gunawardena et al, 1998). Despite their biological and hydrological importance, vast areas of these montane forests have been cleared during the latter part of the 19th century for introduction of plantation crops such as tea. Only about 3,100 ha of montane forests are remaining at present (MENR, 2009). Flora and origin of the montane zone More than half the species of our montane zone are endemic to it and not found in Nilgiri or other hills of the Indian peninsula. However, about 20 species and 44 genera are common to the South Indian and Sri Lankan hills (Blasco, 1971). There is not a single genus endemic to the hills of either country or both combined, and the lora of Indo-Sri Lankan high lands is considered as a southward extension of the Himalayan lora. Dr. J. C. Willis, a former Director of Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya (1896-1912), analyzed the hill top loras of Sri Lanka and supposed that the high degree of endemism in the montane zone was due to isolation (Willis, 1908). He tabulated the proportion of hill top species with 181 different dispersal methods and found 6.5% wind dispersed species, 25.0% animal dispersed species and 68.5% species with doubtful dispersal mechanisms. A former Assistant Conservator of Forests, Mr. C.H. Holmes suggested that the montane forest probably originated and developed as a lowland wet evergreen forest which subsequently became much modiied; the montane region, he believed, has been lifted upward by a tectonic upheaval (Holmes, 1948). This was in accordance with an earlier view that the highlands were formed comparatively recently by vertical block uplift of the crust along a very large fault (Wadia,1941). Holmes (1956) suggested that the montane forest was a post-climax of the a lowland wet evergreen forest, and considers a) the loristic afinities of the region, b) dificulties of natural regeneration, c) better performance of sub-tropical or temperate species in the montane zone and d) theories on geological prehistory, in support of his theory. It is clear that this theory recognised the third peneplain which houses the montane forest as the youngest erosional terrace, as suggested by Wadia purely on geomorphological grounds. Subsequent studies, based on the structural and morphological aspects of the third peneplain, strongly suggested that differential upwarping and differential erosion could account for the major levels of denudation rather than block uplift (Vitanage, 1970). Threats to Montane Vegetation At present, natural forests in the montane zone are threatened by the rapid expansion of vegetable gardens in their vicinity encroaching upon them and the excessive extraction of irewood from them (Wijesundara, 1991). Strict control of such destructive activities is imperative if the remaining areas of this forest type in the country are to be preserved for the future. Human Disturbances Montane forests are surrounded by several villages and as a result many people enter into them for various purposes. Gathering irewood from the forest for heating the houses and cooking is very frequent. In addition to this, many trees are cut by the local inhabitants for various other domestic purposes such as fencing and staking their cultivations. Illicit gem mining is another activity destroying the montane habitats. If these activities take place in a sustainable manner the effects to the natural vegetation will be minimal. Unfortunately, the scale of these activities has now gone beyond the sustainable level. Although all montane forests are protected areas, these activities are going on without much hindrance. The Forest Department and the Department of Wild Life Conservation, which administer these reserves, do not seem to have suficient staff and other resources to prevent these destructive activities. They are also struggling to protect the forests from illicit encroachers who are trying to clear the land belonging to the reserves for vegetable cultivation. Despite many protests by the public and the authorities, recently, large areas belonging to Hakgala SNR were cleared at Rendapola, Ambewela, Sita Eliya and Hakgala sides. 182 Death of trees in the montane forests The dying of trees in Totapolakande forest of the montane zone imparting an unhealthy appearance to the forests has been observed by a former Conservator of Forests, Mr. W.R.H. Perera (Perera, 1978). The dying of trees in montane forests has also been reported by de Rosayro (1946). Perera (1978) reported that over 50% of the dominant Kina (Calophyllum) and Damba (Syzygium) trees on the slopes and summit of Totapolakande were dead or dying, but trees of Rhododendron arboreum ssp. zeylanicum, common even in montane grasslands, a large number of Nelu (Strobilanthes.) species and other shrubs in the lower strata of the forest were found to grow well while the forest tree species failed to regenerate. Several studies have been conducted on the dieback of montane forests in Sri Lanka (Werner, 1988; Adikaram et al, 1999; Ranasinghe et al., 2009) Widespread forest decline due to die-back is now a severe problem in many parts of the world. Some of these countries include Europe, North America, New Zealand, former Soviet Union and Paciic Islands. In Germany, it is reported that about 52% of the forest surveyed are affected by this phenomenon. In some cases the tree-death is due to natural causes. Die-back stands in such areas may represent a senescing stage in the forest life cycle. Drastic changes in the climate such as severe drought or lood can also cause natural die-back in forests (Werner, 1988). However, in most industrial countries the death of forest trees is mainly due to human induced environmental changes such as the pollution of atmosphere. A study conducted by us (Wijesundara and Samarasinghe 1993) to examine loristic composition of forest gaps in Horton Plains revealed that Nelu (Stobilanthes) species are found in almost all gaps created by dieback. Gaps created by ire are different from those as they are occupied by a fern, Pteridium revolutum. It was also observed that alien invasive species such as Ageratina riparia, Austroeupatorium inulifolium and Cestrum aurantiacum are invading the dieback gaps. Dieback of canopy trees was also observed in the Hakgala SNR, which is a similar montane forest in the same region. Over 50% of the species were affected by dieback. Observations made during the past two decades in the areas affected by forest dieback reveal that the following changes have been taken place in the dieback stands. a) Regeneration of the montane forest b) Formation of a pigmy forest c) Colonization of gaps by Nelu (Strobilanthes spp.) d) Colonization of gaps by alien invasive species Regeneration of montane forest can be seen in certain places where the number of dead trees is less. New shoots are formed on the defoliated trunks and at the bases of the trees. A formation of a pigmy forest in the gaps can be observed in areas where the wind action is severely felt. In the area where the gaps are colonized by Nelu, a lesser number of tree seedlings were observed. The dense growth of Nelu may suppress establishment of tree seedlings. These nelu stands, which die en mass after several years, are being invaded by grasses in some areas (Wijesundara, 1991). 183 Although the causal factors are not fully understood, widespread die-back could seriously damage the vegetation in these areas (Adikaram et al., 1999). Whether the die-back stands represent a senescing stage of the forest life cycle or whether it is due to human induced environmental changes is not known. If it is a cyclic vegetational change where the gaps formed by die-back stands represent only a regenerative phase, it is not harmful to the vegetation. However, if the cycle is interrupted by an outside factor diverting it into a different direction the existing vegetation will be affected. In other words, if an aggressive species invades the gaps the natural regeneration will not take place. Tussocks of Gawara Mana (Chrysopogon nodulibarbis) were observed in die back stands in the Horton Plains area, (Totapolakande and Kirigalpotte) and in Pidurutalagala. On the peak of Hakgala Strict Natural Reserve also, there is a small patch of grassland in the middle of a die-back stand. Since the montane forests and wet patana grasslands are present side by side, there is always a chance for propagules from each type to cross their boundaries. The stand level die-back in the upper altitudes of the montane forests in Sri Lanka can lead to a decrease in the biodiversity. Floristic composition and the structure of the affected areas will also be changed as a result. More research is needed to determine whether the edaphic factors in die-back stands are conducive to the establishment of grassland species. In some areas in the montane zone, the origin of grassland could have been due to the stand level forest die-back (Wijesundara, 1991). In the montane region the boundary between forest and the grassland is sharp; this is true for other countries as well (Richards, 1963; Blasco, 1971). The sharpness of the edge of montane forests is sometimes attributed to anthropogenic ire. Some speculate that in Sri Lanka the present line of demarcation of forest and grassland is not the original line but a result of human disturbances at a later stage. Invasive species The other serious threat to the montane vegetation is caused by the exotic species that have escaped mainly from the Hakgala Botanic Gardens (Wijesundara, 1999). When a gap is formed in the forest there is always a possibility of an exotic species with higher reproductive vigour getting established there. This is taking place along the periphery of the Hakgala SNR and already there are populations of such species that have invaded into the reserve. In the southern areas there are large patches of Cestrum aurantiacum which sometimes spread into the forest interior. The lowers of this species are pollinated by the endemic bird, Sri Lanka white eye (Zosterops ceylonensis) and the seeds are dispersed by another endemic bird, Yellow-eared bulbul (Pycnonotus penicillatus). It will be interesting to study the effect of the changes of food preferences of these birds on the regeneration of natural forest plant species (Wijesundara, 1991). Almost all the foot paths in open areas and even the streams of some motane forests are lined with such exotic weeds as Ageratina riparia and Aristea ecklonii. Aristea ecklonii is also found in more open areas such as hill tops and grassland. More recently several other invasive species were observed in the montane region. These include Calliandra calothyrsus, Miconia calvescens, Psidium litorale, Pennisetum clandestinum, and Austroeupatorium inulifolium. The effects of these alien species on the local vegetation should be an important study. 184 Conservation of our mountain forests for future has now become a priority more than in any other time. Since it is a rapidly dwindling natural resource, timely steps should be taken to prevent the destruction of what is remaining. If not, this important eco-system would disappear from earth even before the intricacies of it are fully understood. Conservation of our montane forests for future has now become a priority more than in any other time. Since it is a rapidly dwindling natural resource, timely steps should be taken to prevent the destruction of what is remaining; if not, this important eco-system would disappear from the earth even before the intricacies of it are fully understood. References Adikaram, N. K. B., K. B. Ranawana, and A. Weerasooriya. 1999. Forest Dieback in Horton Plains National Park, Protected Area Management & Wildlife Conservation Project, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. Blasco, F. 1971. Montagnes Du Sud de L’Inde. Inst. Franc. De Pondicherry. Trav. Sect. Scient. Techn. 10, (1) 436 p De Rosayro, R. A. 1946. The montane grassland (patanas) of Ceylon. Tropical Agriculturist, Vol. CII, No. 1, 4-16 pp. Gunawardena, E. R. N., I. R. Calder, P. T .W. Rosier and N. Chandrasiri. 1998. Hydrological importance of Horton Plains. In:Proceedings of the inal workshop of the University of Peradeniya-Oxford Forestry Institute Link Project (Ed: H.P.M.Gunasena), July 1998. pp: 45-63. Holmes, C. H. 1948. Some forestry problems in Ceylon and the search for their solution. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Session of the Ceylon Association for the Advancement of Science 41-68 pp. Holmes, C. H. 1956. The broad pattern of climate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester, 2, 4 (N.S.), 207-225 pp. MENR 2009. Sri Lanka Environment Outlook. Ministry of environment and UNEP. 140 p. Peeris, C. V. S. 1975. The ecology of endemic tree species in Sri Lanka in relation to their conservation. Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen, U.K. Perera, W. R. H. 1978 Totapolakande: an environmental disaster. Sri Lanka Forester, 13 (3-4), (N.S.), 53-55 pp. Ranasinghe, P.N., G. W. A. R. Fernando, M. D. N. R. Wimalasena, S. P. Ekanayake and Y. P. S. Siriwardana. (2009). Dieback in Tropical Montane Forests of Sri Lanka: Anthopogenic or natural phenomenon? Journal of Geological Society of Sri Lanka Vol. 13 (2009), 23-45 pp. Richards, P. W. 1963 Ecological notes on the West African vegetation. Journal of Ecology, 51 (3), 529-554 pp. Vitanage, P.W. 1970. A study of the geomorphology and morphotectonics of Ceylon. Proc. Second Seminar on geochemical prospecting methods and techniques ECTFT/UNESCO GSM (2), 89-25-11. 391-405 pp. Wadia, D.N. 1941 The making of Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica. National Museum of Ceylon Publ. Colombo. 23, 1-7 pp. Werner, W.L., 1988. Canopy dieback in the upper Montane rin forests of Sri Lanka. Geojournal 17(2): 245-248 Wijesundara, D. S. A. 1991 Phytosociology of a Montane Forest in Sri Lanka. M.Phil Thesis, University of Peradeniya 165 p Wijesundara D. S. A. and D. Samarasinghe. 1993. Disturbed grasslands in Horton Plains National Park. Proc SLAAS. 49. Wijesundara, D. S. A. 1999 Alien Invasive Species in Sri Lanka and their history of introduction. In Marambe, B (ed). Proceedings of the First national Workshop on Alien Invasive Species. Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Sri Lanka 25-27 pp. Wijesundara, D. S. A. 2003. Dieback in the Montane forests of Sri Lanka. In Hitinayake, G. (Ed.). Proceedings of the workshop on forest dieback at central highland ecosystems. Sri Lanka Association of Advancement of Science. 4-11 pp. Willis, J. C. 1908 The loras of Hill Tops in Ceylon. . Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 4. (4) 131138 pp. 185 Present Status of Fresh Water Aquatic Flora in Sri Lanka Deepthi Yakandawala Department of Botany, University of Perdeniya Introduction Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean. However, only four percent of the country’s land area is covered by water (FAO, 2011). Those land areas that are permanently or seasonally inundated together with its loral and faunal communities are considered as an aquatic ecosystem. The fresh aquatic ecosystems of the country include rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and villus. Apart from these natural habitats, man-made tanks, reservoirs, and rice ields also contribute to the diversity. Based on the deinition of the RAMSAR convention (1987), all these ecosystems are broadly deined as wetlands. Sri Lanka has an extensive network of rivers and streams, most of which arise from the southcentral massif that rises to 2500 m above sea level. In all, there are 103 distinct natural rivers many of which are perennial, while those in the dry zone are seasonal. The Mahaweli river basin which drains 16% of the island (Madduma Bandara, 2000), carries water from the wet zone to the dry zone, supporting many marshes, riverine vegetation, and lood plains. A fresh water marsh is a shallow depression receiving water from a river either directly or by surface run-off of river loods and ground water seepage. The Muthurajawela marsh is the longest peat bog in Sri Lanka and, together with the Negombo estuary, forms an integrated coastal wetland ecosystem extending over 6,232 ha (CEA/Euroconsult, 1994a). Several fresh water marshes are found within the Wilpattu National Park in the lowland dry zone. Horton Plains represent montane grassland marshes at an altitude of 2000 m. The late succession stage of a fresh water marsh is referred as a fresh water swamp forest. Fresh water swamps comprise of trees that are adapted to grow in shallow stagnant water and are inundated seasonally with river water. Fresh water swamps are considered the rarest wetland type in Sri Lanka and the Walauwatta-Wathurana swamp forest, located in the Kalu Ganga river basin, is a typical example that extends 12 ha in the southwestern part of the island (CEA/Euroconsult, 1994b). Even though there are no large natural lakes in the island, a number of lood plain lakes that are commonly referred to as villu, occur in the dry zone. These extend over a total area of 12,500 ha, the largest being the inter-connected Handapan and Pendiya villu system of the Mahaweli villu system (CEA/Euroconsult, 1995). Owing to its unique hydraulic civilization, Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich array of manmade lakes and canals accounting over 10,000 countrywide, covering more than 127,070 ha (Jayasinghe, 2000), especially in the dry zone. They range from small and medium sized tanks such as Thithawella tank (Kurunegala) to larger tanks/reservoirs such as the Parakrama Samudraya. Associated with these are paddy ields characterized by the presence of seasonal standing waters contributing to agronomically managed marshes that extend over 12% (708,000 ha) of total land area. Paddy is cultivated in all the agro-ecological zones except at very high elevations. Victoria, Randenigala, Rantambe and Kotmale are recent reservoirs that were added into the list. Man-made wetlands are broadly categorized into three groups, which are further divided in to nine different wetland types: Aqua-cultural (ish and shrimp ponds), Agricultural (farm/small tanks, irrigated land, and seasonal looded ields) and Industrial/urban 186 (saltpans, reservoirs, gravel/brick pits, sewage/treatment ponds and canals) (Kotagama and Bambaradeniya, 2006). Wetland ecosystems are amongst the most productive ecosystems in the world that support many kinds of life. Wetlands always have inluenced humans from the time of early civilization, which irst arose along the edges of rivers in the fertile soils of the lood plains. They provide an array of human beneits including food and drinking water, raw material, and medicinal herbs. Further, many waterfalls and major rivers have been utilized for generating hydro-electricity. Wetlands are considered as the transitional zone between land and water and provide several ecological functions such as ground water buffering and reducing pollution. They also provide recreation sites full of wildlife; Bundala National Park, Anawilundawa Sanctuary and Wilpattu National Park being few of them. Aquatic lora play a key role in these wetland ecosystems providing habitats to fauna. Amongst the total inland vertebrate species in Sri Lanka, about 30% are ecologically dependent on wetlands (Kotagama and Bambaradeniya, 2006). Further, over 50% of the migratory birds that visit Sri Lanka annually are directly dependent on wetlands for food and shelter. Moreover, the future survival of approximately 32% of the nationally threatened vertebrate species in Sri Lanka is dependent on wetland ecosystems of the island (Kotagama and Bambaradeniya, 2006). Prominent plants and Distribution The deinition of the term "aquatic" can be subject to various interpretations. Aquatic plants or wetland plants themselves however, do not always it rigid deinitions. Aquatic plants are also referred to as hydrophytes or aquatic macrophytes. The wetland plants do not belong to a particular plant family, have rather derived from several terrestrial families, and are adapted to live in aquatic environments by developing similar modiications. These include large air spaces within their leaves, stems and roots, presence of both underwater and loating leaves, thin and often inely dissected leaves, thick waxy leaves, and specialized pollination mechanisms. In addition, many aquatic plants also show a great variation in growth patterns. For instance Water-hyacinth, loating at the water surface has typical bulbous leaf petiole, but when rooted the leaf-petiole elongates losing its bulbous form. The species composition and the appearance of an aquatic ecosystem vary both with time and among the wetland sites. The marshes are characterized by tall grasses, sedges and herbaceous plants while lake vegetation is characterized by emergent plants towards the periphery and loating aquatics dominating the water surface. Four categories (growth forms) of aquatic plants may be recognized on the basis of their attachment to the soil and their position in relation to the water surface: (1) Free-loating plants: Plants that are loating at the surface or beneath the surface. They are typically not rooted to the soil at the bottom, but in shallow water or where they are stranded on the shore by a drop in the water level, they may become rooted. The leaves may stand above the surface (e.g. Pistia and Eichhornia), at the surface (e.g. Wolfia), or the whole plant may loat beneath the surface (e.g. Ceratophyllum). These plants occur in shallow or deep water. (2) Plants rooted at the bottom, with leaves loating at the surface: These plants could be either with short or long rhizomes at the bottom, and large leaf-blades at the ends of long 187 petioles (e.g. Nymphaea), or with long stems rising through the water, bearing leaves with relatively short petioles (e.g. Nymphoides). (3) Submerged plants: Plants that are generally rooted at the bottom, and the vegetative parts entirely submerged. At the time of lowering, the lowers and some leaves may emerge from the water. These plants could be thallus-like, attached to rocks (members of the family Podostemaceae), with long stems rising through the water bearing leaves, and rooting at the nodes (e.g. Hydrilla), or with short stems bearing leaves in a basal rosette, and often producing stolons (e.g. Blyxa). These plants are restricted to depths where suficient light reaches them through the water for photosynthesis. (4) Emergent plants: Often with rhizomes, rooted in mud, with shoots emerging above the water (grasses and sedges). These plants occur in relatively shallow water or towards the periphery of a water-body. Sri Lanka harbors over 370 aquatic or wetland plant species of which 12% are endemic to the country. The aquatic lora include 135 Eudicots, 205 Monocots, 4 members belonging to super-orders Nymphaeanae and Ceratophyllanae, and 28 ferns and fern allies. The island’s aquatic lora is taxonomically placed under 64 families of which 28 are Eudicot families, 24 are Monocot families while 14 are ferns and fern allied families. The families with entirely aquatic members include Alismataceae, Aponogetonaceae, Cabombaceae, Ceratophyllaceae, Hydrocharitaceae, Menyanthaceae, Najadaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Nelumbonaceae, Podostemaceae, and Potamogetonaceae. The largest aquatic plant family, the Cyperaceae (Sedges), has 69 species followed by the Scrophulariaceae and Poaceae (Grasses). Hydrocharitaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Commelinaceae and Asteraceae also have a considerable number of aquatic members. All these aquatic species are native to the country, except for few species such as Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub., Limnocharis lava (L.) Buchenau and Salvinia molesta D. Mitch., that are recent introductions and have spread rapidly and become naturalized in many parts of the country. Forty one (41%) percent of the island’s aquatic lora are now threatened and listed under different categories during the present Red Listing. This needs to be considered seriously during the preparation and implementing of the wetland conservation and management plan. Three percent (3%) of aquatics are considered under the Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)) while 5.6% are considered under the Critically Endangered (CR). Most plants under both these categories are distributed in the lowland wet zone in and along small and large streams, and rivers, swamps, marshes and paddy ields, especially in the Kalutara, Colombo, Ratnapura and Kegalle districts. The rocky rapids of the Mahaweli river in the Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area in Kandy are another site that harbors many of these plants. The Endangered category (EN) accounts for 12% of aquatic lora while the Vulnerable and the Near Threatened categories (NT) account for 10% and 10.6% respectively. The family Araceae harbors the highest number of endemics which include 10 species of the genus Cryptocoryne and 7 Lagenandra species. Cryptocoryne is a very vulnerable genus where all of its members have been recognized as threatened in the past and present evaluations for Red Listing. The Cryptocoryne mainly occurs in the south-western lowland ever-green rain forests, central midlands, central western lowlands in the semi-deciduous monsoon forests having a seasonal change in precipitation and few are scattered in the dry zone riverine forests. These species mostly thrive in slow running water or seasonally inundated soils. They occur both submerged or emerged depending on the growth stage, vegetative or reproductive. Five Cryptocoryne are placed under the Critically Endangered 188 category (CR); three under Endangered category (EN), while the other two under Vulnerable (VU) category. Many of these species are restricted to the Kalutara and Ratnapura districts in the low wetlands and the banks of the Mahaweli river in Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy. One of the six endemics in the genus Lagenandra is recognized under Critically Endangered category (CR) while the others are under the Endangered category (EN). All these species are restricted to the wet zone and occur mainly along the river banks. Lagenandra erosa de Wit is listed under the Critically Endangered category (CR) with concern as its locality is unknown. However, it evidently occurs in the wetzone of the country (http://crypts.home.xs4all. nl/Lagenandra/Gallery/distribution.html). Lagenandra thwaitesii Engler with a silver margin on its blade is restricted to Kalutara, Galle and Ratnapura districts, and has a high demand as an ornamental aquatic. Wofia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimmer is a minute free-loating native plant of the family Araceae with a thallus of about 1 mm in width and is considered to be the smallest vascular plant on the earth. The plant produces a minute lower with a single stamen and pistil. It often multiplies vegetatively, where the rounded part buds off into a new individual. The plant occurs in the North Central province and is considered Endangered (EN). The genus Lemna harbors two species of which L. gibba L., recorded from Colombo, is now considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)). The 69 species recorded in the family Cyperaceae are distributed among 17 genera where Cyperus records the highest number of 17 species, followed by the genus Fimbristylis (12 species). The family includes ive endemics, of which Eleocharis lankana T. Koyama conined to lowland marshes, especially Colombo district, Fimbristylis zeylanica T. Koyama conined to the marshes of the Wilpattu National Park and Mapania immersa (Thw.) Benth ex Clarke that conined to the Kalutara district are listed as Critically Endangered. In addition, three other natives, Eleocharis confervoides (Poir.) T. Koyama, Rhynchospora chinensis Nees & Meyen ex Nees and R. trilora Vahl are now considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)). The family Scrophulariaceae bears 33 species belonging to 11 genera of which three are endemic. Adenosma subrepens (Thw.) Benth. ex Hook. f., a very highly threatened endemic restricted to Ratnapura district, and Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr., a native conined to wet places, including paddy ields, in the Kalutara and Badulla districts are now listed under the Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)). The Grass family or the Poaceae records 30 species belonging to 20 genera with two Endangered (EN) endemic species, Arundinaria densifolia Munro and Eulalia thwaitesii (Hack.) Kuntze; both are conined to Nuwara Eliya district. The family Eriocaulaceae with a capitulum-like inlorescence and wind pollinated lowers supericially resembles the grasses, sedges, and rushes. Five endemic members are among the sixteen aquatics in the genus Eriocaulon where one species, Eriocaulon fergusonii (Moldenke) S.M. Phillips, was recorded from marshlands of Colombo and Galle districts and is considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)). Eriocaulon trimeni Hook.f. is a very rare species recorded from the Matale district and is listed under Critically Endangered category (CR). The family Aponogetonaceae is represented by four members of the genus Aponogeton, with two endemic members. Aponogeton jacobsenii Bruggen is restricted to the highlands, especially Nuwara Eliya and the Horton plains and considered as Critically Endangered while A. rigidifolius 189 Bruggen is restricted to the lowland wet zone and Endangered (EN). However, although not endemic, A. natans (L.) Engler & Krause and A. crispus Thunb. are both considered as rare and threatened due to over exploitation in the wild and are in the Vulnerable category (VU). Podostemaceae is a family with plants of very unusual vegetative form. Seven members are recorded in the country with two endemics. They are more or less thalloid, growing on rocks in fast-lowing rivers or cataracts and could be considered a highly threatened group of plants. The rapids of the Mahaweli river at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy provid the habitat for six of these species including the endemics. Both endemics, Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen) Willis ex Hook.f. and Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner) J.B.Hall are considered as Vulnerable (VU),while Polypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B. Hallis is listed as Critically Endangered (CR). However, Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl., recorded as conined to the river rapids of the montane region, is now considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)). Two aquatic carnivorous plant families are recorded in the island. The family Droseraceae includes insectivorous herbs with leaves set with sticky glandular hairs holding down and digesting insects. Drosera burmanni Vahl and D. indica L. show a wider distribution but are still recognized under the Vulnerable category (VU) due to threats on its habitats, while D. peltata Smith, restricted to the highlands, especially Nuwara Eliya and Badulla districts, is listed under Endangered category (EN). The genus Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) harbors ifteen carnivorous herbs with specialized organs (traps/bladders) to capture and digest small organisms. Utricularia moniliformis P. Taylor is the only endemic member listed under the Vulnerable category (VU) and is restricted to Kandy and Nuwara Eliya districts while the other species show a wider distribution in lowland dry and wet zones. However, due to the habitat disruption, many of the native species have also been affected; seven of them are now listed under various categories during the present Red Listing. Threats The aquatic ecosystems have been affected throughout the history by various anthropogenic threats, habitat deterioration/degradation, over exploitation of species and alien invasions. The Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989) documents several threats where siltation has been a frequently reported threat for the listed wetland sites of the island. Considering different ecosystems, the aquatic ecosystem is unique as it is vulnerable to direct human activities as well as many indirect human activities that are distant-based rather than on-site. Habitat deterioration/degradation: Habitat deterioration/degradation is caused by on-site activities as well as distant-based human activities. The aquatic ecosystems are vulnerable mostly due to the latter. Kotagama and Bambaradeniya (2006) identiied reclamation, clearing of vegetation, water pollution (through organic pollution, other chemical efluents and sewage disposal), regulation of water low, unplanned irrigation structures and mining as the major causes for wet land deterioration/degradation. Reclamation for infrastructure development, construction of aquaculture ponds, more recently due to security reasons and further dumping of domestic and municipal waste have affected wetlands, especially those in urban areas such as Bellanwilla-Attidiya marsh (CEA/ Euroconsult, 1993). This site is one of the recorded sites for Critically Endangered endemic sedge Eleocharis lankana T. Koyama, conined to lowland marshes. Illegal reclamation for human settlement, dumping of garbage, chemical pollution 190 and eutrophication (due to agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, and residues from illegal breweries) are major threats identiied for the Muthurajawela marshes (IUCN Sri Lanka and CEA, 2006). This marsh is a habitat for threatened aquatics, Aponogeton natans (L.) Engler & Krause, Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) G. Bruckn. and Nympoides aurantiacea (Dalz.) Krutze. Construction of dams across major rivers, especially the Mahaweli, has affected the downstream vegetation. Due to further diversion and impoundments in the upstream areas of the Mahaweli river, the water low has been reduced causing the drying up of about one third of the villus in the Mahaweil villu system and affecting the aquatics. Further, this has facilitated the spread of alien plants such as Eichhornia crassipes, Xanthium indicum Koenig and Salvinia molesta affecting the natural villu vegetation (IUCN Sri Lanka and CEA, 2006). These villus also harbor wild relatives of rice such as Oryza ruipogon Grifith and O. eichingeri Peter. Apart from these threats, construction of mini-hydropower plants at a rapid rate during the past few years has added to deterioration of many habitats of aquatic plants. One of the most affected groups being the family Podostemaceae, a group of lowering plants that only grows on stones in rapidly lowing streams and rivers with changing water levels. Due to this habitat preference, it occurs only in few speciic localities and is dificult to be conserved under in situ conditions. The richest site for these members at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area of the Mahaweli river is presently being disturbed by the construction of a mini-hydropower plant. Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen) Willis ex Hook.f. and Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner) J.B.Hall are endemic members of the seven species of Podostemaceae recorded in Sri Lanka while six of them, including the two endemics, are found at this location. The blasting of large rocks in the river has directly affected the aquatic vegetation while the resulting reduction of water low will affect the downstream vegetation. In addition four Cryptocoryne species have been recorded as occurring in the rapids at this location. Cryptocoryne parva de Wit grows closest to the water where the course is rapid. Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott grows in a little further up, but is also rather exposed, while C. beckettii Trimen and C. undulata Wendt. are found even further up on the banks. The hybrid, C. x willisii Reitz is found in several locations, both low and high, in the shade and the sun (Jacobsen, 1986). The construction of the Upper Kotmale hydropower project and restriction of downstream water low have affected many downstream plants including Zeylanidium subulatum (Gardner) C. Cusset and Z. olivaceum (Gardner) Engl. of the Podostemaceae. Further, illegal constructions and dumping of soils along water courses, including the main rivers, cause a serious threat to riverine vegetation, including species such as Lagenandra and Hygrophila. The Mahaweli river along Peradeniya to Katugastota, on both sides of the bank, could be identiied as one of the severely affected areas due to development activities along the river bank. This stretch once again includes the Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, one of the richest aquatic loral habitats providing home to three Critically Endangered (two endemics and one native), three Endangered (one endemic and two native), three Vulnerable (endemic) and one native Endangered species. Encroachments for settlement, building of hotels bordering the river, and utilising of the river banks for waste disposal and dumping could be witnessed and are still continuing at an alarming rate. Over-exploitation of species: Many aquatic plants, especially the species with an ornamental value, are being extracted from the wild. Over-exploitation of species has led to a decline in 191 populations of species such as Cryptocoryne, Aponogeton and Lagenandra. Even though rules and regulations exist, many exporters have their own undisclosed suppliers and areas for collection which include the Kelani Valley basin and small streams in areas such as Mawanelle, Avissawella, Bulathkohupitiya, Ruwanwella and Yatiyantota in the Lowland and central wet zone of Sri Lanka (Seneviratne, 2002) and dry zone rivers including Malwathu oya and Kuda oya. Alien invasions: Many ornamental aquatic Invasive Alien Species (IAS) have been encountered in the country’s water bodies in the past, where ‘Japan Jabara’ or Water hyacinth (E. crassipes) is one of the best examples which has become a menace to aquatic ecosystems. Salvinia molesta, a free loating water fern, has also established its name in the invasive alien species list being only second to E. crassipes. Pistia stratiotes, even though it has not set records, is another alien invasive species that has got established in local water bodies drawing considerable attention. These plants still continue to cause a threat to the native aquatics in many wetlands including Bellanwila-Attidiya marshes, Anaiwilundawa, and Kalametiya & Lunama Kalpuwa wetlands, and many reservoirs. Several dry zone lakes have been infested with E. crassipes during the restoration of tanks for agriculture in the recent years. Further, the loods in 2011 in the dry zone have facilitated the spread of E. crassipes into new destinations, infesting new water bodies. Apart from these invasives, several other plants could be identiied as naturalized aquatics in local water bodies, notably Vallisnaria spirallis L., Egeria densa Planch. and Cabomba caroliniana A.Gray. Yakandawala and Yakandawala (2007) reported three other additions Ludwigia sedioides (Humb. & Bonpl.) H.Hara, Mayaca luviatilis Aubl. and Echinodorus spp., found in the local water bodies in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. All three plants are popular aquatics in aquariums and landscaping. The most recent addition to the list is of great interest as it opened up a new chapter in invasive alien plant research in Sri Lanka while highlighting the importance of Plant Systematics and proper identiication of organisms. The lawed identiication of a violet lowered water-lily as Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. and subsequently narrating as the national lower of Sri Lanka (‘Nil manel’), have overlooked its threat to the local biota and invasiveness. This exotic violet lowered water lily has been silently invading the local water bodies where it went unnoticed due to the erroneous identiication and its popularity as an ornamental plant. Studies have further revealed hybrid populations between the native N. nouchali and the alien violet lowered Nymphaea with intermediate characters (Yakandawala and Yakandawala, 2011). Global researches have attributed the origin of invasiveness to hybridization, especially between a native and invasive alien species and where the native is at a risk of extinction (Yakandawala and Yakandawala, 2011 and references therein). The detection of hybrid populations of Nymphaea has opened up avenues to initiate studies locally on this novel area of hybridization between natives and invasive alien species. Even though Sri Lanka harbors a larger number of naturally occurring aquatics, there is a high demand for certain exotic aquatic plants in the export market. This has resulted in the private sector importation of exotic plants into the country for propagation and exportation. According to recent studies 386 plant species are traded as ornamental aquatic plants in the country (Yakandawala, et al., unpublished). The plants belongs to 46 plant families that included 39 angiosperm families with 64 genera, 6 fern/fern allies with 6 genera and 1 liverwort. Of the recorded ornamental aquatic plants, 76% were non-natives or exotics. The list included two plants that are currently listed on the IAS list in Sri Lanka of which one is on the global 192 IAS list (Eichhornia crassipes). The list also includes two exotic Salvinia sp. Further three plant species, Ludwigia sedioides, Mayaca luviatilis, and Echinodorus spp., are identiied as potential invasive plants in the country (Yakandawala and Yakandawala, 2007). Even a small fragment of 2 cm in length of M. luviatilis is capable of developing into a new plant. Therefore, the mechanical control of these plants should be carried out with utmost care (Yakandawala and Dissanayake, 2010). It is also noted with caution that 35 Echinodorus species, including varieties, are currently circulated in the local market. The plants exhibit an effective mode of reproduction by developing plantlets from lorets of the submerged inlorescence in large numbers. According to the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2012) 32% of the plants traded in Sri Lanka as ornamental aquatic plants are recognized for their invasive behavior elsewhere in the world. Conservation priorities Amidst the conservation initiatives, majority of the wetlands and other aquatic ecosystems in Sri Lanka are under threat due to adverse anthropogenic activities. Within the context of speedy development and population growth, conservation of wetlands together with its biodiversity is a challenge. At present, several government and non-government organizations are involved in wetland conservation and management related activities in the country. The Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989) lists 41 wetlands as critically important due to their high biodiversity and extent to which they are threatened by anthropogenic causes. The National Wetland Steering Committee (NWSC), through national workshops and surveys, recognised another 45 wetland sites to the list. Sri Lanka signed the RAMSAR Convention on Conservation of Internationally important wetlands in 1971, but this was ratiied only in 1990. At present three wetlands, Bundala National Park, Anaiwilundawa ancient cascading tank system and the Maduganga estuary and mangrove ecosystem have hitherto been declared as RAMSAR wetland sites. The National Wetland Conservation Project of the Central Environmental Authority resulted in the preparation of wetland site reports, management plans and guiding texts for a number of wetlands. Presently, the Wetland Management Unit of the Central Environmental Authority is in the process of updating and maintaining the wetland data base which would be the basis for upgrading the National Wetland Directory. As conservation priorities the following could be highlighted; (1) Based on the existing wetland site reports and conservation management plans, identiication of vulnerable wetlands with rich biodiversity have to be made with the view of upgrading their conservation status, (2) Preparation of wetland site reports and conservation management plans for other wetlands that were not covered by previous surveys would facilitate the demarcation of boundaries and construction of site maps. Demarcation of boundaries or reservation areas, especially for the riverine vegetation, should be considered as high priority. The riverine vegetation is declining in an alarming rate owing to habitat destruction as a consequence of development activities and dumping, (3) Surveying wetland sites in the North and Northeast of the island should be initiated immediately in order to address critical management issues since development activities have already been initiated, (4) In the event of a large scale disturbance to a wetland habitat (i.e. illing of wetlands for development, alteration in the downstream low during construction of dams, etc.), the aquatic vegetation must be managed in a systematic manner. This will 193 The rapids of the Mahaweli river at GannoruwaHallolluwa area, Kandy - a site for many threatened aquatics, before being disturbed by the constructions of the a mini-hydropower plant. Note the members of the family Podostemaceae on the rock surface close to water. The rapids of the Mahaweli river at GannoruwaHallolluwa area, Kandy – after being disturbed by the construction of the mini-hydropower plant. Ludwigia sedioides and Echinodorus spp., invading natural water bodies in the lowlands Native Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. – at present is threatened by an exotic water lily enable the conservation of vulnerable species in the habitat, (5) As a solution for the loss of vulnerable endemic ornamental aquatic plants due to over-exploitation, mass propagation of plants in demand must be encouraged, and (6) Monitoring of aquatic plant propagation units, and introduction of a code of conduct for aquatic plant nurseries will reduce the risk of plant propagules entering local water bodies. Research gaps and research needs: A considerable amount of research has been conducted on the wetlands of Sri Lanka over the years, covering many aspects. However, a few areas that need focus are, - Detailed taxonomic studies on wetland plants with their correct identiication need to be completed. This will also answer several other questions and gaps: o Probable location of aquatic plants listed under CR(PE) and CR categories o Descriptions of poorly known aquatic plants species o Completion of aquatic plant species list for each wetland site in the island o Early detection of any potential threats from alien species o Taxonomic revision of aquatic taxa with ambiguities 194 - With the introduction of exotic aquatic species into the wetlands, studies of possible hybridization between natives and invasive alien species must be initiated. Identifying native plants with potential ornamental value and, developing mass propagation techniques to reduce the risk of over exploitation from the wild. Introducing molecular tools for rapid identiication of aquatic plants that are exported, especially as bulbs or plantlets at the exit points. Further research into wetland processes, dynamics and management. Conclusions and recommendations The wetland site reports and conservation management plans under the Wetland Conservation project - Sri Lanka (IUCN Sri Lanka and CEA, 2006 and other wetland site reports), the National Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management (IUCN Sri Lanka, 2004) and Van Zon (2004) have identiied several conservation priorities and made recommendations for the conservation and management of wetlands in Sri Lanka. Identiication of the dificulties in implementing these recommendations should be a priority, apart from the following: - Conduct a policy, legal and institutional analysis related to wetland conservation and management plans and identify short comings (capacity, infrastructure etc.). This would strengthen inter-institutional mechanisms, legislative frameworks and law enforcement. Inter-sectorial linkages should be established among essential authorities who are the custodians of the wetland ecosystems in order to achieve sustainable development associated with wet lands. - Promote community and stakeholder participation, and private sector involvement in conservation of wetlands. - Regulate and manage the species exploitation for trade. - Compile a comprehensive inventory on wetland plant species through a systematic ield survey. - Establish a sustainable inancing mechanisms through local and foreign sources for the management and setting up of monitoring programmes. - Initiate pathways for effective implementation of research indings by the relevant stakeholders to address conservation and management issues of the wetland ecosystems. - Focus awareness programmes on all components viz., avifauna, aquatic lora and recreational potential that constitute to the importance of a wetland, in order to change the public’s attitude towards aquatic plants. Currently, wetlands are treasured by the general public owing to its recreational value and avifauna. References – CEA/Euroconsult (1993). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Bellanwilla-Attidiya Marsh, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 114. CEA/Euroconsult (1994). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 129. CEA/Euroconsult (1994b). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Walauwatta-Wathurana swamp forest, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 54. 195 CEA/ Euroconsult (1995). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Handapan and Bendiya Villus, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 80. FAO 2011, Fishery and Aquaculture Country Proiles Sri Lanka Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/ishery/countrysector/FI-CP_LK/en (Accessed on 28th December 2011). http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Cryptocoryne/index.html. The Crypts pages (Accessed on 23rd November 2011). http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Lagenandra/Gallery/distribution.html. The Crypts pages. (Accessed on 23rd November 2011). IUCN Sri Lanka (2004). Wetland Conservation in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management, Sri Lanka. Pp.2-18. IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority of Sri Lanka (2006). National-Wetland Directory of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. P. 342 Jacobsen, N. (1986). Deterioration of the habitats of the Cryptocoryne species. http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/ Cryptocoryne/Botanical/lecture.html (Accessed on 28th December 2011) Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K. (2000). Inland Aquatic Resources. In. Arudpragasam, K. (Ed.) Natural Resources of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation, Colombo. Pp.195-211. Kotagama, S.W. and Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (2006). An overview of the wetlands of Sri Lanka and their conservation signiicance. In: IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority (2006). National-Wetland Directory of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Pp.7-16. Madduma Bandara, C.M. (2000). Water Resources of Sri Lanka. In. Arudpragasam, K. (Ed.) Natural Resources of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Pp.75-109. Randall, J. M. and J. Marinelli. 1996. Invasive Plants: Weeds of the Global Garden. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, NY. Scott, D.A. (1989) A Directory of Asian Wetlands, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Cambridge, UK. Seneviratne, Nadeera (2002). Island Midweek Review: Selling the wild for a dime http://www.island.lk/2002/03/06/ midwee07.html (Accessed on 22nd December 2011) Van Zon, J. C. J. (2004). Wetland conservation and Management in Sri Lanka: A status paper. In: IUCN Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management: Sri Lanka. Pp.2-18. Yakandawala , Deepthi and Yakandawala, Kapila (2007). Ornamental Aquatics: Potential Weeds in Aquatic Ecosystems. In: Marambe, B., Sangakkara, U.R., De Costa, and Abeysekara, A.S.K. (Eds). 21st Asian Paciic Weed Science Society (APWSS) Conference, 2-6th October 2007, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Pp. 522-525. Yakandawala, K. and Dissanayake, D.M.G.S. (2010). Mayaca luviatilis Aubl. : an ornamental aquatic with invasive potential in Sri Lanka. Hydrobiologia. 656 (1): 199-204. Yakandawala, Deepthi and Yakandawala, Kapila (2011). Hybridization between natives and invasive aliens: an overlooked threat to the biodiversity of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.) 40 (1): 13-23. 196 Present Status of Mangroves in Sri Lanka L.P.Jayatissa, University of Ruhuna, Matara Mangroves are woody shrubs and trees that are salt and lood tolerant and hence dominate intertidal areas of lagoons, estuaries and sheltered bays along tropical and subtropical coastlines (Ball, 2002; Tomlinson, 1986; Tuffers et al., 2001). In the past, mangrove ecosystems were considered as a marshy wastelands; then in the 1970s, as a valuable eco-system; and presently, as precious but threatened eco-systems (Cormier Salem 1994). Being an island in the Indian ocean with more than hundred rivers starting from central highlands and radiating towards the sea, Sri Lanka possess a large number of lagoons and estuaries along its coastline of 1760km. As the coastline runs through different climatic zones and different geomorphological settings, the diversity of mangrove habitats is remarkably higher and hence the species diversity in mangroves is also comparatively higher. The total number of true mangrove species reported from Sri Lanka is almost one third of the global diversity of true mangroves in the world (Jayatissa et al., 2002). However, as the total annual range of tidal variations is less than 1m, the mangrove coverage of the country is small. The present extent of mangroves in Sri Lanka has variously been estimated at over 4,000 ha (Arulchelvam 1968) to over 10,000 ha (Jayawardene 1968). Largest mangrove areas of the country are reported from, north, north western and east coasts. Depending on the geomorphological setting of the habitat and the composition of common species, De Silva, (1985) has recognized ive kinds of mangroves in Sri Lanka: as riverine mangroves, fringing mangroves, basin mangroves, scrub mangroves, and over-wash mangroves. However, the irst two are the most common in Sri Lanka. Mangrove species are commonly classiied into two broad categories as follows; 1. True mangroves (species restricted to mangrove habitats) 2. Mangrove associates (not conined to the intertidal areas and occur in terrestrial vegetation also) The list of true mangroves recorded from Sri Lanka is given in the Table with the abundance scale. (However the demarcation of mangroves and mangrove associates may be on tenterhooks because according to the literature these two categories vary and there are very suspicious points and confusion. For this report, the categorization of species into true mangroves and mangrove associates are adopted from Tomlinson, 1986, except the genus Acrostichum). It is dificult to give a clear limit for the list of mangrove associates as the composition of mangrove associates could vary depending on the edaphic and climatic factors of the habitat. However, Acanthus ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum, Clerodendron inerme, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Premna integrifolia, and Thespesia populnea are given as the most common mangrove associates in Sri Lanka (Jayatissa et al., 2002). In mangrove forests, they may occur as a transitional vegetation between true mangroves and the terrestrial vegetation. There is no any endemic species among true mangrove species or mangrove associates in Sri Lanka. 197 The list of true mangrove species recorded from Sri Lanka Species Family Category Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco Myrsinaceae LC Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. Avicenniaceae LC Avicennia oficinalis L. Avicenniaceae NT Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume Rhizophoraceae EN Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk. Rhizophoraceae VU Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. Rhizophoraceae VU Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson Rhizophoraceae NT *Ceriops decandra(Griith) Ding Hou Rhizophoraceae CR Excoecaria agallocha L. Euphorbiaceae LC Heritiera littoralis Dryand. Sterculiaceae NT Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt Combretaceae CR Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Combretaceae NT Nypa fruticans (Thunb.) Wurmb Arecaceae VU Pemphis acidula Forst. Lythraceae NT Rhizophora apiculata BL. Rhizophoraceae NT Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Rhizophoraceae LC Sapium indicum Willd. (Syn Excoecaria indica) Euphorbiaceae VU Sonneratia alba J. Smith Sonneratiaceae EN Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engler Sonneratiaceae LC Xylocarpus granatum König Meliaceae EN Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.f. Rubiaceae VU *Not reported in Jayatissa et al., 2002. This is a new addition by Jayatissa (pers.comm) Mangrove forests rank among the most threatened of coastal habitats, particularly for developing countries in tropical regions (Saenger et al., 1983). The major human impacts have been identiied as illing for land-based development, and deforestation for wood products, to accommodate aquaculture or to established harbor facilities (Hather et al.,1989). It is reported that mangrove areas have been reduced by 20% to 75% in many developing tropical countries in the northern Indian Ocean, South East Asia and the Caribbean during the last century. Hence, a igure of 1% decline per year has been given as a conservative estimate for the Asia Paciic region (Ong 1995). Due to continued disturbance, altered soil conditions and limited dispersal, natural recovery may be slow (Kaly 1998). Mangrove preservation has been recognized as a high priority in local management plans for developing countries (Eong 1991). Although studies on mangroves particularly in Sri Lanka is comparatively low, a substantial amount of research on the mangrove forests in the world has been done over the last few 198 decades, aiming at increasing the understanding of the ecology of this important ecosystem and providing information for sustainable management. Although much has been learned from them, signiicant gaps still exist in our understanding of the ecology of these systems, and particularly, of the likely effects of climate change. If the impacts of climate-change will not be considered now, the efforts on mangrove protection and conservation may just be wasted in the long-run. Hence it is recommended to continue the studies on mangroves aiming for protection, conservation and sustainable use, with particular emphasis on likely impacts of climate change. References Arulchelvam, K. (1968). In: Mangroves. Ceylon forester, VIII (3 & 4): 1-34p. Ball, M. C. (1988). Salinity tolerance in the mangroves Aegiceras corniculatum and Avicennia marina I. Water use in relation to growth, carbon partitioning and salt balance. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology . 461-496. Cormier – Salem, M. C. (1994). Dynamique et usages de la mangrove dans les pays des Riviéresdu Sud (du Sénégal á la Sierra Leone). Paris, Orstomcoll, Colloques et Séminaries 352-353pp. Cormier – Salem, M. C. (1994). Dynamique et usages de la mangrove dans les pays des Riviéresdu Sud (du Sénégal á la Sierra Leone). Paris, Orstomcoll, Colloques et Séminaries 352-353pp. De Silva, K. H. G. M. and Balasubramaniam, S. (1984). Some ecological aspects of the mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science. (Bio-science). 17-18: 22 – 36. Eong, O. J. and Khoon, G. W. (1991). Mangroves. In: The state of nature conservation in Malaysia. (Ed, R. Kiew). Malayan Nature Society. IDRC-CRDI 22-28pp. Hather, B. G., Johannes, R. E. and Robertson, A. I. (1989). Review of research relevant to the conservation of shallow tropical marine ecosystems. Oceanography. Marine Biology Annual Review. 27: 337-414. Jayatissa, L. P., Dahdouh – Guebas, F., Koedam, N. (2002). A review of the loral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka. Journal of Linnaean Society. 138: 29 – 43. Kaly, U. L. and Jones, G. P. (1998). Mangrove restoration; a potential tool for coastal management in tropical developing countries. Ambio. 27(8):656-661. Ong, J. E. (1995). The ecology of mangrove conservation and management. Hydrobiologia. 295: 343-351. Saenger, P., Hegerl, E. J. and Davie, J. D. S. (1983). Global status of mangrove ecosystem. The Environmentalists: Supplement 3, 49pp. Tomilson, P. B. (Ed). (1986). The Botany of mangroves. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, U. K. 199 Present Status of Family Orchidaceae in Sri Lanka R.H.S. Suranjan Fernando Post Graduate Institute of Sciences, Peradeniya and Center for Applied Biodiversity Research and Education Introduction Family Orchidaceae is a one of the largest lowering plant families in the world, containing about 25,000 -30,000 species. The family has a worldwide distribution except in the Polar Regions. The highest species diversity is recorded in the tropical areas, particularly in rainforests and associated ecosystems. In Sri Lanka, Orchidaceae is among the largest families in the country with 189 known species, belonging to 78 genera, including 55 endemic species (Fernando and Ormerod, 2008; Soto Arenas and Cribb, 2010). All these species are herbs or small shrubs, having epiphytic or terrestrial life forms. Few species are found as Mycoheterotrophic and some as climbers. Orchids grow in many habitat types, with the highest representation in diverse ecosystems found in the wet zone. History of Sri Lankan orchid research Although Paul Hermann’s (1646-1695) collection contained two orchid species, orchid discoveries in Sri Lanka were made largely during the British colonial period, after the establishment of the Botanical Gardens in the country. The early Superintendents of Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Alexander Moon (1817-1825) and James Macrae (?-1830) made many orchid collections, among other plant species, and sent them to England. Subsequent Superintendents and Directors of Botanic Gardens, George Gardner (18121849), G. H. K.Thwaites (1812-1882) and Henry Trimen (1843- 1896) collected and described the majority of Sri Lankan orchids. Many specimens sent to Kew are included in J. D. Hooker's (1817-1911) monumental work on the Flora of British India series in which he has described and stated their distribution in relation to the Indian sub continent. The most recent comprehensive taxonomic work was done by D.M.A. Jayaweera in the late 1970s (published in1981). Taxonomy The most recent systematic treatment of Sri Lankan orchids was conducted by Jayaweera (1981) three decades ago. Fernando and Ormerod, in 2008, presented an updated checklist using available literature and referringto some herbarium specimens. According to the above checklist, the following deviations from Jayaweera's treatment were signiicant: i) many name changes with reference to some global and regional generic treatments, ii) marked reduction of a number of Sri Lankan endemic species due to many regional indings, especially from the Indian sub-continent and iii) increased number of total species by addition to many new species to the country's list. 200 Currently, at a global level, new knowledge in molecular taxonomy has created a vast leap in information, leading to dramatic changes in orchid taxonomy and classiication. Development of the regional botanical surveys in neighboring countries also has led to new knowledge on species entities and their distribution patterns. However, at present, the majority of Sri Lankan species have not been subjected to such new revisions. Fernando and Ormerod (2008) stated many such taxonomic discrepancies which need further studies using cross comparative modern taxonomic revisions along with other congeners. Along with their generic treatments, some of the Sri Lankan taxa have been recently revised, using records and specimens deposited in other herbaria. In most of the recent global revisions, Sri Lankan materials have been omitted due to dificulty of access to specimens. Very few species of Sri Lankan orchids are subjected to modern taxonomic treatments. Distribution The distribution of family Orchidaceae has mostly correlated with the distribution pattern of the main bioclimatic zones which is governed by the amount and intensity of rainfall and altitude. Dry zone: The recorded lowest number of orchid species (ca15).Vanda tessellata, Vanilla walkeriae and Habenaria plantaginea, have been recorded as the most dominant species. There are no zonal restricted species to this zone. Intermediate zone: This zone lies between the dry and wet zones. The recorded orchid diversity is much higher than the dry zone (ca 28) Oberonia thwaitesii, and Luisia birchea, can be considered as restricted to this zone. The eastern part of intermediate zone is associated with the Savannah grassland vegetation. The species like Rhynchostylis retusa, Aerides ringens and Habenaria roxburghii have been mainly recorded in the eastern part of the intermediate zone among grasslands. Low wet zone: With the aseasonally wet conditions, there is a rich variety of both epiphytes and ground orchids found in this zone (ca 80). Eria articulata, Bromheadia srilankensis, Phaius luridus, Cleisostoma tenuifolium and Taeniophyllum gilimalense are restricted species to low wet zone. The diversity of saprophytic orchids is also high in this zone. Lower mountain zone: This zone represents an altitudinal belt of 900 -1500m between the low wet zone and montane zone. This area contains the highest orchid diversity with numerous endemics (ca 110) in Sri Lanka. The zonal restricted number of species is also high in this zone Bulbophyllum petiolare, Habenaria pterocarpa and Phreatia jayaweerae are some restricted members to this zone. Montane zone: (ca 55) Area above 1500m has been recognized as this zone. In this zone, orchids are very common but have a lower diversity than the lower montane zone. The cool climate adapted species are found in this region. Isolated Hills in dry and intermediate zones: These relatively small hills contain a rich variety of orchid diversity (ca 60), a combination of dry zone / intermediate zone species and wet zone species. The lower area of the hill is common with typical dry and intermediate zone species, while the hill-top contains mostly wet zone species including many endemics Ritigala, 201 Monaragala, Kokagala and Doluwakanda are examples of such isolated hills. Phalaenopsis mysorensis is recorded in such hill sites. Threats Orchids have complex and critical relationships with some other species in their habitat, such as mycorrhizal association in their roots and lower adaptations for the attraction of a speciic pollinator. Thus, mainly habitat related threats affect orchid survival. Habitat destruction: Spread of lowland tea cultivation to natural forest habitats signiicantly affect many lowland orchid species in the South Western wet zone. In the montane and submontane areas, forests and grasslands are cleared for vegetable cultivation, this being the main agriculture-based threat. Forest felling for irewood is another main issue for orchid survival. In the savannah forest of the Eastern Intermediate zone, encroachment for chena cultivation, illegal settlements and garbage dumping are the main habitat related threats to native orchid survival. Direct exploitation: Many showy orchids are collected for their lowers Phaius wallichii (Star orchid), Dendrobium maccarthiae (Vesak orchid), Rhynchostylis retusa (Fox tail), and Vanda tessellata are commonly collected by growers and lower enthusiasts. Habenaria crinifera (Naarilatha), Ipsea speciosa (Nagamaru ala), Anoectochilus spp. (Wanaraja), Zeuxine spp. (Iruraja), are subjected to removal from the wild for medicinal purposes and due various mythological beliefs connected to each species. Impact of invasive species: The spread of invasive species has created a considerable impact for many orchid-rich habitats. Impact of Clusia rosea has been demonstrated as a highly effective invader threatening lower montane orchid habitats. Presently, around Ginigathhena, Hantana and Dolosbage and part of Peak Wilderness can be considered as a high impact areas. Similarly, in Rakwana hills, Psidium cattleianum spreading as monostands shows similar habitat alternation. Invasion of Panicum maximum is one of the main threats facing the grassland and savannah orchids. Pollution: Most species of the family are highly sensitive to environmental changes. The excessive use of agro chemicals is believed to have a considerable impact on the survival of the orchid populations. Mainly fungicides destroy the mycorrhizal fungi, and use of insecticide increases harmful impact on orchid pollinators. The present National Red List summarizes how orchids are affected by all of the above combination of threats mentioned. Four species likely to be extinct (CR (PE)) have not been recorded for a considerable time but their possible habitats still remain to some extent. 16 species are critically endangered for future extinction (CR), 54 species are categorized as endangered (EN) in the wild, and 60 spp. fall in the vulnerable category (VU). Most importantly, 12 species could not be assessed due to uncertainty of present taxonomic positions or lack of knowledge about their other ecological parameters (DD). 202 Conservation priorities In order to conserve wild orchids, there is a combination of actions needed to be taken. The most important conservation action regarding wild orchids is to identify a Protected Area (PA) network covering the habitats of all orchid species found in the country. At present, under the PA system, most orchid rich PAs fall under proposed reserves (PR) or other state forests (OSF), which have the least legal protection. By combining geographical occurrence data collected during the present red listing process, the Ministry of Environment together with the Departments of Wildlife and Forest Conservation can recognize new thematic PA systems which highlight the orchid diversity among other biota. The establishment of a set of park management criteria by prioritizing orchid conservation is also needed for such thematic PAs. The establishmentof systematically planned ex-situ conservation centers is also of prime importance. 90% of the indigenous orchid diversity can be protectedin this manner. Presently, there are no ex-situ conservation centers for indigenous orchids apart from a few private ad hoc collections. The botanic garden network distributed throughout the country is the most viable institution for this task. Within such centers, other ecological and taxonomic researches can also be implemented. Presently, there is adequate legal protection for native orchids, the whole family being protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (Amend. Act No 2 of 2009). Under the Forest Ordinance, Extraordinary Gazette Notiication No. 05.12.2005 issued by The Forest Department, orchids are forest produce which require permission for any removal. Sri Lanka is a ratiied country under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); all species of our orchids are under Appendix II which require permits in the case of exporting. However, due to lack of awareness and knowledge on legal status and identiication of native orchids, a signiicant weakening of the protection of the target group is observable. Therefore, the rise of awareness regarding orchids at all levels is important, primarily through law enforcement oficers. Research gaps and research needs Apart from species identiication and distribution records, all other types of researches related to orchids conducted in the country are inadequate. Among many other research areas needed, the following are some of the important aspects which require attention: • • • Comparable with current global orchid taxonomic knowledge, molecular base systematic update of our endemic species is a prime need. Studies on orchid habitats and their ecological requirements have not been conducted. Therefore, planned researches on understanding habitat and ecology conditions, phenology patterns and interactions of pollinators and associations with mycorrhizal species are needed. Studies on effects of climate change and environmental sensitivity on native orchids are also needed. 203 Conclusions and recommendations: The nomenclature and enrich the collection in the National Herbarium should be updated. • • The National Herbarium needs to be established as a CITES registered scientiic institution facilitating loaning and exchanging of specimens to other herbaria in the world. The endemic species categorized as threatened under the present National Red Listing Assessment, are important for inclusion in the Global Red List. References Jayaweera, D. M. A. 1981. Apostasiaceae and Orchidaceae.In: Dassanayake M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. A Revised handbook to the lora of Ceylon. 2:1-320. Fernando S. S. and P. Ormerod (2008) An Annotated checklist of the Orchids of Sri Lanka.Rheedea 18 (1) 1-28. 204 Table 15: Summary of the Status of Angiosperms of Sri Lanka (Endemics are shown in bracket) Family Acanthaceae EX EW 1 (1) CR (PE) CR EN VU NT DD 15 (10) 11 (5) 17 (12) 12 (5) 7 (4) 2 Achariaceae Adoxaceae 2 Alismataceae 1 Amaranthaceae 2 (1) Amaryllidaceae Anacardiaceae 1 (1) 2 2 (1) 2 1 1 2 1 (1) 2 (1) 6 (5) Ancistrocladaceae 1 (1) 3 (1) 5 (3) 11 (7) Apiaceae 2 (1) 1 1 (1) 2 Apocynaceae 6 (2) 6 (3) 15 (2) 13 (4) 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 Aponogetonaceae Aquifoliaceae 2 (1) Araceae 1 Araliaceae Asclepiadaceae 5 Asparagaceae 1 (1) 4 (3) Balanophoraceae 0 3 (3) 2 2 2 0 4 1 1 2 9 6 (1) 27 (2) 3 4 7 8 (6) 9 (7) 19 (15) 1 (1) 1 (1) 0 1 7 (3) 17 (11) 40 (19) 4 (1) 13 (4) 1 2 4 (1) 9 (2) 2 22 (2) 33 (9) 68 (14) 4 (2) 4 (2) 1 2 (1) 4 (1) 12 (9) 5 (4) 3 2 10 (1) 28 (20) 44 (21) 1 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 2 3 (2) 8 (3) 5 (5) 8 (5) 1 2 13 (10) 16 (10) 1 2 0 3 5 12 4 1 4 2 (1) 2 3 1 (1) 12 (5) 21 (10) 13 (5) 1 3 11 21 39 3 8 (1) 14 (1) 31 (4) 34 (16) 86 (29) 1 1 16 (10) 24 (15) 1 1 1 2 (2) 3 (2) Basellaceae 5 (4) 8 (4) 3 (2) 3 (1) 1 Begoniaceae 1 2 (1) Berberidaceae 1 1 4 (1) 5 (1) 3 (1) 3 3 (1) 3 0 4 9 7 21 (1) 4 (1) 5 (1) 2 2 (1) 5 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 1 1 1 Bignoniaceae 1 3 (1) Burmanniaceae 1 2 (1) 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 (1) Buxaceae Cactaceae Calophyllaceae 2 (2) 3 (2) 2 Cannabaceae 1 5 (5) 2 (1) 4 (2) 10 (9) 16 (12) 1 1 5 1 9 4 1 5 6 6 15 4 (1) 4 (1) 3 12 1 Capparaceae Caprifoliaceae Caryophyllaceae 1 (1) 1 Aristolochiaceae Campanulaceae 3 (3) 11 (7) Arecaceae Burseraceae 105 (41) 1 Annonaceae Boraginaceae 40 (22) 1 (1) Anisophyllaceae Balsaminaceae 10 2 Total Species 40 (4) 2 Aizoaceae Asteraceae Total LC Threatened 1 4 2 (1) 2 2 205 1 3 1 1 2 4 Family EX EW Celastraceae CR (PE) CR 1 (1) EN VU NT 9 (3) 3 (2) 3 (2) Centroplacaceae DD 1 Total LC Threatened Total Species 7 (3) 12 (5) 23 (11) 2 (2) 0 3 (2) Ceratophyllaceae 1 0 1 Chloranthaceae 1 0 1 5 1 6 1 (1) 5 (4) 8 (5) 2 0 2 3 5 1 10 5 (1) 11 21 (2) 39 (3) Cleomaceae 1 Clusiaceae 3 (3) 2 (1) 2 Colchicaceae Combretaceae 1 1 Commelinaceae 2 2 (1) 11 (1) 1 (1) 1 2 1 (1) 5 (2) 2 1 (1) 5 (1) 8 2 3 20 (2) 14 (2) 41 (4) 2 (2) 2 (1) 1 1 4 (3) 6 (3) 1 0 1 Connaraceae 8 1 (1) Convolvulaceae Cornaceae Costaceae Crassulaceae 1 1 Crypteroniaceae Cucurbitaceae 3 (1) 3 8 Cymodoceaceae Cyperaceae 16 (1) 7 (5) 1 27 (5) 28 14 3 1 (1) Dilleniaceae Dipterocarpaceae 0 3 62 (10) 168 (11) 1 1 1 0 2 (1) 5 (1) 10 (9) 15 (10) 73 4 (4) 1 (1) 2 (2) 2 1 14 (14) 24 (24) 18 (18) 1 (1) 1 2 15 (12) 7 (4) 3 1 0 1 5 (5) 2 (2) 1 (1) 1 7 (7) 9 (8) 1 1 0 2 3 (1) 3 (1) Droseraceae Ebenaceae 1 (1) 3 (2) 1 1 Elaeagnaceae Elaeocarpaceae Elatinaceae Ericaceae Eriocaulaceae 2 (2) 4 (3) Euphobiaceae 1 (1) 3 5 (1) 4 (2) 9 (2) 56 (56) 58 (58) 3 3 23 (17) 32 (18) 1 2 (1) 2 (2) 6 (3) 1 6 12 (8) 21 (10) 1 2 2 (1) 1 5 (1) Erythroxylaceae 5 (2) 1 4 (2) 10 (4) 4 (1) 5 40 (7) 15 (6) 69 (16) 14 (1) 18 (2) 23 (3) 31 (1) 27 (3) 22 85 (2) 72 (6) 221 (13) 2 (2) 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (3) 4 (4) 1 0 1 2 12 (5) 18 (7) 1 1 Flacourtiaceae Flagellariaceae 1 (1) Geraniaceae 1 7 (4) 4 (1) 3 (1) 1 Gesneriaceae 1 (1) 3 (3) 8 (5) 1 Gisekiaseae Goodeniaceae 1 1 (1) 1 1 Hernandiaceae Hydrocharitaceae 24 (1) 3 (3) Dioscoreacea Haloragaceae 11 9 1 Dichapetalaceae Gentianaceae 2 1 (1) 3 Daphniphyllaceae Fabaceae 1 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 1 206 2 3 1 12 (9) 13 (9) 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 2 4 (1) 1 1 2 6 3 13 Family EX EW CR (PE) CR EN VU Hydroleaceae NT Total LC Threatened 1 Hypericaceae 1 1 Icacinaceae 2 Juncaceae 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 34 (5) 14 (5) 70 (15) 6 (3) 27 (22) 40 (29) 1 4 0 5 1 5 7 (1) 15 (1) 1 1 Lamiaceae 6 (2) 2 (2) 4 8 (3) 10 (3) 2 1 9 (7) 17 (15) 5 (4) Lecythidaceae Lentibulariaceae 1 1 Lauraceae 6 1 2 4 (1) 1 1 2 1 2 (2) 2 (1) 4 7 5 (3) 16 (3) 4 (2) 3 (1) 1 4 (2) 9 (4) 5 11 (8) 21 (11) 6 4 16 1 1 1 1 2 71 (9) Linaceae 2 1 Lindernaceae Loganiacea 1 (1) Loranthaceae 1 (1) Lythraceae 1 (1) 3 (3) 7 (4) 4 (2) 1 2 1 5 Magnoliaceae 1 1 Malpighiaceae 1 3 Total Species 0 1 Hypoxidaceae Malvaceae DD 7 (2) 8 42 (3) 19 (6) 1 3 (1) 38 (31) 10 (7) 5 (4) 5 (3) 59 (48) 71 (57) 2 3 (1) 2 4 7 (2) 13 (2) Menispermaceae 3 5 4 8 13 Menyanthaceae 2 2 2 4 5 1 6 3 (2) 3 (3) 21 (3) 8 (1) 33 (4) 2 2 2 2 (1) 4 (1) 19 (13) 26 (24) 56 (46) 1 0 1 Marantaceae 2 (1) Melastomataceae 2 (2) Meliaceae 3 (1) 8 (3) 11 (10) 2 (1) 1 Molluginaceae 1 Monimiaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) Moraceae 2 6 (1) Musaceae 1(1) 2 Myristicaceae Myrtaceae 1 4 2 (1) 4 (4) 11 (10) 4 (4) 12 (10) 5 (4) 1 (1) Nelumbonaceae Nepenthaceae 1 (1) Nyctaginaceae 1 Nymphaeaceae 1 Ochnaceae Olacaceae Oleaceae 2 (1) 1 1 1 1 2 (1) Onagraceae 1 Opiliaceae 1 (1) 0 4 1 1 2 4 (1) 0 4 (1) 2 2 (1) 6 (1) 6 3 (1) 10 (1) 4 0 5 2 0 2 Orchidaceae 4 (1) 16 (6) 54 (24) 60 (12) 26 (4) 12 130 (42) 184 (50) Orobanchaceae 2 (1) 2 7 (2) 2 3 2 11 (2) 18 (3) Oxalidaceae 1 1 1 2 2 5 Pandanaceae 1 2 (2) 2 (1) 2 3 (2) 7 (3) 0 1 1 1 2 Papaveraceae 12 (3) 1 (1) 3 1 Passiloraceae 1 207 Family EX EW CR (PE) Pedaliaceae CR VU NT DD 1 Pentaphylaceae 1 (1) 3 (2) 2 5 (5) 9 (4) 1 (1) 3 (1) Pittosporaceae Plantaginaceae 2 (1) 3 (1) 4 2 (1) 1 1 3 2 (1) 3 Plumbaginaceae Poaceae Podestemaceae 10 (5) 10 (4) 27 (5) 44 (4) 1 1 2 3 (2) 4 (3) 2 Polygalaceae 20 (1) 2 Polygonaceae Pontederiaceae 31 (2) 6 (3) 7 (3) 1 1 42 (12) 16 (9) 69 (27) 1 0 1 2 (1) 7 (1) 12 (4) 1 2 12 3 23 (2) 1 0 1 120 (1) 81 (13) 262 (22) 6 (2) 7 (2) 2 5 (1) 6 (3) 15 (4) 5 7 0 12 1 Portulacaceae 1 0 2 4 1 5 3 0 3 4 (1) 9 (4) 11 (4) 24 (9) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (1) 2 (1) 6 (3) 4 (1) 7 (1) 6 (1) 4 (2) 14 (3) 1 Potamogetonaceae Primulaceae 2 (1) 5 (1) Proteaceae 1 (1) Putranjivaceae 2 (1) Ranunculaceae 3 1 6 (3) 2 Rhamnaceae Rhizophoraceae Rosaceae 1 (1) Rubiaceae 15 (12) 1 4 (2) 3 (1) 1 1 (1) 1 2 (1) 4 1 2 (1) 2 3 2 5 (1) 10 (1) 1 4 5 1 5 (1) 5 17 (2) 39 (25) 24 (17) 8 (3) 58 (19) 74 (51) 179 (102) 1 0 1 19 (1) 7 29 (2) 2 2 8 (5) 27 (21) Ruppiaceae Rutaceae 5 Sabiaceae 3 2 (1) 2 Salicaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 Salvadoraceae Sapindaceae Sapotaceae Schizandraceae Total Species 1 1 Picrodendraceae Piperaceae Total LC Threatened 2 5 (2) Phrymaceae Phyllanthaceae EN 1 6 (2) 3 (2) 10 (4) 1 1 0 2 2 3 (1) 1 (1) 2 3 (2) 6 (2) 11 (4) (1) 1 (7) 4 (8) 1 12 5 (16) 18 (16) 1 9 11 3 21 25 1 1 Scrophulariaceae 1 1 Sentalaceae 2 Simaroubaceae 1 2 (1) 3 (1) 1 1 2 3 Smilacaceae 1 2 1 3 Solanaceae 2 4 2 11 Sphenocleaceae 1 0 1 Staphyleaceae 1 0 1 0 1 1 3 (1) Stemonaceae (1) 1 5 1 Stemonuraceae 1 2 (1) Stylidiaceae 1 0 1 Surianaceae 1 0 1 208 Family EX EW CR (PE) Symplocaceae CR EN VU 3 (1) 7 (6) 2 (2) NT DD 12 (9) 13 (9) 1 0 2 1 0 1 4 (4) 5 (4) 1 4 2 3 0 1 0 1 5 (1) 13 27 (2) 1 1 1 0 2 2 3 (1) 8 (2) 4 (1) 11 (2) 2 17 (3) 1 0 1 1 2 4 1 12 (8) 21 (13) 1 0 1 1,091 (130) 1,385 (594) 3,154 (894) 1 Tetramelaceae 4 (4) Thymelaeaceae 1 Triuridaceae 1 1 1 1 2 1 Typhaceae 1 Ulmaceae 1 Urticaceae 6 (1) 2 Vahliaceae 7 2 1 1 Verbanaceae Violaceae 4 1 2 (1) 1 1 (1) Vitaceae 2 2 Xanthorrhoeaceae Xyridaceae Zingiberaceae 5 (4) 1 1 1 6 (4) 6 (4) 2 (1) 1 Zygophyllaceae Total 5 (4) 2 (2) 177 (72) 218 (102) 552 (272) 209 615 (220) Total Species 1 Tamaricaceae Theaceae Total LC Threatened 350 (83) 143 (10) Table 16: List of Gymnosperms in Sri Lanka Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Cycas zeylanica (J.Schust.) A.Lindstr. & K.D.Hill Maha Madu CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) VU A2bc Cycas nathorstii J.Schust. Madu VU A2cd+ B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU A2cd; C1 Family : Cycadaceae Table 17: List of Angiosperms in Sri Lanka (Endemic species are marked in Bold letters and global categories older than 3.1 are marked as i) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS S: Ikili, Katu-Ikili LC Criteria GCS Family : Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius L. LC Andrographis alata (Vahl) Nees Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees LC S: Hakan CR Andrographis macrobotrys Nees Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees S: Heen-Bin-Kohomba; T: Nilavempu B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR(PE) LC Asystasia chelonoides Nees Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders. LC S: Puruk; T: Peypatchotti LC LC Asystasia variabilis (Nees) Trimen Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. T: Kannamaram, Kanna, Vendanda, Venkandal, Kanamaram LC LC Avicennia oficinalis L. E: White Mangrove; T: Kanna, Upatha NT LC Barleria arnottiana Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Barleria involucrata Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Barleria lanceata (Forssk.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Barleria mysorensis Roth S: Katu-Nelu; T: Ikkiri, Kikkiri, Kiri-Mulla LC Barleria nitida Nees CR Barleria nutans Nees CR(PE) Barleria prionitis L. S: Katu-Karanda, KatuKarandu B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Barleria strigosa Willd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Barleria tomentosa Roth EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 210 Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Barleria vestita T.Anders. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Blepharis integrifolia (L.f.) E. Meyer ex Krauss LC Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Roth LC Brillantaisia thwaitesii (T. Anders.) Cramer CR(PE) Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees LC Dicliptera neesii (Trimen) Cramer NT Dicliptera zeylanica Nees VU Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.) Nees LC Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees S:Nil-Puruk LC Dyschoriste depressa Nees T: Paduvan, Padvan LC Dyschoriste madurensis (Brum.f.) Kuntze T: Paraddai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) Ecbolium ligustrinum (Vahl) Vollesen LC Elytraria acaulis (L.f.) Lindau LC Eranthemum capense L. LC Gymnostachyum ceylanicum Arn. & Nees EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Gymnostachyum hirsutum T.Anders. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Gymnostachyum paniculatum T. Anders. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Gymnostachyum sanguinolentum (Vahl) T. Anders. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Gymnostachyum thwaitesii T. Anders. CR(PE) Hemiadelphis polysperma (Roxb.) Nees EN Hemigraphis latebrosa (Roth) Nees DD Hygrophila balsamica (L.f.) Raf. LC Hygrophila helodes Heine DD Hygrophila ringens (L.) R. Br. ex Steud. S:Nil-Puruk LC Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. N. Almeida S: Katu-Ikiriya; T:Nirmulli LC Justicia adhathoda L. E: Malabar Nut; S: AgalAdara, Wenepala; T: Adhatodai, Pavettai LC 211 GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Justicia betonica L. S: Sudu Puruk LC Justicia capitata (T.Anders. ex Hook.f.) Cramer CR(PE) Justicia ceylanica (Nees) T. Anders. VU Justicia diffusa Willd. LC Justicia glabra Koenig ex Roxb. VU Justicia hookeriana (Nees) T.Anders. NT Justicia procumbens L. Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC S: Mayani B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Justicia prostrata (Clarke) Gamble EN Justicia royeniana (Nees) Clarke NT Justicia tranquebariensis L. f. LC Lepidagathis ceylanica Nees CR(PE) Lepidagathis fasciculata (Retz.) Nees LC Lepidagathis hyalina Nees CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lepidagathis walkeriana Nees EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Monothecium aristatum (Wall. ex Nees) T.Anders. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pseuderanthemum angustifolium Ridley CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pseuderanthemum latifolium (Vahl) Hansen NT Ptyssiglottis sanguinolenta (Vahl) B.Hansen CR(PE) Rhinacanthus lavovirens Amarasinghe & Wijesundara VU Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz S: Anitta; T: Nagamulli LC Rungia apiculata Beddome CR(PE) S: Gada-Puruk Rungia parvilora (Retz.) Nees Rungia repens (L.) Nees VU LC S: Sulu-Nayi 212 B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Rhinacanthus polonnaruwensis Cramer Rungia longifolia Nees GCS LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Staurogyne zeylanica (Nees) Kuntze Stenosiphonium cordifolium (Vahl) Alston NCS Criteria CR(PE) S:Bu-Nelu, Nelu; T: Nelu LC Strobilanthes adenophora Nees VU Strobilanthes anceps Nees LC Strobilanthes arnottiana Nees CR(PE) Strobilanthes calycina Nees LC Strobilanthes caudata T.Anders. EX Strobilanthes delexa T.Anders. CR(PE) Strobilanthes diandra (Nees) Alston NT Strobilanthes exserta C.B.Clarke EN Strobilanthes gardneriana (Nees) T.Anders. CR(PE) Strobilanthes habracanthoides J.R.I.Wood EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes helicoides (Nees) T.Anders. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes hookeri Nees LC Strobilanthes hypericoides J.R.I.Wood CR(PE) Strobilanthes laxa T.Anders. EN Strobilanthes lupulina Nees LC Strobilanthes nigrescens T.Anders. CR(PE) Strobilanthes nockii Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes pentandra J.R.I.Wood CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes pulcherrima T.Anders. LC Strobilanthes punctata Nees EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes rhamnifolia (Nees) T.Anders. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes rhytisperma C.B.Clarke CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes sexennis (Nees) T.Anders. LC Strobilanthes stenodon Clarke EN 213 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Strobilanthes thwaitesii T.Anders. CR(PE) Strobilanthes vestita Nees EN Strobilanthes viscosa (Arn. ex Nees) T.Anders. LC Strobilanthes walkeri Arn. ex Nees NT Strobilanthes willsii Canine CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strobilanthes zeylanica T.Anders. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. LC Thunbergia laevis Wall. ex Nees S: Saban-Pichcha EN Hydnocarpus octandra Thw. S: Wal-Divul, Wal-Dul LC Hydnocarpus venenata Gaertn. S: Makulu; T: Makul LC Trichadenia zeylanica Thw. S: Keti-Kesali, Hal-Milla,TettiLC Gas,Titta-Eta,Titta,Tolol GCS Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Achariaceae VUi A1c VUi A1c Family : Adoxaceae Viburnum cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Viburnum erubescens Wall. ex DC. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. S: Maha-Sarana; T: Vankiruvilai NT Trianthema decandra L. S: Maha-Sarana; T: Charania NT Trianthema portulacastrum L. S: Heen-Sarana LC Trianthema triquetra Rottler ex Willd. LC Family : Alismataceae Caldesia oligococca (F. Muell.) Buchenau CR Limnophyton obtusifolium (L.) Miq. LC Family : Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. S: Gas-Karal-Heba, WelKaral-Sebo, Gaskaralheba, Karalsebo, Wal-Karal-Heba; T: Nayururi 214 LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Achyranthes bidentata Blume EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Achyranthes diandra Roxb. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) Aerva javanica (Burm f.) Juss. ex Schult. S: Pol-Kudu-Pala, Pol-Pala; T: Sirm-Pulai CR Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. S: Pol-Kudu-Pala, Pol- Pala LC Allmania nodilora (L.) R.Br. ex Wight S: Wenni-Wella, Kumatiya LC Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. S: Mukunu-wenna, Mugunuwenna; T: Ponankani LC Amaranthus spinosus L. S: Katu-Tampala, Thampala, Katukera, Kura-Tampala; T: Mudkirai LC Amaranthus viridis L. S: Kuru-Tampala, KuraTampala, Sulukura; T: Araikkirai LC Atriplex repens Roth T: Elichchevi NT Celosia argentea L. S: Kiri-Henda LC Celosia polygonoides Retz. LC Celosia pulchella Moq. VU Centrostachys aquatica (R. Br.) Wall. ex Moq. CR(PE) Cyathula ceylanica Hook. f. CR(PE) Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume S: Bin- Karal-Heba, BinKaralsebo VU Digera muricata (L.) Mart. T: Toggil NT Halosarcia indica (Willd.) P.G.Wilson T: Kotanai NT Nothosaerva brachiata (L.) Wight S: Tampala; T: Chirupilai NT Psilotrichum elliotii Baker NT Psilotrichum scleranthum Thw. NT Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. S: Wel-Karal-Heba; T: Kummidil, Pichu Kodiya Salicornia brachiata Roxb. Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. LC NT T: Umiri, Umuddi, Umunddi Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex J.F.Gmelin NT NT 215 GCS LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Suaeda vermiculata Forssk. ex J.F.Gmelin T: Umiri, Umuddi, Umunddi NT Trichurus monsoniae (L. f.) C.C. Towns. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family : Amaryllidaceae Allium hookeri Thw. Crinum asiaticum L. S: Tolabo; T: Vichamunkil LC Crinum deixum Ker-Gawl. S: Heen-Tolabo LC Crinum latifolium L. S: Goda-Manel VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Crinum zeylanicum (L.) L. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Pancratium bilorum Roxb. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pancratium zeylanicum L. S: Wal-Lunu LC Family : Anacardiaceae Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramamoorthy S: Kiri-Palu; T: Kolamau EN Campnosperma zeylanicum Thw. S: Aridda LC Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. S: Hik; T: Odi LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR(PE) Mangifera pseudoindica Kosterm. Mangifera zeylanica (Blume) Hook.f. S: Et-Amba, Wal- Amba; T: Kaddu-Ma LC Nothopegia beddomei Gamble S: Andum Telageddi, Bala LC Semecarpus acuminata Thw. S: Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2c Semecarpus coriacea Thw. S: Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2c Semecarpus gardneri Thw. S: Badulla LC VUi A1c Semecarpus marginata Thw. NT VUi A1c Semecarpus moonii Thw. VU VUi A1c, B1+2c Semecarpus nigro-viridis Thw. LC VUi A1c VUi A1c, B1+2c VUi A1c CRi B1+2c Semecarpus obovata Moon S: Kalu-Badulla EN Semecarpus parvifolia Thw. LC Semecarpus pseudo-emarginata Kosterm. CR 216 VUi B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) A1c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Semecarpus pubescens Thw. Semecarpus subpeltata Thw. S: Maha-Badulla Criteria GCS Criteria VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c LC Semecarpus walkeri Hook.f. Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz NCS E: Hog Plum; S: WalAmberella; T:Ampallai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Gona-Wel, Yakada-Wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Weli-Piyana NT VUi A1c Family : Ancistrocladaceae Ancistrocladus hamatus (Vahl) Gilg Family :Anisophyllaceae Anisophyllea cinnamomoides (Gardner & Champ.) Alston Family : Annonaceae Alphonsea hortensis H. Huber EW Alphonsea sclerocarpa Thw. NT Alphonsea zeylanica Hook .f. & Thoms. VU Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray CR(PE) Artabotrys hexapetalus (L.f.) Bhandari S: Yakada-Wel VU Artabotrys zeylanicus Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Kalu-Bambara-Wel, Patika-Wel, Yakada-Wel LC Cyathocalyx zeylanica Champ. ex Hook. f. & Thoms. S: i-Petta, Kekala, Kotala LC Desmos elegans (Thw.) Safford S: Kudu-mirissa, Kukurmana VU (Kukuruman) Desmos zeylanica (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Safford B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT Enicosanthum acuminata (Thw.) Airy Shaw S: Ini-Pettu, I-Pettu, MalLawulu, Malolu LC Goniothalamus gardneri Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Kalu-Kera VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Goniothalamus hookeri Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c Goniothalamus salicina Hook.f. & Thoms. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Goniothalamus thomsonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Goniothalamus thwaitesii Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Kalu-Kera NT Miliusa indica Leschen. ex A. DC. S: Kekili-Messa LC EN Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair 217 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Miliusa zeylanica Gardner ex Hook.f. & Thoms. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Mitrephora heyneana (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Thw. NT Orophea zeylanica Hook.f. & Thoms. CR(PE) Phoenicanthus coriacea (Thw.) H.Huber EN Phoenicanthus obliqua (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Alston NT EN B1+2c Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Beddome S: Patta-Ul-Kenda LC Polyalthia coffeoides (Thw. ex Hook.f. & Thoms.) Thw. S: Omara; T: Katilla, Nedunari LC Polyalthia korinti (Dunal) Thw. S: Mi-Wenna, Ul-Kenda; T: Uluvintai LC Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw. S: Devadara, I-Petta, O-lila, O-wila; T: Assathi, MaraiIllipa, Mara-Iluppai LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Polyalthia moonii Thw. CR(PE) Polyalthia persicaefolia (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Sageraea thwaitesii Hook.f. & Thoms. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sageraea zeylanica Heusden EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thw. S: Kalati; T: Kalatti Uvaria macropoda Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Attu-Muddah NT Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. S: Pangan VU Uvaria semecarpifolia Hook. f. & Thoms. S: Kara-Bambara LC Uvaria sphenocarpa Hook. f. & Thoms. LC Uvaria zeylanica L. S: Palanga, Palu-Kan; T: Kalu- Veppal, Karu -Veppal LC Xylopia championii Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Dat-Ketiya LC Xylopia nigricans Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Heen-Kenda; T: See-Vindai NT Xylopia parvifolia (Wight) Hook. f. & Thoms. S: Atu-Ketiya, Netawu; T: Chiddavintai LC S: Wal-Enduru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Apiaceae Bupleurum ramosissimum Wight & Arn. 218 Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Bupleurum hakgalense Klack. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban NCS Criteria EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria S: Gotukola, Heen-Gotukola; LC T: Vallarai Heracleum ceylanicum Gardner ex Clarke CR Peucedanum ceylanicum Gardner CR(PE) Pimpinella heyneana Wall. GCS S: Wal-Asamodagam B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Pimpinella leschenaultii DC. VU Sanicula elata Ham. ex D.Don CR(PE) Trachyspermum stictocarpum (Clarke) H. Wolff DD B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Apocynaceae Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G.Don S: Muwa-Kiri-Wel LC Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. S: Ruk- Attana , Eth-mada; T:Elilaipattai, Elilaippalai, Mukanpelai LC Anodendron paniculatum A.DC. S: As-Wel, Dul, Girandi-Ul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Anodendron rhinosporum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Brachystelma lankana Dassanayake & Jayasuriya CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LCi Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. S: Ela-Wara, HelaWara,Wara, Mudu-Wara; T: Errukalai, Manakkovil, Urukkovil LC Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. T: Mankalli CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Caralluma umbellata Haw. S: Weluk EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Carissa carandas L. S: Maha-Karamba; T:Kalaka, DD Perunkila Carissa Inermis Vahl VU Carissa spinarum L. S: Heen-Karamba; T: Chirukila, Chirukula, Kilatti Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G.Don LC VU Cerbera odollam Gaertn. S: Gon-Kaduru; T: Nangi-Ma LC Ceropegia candelabrum L. S: Muttu-Pala,Wel-Mottu LC Ceropegia elegans Wall. EN Ceropegia juncea Roxb. DD 219 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) A2; B1(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Ceropegia parvilora Trimen CR(PE) Ceropegia taprobanica Huber CR Ceropegia thwaitesii Hook. CR(PE) Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston S: Bu-Kiri-Wel, Eulu-WelAnguna, Bu-Wal-Anguna Criteria B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cleghornia acuminata Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cosmotigma racemosum (Roxb.) Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptolepis buchananii Roem.& Schult. S: Wel-Rukattana, Kiri-Vel Cynanchum alatum Wight & Arn. ex Wight Cynanchum tunicatum (Retz.) Alston CR(PE) S: Kan-Kumbala A2; B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR(PE) Dischidia nummularia R. Br. Gymnema lactiferum (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. EN LC T: Kurinnan Gymnema pergularioides (Thw.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Gymnema rotundatum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Schult. S: Mas-Bedde, Mas-Bedda, Muva-Kiri-Vel VU Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. S: Iramusu, Heen-Iramusu; T: Nannari LC Heterostemma tanjorense Wight & Arn. ex Wight Holarrhena mitis (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. S: Kalinda, Kiri-Mawara, Kiri-Walla Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Hoya ovalifolia Wight & Arn. ex Wight S : Gonu-Ke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hoya paucilora Wight S: Heen -Aramessa EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) Hunteria zeylanica ( Retz.) Gardner ex Thw. S: Wal-Waraka, Mediya,WalNT Mediya Ichnocarpus frutescens ( L.) R. Br. S: Gerandi-Dul, GerandiWel, Gopi, Priyawarna, Kiri-Wel LC Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wight & Arn. ex Wight T: Pala, Palai LC Marsdenia brunoniana Wight & Arn. ex Wight S: Et-Anguna EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon T: Muruva, Muruwa-Dul EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Ochrosia oppositifolia (Lam.) Schum. S: Gonna, Mudu-Kaduru VU B1ab(I,ii,iii,v) +2ab(I,ii,iii,v) 220 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.) R.Br. ex Schult. S: Usepale; T:Kulappalai LC Pagiantha dichotoma (Roxb.) Markgraf E: Eve's Apple, Forbidden Fruit; S: Divi Kaduru; T : Nanthia-Vattai LC Parsonsia albolavescens (Dennst.) Mabb. S: Kiri-Anguna, Val-anguna LC Criteria Criteria VUi A1c LC Pentatropis capensis (L.f.) Bullock Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. S:Langali, MahaMedahangu, Meda-Hangu, Wissani; T: Uttamakam,Veliparatii LC Petchia ceylanica (Wight) Livera S: Kukul-Kaduru, VasaKaduru, Wal-Kaduru NT Rauvolia densilora (Wall.) Benth. ex Hook. f. LC Rauvolia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz S: Ekaweriya, Nakula, RathEkaweriya; T: Chivan-Ampelpodi, CoVannamilpori EN Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight S:Muwakeeriya, MuduKanda NT Secamone emetica (Retz.) R. Br. ex Schult. S: Mudu-Kiriya LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Toxocarpus kleinii Wight & Arn. ex Wight EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Tylophora cordifolia Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Tylophora fasciculata Buch. -Ham. ex Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. GCS S: Mudu Bin-Nuga, Apa-Sith LC Tylophora multilora (Wight & Arn. ex Wight) Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Tylophora paucilora Wight & Arn. ex Wight EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Tylophora tenuissima (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. ex Wight LC Tylophora zeylanica Decne. CR(PE) Vallaris solanacea (Roth) Kuntze EN Walidda antidysenterica (L.) M. Pichon S: Sudu-Idda, Idda, Kelidha, Wal-idda LC Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf S: Kirianguna, Anguna, Thitha-Anguna, Anukkola; T:Kodi-Palai, Kurincha LC Willughbeia cirrhifera Abeywick. S: Kiri-Gedi, Kiri-Wel VU LC Wrightia angustifolia Thw. 221 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Wrightia lavido-rosea Trimen CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Wrightia puberula (Thw.) Ngan CR(PE) Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. Common name T: Pal-Madankai NT Aponogeton crispus Thunb. S: Kekatiya VU A2d Aponogeton jacobsenii Bruggen S: Kekatiya CR B1ab(I,ii,iii) VU A2d EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ilex denticulata Wall. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) IIex knucklesensis Philcox EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ilex walkeri Wight & Gardner ex Thw. LC GCS Family : Aponogetonaceae Aponogeton natans (L.) Engler & Krause Aponogeton rigidifolius Bruggen S: Kekatiya, Kokati LC LC Family : Aquifoliaceae Ilex zeylanica (Hook. f.) Maxim. S: Andunwenna NT Family : Araceae Alocasia fornicata (Roxb.) Schott CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson var. campanulatus (Decne) Sivadasan CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Amorphophallus paeoniifolius var. paeoniifolius S: Kidaran; T: Karunai DD Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth NT Arisaema constrictum Barnes CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arisaema leschenaultii Blume S: Wal-Kidaran VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott S: Wal-Kidaran EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott E: Taro; S: Gahala LC LC Cryptocoryne alba de Wit CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne beckettii Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne bogneri Rataj CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne nevillii Trimen ex Hook.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) 222 LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Cryptocoryne parva de Wit EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne thwaitesii Schott EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne undulata Wendt. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne waseri Kettner DD Cryptocoryne wendtii de Wit VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocoryne x willisii Reitz CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Lagenandra erosa de Wit CR A2d Lagenandra jacobsenii de Wit EN A2d; B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Lagenandra Koenigii (Schott) Thw. EN A2d; B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) A2d; B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Lagenandra bogneri de Wit Common name S: Wana-Ketella Lagenandra lancifolia (Schott) Thw. S: Ati-Udayan EN Lagenandra ovata (L.) Thw. S: Kethala LC Lagenandra praetermissa de Wit S: Kethala LC Lagenandra thwaitesii Engl. Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw. EN S: Angili Kohila, Kohila, Maha-Kohila Lemna gibba L. LC A2d; B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC CR(PE) LC LC Lemna perpusilla Torrey S: Diya-Panshi LC Pistia stratiotes L. E: Water Lettuce; S: Diya-Paradel LC Pothos hookeri Schott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pothos parvispadix Nicolson EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pothos remotilorus Hook. VU Pothos scandens L. S: Pota-Wel LC Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott VU 223 GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott S: Dada-Kehel, Wel-Kohila CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott S: Nil-Walla, Nil-wella EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Spirodela polyrrhiza (L.) Schleid. LC Theriophonum minutum (Willd.) Baill. LC Typhonium lagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume S: Panu-Ala CR Typhonium roxburghii Schott S: Polong-Ala NT Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott S: Panu-Ala LC Wolfia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimm. EN LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Family : Araliaceae Aralia leschenaultii (DC.) J. Wen Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. DD S: Maha-Gotukola NT Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. LC Polyscias acuminata (Wight) Seemann CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Scheflera emarginata (Moon) Harms VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Scheflera exaltata (Thw.) Frodin EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Scheflera hererobotrya Frodin S: Itha NT Scheflera stellata (Gaertn.) Baill. S: Itha, Itta, Itta-Wel, MahaItta-Waela LC Areca concinna Thw. S: Lenatheriya, Lenteri, Lenteri-Puwak EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus delicatulus Thw. S: Nara-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus digitatus Becc. S: Kukulu-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus ovoideus Thw. ex Trimen S: Sudu-Wewel, TambutuWel,Thudarena EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus pachystemonus Thw. S: Kukulu-Wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus pseudotenuis Becc. S: Kola-Hangala, HeenWewel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus radiatus Thw. S: Kukulu-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus rivalis Thw. ex Trimen S: Ela-Wel, Ela-Wewel, Kaha-Wewel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Arecaceae 224 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Calamus rotang L. S: Heen-Wewel, Polonnaru -Wewel, Wewel; T: Pirambu NT Calamus thwaitesii Becc. S: Kath-Wel, Ma-Wewel, Puwak-Wel; T: Periya Pirambu VU A2d; B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calamus zeylanicus Becc. S: Thambotu-Wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Caryota urens L. E: Fish Tail Palm; S: Kitul; T: Kitul Tippilipana LC Loxococcus rupicola (Thw.) H. Wendl. & Drude S:Dothalu, Dotalu-Gas, RanEN Dotalu B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Nypa fruticans Wurmb E: Water Coconut; S:Gin-Pol VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oncosperma fasciculatum Thw. S: Katu-Kitul, Rata-Kitul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. S: Indi; T: Inchu LC Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. S: Sapsanda; T: Aduthinnapalai, Adutintappalai NT Aristolochia indica L. E: Indian Birthworth; S: Sapsanda; T: Isuru, Neya, Perumarrrindu, Adagam, Isadesatti, Isuruver, Isurumli, Iyavari, Karudakkodi, Kirttikodi, Perumarindu, Perumaruntu, Perunkiarge, Sasugade LC Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou S: Thapasara Bulath LC S: Hatawariya LC Criteria Family : Aristolochiaceae Family : Asparagaceae Asparagus falcatus L. EN Asparagus gonoclados Baker Asparagus racemosus Willd. S: Hathawariya; T: Chattavari B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Chlorophytum heynei Rottler ex Baker CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Chlorophytum laxum R. Br. VU B2 ab (I,ii,iii Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker CR B2 ab (I,ii,iii Dipcadi montanum (Dalz.) Barker CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) 225 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Dracaena thwaitesii Regel NT Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Drimia rupicola (Trimen) Dassanayake EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ophiopogon intermedius D.Don LC Sansevieria zeylanica (L.) Willd. E: Bow-String Hemp; S: Niyanda; T: Maral Scilla hyacinthina (Routh) Macbridge NT NT Family : Asteraceae Adenostemma angustifolium Arn. Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze DD VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Adenostemma macrophyllum (Blume) DC. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Adenostemma parvilorum (Blume) DC. DD Anaphalis brevifolia DC. VU Anaphalis fruticosa Hook. f. CR(PE) Anaphalis marcescens (Wight) C.B.Clarke EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Anaphalis pelliculata Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Anaphalis pseudocinnamomea Grierson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Anaphalis subdecurrens (DC.) Gamble NT Anaphalis sulphurea (Trimen) Grierson NT Anaphalis thwaitesii C.B. Clarke NT Anaphalis zeylanica C.B. Clarke NT Anaphalis "species X" Grierson DD Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess. S: Laveniya E: Mugwort; S: Wal-Kolondu LC LC Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Agada,Tumba LC Blepharispermum petiolare DC. VU Blumea angustifolia Thw. EX 226 B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Blumea axillaris (Lam.) DC. S: Kukula LC Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Blumea barbata DC. EN Blumea bifoliata (L.) DC. LC Blumea crinita Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Blumea hieracifolia var. lexuosa (D.Don) DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. LC Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce VU Blumea membranacea Wall. ex DC. NT Blumea obliqua (L.) Druce S: Muda-Mahana; T: Nara-Karamba LC Blumea virens Wall. ex DC. VU Blumea zeylanica (Hook.f.) Grierson CR(PE) Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. S: Kikirindi, Sindu-Kirindi; T: Kaikechi, Kaivichillai, Karichalankanni, Karippan LC Elephantopus scaber L. S: Et-Adi; T: Anichovadi LC Emilia alstonii Fosberg LC Emilia baldwinii Fosberg NT Emilia exserta Fosberg S: Hulan-Tala, Kadupara; T: Elunthani, Ilaip Patti, Inumpatti-Pillu, MusalkalPillu LC Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. S: Kadu Pahara LC Emilia speeseae Fosberg VU Emilia zeylanica C.B.Clarke LC Epaltes divaricata (L.) Cass. S: Heen-Mudu-Mahana Epaltes pygmea DC. Erigeron sublyratus DC. T: Nara-Karamba B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Glossogyne bidens (Retz.) Alston CR(PE) Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. NT 227 B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Gynura hispida Thw. T: Mookuthi, Pangi Pillu, Singula Tunda,Thandu Cheddi, Pattu-Nal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Gynura lycopersicifolia DC. S: Hulan-Tala,WalTampala; T:Mookuthi,Pangi Pillu,Singula Tunda,Thandu cheddi,Pattu-Nal LC Gynura zeylanica Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Helichrysum buddleioide DC. var. hookerianum (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Kleinia grandilora (Wall. ex DC.) N.Rani LC Lagenophora gracilis Steetz VU Laggera alata (D.Don) Sch. Bip. ex Oliver NT Launaea intybacea (Jacq.) Beauv. VU Launaea sarmentosa (Willd.) Sch. Bip. ex Kuntze LC Moonia heterophylla Arn. NT Myriactis wightii DC. Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Notonia walkeri (Wight) C.B.Clarke EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pseudoconyza viscosa (Miller) D'Arcy EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Psiadia ceylanica (Arn.) Grierson B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC S: Pupula Senecio corymbosus Wall. ex DC. LC Senecio gardneri (Thw.) C.B. Clarke CR(PE) Senecio ludens C. B. Clarke LC Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don NT Senecio zeylanicus DC. EN Sphaeranthus africanus L. S:Vel-Mudda LC Sphaeranthus amaranthoides Burm.f. T: Chiva-Charantai EN Sphaeranthus indicus L. S: Aet-Maha-Mahana, Mudu Mahana LC Spilanthes calva DC. E:Toothache Plant; S:MahaAkmella LC Spilanthes iabadicensis A. H. Moore LC Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. LC 228 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Vernonia anceps C. B. Clarke NCS Criteria VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. S: Kobo-Mella, MalGedumba VU Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. S: Mangul-KumburuVenna, MonaraKudumbiya, Vatu-Pala; T: Chitiviyarchenkalainir, Neichatti-Kirai, Neichatti Pillu, Neisudi-Kirai LC Vernonia gardneri Thw. VU Vernonia hookeriana Arn. NT Vernonia lankana Grierson EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Vernonia nemoralis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vernonia pectiniformis DC. subsp. puncticulata (DC.) Grierson EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Vernonia setigera Arn. NT Vernonia thwaitesii C. B. Clarke EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vernonia wightiana Arn. S: Konde Vernonia zeylanica (L.) Less S: Henn-Botiya, Papula, LC Pupula; T: Kappilay, Kuppilay Vicoa indica (L.) DC. S: Ran-Hiriya LC Wedelia bilora (L.) DC. S:Moodu-Gam-Palu LC Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. S: Ranwan Kikirindi LC Xanthium indicum Koenig S: Wal-Rambutang, UruKossa LC Youngia fuscipappa Thw. B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT Family : Balanophoraceae CR Balanophora fungosa J. R. & G. Forst. A2cd Family : Balsaminaceae Hydrocera trilora (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Diya Kudalu, Wal-kudalu LC Impatiens acaulis Arn. E:Balsam VU Impatiens appendiculata Arn. NT Impatiens arnottii Thw. EN 229 A2; B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Impatiens ciliifolia Grey- Wilson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens cornigera Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens cuspidata Wight & Arn. subsp. bipartita LC Impatiens elongata Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens grandis Heyne ex Wall. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens henslowiana Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens janthina Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens leptopoda Arn. LC Impatiens leucantha Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens linearis Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens macrophylla Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens oppositifolia L. NT Impatiens laccida Arn. Impatiens repens Moon Common name S: Kudalu Mal S: Gal-Demata CR A2c; B1ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens subcordata Arn. CR(PE) Impatiens taprobanica Hiern EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens thwaitesii Hook.f. ex GreyWilson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Impatiens truncata Thw. NT Impatiens walkeri Hook. CR(PE) Family : Basellaceae Basella alba L. S: Niviti; T: Pasalai EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Gal-Ambala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii,v) Family : Begoniaceae Begonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw. Begonia dipetala R.Graham Begonia malabarica Lam. S: Hak-Ambala, Maha-hakAmbala Begonia subpeltata Wight NT CR 230 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Begonia tenera Dryander NCS Criteria EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii,v) GCS Family : Berberidaceae Berberis ceylanica Schneider E: Barberry NT Berberis tinctoria Leschen. E: Barberry DD Berberis wightiana Schneider E: Barberry DD Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f) K.Schum S: Diya-Danga; T: Vil- Padri NT Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. S: Totila LC Stereospermum colais (Dillwyn) Mabb. S: Dunu-madala, Lunu Madala; T: Padri LC Stereospermum suaveolens DC. S: Ela-Palol, Palol DD Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune S: Heen-Thambala; T: pakkuvetti LC Coldenia procumbens L. T: Chirupaddi LC Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. S: Lolu; T: Naruvilli, Vidi LC Cordia monoica Roxb. T: Naruvili, Ponnaruvili LC Family : Bignoniaceae LC Family : Boraginaceae Cordia nevillii Alston CR(PE) Cordia oblongifolia Thw. NT Cordia sinensis Lam. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cordia subcordata Lam. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. E: Forget-Me-Not; S: Bu-Katu-Henda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cynoglossum zeylanicum Thunb. ex Lehm. S: Bu-Katu-Henda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ehretia laevis Roxb. T: Addula, Chiru-Pulichchul LC LC Heliotropium curassavicum L. Heliotropium indicum L. S: Et-Honda, Et-Setiya, Dimi-biya; T: Tedkodukku LC Heliotropium scabrum Retz. LC Heliotropium supinum L. CR(PE) 231 LCi Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Heliotropium zeylanicum (Burm. f.) Lam. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rotula aquatica Lour. DD Tournefortia argentea L. f. EN Tournefortia walkerae Clarke CR(PE) Trichodesma indicum (L.) Smith Common name T: Kavil-Tumpai VU GCS Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm. f.) R. Br. Family : Burmanniaceae Burmannia championii Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Burmannia coelestis D. Don CR C2a; B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Burmannia disticha L. S: Mediya-Jawala Burmannia pusilla (Wall. ex Miers) Thw. NT Thismia gardneriana Hook. f. ex Thw. CR LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Burseraceae Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. CR(PE) Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume S: Dik-Kakuna, Kekuna; T: Pakkilipal VU Commiphora berryi (Arn.) Engl. T: Mulkiluvai LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vui LR/ LCi Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. T: Kilivai LC Scutinanthe brunnea Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sarcococca brevifolia (Muell.Arg.) Stapf ex Gamble VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sarcococca zeylanica Baill. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Wal-Nawahandi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum acidus Kostem. S: Dehi-Kina, Batu-Kina NT Calophyllum bracteatum Thw. S: Walu-Keena NT S: Maha-Bulu- Mora Family : Buxaceae Family : Cactaceae Rhipsalis baccifera (J.S.Mueller ) Stearn Family : Calophyllaceae 232 A1c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Calophyllum calaba L. S: Guru-Keena, Heen Keena; T: Chirupunnai LC Calophyllum cordato-oblongum Thw. S: Kalu-Keena EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum cuneifolium Thw. S: Keena CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum inophyllum L. E: Alexandrian Laurel; S: Domba,Tel-Domba; T: Dommakottai, Punnai, Punnaigam LC Calophyllum lankaensis Kosterm. Criteria EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum moonii Wight S:Domba-Keena, MapalKeena VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum thwaitesii Planch. & Triana S: Batu-Keena VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum tomentosum Wight S: Keena, Tel-Keena; T: Pongu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum trapezifolium Thw. S: Keena VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum walkeri Wight S: Keena, Tel-Keena; T: Pongu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calophyllum zeylanicum Kosterm. S: Keena EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Mesua ferrea L. S: Na; T: Naka LC Mesua stylosa (Thw.) Kosterm. S: Suwanda CR Mesua thwaitesii Planch. & Triana S: Diya-Na LC GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Campanulaceae Asyneuma fulgens (Wall.) Briq. CR(PE) Campanula benthamii Wall. ex Kitam. CR(PE) Lobelia alsinoides Lam. LC Lobelia chinensis Lour. NT Lobelia heyneana Roem. & Schult. LC Lobelia leschenaultiana (Presl) Skottsb. VU Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Roem. & Schult. B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC S: Rasni LC Lobelia zeylanica L. Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC. LC E: Hare-Bell LC S: Wal-Muna Mal VU LC Family: Cannabaceae Aphananthe cuspidata (Blume) Planch. 233 B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Celtis philippensis Blanco S: Meditella; T: Vellathorasay LC Celtis timorensis Span. S: Gurenda; T: Pinari LC Gironniera parvifolia Planch. S: Akmediya LC Trema orientalis (L.) Blume E: Charcoal Tree ; S: Gadumba LC Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce T: Vili EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cadaba trifoliata (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. T: Maya Adikkuruntu, Oothi Perali VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Capparis brevispina DC. S: Wal-Dehi NT Capparis divaritica Lam. S: Torikei LC Criteria Family : Capparaceae Capparis loribunda Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Capparis grandis L.f. T: Mudkondai NT Capparis heyneana Wall. S: Wal-Dehi, Leeniya Dehi EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Capparis moonii Wight S: Rudanti EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Capparis rotundifolia Rottler S: Balal-Katu; LC T: Karunchurai, Pichchuvilatti Capparis roxburghii DC. S: Kalu-Illan-Gedi; T: Punai-Virandi, Velungiriya LC Capparis sepiaria L. S: Rila-Katu; T: Karunchurai LC Capparis tenera Dalz. EN Capparis zeylanica L. S: Sudu-Welangiriya, Welangiriya; T: Kattoddi, Vennachchi LC Crateva adansonii DC. S: Lunu-Warana; T: Navala, Navilankai LC Maerua arenaria Hook.f. & Thoms. B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT Family : Caprifoliaceae Dipsacus walkeri Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Valeriana moonii Arn. ex Clarke CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 234 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Cerastium fontanum Baumg. subsp. vulgare (Hartm.) Greuter & Burdet CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. LC Cerastium indicum Wight & Arn. NT GCS Criteria Family : Caryophyllaceae Drymaria cordata (L.) Roem. & Schult. subsp. diandra (Blume) Duke S: Kukulu-Pala LC Polycarpaea aurea Wight & Arn. CR Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam. LC Polycarpaea spicata Wight & Arn. CR(PE) Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Schweinf. VU Polycarpon tetraphyllum subsp tetraphyllum (L.) L. LC Sagina saginoides (L.) Karsten DD Stellaria paucilora Zoll. & Moritzi CR(PE) Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert DD B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Celastraceae Cassine balae Kosterm. S: Nareloo, Neraloo; T: Perun, Piyaree Cassine congylos Kosterm. LC VU Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze S: Neralu; T:Piyari, Perunpiyari LC Celastrus paniculatus Willd. S: Duhundu EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Euonymus revolutus Wight NT Euonymus thwaitesii Lawson VU Euonymus walkeri Wight LC Glyptopetalum zeylanicum Thw. var. zeylanicum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN A2 acd, B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Kokoona zeylanica Thw. S: Kokun, Wana-Potu Loeseneriella africana (Willd.) Wilczek B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi Loeseneriella arnottiana (Wight) A. C. Smith S: Sudu-Nawu-Wel EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Loeseneriella macrantha (Korth.) A. C. Smith S: Diya-Kirindi-Wel EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) 235 ENi B1+2c A1c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou LC Maytenus fruticosa (Thw.) Loes CR(PE) Microtropis wallichiana Wight ex Thw. LC Microtropis zeylanica Merr. & Freem. NT Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.) Alston S: Panakka, Piyari; T:Chiru, Piyari LC Salacia acuminatissima Kosterm. EN S: Heen-Himbutu Wel Salacia diandra Thw. GCS Criteria VUi A1c B1+2c LC Reissantia indica (Willd.) Halle Salacia chinensis L. Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Salacia oblonga Wall. ex Wight & Arn. S: Himbutu, Gal-Himbutu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Salacia reticulata Wight S: Himbutu, Himbutu-Wel, Kotala-Himbutu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Et-Heraliya, Palen, Pelang, Uru-Honda; T:Konnai LC Family: Centroplacaceae Bhesa ceylanica (Arn. ex Thw.) Ding Hou Bhesa montana DD Bhesa nitidissima Kosterm. LC CRi LC LC Family : Ceratophyllaceae Ceratophyllum demersum L. Family : Chloranthaceae LC Sarcandra chloranthoides Gardner Family : Cleomaceae Cleome aspera Koenig ex DC. LC Cleome chelidonii L. f. S: Wal-Aba LC Cleome gynandra L. S: Wela; T: Tayirvalai LC Cleome monophylla L. LC Cleome tenella L. f. CR Cleome viscosa L. S: Wal-Aba, Ran-Manissa 236 LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Garcinia echinocarpa Thw. S: Madol VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Garcinia hermonii Kosterm. S: Madol, Kana-Goraka VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Garcinia morella (Gaertn.) Desr. E: Gamboge; S: KanaGorake, Kokatiya, Gokatu NT Garcinia quaesita Pierre S: Goraka, Rat-Goraka; T: Korakkaipuli LC Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. S: Ela-Gokatu, Gonapana; T: Kokottai NT Family : Clusiaceae Garcinia terpnophylla (Thw.) Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Garcinia thwaitessii Pierre EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Garcinia zeylanica Roxb. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Colchicaceae Gloriosa superba L. S: Niyangala; T: Kartikai Kilanku, Ventonti Iphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth LC LC Family : Combretaceae Anogeissus latifolius (Roxb.) Beddome S: Dawu,T: Vekkali, VelaiNaga LC CR(PE) Combretum acuminatum Roxb. Combretum albidum G.Don S: Kaduru-Ketiya-Wel NT Combretum latifolium Blume S: Geta-kaha NT CR Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. S: Beriya; T: Tipparuthin NT Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. S: Kumbulu, Kumbuk; T: Marutu LC Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. E: Myrabalans; S: Bulu; T: Ahdan-Koddai,Tanti LC Terminalia chebula Retz. E: Gall-Nut, Ink Nut, Myrabalans; S: Aralu; T: Kadukkay LC Terminalia zeylanica van Heurck & Muell. Arg. S: Hampalanda, Hanpalanda LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Commelinaceae Commelina appendiculata Clarke EN Commelina attenuata Vahl LC 237 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Commelina benghalensis L. S: Diya-Meneriya LC Commelina clavata Clarke Commelina diffusa Burm.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC LC S: Gira Pala NT Commelina kurzii Clarke LC Commelina paludosa Blume CR(PE) Commelina petersii Hassk. LC Cyanotis adscendens Dalz. VU Cyanotis axillaris (L.) Sweet LC Cyanotis burmanniana Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cyanotis ceylanica Hassk. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyanotis cristata (L.) D.Don GCS LC LC S: Gira Pala Commelina ensifolia R.Br. Commelina indehiscens E.Barnes Criteria S: Bol-Hinda B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC LC Cyanotis obtusa (Trimen)Trimen EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyanotis pilosa Schult.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyanotis racemosa Heyne ex Hassk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cyanotis thwaitesii Hassk. NT Cyanotis villosa (Spreng.) Schult.f. NT Dictyospermum montanum Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dictyospermum ovalifolium Wight EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Floscopa scandens Lour. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Murdannia audreyae Faden EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Murdannia blumei (Hassk.) Brenan EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Murdannia dimorphoides Faden NT Murdannia esculenta (Wall. ex Clarke) R.S.Rao & Kammathy NT Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) G.Brückn. EN 238 LC LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS VU Murdannia glauca (Thw. ex Clarke) G.Brückn. CR(PE) Murdannia lanceolata (Wight) Kammathy EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) R.S.Rao & Kammathy VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Murdannia nudilora (L.) Brenan LC Murdannia simplex (Vahl) Brenan CR Murdannia spirata (L.) G.Brückn. LC Murdannia striatipetala Faden EN Murdannia vaginata (L.) G.Brückn. LC Murdannia zeylanica (Clarke) G.Brückn VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pollia secundilora (Blume.) Bakh.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Rhopalephora scaberrima (Blume) Faden EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Family : Connaraceae Connarus championii Thw. S: Wel-Radaliya, Radaliya NT Connarus monocarpus L. S: Radaliya; T: Chettupulukodi LC EN Ellipanthus unifoliatus (Thw.) Thw. Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston S: Kirindi-Wel, Goda-Kirindi B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Family : Convolvulaceae Argyreia choisyana Wight ex Clarke DD Argyreia elliptica Choisy EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Argyreia hancorniaefolia Gardner EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Argyreia hirsuta Arn. LC Argyreia osyrensis (Roth) Choisy LC Argyreia pomacea Choisy T: Unam-Kodhy LC Argyreia populifolia Choisy S: Giri-Tilla LC CR(PE) Argyreia splendens (Roxb.) Sweet Argyreia thwaitesii (Clarke) D.Austin S: Ma-Banda, Ginitilla 239 LC Criteria D2 Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Bonamia semidigyna (Roxb.) Hall. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cressa cretica L. LC Cuscuta chinensis Lam. E: Dodder S: Aga-Mula-Neti-Wel; LC Cuscuta campestris Yunck. E: Golden Dodder, Field Dodder S: Aga-Mula-Neti-Wel; DD Cuscuta relexa Roxb. E: Dodder S: Aga-Mula-Neti-Wel; VU Erycibe paniculata Roxb. S: Atamberiya, Etamberiya, Eta-Miriya LC Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. S: Visnu-Kranti; T: Vichnu Kiranti LC Hewittia sublobata (L.f.) O. Ktze. S: Wal-Trasta-Walu LC Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. S: Kan-Kun LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea campanulata L. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea coptica (L.) Roem. & Schult. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea deccana D.Austin DD Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea jucunda Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea littoralis Blume S: Tel-kola NT Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. S: Waha-Tel,Tel-Vel,Tel-Kola LC Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. S: Mudu-bin-tamburu, Muhudu Bim Thamburu, Bin- LC Tamburu Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. S: Divi-Adiya, Divi-Pahura Ipomoea pileatea Roxb. LC VU Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc. (Syn. Ipomoea sepiaria Roxb.) S: Rasa-Tel-Kola LC Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Schult. S: Tel-Kola CR(PE) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea stolonifera (Cyrill.) Gmelin VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea tuberculata Ker-Gawl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ipomoea violacea L. LC Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy EN 240 GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hall. f. NCS Criteria GCS Criteria VUi A1c, B1+2c VUi A1c NT Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. S: Kaha-Tel-Kola LC Merremia tridentata (L.) Hall. f. S: Hawari-Madu, HeenMadu; T: Mudiyakuntal LC Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f. S: Kiri Madu, Mahamadu LC Operculina turpethum (L.) S. Manso S: Trastawalu LC Rivea ornata Choisy T: Muchuddai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Stictocardia tiliifolia (Desr.) Hall.f. S: Ma-Banda, Maha-Banda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Cornaceae Alangium salviifolium (L. f.) Wangerin NT Mastixia congylos Kosterm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Mastixia macrophylla (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Mastixia montana Kosterm. S: Diya-Taleya, Diya-Taliya Mastixia nimalii Kosterm. Mastixia tetrandra (Wight ex Thw.) Clarke S: Diyataliya, Maha-Tawara LC S: Koltan,Tebu LC Family : Costaceae Costus speciosus (Koenig) Smith Family : Crassulaceae Kalanchoe loribunda Wight & Arn. var. glabra CR Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) Pers. DD B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Crypteroniaceae S: Kekiri-Wara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. E: Colocynth; S: YakKomadu; T: Peykkomadi, Peykkomakki, Peykummatti VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Coccinia grandis (L.) J.Voigt E: Ivy Gourd; S: Kowakka; T: Kovvai LC Corallocarpus epigaeus (Arn.) Hook.f. S: Gopalanga VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ctenolepis garcinii (Burm.f.) Naud. T: Mochu-Mochukkai, Mossumossuke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Axinandra zeylanica Thw. Family : Cucurbitaceae 241 Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C.Jeffrey S: Pasengilla LC Gymnopetalum integrifolium (Roxb.) Kurz Gymnopetalum tubilorum (Wight & Arn.) Cogn. VU S: Kawudu-Kekiri Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. Momordica charantia L. S: Batu-Karavila, Karavila; T: Pakal, Nuti-Pakal Momordica denudata (Thw.) Clarke Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC S: Mal-Tumba, TumbKarawila; T: Paluppakal, Tumpai Mukia leiosperma (Wight & Arn.) Wight LC CR(PE) Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roemer S: Gon-Kekiri, Heen-Kekiri, Lene-Kekiri, Kekiri; T: Mochumochukkai NT Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi S: Kawudu-Kekeiri, Tela Beriya; T: Peyppudal LC EN Trichosanthes anaimalaiensis Beddome Trichosanthes cucumerina L. GCS LC S: Vel Kekiri Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino Kedrostis courtallensis (Arn.) C.Jeffrey Criteria S: Dum-Mella, Kunu-Mella; T: Pudal B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Trichosanthes integrifolia Thw. CR(PE) Trichosanthes nervifolia L. CR(PE) Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. S: Titta-hondala; T: Anakoruthi LC Zanonia indica L. S: Wal-Rasakinda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Zehneria maysorensis (Wight & Arn.) Arn. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Zehneria thwaitesii (Schweinf.) C.Jeffrey VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Cymodoceaceae Cymodocea serrulata (R.Br.) Asch. & Magnus NT LC Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Asch. NT LC Syringodium isoetifolium (Asch.) Dandy NT LC LC LC Family : Cyperaceae Actinoscirpus grossus (L.f.) Goetgn. & D.A.Simpson 242 Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Kunth ex Clarke S: Uru-Hiri LC Criteria Bulbostylis densa (Wall.ex Roxb.) Hand.Mazz. NT Bulbostylis puberula (Poir.) Kunth ex Clarke LC Carex arnottiana Nees ex Drejer EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Carex baccans Nees ex Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex breviscapa Clarke EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Carex ilicina Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex indica L. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex jackiana Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex lateralis Kukenth. CR(PE) Carex lenta D. Don CR(PE) Carex leucantha Arn. ex Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex ligulata Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex lindleyana Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex lobulirostris Drejer EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Carex longicruris Nees NT Carex longipes D.Don DD Carex maculata Boott EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Carex nubigena D.Don EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Carex phacota Spreng. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex rara Boott subsp patanicola T.Koyama EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Carex spicigera Nees EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Carex taprobanensis T.Koyama CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Carex walkeri Arn. ex Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. NT Cyperus arenarius Retz. S: Mudu-Kalanduru Cyperus articulatus L. LC DD 243 GCS LC LC LC LC LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Cyperus bifax Clarke LC Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. LC Cyperus bulbosus Vahl T: Chilanti Arichi Criteria GCS LC Cyperus castaneus Willd. LC Cyperus cephalotes Vahl EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Cyperus clarkei Cook EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Cyperus compactus Retz. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cyperus compressus L. LC Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. subsp. pachyrrhizus (Nees) T. Koyama CR Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. S: Gal-Ehi LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT Cyperus cuspidatus Kunth LC Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl LC Cyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntze VU Cyperus difformis L. LC Cyperus diffusus Vahl EN Cyperus digitatus Roxb. LC Cyperus disruptus C.B. Clarke LC Cyperus distans L.f. LC LC Cyperus dubius Rottb. LC LC Cyperus exaltatus Retz. LC Cyperus haspan L. S: Hal-Pan LC Cyperus iria L. S: Wel-Hiri LC Cyperus javanicus Houtt. S: Ramba; T: Irampai LC Cyperus kyllingia Endl. S: Mottu-Tana LC Cyperus melanospermus ( Nees) Valken LC Cyperus mitis Steud. LC 244 B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS LC LC LC LC Cyperus paniceus (Rottb.) Boeckler LC LC Cyperus pilosus Vahl LC LC Cyperus platyphyllus Roem. & Schult. NT LC Cyperus platystylis R.Br. NT Cyperus procerus Rottb. LC Cyperus pulcherrimus Willd. ex Kunth NT Cyperus pygmaeus Rottb. LC Cyperus radians Nees & Meyen ex Kunth CR Cyperus nutans Vahl Cyperus pangorei Rottb. Cyperus rotundus L. S: Hewan-Pan S: Kalanduru; T: Korai LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC Cyperus sesquilorus (Torr.) Mattfeld & Kükenth. NT Cyperus squarrosus L. LC LC Cyperus stoloniferus Retz. LC LC Cyperus tenuiculmis Boeckeler LC LC Cyperus tenuispica Steud. LC LC Cyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl. LC Cyperus umbellatus Clarke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cyperus zollingeri Steud. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Diplacrum caricinum R.Br. NT Eleocharis actangula (Roxb. ) Schult. LC Eleocharis confervoides (Poir.) T. Koyama CR(PE) Eleocharis congesta D.Don NT Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.)Trin. ex Hensch. S: Boru-Pan LC LC Eleocharis geniculata (L.) Roem. & Schult. LC Eleocharis lankana T.Koyama CR 245 LC LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Eleocharis ochrostachys Steud. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Eleocharis retrolexa (Poir.) Urban VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Eleocharis spiralis (Rottb.) Roem. & Schult. LC Eleocharis tetraquetra Nees EN Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl LC Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz) Vahl EN Fimbristylis argentea (Rottb.) Vahl LC Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Frossk.) Bubani VU Fimbristylis cinnamometorum (Vahl) Kunth LC Fimbristylis complanata (Retz.) Link LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Fimbristylis consanguinea Kunth EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br. LC Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl LC Fimbristylis dipsacea (Rottb.) Clarke CR(PE) Fimbristylis dura (Zoll.& Moritzi) Merr. EN Fimbristylis eragrostis (Nees & Meyen) Hance LC Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth LC Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl LC Fimbristylis fusca (Nees) Clark EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Fimbristylis insignis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Fimbristylis leptoclada Benth. CR(PE) Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl S: Muduhal-Pan B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Fimbristylis monticola Hochst. ex Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Fimbristylis nutans (Retz.) Vahl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Fimbristylis ovata (Burm.f.) Kern LC LC Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) Vahl LC LC 246 LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Fimbristylis pubisquama Kern LC Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth LC Fimbristylis salbundia (Nees) Kunth subsp pentapetra (Nees) T.Koyama VU Fimbristylis schoenoides (Retz.) Vahl LC Fimbristylis tenera Schult. DD Fimbristylis tetragona R.Br. LC Fimbristylis thouarsii (Kunth) Merr. EN Fimbristylis trilora (L.) Schum. ex Engl. LC Fimbristylis umbellaris (Lam.) Vahl Criteria GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC S: Hal-Pan B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Fimbristylis zeylanica T.Koyama CR Fuirena capitata (Burm.f.) T.Koyama LC Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. LC LC Fuirena umbellata Rottb. LC LC Hypolytrum longirostre Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hypolytrum scirpoides (Presl) Merr. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Hypolytrum turgidum Clarke EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Isolepis luitans (L.) R.Br. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lepironia articulata (Retz.) Domin. S: Eta-Pan Lipocarpha chinensis (Osbeck) Kern LC Lipocarpha sphacelata (Vahl) Kunth LC Machaerina rubiginosa (Spreng.) T. Koyama subsp. crassa (Thw.) T.Koyama CR(PE) Mapania immersa (Thw.) Benth. ex Clarke CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Mapania zeylanica (Thw.) Benth.ex Clarke EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pycreus lavidus (Retz.) T.Koyama LC Pycreus polystachyos (Rottb.) Beauv. LC 247 LC LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Pycreus pumilus (L.) Nees S: Go-Hiri LC Criteria Pycreus puncticulatus (Vahl) Nees. LC Pycreus sanguinolentus (Vahl) Nees ex Clarke NT Pycreus stramineus (Nees) Clarke CR(PE) Queenslandiella hyalina (Vahl) Ballard VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Remirea maritima Aublet VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchospora chinensis Nees & Meyen ex Nees CR(PE) Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britt. LC Rhynchospora gracillima Thw. CR(PE) Rhynchospora rubra (Lour.) Makino NT Rhynchospora rugosa (Vahl) Gale subsp. brownii (Roem. & Schult.) T. Koyama EN Rhynchospora trilora Vahl CR(PE) Rikliella squarrosa (L.) Raynal LC Schoenoplectus articulatus (L.) Palla S: Maha Geta-Pan LC LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC Schoenoplectus littoralis (Schrad.) Palla LC Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla VU Schoenoplectus supinus (L.) Palla LC Scirpodendron ghaeri (Gaertn.) Merr. CR(PE) Scleria bilora Roxb. CR(PE) Scleria corymbosa Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Goda Karawu B1ab(i,ii,iii) Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. LC Scleria mikawana Makino VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Scleria multilacunosa T.Koyama CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Scleria neesii Kunth S: Bakamunu Tana 248 LC LC Schoenoplectus juncoides (Roxb.) Palla Scleria levis Retz. GCS LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Scleria oblata S.T.Blake EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Scleria parvula Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Scleria pergracilis (Nees) Kunth Common name S: Mehi-Wal GCS Criteria CR(PE) Scleria pilosa Boeckeler CR(PE) Scleria poaeformis Retz. LC Scleria rugosa R.Br. NT Scleria sumatrensis Retz. NT Scleria terrestris (L.) Fassett LC Scleria thwaitesiana Boeckeler VU Trichophorum subcapitatum (Thw. & Hook.) D.A.Simpson CR(PE) Tricostularia undulata (Thw.) Kern CR(PE) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Family : Daphniphyllaceae CR Daphniphyllum glaucescens Blume B2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Dichapetalaceae Dichapetalum gelonioides (Roxb.) Engl. S: Balal-Hula Dichapetalum zeylanicum Kosterm. LC NT Family : Dilleniaceae Acrotrema dissectum Thw. ex Hook. f. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Acrotrema intermedium Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Acrotrema lanceolatum Hook. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B2 ab (i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Acrotrema lyratum Thw. ex Hook. f. S: Bin-Beru Acrotrema thwaitesii Hook.f. & Thoms. ex Hook.f. Acrotrema unilorum Hook. S: Passana, Ettadi, Gondiwa, Bim- Beru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Acrotrema walkeri Wight ex Thw. S: Ulwerreni, Bim-Beru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dillenia indica L. S: Hondapara, Wam-Para; Tamil: Akku LC Dillenia retusa Thunb. S: Godapara LC Dillenia triquetra (Rottb.) Gilg S: Diyapara LC 249 CRi B1+2cd Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Schumacheria alnifolia Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Kekiri-Wara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Schumacheria angustifolia Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Kikeriwera, Heenkekiriwara EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Schumacheria castaneifolia Vahl S: Kekiri-Wara, Heen-KekiriWara LC Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr. S: Eth-Korassa-Wel VU Tetracera sarmentosa (L.) Vahl S: Korossa-Wal, Korasa, Korass-Wel LC Dioscorea bulbifera L. E: Aerial Yam, Potato Yam; S: Bakamuna-Wel, PanuKondol, Udala; T: Mothaka Valli(Wild), Rasa Valli (Cultivars) LC Dioscorea koyamae Jayasuriya S: Gonala, Kahata-Gonala, Kiri-Gonala EN Dioscorea oppositifolia L. S: Gonala, Hiritala, Kitala, Viala NT Dioscorea pentaphylla L. S: Katu-Ala, Katuwala-Ala; T: Allai LC Dioscorea spicata Roth S: Gonala VU Dioscorea tomentosa Koenig ex Spreng. S: Uyala LC Dioscorea trimenii Prain & Burkill S: Dahiya-Ala EN Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze S: Garandi-Kidaran DD Trichopus zeylanicus Gaertn. S: Bim-Pol VU A2 d Balanocarpus brevipetiolaris (Thw.) Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Balanocarpus kitulgallensis Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Dioscoreacea B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus glandulosus Thw. S: Dorana EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd, B1+2c Dipterocarpus hispidus Thw. S: Bu-hora VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd Dipterocarpus insignis Thw. S: Weli-Dorana EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1bcd, B1+2c Dipterocarpus zeylanicus Thw. S: Hora NT ENi A1cd Doona afinis Thw. S: Pathuru Yakahalu, Beraliya-Dun, Miris-Dun VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) ENi A1cd Doona congestifolora Thw. S: Tiniya, Thinniya,TiniyaDun VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) Doona gardneri Thw. E: Red Doon; S: Ratu-Dun; T: Konge-Koongili VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CRi A1cd 250 Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Doona macrophylla Thw. S: Honda-Beraliya, KanaBeraliya, Maha-Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CRi A1cd Doona nervosa Thw. E: Red Doon; S: Hal Beraliya, Kotikan-Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CRi A1cd VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) ENi A1cd CRi A1cd, C2a Doona oblonga Thw. Doona ovalifolia Thw. S: Pini-Beraliya EW Doona trapezifolia Thw. S: Yakahalu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd Doona venulosa Thw. S: Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1cd Doona zeylanica Thw. S: Dun; T: Koongili EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd, C2a Hopea cordifolia (Thw.) Trimen S: Mendora, Uva-Mendora EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1cd, B1+2c, D Hopea discolor Thw. S: Peely-Dun, Ratu-Dun EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1bcd, B1+2c, C1, D Hopea jucunda Thw. S: Rat-Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hopea modesta (A.DC.) Kosterm. S: Pini-Beraliya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Shorea dyeri Thw. S: Nawara-Dun, YakahaluDun, Yakahalu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Shorea hulanidda Kosterm. S: Hulan-Idda, Nawa-Dun EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Shorea lissophylla Thw. S: Gal-Pana Mora, Mal-Mora VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd, C2a Shorea oblongifolia Thw. S: Pana-Mora, Panadora, Pathuru-Yakkahalu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd Shorea pallescens Ashton S: Ratu-Dun EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd, C2a Shorea stipularis Thw. S: Hulan-Idda, Nawa-Dun, Nawada VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1cd Stemonoporus acuminatus (Thw.) Beddome EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c Stemonoporus afinis Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c Stemonoporus angustisepalum Kosterm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c Stemonoporus bullatus Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c Stemonoporus canaliculatus Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR A1c EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1ci Stemonoporus gilimalensis Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c, C2a Stemonoporus gracilis Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c, D Stemonoporus cordifolius (Thw.) Alston S: Iri Dorala Stemonoporus elegans (Thw.) Alston Stemonoporus gardneri Thw. S: Hal, Ugudu-Hal, HalMandora 251 Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Stemonoporus kanneliyensis Kosterm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c, C2a Stemonoporus laevifolius Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c, B1+2c Stemonoporus lanceolatus Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c, D Stemonoporus lancifolius (Thw.) Ashton EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c, D Stemonoporus latisepalum Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c, D Stemonoporus marginalis Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c, D CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi C2a, D Stemonoporus nitidus Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c, D Stemonoporus oblongifolius Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c Stemonoporus petiolaris Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c+2c, C2a EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c Stemonoporus revolutus Trimen ex Hook.f. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c Stemonoporus rigidus Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1c Stemonoporus moonii Thw. Stemonoporus reticulatus Thw. Stemonoporus scalarinervis Kosterm. Common name S: Hora-Wel S: Hal-Mandora S: Ugadu-Hal Stemonoporus scaphifolius Kosterm. Stemonoporus wightii Thw. S: Hal-Mendora EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sunaptea scabriuscula (Thw.) Trimen S: Na-Mendora EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Vateria copallifera (Retz.) Alston S: Hal; T: Kungiliyam Pinai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1cd, C2a Vatica afinis Thw. S: Hal-Mendora EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi A1c, C2a Vatica lewisiana (Trimen ex Hook.f.) Livera CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Vatica obscura Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi A1cd Vatica paludosa Kosterm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Droseraceae Drosera burmannii Vahl E: Sundew; S: Wata-Essa VU C1 LC Drosera indica L. E: Sundew; S: Kandulessa VU C1 LC Drosera peltata Smith E: Sundew; S: Ada-HandaEssa EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC 252 Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Diospyros acuminata (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Diospyros acuta Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Family : Ebenaceae Diospyros afinis Thw. S: Eta-Thimbiri, Kalu-Wella, Kalu-Welle ; T: Semelpanachai NT Diospyros albilora Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Diospyros atrata Alston EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c Diospyros attenuata Thw. S: Kadumberiya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Diospyros chaetocarpa Kosterm. S: Kalu-Mediriya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c B1+2c Diospyros crumenata Thw. Diospyros ebenoides Kosterm. S: Kalu-Habaraliya; T: Irumpalai, Juwarai EN A2 ad,B2ab (i,ii,iii) ENi Diospyros ebenum Koenig E: Ebony; S: Kaluwara ; T: Karunkali EN A2 ad DDi Diospyros hirsuta L.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Diospyros insignis Thw. S: Gona, Porawa-Mara, WalLC Mediriya B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Diospyros koenigii Kosterm. Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. E : Gaub Persimmon; S: Timbiri; T :Panichchai LC Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. S: Kadumberiya EN Diospyros montana Roxb. T: Katukanni, Mulkarunkali, Vakkana, Vakkani NT Diospyros moonii Thw. S: Kadumberiya, Kaluwella EN Diospyros nummulariifolia Kosterm. LC Diospyros oblongifolia (Thw.) Kosterm. VU Diospyros okkesii Kosterm. DD Diospyros oocarpa Thw. S: Ela-Thimbiri, KaluKudumberiya; T: VelliKarunkkali NT Diospyros oppositifolia Thw. S: Kalu-Mediriya, Kudumberiya EN Diospyros ovalifolia Wight S: Habara, Kunumella; T: Vedukkanari, Vedukunari LC 253 A2 ad,B1 B2 ab(i,ii,iii,v) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Diospyros pemadasai Jayasuriya S: Kola-Pellan EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Diospyros quaesita Thw. E: Calamander; S: KaluMediriya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Diospyros racemosa Thw. S: kahakala, Kaluwella; T: Vellai Thoverii VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Diospyros rheophytica Kosterm. GCS Criteria VUi A1cd CRi B1+2c Diospyros sylvatica Roxb. S: Hompilla, SuduKudumberiya; T: KurruppuThoveria VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Diospyros thwaitesii Beddome S: Boromala, Kadumberiya, VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Diospyros trichophylla Alston Diospyros walkeri (Wight) Guerke E: Bastard Ebony; S: Porowa Mala, Kaluwelle LC Maba buxifolia (Rottb.) Juss Family : Elaeagnaceae Elaegnus latifolia L. S: Katu-Embilla, Wel-Embilla LC Family : Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus amoenus Thw. S: Titta-Weralu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Elaeocarpus coriaceus Hook. S: Gal-Weralu EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Elaeocarpus glandulifer (Hook.) Masters S: Gal-Weralu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Elaeocarpus hedyosmus Zmarzty EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Elaeocarpus montanus Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Elaeocarpus serratus L. E: Wild Olive; S: Weralu LC Elaeocarpus subvillosus Arn. S: Gal-Weralu NT Elaeocarpus taprobanicus Zmarzty EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Elaeocarpus zeylanicus (Arn.) Masters EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Elatinaceae Bergia ammanioides Roxb. ex Roth Bergia capensis L. NT S: Geta - Purukwila LC S: Wel-Kapuru EN Family : Ericaceae Gultheria leschenaultii DC. 254 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Rhododendron arboreum Smith subsp. zeylanicum (Booth) Tagg S: Ma-Ratmal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vaccinium leschenaultii Wight S: Boralu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon atratum Kornicke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon brownianum Mart. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon catopsioides S.M. Phillips CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon ceylanicum Kornicke EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon cinereum R. Br. LC Eriocaulon fergusonii (Moldenke) S.M. Phillips CR(PE) Eriocaulon luviatile Trimen CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Eriocaulon longicuspe Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Eriocaulon odoratum Dalz. LC Eriocaulon philippo-coburgi Szyszyl. ex Wawra VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon psammophilum S.M. Phillips EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family : Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon quinquangulare L. S: Heen-Kokmota LC Eriocaulon setaceum L. S: Penda LC Eriocaulon sexangulare L. S: Kokmota LC LC Eriocaulon subglaucum Ruhland CR(PE) Eriocaulon thwaitesii Kornicke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon thysanocephalum S.M. Phillips CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon trimeni Hook.f. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eriocaulon truncatum Mart. LC Eriocaulon walkeri Hook.f. VU Eriocaulon willdenovianum Moldenke NT BI ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum lanceolatum (Wight) Walp. Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. VU S: Devadaram; T: Chemanatti 255 NT B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Erythroxylum moonii Hochr. S: Bata-Kirilla; T: Chiru-Chemannatti NT Erythroxylum obtusifolium (Wight) Hook.f. LC Erythroxylum zeylanicum O. Schulz LC Criteria GCS Criteria Family : Euphorbiaceae LC Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Acalypha indica L. S: Kuppameniya; T: Kuppameni, Punairananki LC Acalypha lanceolata Willd. LC Acalypha racemosa Wall. ex Baill. LC Acalypha supera Forssk. DD Adenochlaena zeylanica (Baill.) Thw. CR(PE) Agrostistachys coriacea Alston S: Beru LC VUi A1c Agrostistachys hookeri (Thw.) Benth. S: Diya-Beru, Kunu-Beru, Maha-Beru LC CRi B1+2c VUi A1c Agrostistachys indica Dalz. LC Agrostistachys intramarginalis Philcox LC Chaetocarpus castanocarpus (Roxb.) Thw. S: Hedawaka, Hedoka LC Chaetocarpus coriaceus Thw. S: Gal-Hadoka, Hedawaka, Hedoka LC Chaetocarpus ferrugineus Philcox VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chaetocarpus pubescens (Thw.) Hook. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chrozophora plicata (Vahl) A. Juss ex Spreng. DD Cleidion nitidum (Muell. Arg.) Thw. ex Kurz EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cleidion spicilorum (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Okuru VU Croton aromaticus L. S: Wel-Keppetiya; T: Teppaddi LC Croton caudatus Geisel S: Vel-Keppetiya EN Croton laccifer L. S: Gas- Keppetiya, Keppetiya; T: Teppaddi LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) Croton moonii Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Croton nigroviridis Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 256 Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Croton oficinalis (Klotzsch) Alston Croton persimilis Muell.Arg. NCS GCS LC S: Akurella; T: Milla Kunari VU Croton zeylanicus Muell.Arg. CR(PE) Dalechampia indica Wight CR Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw. S: Weli-Wenna; T: Tentuikki, Tentukki LC Euphorbia antiquorum L. S: Daluk; T: Chatura Kalli LC Euphorbia atoto Forst. CR(PE) Euphorbia cristata Heyne ex Roth DD Euphorbia granulata Frossk. DD Euphorbia hirta L. S: Bu-Dada-Kiriya; T: Palavi LC Euphorbia indica Lam. S: Ela-Dada-Kiriya LC Euphorbia rosea Retz. S: Mudu-Dada-Kiriya LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Euphorbia rothiana Spreng. Euphorbia thymifolia L. S:Bin-DadaKiriya,T:Chittirapalavi LC Euphorbia tortilis Rottler ex Ainslie S: Sinuk CR(PE) Euphorbia trigona Haw. Excoecaria agallocha L. Criteria VU S: Tala-Kiriya,Tela Kiriya,Tel Kiriya; T: Tilai Excoecaria oppositifolia Grifith var. crenulata (Wight) Chakrab. & M.G.Ganop LC VU Fahrenheitia minor (Thw.) Airy Shaw S: Olu-Petta, Wal-Kekuna LC Fahrenheitia zeylanica (Thw.) Muell.Arg. S: Mawata, Olu-Petta LC Givotia moluccana (L.) Sreem. T: Puttalai LC Homalanthus populifolius Graham S:Gini-kanda, Kanda; T: Pramaram LC Homonoia riparia Lour. NT Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. T: Atalai NT Macaranga digyna (Wight) Muell.Arg. S: Gal-Ota, Ota NT 257 B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Macaranga indica Wight S: Kenda; T: Vattakanni LC Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.Arg S: Kenda, Pat-kenda; T: Vattakanni LC Mallotus distans Muell.Arg. Mallotus eriocarpus (Thw.) Muell.Arg. DD S: Bulu-Petta, Vel-Keppetiya; LC T: Maratini Mallotus fuscescens (Thw.) Muell.Arg. Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell. Arg. Criteria LC S: Hamparila, Hamparilla; T: Kapila Mallotus repandus (Willd.) Muell. Arg. LC LC Mallotus resinosus (Blanco) Merr. S: Ma-Endaru LC Mallotus rhamnifolius (Willd.) Muell. Arg. S: Molabe; T: Marai-Tinni, Maraitium LC Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz S: Bu-Kenda; T: Mullupolavu LC Micrococca mercurialis (L.). Benth. LC Micrococca oligandra (Muell. Arg.) Prain VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ptychopyxis thwaitesii (Baill.) Croizat S: Wal-Rambutan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sapium indicum Willd. S: Kiri-Makulu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. S: Kaduru,Tel-Kaduru LC Sebastiania chamaelea (L.) Muell. Arg. S: Rat Pita Wakka LC Suregada angustifolia (Muell. Arg.) Airy Shaw LC Suregada lanceolata (Willd.) Kuntze T: Kakkaipalai, Potpattai LC Tragia hispida Willd. S: Wel-Kahabiliya LC Tragia involucrata L. S: Wel-Kahabiliya LC CR(PE) Tragia muelleriana Pax & Hoffm. Tragia plukenetii Radcliffe-Smith S: Wel-Kahabiliya NT Trewia nudilora L. E: Fever Tree; S: Opinna; T:Karachal-Maran,Tidimbi VU Trigonostemon diplopetalus Thw. CR(PE) Trigonostemon nemoralis Thw. VU Family : Fabaceae 258 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Abarema abeywickramae Kosterm. NCS Criteria EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Abarema bigemina (L.) Kosterm. S: Kalatiya LC Abarema subcoriacea (Thw.) Kosterm. S: Mimini-Mara VU Abrus melanospermus Hassk. S: Ella-Olinda LC Abrus precatorius L. E: Crab's Eyes, Indian Liquorice; S: Olinda, OlindaWel; T: Kundu-Mani, KuntuMani LC Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. S: Hinguru-Vel LC Acacia chundra Willd. S: Rat-Kihiriya; E: Redcutch; T: karangali, kodalimurukai LC Acacia eburnea (L. f.) Willd. E: Cockspur Thorn; S: Kaludai, Udai-Vel LC EN Acacia lankaensis Kosterm. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. S: Katu-Andara, Maha Andara; T: Velvalayam, Velve LC Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. S: Goda Hinguru, Hinguru LC Acacia planifrons Wight & Arn. E: Jungle Nail, Umbrella Tree; T: Odai, Udai LC Acacia tomentosa Willd. E: Elephant Thorn, Jungle Nail; T: Anaimulli VU Adenanthera bicolor Moon S: Mas-Mora NT Adenanthera pavonina L. S: Madatiya; T: Anaikuntumani, Anikundumani LC Aeschynomene aspera L. E: Pith Plant, Shola, Shola-Pith; S: Maha-DiyaSiyambala; T: Attuneddi LC Aeschynomene indica L. S: Diya-Siyambala, HeenDiya-Siyambala LC CR Aganope heptaphylla (L.) Polhill B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin. T: Thuringi, Usil Ujil, Uyil, Wienja NT Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. S: Kabal-Mara, Hulan-Mara; T: Pili Vagai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Albizia lankaensis Kosterm. Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. S: Mara, Suriya-Mara; T: Kona, Vakai, Vagei NT Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth. S: Huriyi, Suriya-Mara; T: Ponnaimurankai LC 259 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. T: Kutiraival DD Alysicarpus heyneanus Wight & Arn. DD Alysicarpus longifolius (Rottler ex Spreng.) Wight & Arn. DD Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) DC. DD Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. DD Alysicarpus scariosus (Rottler ex Spreng.) Graham ex Thw. DD Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. S: Aswenna LC LC Aphyllodium biarticulatum (L.) Gagnep. Atylosia albicans (Wight & Arn.) Benth. S: Wal-Kollu NT Atylosia rugosa Wight & Arn. S: Wal-Kollu LC Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. S: Wal-Kollu, Wa- Undu, Wal-Undu-Wel LC Atylosia trinervia (DC.) Gamble S: Atta-tora, Et-tora LC Bauhinia racemosa Lam. E: Atti; S: Maila, Mayila LC Bauhinia tomentosa L. S: Kaha-Petan, Petan; T: Tiruvathi, Tiruvatti LC Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. E: Bengal Kino; S: Gas-Kela; VU T: Parasu, Murrakan Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. E: Grey Nicker; S: KaluVavuletiya, Kumburu-Wel, Wael-Kumburu; T: Punaikkalaichchi LC Caesalpinia crista L. S: Diya-Wavuletiya VU Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT Caesalpinia digyna Rottler E: Tari Pods; S: Hinguru CR Caesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink S: Goda-Wawuletiya, RatKalabatu-Wel NT Caesalpinia major (Medikus) Dandy & Excell E: Yellow Nicker VU Caesalpinia sappan L. E: Sappan Wood; S: Patangi DD Canavalia cathartica Thouars E: Wild Bean LC Canavalia mollis Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC. Criteria DD S: Mudu-Awara 260 LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Canavalia virosa (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. S: Mudu-Awara, Wal-Awara LC Cassia absus L. S: Bu-Tora LC Cassia aeschinomene DC. ex Collad. LC Cassia auricoma Graham ex Steyaert VU Cassia auriculata L. B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Ranawara; E: Matara Tea; LC T: Avarai LC Cassia hirsuta L. Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng. E: Italian senna; T: Nilavakai DD Cassia kleinii Wight & Arn. S; Bin-siyambala LC Cassia mimosoides L. S: Bin-Siyambala LC Cassia occidentalis L. E: Cofee-Senna, CofeeWeed; S: Peni Tora, Hiwal Thora; T:Ponnantakarai LC Cassia roxburghii DC. S: Ratu-Wa; T: Vakai LC Cassia senna L. E: True senna DD Cassia siamea Lam. S: Aramana,Wa; E; Kassod tree; T: manga konnei, vakai LC Cassia sophera L. S:Uru-Kona; T:Munjal-Kona LC Cassia tora L. S: Peti-Tora, Tora LC Cathormion umbellatum (Vahl) Kosterm. T: Ichchavalai, Iyamalai VU Clitoria ternatea L. S: Katarodu-Wal, NilKatarodu; T: Karuttappu LC Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth LC Crotalaria angulata Mill. VU Crotalaria berteroana DC. DD Crotalaria bidiei Gamble VU Crotalaria calycina Schrank Criteria S: Gorandiya B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Crotalaria clavata Wight & Arn. EN Crotalaria evolvuloides Wight ex Wight & Arn. NT Crotalaria ferruginea Graham ex Benth. LC 261 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Crotalaria hebecarpa (DC.) Rudd S: Bu-Gota-Kota LC Crotalaria juncea L. S:Hana; E: Hemp, SunnHemp DD Crotalaria laburnifolia L. S: Yak-Beriya LC Crotalaria linifolia L. f. DD Crotalaria lunulata Heyne ex Wight & Arn. LC Crotalaria medicaginea Lam. NT Crotalaria montana Roth DD Crotalaria multilora (Arn.) Benth. VU Crotalaria mysorensis Roth CR(PE) Crotalaria nana Burm. f. LC Crotalaria pallida Ait. LC Crotalaria prostrata Rottler ex Willd. EN Crotalaria quinquefolia L. LC Crotalaria retusa L. S: Kaha-Andana-Hiriya; T:Kilukiluppai Crotalaria scabrella Wight & Arn. Crotalaria verrucosa L. B1ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU E:Blue-Andana; S: NilAndana-Hiriya, Silibili; T:Kilukiluppai Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Crotalaria walkeri Arn. LC Crotalaria wightiana Graham ex Wight & Arn. CR Crudia zeylanica (Thw.) Benth. EX Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medikus S: Bodi; T: Karporgam, Kavothi, Kavoti EN Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. E: Cluster Bean, Guar; T: Koth-Averay DD Cynometra iripa Kostel. S: Opulu; T: Attukaddupuli, Kadumpuli VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) Cynometra zeylanica Kosterm. NT Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. S: Bol-Mara, Kala, Huri Mara; T: Velaruvai VU Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo Miq. E: Hornet Creeper; S: Bambara-Wel LC 262 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Dendrolobium triangulare (Retz.) Schindl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dendrolobium umbellatum (L.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Derris benthamii (Thw.) Thw. S: Han-Kala-Wel; T: KarapuTekel Derris canarensis (Dalz.) Baker S: Diya-Kala-Wel, Kalu-KalaNT Wel Derris parvilora Benth. S: Kala-Vel, Sudu-Kala-Wel LC Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. S: Ala-Vel, Bo-Kala-Wel, Kala-Wel; T: Kalungu Kodi,Telil, Welan-Tekal LC Derris trifoliata Lour. S: Kala-Wel; T: Tekil,Tilankoddi, Uppu Thailan-Kodi LC Desmodium caudatum (Thunb.) DC. CR(PE) Desmodium ferrugineum Wall. ex Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. S: Et-Undupiyali LC Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. S: Maha-Undupiyaliaya LC Desmodium jucundum Thw. CR(PE) Desmodium laxum DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.) DC. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Desmodium pryonii DC. LC Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. EN Desmodium styracifolium (Osbeck) Merr. DD Desmodium trilorum (L.) DC. S: Heen-Undupiyali B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Desmodium zonatum Miq. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) A1 d Dialium ovoideum Thw. E: Velvel Tamarind; S: GalSiyambala; T: Kaddupuli VU Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Andara; T: Vindattai LC CR(PE) Dioclea javanica Benth. Dolichos trilobus L. S: Wal Dambala 263 NT GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Dumasia villosa DC. var. leiocarpa (Benth.) Baker EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dunbaria ferruginea Wight & Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dunbaria heynei Wight & Arn. CR(PE) Eleiotis monophyllos (Burm.f.) DC. CR Entada pusaetha DC. Common name S : Pus-Wel LC Entada zeylanica Kosterm VU Erythrina fusca Lour. S: Yak-Erabadu NT Erythrina variegata L. E: Coral Tree, Indian Coral Tree,Thorny Dadap; S: Erabadu, Eramudu, Katu-Eramudu,WetaErabodu,Yak-Erabodu; T: Mulu-Murukku, Murukku, Murungu LC CR Flemingia lineata (L.) Roxb. Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. S: Wal-Undu CR(PE) Flemingia strobilifera (L.) Roxb S: Hampilla, Hampinna LC Flemingia wightiana Graham ex Wight & Arn. DD Galactia striata (Jacq.) Urban DD Humboldtia laurifolia (Vahl) Vahl S: Gal-Karanda, RuanKaranda LC Indigofera aspalathoides Vahl ex DC. S: Rat Kohomba; T: Chivanarvempu, Sivanarvum NT Indigofera barberi Gamble DD Indigofera colutea (Burm.f.) Merr. NT Indigofera constricta (Thw.) Trimen CR(PE) Indigofera galegoides DC. S: Veliveriya B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT LC Indigofera glabra L. Indigofera hirsuta L. B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Boo-Awari LC Indigofera karnatakana Sanjappa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 264 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Indigofera linnaei Ali S: Bin-Avari, Binavari; T: Cheppunerenchi LC Indigofera nummulariifolia (L.) Livera ex Alston Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk. LC T: Kuttukarasmatti, Nante Indigofera parvilora Heyne ex Wight & Arn. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) DD Indigofera tinctoria L. E: Indigo; S: Nil-Awari; T: Nilam LC Indigofera trita L. f. S: Wal-Awari LC Indigofera wightii Graham ex Wight & Arn. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Criteria CR(PE) E: Bonavist Bean, Hyacinth Bean, Lablab Bean, Wild Bean; S: Ho-Dhambala, KiriDambala, Kos-Ata-Dambala, LC Ratu-Peti-Dambala, SuduPeti Dambala; T: Minni,Motchai,TattaPayaru Macrotyloma axillare (E. Meyer) Verdc. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Macrotyloma ciliatum (Willd.) Verdc. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Macrotyloma unilorum (Lam.) Verdc. E: Horse Gram, Madras Gram; S: Kollu; T: Kollu VU Mucuna atropurpurea (Roxb.) DC. ex Wight & Arn. S: Buchariwa, Ginipus Eta, Bu-Chariya, Gini-Pus-Wel, Ginipus Wel, Buchariwa, Mudu- Evara; T: Pandatullai, P unnakalichi NT Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. S: Kana-Pus-Waela CR Mucuna monosperma (Roxb.) DC. B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR(PE) Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. E: Cowage, Cowhage, Cowitch; S: Achariya, Achariya-Pala, Wanduru-Me, LC Wel-Damiya; T: ChunaoAvarai, Poonayakali, Punnaikkaali Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chevalier S: Gal-Buruta, Kang-BandiGas, Wal-Buruta, GalBurutu; T: Pilavaiam NT Neonotonia wightii (Graham ex Wight & Arn.) Lackey S: Goradiya EN Neptunia oleracea Lour. S: Diya-Nidikumba LC 265 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Ormocarpum sennoides (Willd.) DC. S: Sudu Avariya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Painteria nitida (Vahl) Kosterm. S: Diya-Mara VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don E: Hamrock Pea EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Pericopsis mooniana (Thw.) Thw. E: Nadun Wood; S: Nadun VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. S: Hampilla NT Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre E: Indian Beech, Mullikulam Tree; S: Gal-Karanda, Karanda, Magul-Karanda; T: Poona, Punka, Punku LC Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Gas Gonika LC Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. S: Gammalu; T: UteraVenkai, Venkai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pycnospora lutescens (Poir.) Schindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchosia acutissima Thw. CR(PE) Rhynchosia aurea (Willd.) DC. CR Rhynchosia cana (Willd.) DC. S: Gas-Kollu B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT Rhynchosia capitata (Roth) DC. DD Rhynchosia densilora (Roth) DC. CR(PE) Rhynchosia hirta (Andr.) Meikle & Verdc. S: Heen-Garadiya CR Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. S: Maha-Wal-Kollu LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchosia nummularia (L.) DC. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchosia rufescens (Willd.) DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchosia suaveolens (L.f.) DC. CR(PE) Rhynchosia velutina Wight & Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchosia viscosa (Roth) DC. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rothia indica (L.) Druce LC Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wild. S: Ashoka, Asoka, DiyaRathambala, Diya-Ratmal; T: Asogam VU Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W.F. Wight LC Sesbania sericea (Willd.) Link CR 266 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Shuteria vestita Wight & Arn. NT Smithia conferta Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Smithia racemosa Heyne ex Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sophora tomentosa L. S; Mudu-Murunga LC Sophora violacea Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Sophora zeylanica Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Strongylodon siderospermus Cordemoy CR(PE) Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston S; Wal-Nanu LC Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) Ohashi S: Baloliya LC Tephrosia maxima (L.) Pers. LC Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) pers. LC Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. S: Pila, Gam-Pila; T: Kavilai, Kawati, Kolinchi LC Tephrosia senticosa (L.) Pers. S:Alu-Pila NT Tephrosia spinosa (L. f.) Pers. T: Mukavaliver CR(PE) Tephrosia tinctoria (L.) Pers. S: Alu-Pila LC Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. S: Bu-Pila LC Teramnus labialis (L. f.) Spreng. S: Wal-Kollu LC Teramnus mollis Benth. S: Wal-Kollu EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Uraria picta (Jacq.) DC. NT Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Vigna aridicola N. Tomooka & Maxted EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Vigna dalzelliana (Kuntz) Verdcourt EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Vigna marina (Burm.) Merr. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vigna radiata var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verdc., NT Vigna stipulacea (Lam.) Kuntze NT Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. S: Bin-Me, Munwenna 267 NT GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Vigna trinervia (Heyne ex Wight & Arnott) Tetaishi EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. NT Zornia gibbosa Span. LC Zornia walkeri Arn. NT Family : Flacourtiaceae Chlorocarpa pentaschista Alston S: Makulla, Gomma, Patma VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Dovyalis hebecarpa (Gardner) Warb. S: Ketambilla; E: Ceylon Gooseberry EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Erythrospermum zeylanicum (Gaertn.) Alston S: Dodan-Wenna LC EN Osmelia gardneri Thw. B2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica L. S: Goyi-Wel LC Family : Gentianaceae Canscora decussata (Roxb.) Roem. & Schult. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Canscora heteroclita (L.) Gilg VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Canscora roxburghii Arn. ex Miq. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Crawfurdia championii (Gardner) Trimen CR(PE) Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal LC Exacum axillare Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Exacum macranthum Arn. ex. Griseb. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii) Exacum pallidum (Trimen) Klack. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Exacum pedunculatum L. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Exacum petiolare Griseb. LC Exacum sessile L. EN Exacum trinervium (Trimen) Cramer NT 268 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Exacum walkeri Arn. Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. S: Etamburu NCS Criteria EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT Gentiana quadrifaria var. zeylanica Blume NT Hoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) Clarke VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Swertia zeylanica (Griseb.) Walker ex Clarke EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Aeschynanthus ceylanica Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Championia reticulata Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chirita angusta (Clarke) Theobald & Grupe VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chirita moonii Gardner EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Chirita walkeri Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chirita zeylanica Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Didymocarpus loccosus Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Didymocarpus humboldtianus Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Didymocarpus zeylanicus R.Br. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Epithema carnosum (G.Don) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchoglossum gardneri Theobald & Grupe EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) Burtt S: Diya Nilla NT Rhynchotechum permolle (Nees) Burtt VU Family : Geraniaceae Geranium nepalense Sweet Family : Gesneriaceae Family : Gisekiaceae S: Atthiripala; T: Manlkirai, Manali LC Scaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl S: Heen-Takkada NT Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. S: Takkada LC Gisekia pharnaceoides L. Family : Goodeniaceae 269 B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Laurembergia coccinea (Blume) Kanitz VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Laurembergia minor (Clarke) Philcox CR(PE) Laurembergia zeylanica (Clarke) Schindler CR Myriophyllum indicum Willd. LC GCS Criteria Family : Haloragaceae B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Family : Hernandiaceae Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. S: Wal-Papol, Diya-labu-gas LC Hernandia nymphaeifolia (Presl) Kubitzki S; Palatu, Paluta VU S: Diya-Hawari LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Hydrocharitaceae Blyxa auberti Rich. Blyxa octandra (Roxb.) Planch. ex Thw. LC Enhalus acoroides (L. f.) Royle NT Halophila beccarii Asch. EN Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld NT LC Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) Hook. f. LC LC LC LC Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle S: Halpenni LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) Najas graminea Del. LC Najas marina L. DD Najas minor All. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Planch. ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. LC Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Asch. NT VU LC LC Family : Hydroleaceae Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl S: Diya-Kirilla NT Family : Hypericaceae Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray NT 270 LC B2ab(iii) c(ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Hypericum mysurense Wight & Arn. E: St.John's Wort EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. S: Bim-Thal, Heen-Bin-Tal; T: LC Wolappanai Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. S: Bu-Bim Thal, Ma-Bim Thal, Maha Bin Thal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Apodytes dimidiata E. Meyer ex Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. NT Pyrenacantha volubilis Hook. VU Family : Icacinaceae B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Juncaceae Juncus effusus L. LC Juncus leschenaultii J.Gay ex Laharpe VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Juncus wallichianus Laharpe VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Lamiaceae Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. ex Benth. S: Gal Kapuru Walliya LC Anisochilus paniculatus Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Anisochilus velutinus Trimen S: Bolila, Bolvila VU Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze S: Yak Wanassa LC Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R. Br. ex Sims T: Pey Maruddi LC Basilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench LC Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr. S: Eela-Gas, Illa; T: KoatKomal LC Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. S: Wal Gurenda, Boerende, Gulinda; T: Sangam, Dangamkuppi, Pinari, Koika LC Clerodendrum infortunatum L. S: Gas Pinna, Pinna, Pinna Kole, Pine-Ette; T: Perugilai, Perumkila, Vata Madakki LC Clerodendrum phlomidis L. S: Gas-Pinna; T: Vata Madakkai, Talu Dala NT 271 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon S: Kan Henda; T: Chiru Dekku, Chiru Tekku, Siri Tekku, Vatamadakki, RataMadakki, Kandu-Parangi LC Clinopodium umbrosum (Bieb.) Koch VU Glossocarya scandens (L.f.) Trimen NT Gmelina arborea Roxb. E: Kashmir Tree, Candahar Tree, Comb Tree, Snapdragon Tree, Malay Beachwood; S: At Demata; T: Gumadi, Kumil, Kainadi, Gumudu-Takku, Umi NT Gmelina asiatica L. E: Asiatic Beechberry; S: Demata, Gatta Demmata; T: Kumil, Kainadi, Gumadi, Nela-Kumi, Nilacumal, NilKumi LC Isodon capillipes (Benth.) H.Hara CR(PE) Isodon coetsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don.) Kudo NT Isodon hians (Benth.) H.W.Li. CR(PE) Isodon nigrescens (Benth.) H.Hara LC Isodon walkeri (Arn.) H. Hara EN Leucas angularis Benth. DD Leucas bilora (Vahl) Benth. S: Geta-Tumba; T: PeytTumpai CR(PE) Leucas longifolia Benth. Leucas marrubioides Desf. LC S: Sudu Tumba Leucas mollissima Wall. ex Benth. LC DD Leucas zeylanica (L.) R. Br. S: Geta Tumba; T: MudiTumpai LC Mentha arvensis L. var. javanica (Blume) Hook. f. S: Odu-Talan DD Ocimum americanum L. E: Heen-Tala; S: Suwandu Tala LC LC Ocimum ilamentosum Forssk. Ocimum gratissimum L. S: Gas-Tala,O-Tala LC Ocimum tenuilorum L. E: Sacred basil, S: MaduruTala LC Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. DD 272 Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Orthosiphon thymilorus (Roth) Sleesen NT Platostoma elongatum (Benth.) A. J. Paton VU Platostoma menthoides (L.) A. J. Paton LC Plectranthus barbatus Andr. S: Wal-Kapuru-Walliya Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT Plectranthus crameri Willemse. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Plectranthus elongatus (Trimen ) Willemse CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Plectranthus gardneri Thw. LC Plectranthus glabratus ( Benth.) Alston CR(PE) Plectranthus inlatus ( Benth.) Willemse LC Plectranthus kanneliyensis (Cramer & Balasubramaniam) Willemse LC Plectranthus malabaricus ( Benth.) Willemse LC Plectranthus subincisus Benth. CR(PE) Plectranthus zatarhendi (Forssk.) E. A. Bruce var. tomentosa (Benth.) Codd S: Iriweriya EN Pogostemon auricularius (L.) Hassk. S: Hemanilla LC Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. S: Gan-kollan-Kola, GasKolan-Kola LC Pogostemon hirsutus Benth. LC Pogostemon lythroides (Diels) Press DD Pogostemon relexus Benth. NT Pogostemon rupestris Benth. NT Pogostemon verticillatus (Benth.) Bhatti & Ingrouille LC Premna alstoni Moldenke S: Mulla, Gal Kera Premna divaricata Wall. LC EN Premna latifolia Roxb. S: Maha Midi; T: Pachumullai LC Premna obtusifolia R.Br E: Headache Tree; S: Middee Gas, Maha Midi; T: Erumaimulla LC 273 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Premna procumbens Moon S: Le-Kola-Pala; T: Mullai, Mulla LC Premna purpurascens Thw. Criteria VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Premna thwaitesii Clarke S: Mulla CR Premna tomentosa Willd. S: Boo-Seru, Noo-Sairou, Boo Sera, Boo-Sairoo-Gas, Bu-Seru; T: Koluk-Kutti, Loluto-Kutti, KollayCottaynellay, Kolkutti LC Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Scutellaria oblonga Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Scutellaria robusta Benth. CR(PE) Scutellaria violacea Heyne ex Benth. LC Symphorema involucratum Roxb. DD Teucrium tomentosum Heyne ex Benth. VU Vitex altissima L.f. S: Kaha-Milla, Mililla-Gas, Millla, Miyan- Milla, SapuMilla ; T: Kaaddmanakku, Kadamanakku, Kadamananakku, Maila, Mayila NT Vitex leucoxylon L.f. S: Nabudda, Nabada, Nebedda ; T: KadduNochchi, Kardu-Nochi, Nir, Kardu-Noch LC Vitex negundo L. S: Nika, Nikka, Nike, Helarika, Nil-Nika, Nirgundi, Sudu Nika; T: Nir-Nichchi, Nochchi, Vallai-Nochchi, Vennochchi LC Vitex trifolia L. E: Beach Vitex, Polinalina, Oval Leaved Chest Tree; S: Nieke, Nikki, Nochchi NT GCS Criteria VUi A1c B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Lauraceae Actinodaphne albifrons Kosterm. VU Actinodaphne ambigua (Meissner) Hook.f. LC Actinodaphne candolleana (Thw.) Meissner NT Actinodaphne elegans Thw. LC 274 B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Actinodaphne glauca Nees var. subtriplinervis (Meissner) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Actinodaphne molochina Nees EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Actinodaphne moonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Actinodaphne speciosa Nees. E: Elephants' Ears EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Actinodaphne stenophylla Thw. S: Nika-Daula VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees S: Wewaranai; T: Yavaranai, Ranai VU A2 (d) Beilschmiedia zeylanica (Thw.) Trimen S: Kanu NT Cassytha capillaries Meissner CR(PE) Cassytha iliformis L. LC GCS Criteria Cinnamomum capparu-coronde Blume E: Camphor Cinnamon; S: Kappuru- Kurundu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c Cinnamomum citriodorum Thw. S: Pengiri- Kurundu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Cinnamomum dubium Nees S: Sewel- Kurundu, WalKurundu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cinnamomum litseaefolium Thw. S: Kudu-Kurundu EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cinnamomum ovalifolium Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cinnamomum rivulorum Kosterm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c Cinnamomum sinharajaense Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume E: Cinnamon; S: Kurundu;T: Kuruva, Kuruwa VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocarya membranacea Thw. S: Gal-Mora,Tawenna VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptocarya wightiana Thw. S: Gal-mora, Golu-mora NT Litsea fosbergii Kosterm. Litsea gardneri (Thw.) Meissner S:Talan Litsea glaberrima (Thw.) Trimen EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT ENi B1+2c VUi A1c VUi A1c ENi B1+2c Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Robinson S: Bombee, Bomee; T: Elumpurukki, Maida-Lakti LC Litsea iteodaphne (Nees) Hook.f. S: Kalu-Nika VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c Litsea ligustrina (Nees) Kosterm. 275 Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Litsea longifolia (Nees) Trimen S:Rat-Keliya LC Criteria Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Litsea nemoralis (Thw.) Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Litsea ovalifolia (Wight) Trimen NT Litsea quinquelora (Dennst.) C.R.Suresh S: Kosbsda, Landittan Litsea walkeri (Meissner) Trimen Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm. E: Wild Cinnamon; S: Dawul-Kurundu EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR(PE) Neolitsea fuscata (Thw.) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Neolitsea lancifolia (Thw.) Kosterm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Ululu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. S: Ela Midella, Era Midella; T: Adampu LC Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz S: Mudilla LC Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. S: Goda-Midella, DiyaMidella, Midella LC A1c ENi B1+2c Family : Lecythidaceae Barringtonia waasii P.Chantaranothai Careya arborea Roxb. LCi DD E: Patana Oak; S: Kahata; T: LC Kachaddai Family : Lentibulariaceae LC LC Utricularia australis R.Br. DD LC Utricularia biida L. NT LC Utricularia aurea Lour. Utricularia caerulea L. S: Diya Pasi S: Nil-Monerassa LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Utricularia gibba L. EN Utricularia graminifolia Vahl NT Utricularia hirta Klein ex Link CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Utricularia minutissima Vahl EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) 276 Criteria VUi LC Neolitsea foliosa (Nees) Gamble Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. GCS LC LC Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Utricularia moniliformis P.Taylor VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Utricularia polygaloides Edgew. LC Utricularia reticulata Sm. S: Nil-Monerassa LC Utricularia scandens Benj. S: Nil Monerassa VU LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Utricularia stellaris L.f. LC Utricularia striatula Sm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Utricularia uliginosa Vahl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Linaceae Hugonia ferruginea Wight & Arn. Hugonia mystax L. S: Bu-Getiya, Maha-Getiya, Watti-Weti; T: Motirakanni LC S: Gas Kotala LC Family: Lindernaceae Artanema longifolium (L.) Vatke Lindernia anagallis (Burm.f.) Pennell LC Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. NT Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston S: Wila LC Lindernia ciliata (Colsmann) Pennel NT Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell. LC Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines LC Lindernia nummularifolia (Don) Wettst. VU Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh LC Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston LC Lindernia srilankana Cramer & Philcox EN Lindernia tenuifolia (Colsmann) Alston NT Lindernia viscosa (Hornem.) Boldingh CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Torenia aerinea Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Torenia cyanea Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) 277 GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Torenia travancorica Gamble S: Kotala NT Criteria Family : Loganiaceae Mitrasacme indica Wight NT Strychnos benthamii C.B.Clarke NT Strychnos coriacea Thw. CR(PE) Strychnos minor Dennst. S: Kaduru, Kaduru KetiyaWel; T: Kachchalkodi LC Strychnos nux-vomica L. E: Nux-Vomica; S: Godakaduru; T: Eddi, Kanchurai VU A2 (d) Strychnos potatorum L. f. S: Ingini; T: Tetta VU A2 (d) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) A2 (d) Strychnos tetragona A.W. Hill Strychnos trichocalyx A.W. Hill S: Thelatiya, Gona-Karaba, Kaduru VU Strychnos wallichiana Steud. ex DC. S: Wel-Beli, Eta-Kirindi-Wel NT Family : Loranthaceae Barathranthus mabaeoides (Trimen) Danser EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Barathranthus nodilorus (Thw.) Tieghem EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ethingsh. LC Dendrophthoe ligulata (Thw.) Tieghem VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dendrophthoe lonchiphyllus (Thw.) Denser. CR A2c Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis (Wight & Arn.) Tieghem LC Dendrophthoe suborbicularis (Thw.) Denser VU Helixanthera ensifolia (Thw.) Danser CR(PE) Helixanthera hookeriana (Wight & Arn.) Danser NT Macrosolen albicaulis Wiens VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Macrosolen barlowii Wiens EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Macrosolen capitellatus (Wight & Arn.) Danser NT Macrosolen parasiticus (L.) Danser VU Scurrula cordifolia (Wall.) G.Don NT 278 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Scurrula parasitica L. LC Taxillus courtallensis (Gamble) Danser VU Taxillus cuneatus (Roth) Danser LC Taxillus incanus (Trimen) Wiens NT Taxillus sclerophyllus (Thw.) Danser VU Taxillus tomentosus (Roth) Tieghem LC Tolypanthus gardneri (Thw.) Tieghem VU Criteria GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Lythraceae Ammannia baccifera L. LC LC Ammannia octandra L. f. LC LC Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. E: Pride of India, Queen's lower; S: Murutu, Muruthagaha; T: Kadali, Pu-Maruthu NT Lawsonia inermis L. E: Camphire,Henna,TreeMignonette; S: Marutondi; T: Marathondi, Marutonti, LC Nesaea brevipes Koehne NT Nesaea lanceolata (Heyne ex Clarke) Koehne EN LC B2ad(I,ii,iii) NT LC Rotala densilora (Roth ex. Roem. & Schult.) Koehne LC LC Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne DD LC Rotala rosea (Poir.) Cook LC LC Rotala verticillaris L. NT LC Sonneratia alba J. Sm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pemphis acidula J.R. & G.Forst T: Kiri-Maram Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. S: Kirilla LC Trapa bispinosa Roxb. E: Water Chestnut; S: Ikiliya NT Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz S: Malitta VU Family : Magnoliaceae 279 A2 d, B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCi Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Michelia nilagirica Zenker S: Wal-Sapu VU B1ad(I,ii,iii) S: Puwak-Gediya-Wel LC GCS Criteria A1c Family : Malpighiaceae Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz Hiptage parvifolia Wight & Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Malvaceae Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. S: Kapu-Kinissa Abelmoschus iculneus (L.) Wight & Arn. ex Wight Abelmoschus moschatus Medikus S: Kapu Kinissa; T: Katukkasturi NT EN Abutilon crispum (L.) Medikus Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet T: Vaddattutti LC Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet S: Wal Anoda, Panagedi, Anoda; T: Peruntulli, Peruntutti, Vaddattutti LC Abutilon pannosum (Forster f.) Schldl. LC Abutilon subumbellatum Philcox EN Berrya cordifolia (Willd.) Burret E: Trincomalee Wood; S: Hal-Milla; T: Chavandalai LC Bombax ceiba L. E: Cotton Tree; S: Katu Imbul; T: Parutti, KadduOlaga, Illavu LC Ceiba pentandra var pentandra (L.) Gaertn. E: Kapok Tree; S: PulunImbul, Imbul LC Corchorus fascicularis Lam. Corchorus olitorius L. E: Jute B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Corchorus trilocularis L. CR(PE) Corchorus urticifolius Wight & Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cullenia ceylanica (Gardner) K. Schum. S: Katu-Boda, Kata-Boda LC VUi Cullenia rosayroana Kosterm. S: Katu-Boda, Kata-Boda; T: Mullu-Pilaka LC LCi CR Dicellostyles axillaris (Thw.) Benth. Diplodiscus verrucosus (Thw.) Kosterm. S: Dik Andhe, Dik Wenna; T: Vid Pani, Yakada Maram 280 LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR D Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Eriolaena hookeriana Wight & Arn. Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br. E: Bonire tree; S:Bataliya, Pataliya-Gas; T: Malaiparutti, Mulaipurathi NCS Criteria CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT Grewia bracteata Heyne ex Roth VU Grewia carpinifolia Juss. LC Grewia damine Gaertn. S: Daminiya; T: Cadachi, Chadachchi LC Grewia helicterifolia Wall. ex G.Don S: Bora Daminiya, BoruDaminiya; T: Taviddai LC CR(PE) Grewia hirsuta Vahl Grewia orientalis L. S: Wel Keliya, Wel-Mediya; T: Kodi Taviddai,Taviddai Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori T: Achu, Katu Peratti, Achchu NT Helicteres isora L. E: Screw tree; S: Lihiniya, Liniya; T: Kawa,Vallampanai, Vallampuri, Vellampidi NT Heritiera littoralis Dryander E: Boat-Shaped Mangrove; S: Attona, Etuna, Homediriya; T: Chonmuntiri NT Hibiscus eriocarpus DC. S: Kapu-Kinissa; T:paritti LC Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. S: Na Pirittha LC LC Hibiscus lobatus (Murray) Kuntze LC Hibiscus lunariifolius Willd. VU Hibiscus micranthus L. f. B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Bebila; T:Perumaddi B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC CR(PE) Hibiscus panduriformis Burm. f. Hibiscus surattensis L. S: Hin-Napiritta LC Hibiscus tiliaceus L. S: Beli-Patta; T: Aritia, NirParatthi LC Hibiscus vitifolius L. S: Maha-Epala; T:Vaddattutti LC Julostylis angustifolia (Arn.) Thw. S: Kirella EN LC Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Melochia corchorifolia L. S: Gal Kura, Maha-Galkura LC Microcos paniculata L. S: Keliya, Kohu-Kirilla; T: Kapila LC 281 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Pavonia fryxelliana Fosberg & Sachet EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pavonia odorata Willd. LC Pavonia procumbens (Wight & Arn.) Walp. EN Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav. NT Pentapetes phoenicea L. S: Bandu-Wada LC Pterospermum suberifolium (L.) Willd. S: Welang LC Pterygota thwaitesii (Masters) Alston S: Etaritiva, Galnawa VU Sida acuta Burm. f. S: Gas-Bebila LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Sida alnifolia L. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borssum Waalkes S: Bevila; T: Palampadu, Palampasi LC Sida cordifolia L. S: Wal-Bevila ,Heen Anoda; T: Cheevakanpudu LC Sida mysorensis Wight & Arn. S: Giriwadi-Bevila, SiriwediBevila LC Sida rhombifolia L. S: Kotikan-Bevila, Bebila; T: Chittamaddi LC LC Sida spinosa L. Sterculia balanghas L. S: Nawa LC Sterculia foetida L. S: Telambu,Telembu; T: Kadutenga, Kaduteynga, Pinari LC Sterculia urens Roxb. S: Dadiya, Kawali, Alaheraliya NT Sterculia zeylanica Kosterm. S: Kavali, Kavili,Tondi EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibson S: Wal-Kapu EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa S: Suriya, Gan Suriya,Tulip tree; T: Kavarachu, Puvarachu LC Triumfetta glabra Rottler Triumfetta pentandra A.Rich. VU S: Epala, Kapu Kinissa LC Triumfetta pilosa Roth Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. LC S: Epala LC 282 B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Urena lobata L. S: Patta-Epala, Epala LC Urena sinuata L. S: Patta-Epala, Heen- Epala LC LC Waltheria indica L. Wissadula periplocifolia (L.) Presl ex Thw. Criteria S: Kiri-kaju NT Phrynium rheedii Suresh & Nicolson S: Et-Bemi-Kiriya EN Schumannianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Rolfe S: Geta-Oluwa CR(PE) Stachyphrynium zeylanicum (Benth.) K.Schum. S: Hulan-Kiriya CR(PE) Family : Marantaceae B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Melastomataceae Kendrickia walkeri (Wight ex Gardner) Triana VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lijndenia gardneri (Thw.) Bremer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Medinilla cuneata (Thw.) Bremer & Lundin EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Medinilla fuchsioides Gardner EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Medinilla maculata Gardner EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Lijndenia capitellata (Arn.) Bremer S:Pini-Baru Melastoma malabathricum L. S: Bovitiya, Katakaloowa, Maha-Bovitiya LC Memecylon angustifolium Wight E: Blue Mist; S: Kora Kaha EN Memecylon capitellatum L. S: Dedi-Kaha, Dodan- Kaha, Wel-Kaha, Weli- Kaha; T: Katti-Kaya, Pavaddai-Kaya, Venkali-Kaya LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon clarkeanum Cong. NT Memecylon cuneatum Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon discolor Cogn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon ellipticum Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon fuscescens Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon giganteum Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon gracillimum Alston CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 283 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Memecylon grande Retz. S:Dedi-kaha, Dodan-Wenna EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon hookeri Thw. S: Kevitiya-Kera VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon macrophyllum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon orbiculare Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon ovoideum Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon parvifolium Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon petiolatum Trimen ex Alston NT Memecylon phyllanthifolium Thw. ex Alston CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon procerum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon revolutum Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon rhinophyllum Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon rivulare Bremer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon leucanthemum Thw. Memecylon macrocarpum Thw. Memecylon rostratum Thw. S; Mahakuratiya S: Hen-Kuetiya, Kin-Kuritiya, Kuritiya Memecylon rotundatum (Thw.) Cogn. Memecylon royenii Blume NT EN S: Dedi-Kaha, Weli-Kaha; T: Kashamaram LC Memecylon sessile Benth. CR Memecylon sylvaticum Thw. NT Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. E: Blue Mist; S: KoraKaha; T: Kaya, KurreKaya,Pandikaya B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Memecylon urceolatum Cogn. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon varians Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Memecylon wightii Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Osbeckia aspera (L.) Blume S: Bowitiya NT Osbeckia buxifolia Arn. EN 284 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Osbeckia lanata Alston. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Osbeckia moonii Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Osbeckia octandra (L.) DC. S: Bowitiya, Heen Bowitiya LC Osbeckia parvifolia Arn. S: Bowitiya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Osbeckia rheedii Gardner ex Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Osbeckia rubicunda Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Osbeckia walkeri Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Osbeckia zeylanica L. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila afinis Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila arnottiana Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila cordifolia Cogn. CR(PE) Sonerila crassicaulis Lundin EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila irma (Thw. ex Clarke in Hook.f.) Lundin CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila gardneri Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila glaberrima Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila glabricaulis (Thw. ex Clarke in Hook.f.) Lundin EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila guneratnei Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila harveyi Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila hirsutula Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila hookeriana Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila lanceolata Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila pedunculosa Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila pilosula Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila pumila Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila rhombifolia Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila robusta Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 285 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Criteria Sonerila silvatica Lundin EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila tomentella Thw. CR(PE) Sonerila wightiana Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) Sonerila zeylanica Wight & Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC VUi A1c LCi Family : Meliaceae Aglaia apiocarpa (Thw.) Hiern. Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A.Juss.) Benth. T: Kannakampu LC Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R. Parker S: Ela-Hirilla, Hingul VU Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss. E: Chittagong Wood; S: Hiri-Kita, Hulan-Hik; T: Aglai, Kaloti NT Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. S: Hal-Bebiya; T: PulippanCheddi LC Dysoxylum championii Hook. f. & Thoms. ex Thw. S: Gona-Pana VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dysoxylum excelsum Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dysoxylum iciforme (Wight) Gamble NT Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Theob. S: Bin-Kohomba EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCi Walsura trifoliolata (A.Juss.) Harms S: Kirikon, Mal-Petta; T: Chadavakku, Chokala, Kanjimaran, Malaivirali LC Xylocarpus granatum Koenig S: Mutti-Kadol; T: Kandal Anga, Kontalai, Somuntheri EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb. S: Mudu-Delun CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Titta-Wel LC Cissampelos pareira L. S: Diya-Mitta; T: Appatta, LC Cocculus hirsutus L. (Theob.) T: Kattukkodi, Sirunkattukodi EN Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. E: False Calumba; S: Veni-Val-Gata, Weni-Wel, Bang-Wela LC Cyclea peltata (Burm.f.) Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Kehi-Pittan, Kessi-Pissan; T: Vouthuvullykodi LC Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels T: Kottaiyachachi EN Family : Menispermaceae 286 VUi B1+2c CRi B1+2c A2 d, B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR Walsura gardneri Thw. LCi B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Hypserpa nitida Miers S: Niri-Wel. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Pachygone ovata (Poir.) Hook.f. & Thoms. Stephania japonica (Thumb.) Miers S: Lunu-Ketiya-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.) Miers T: Manchone, Kocha-Kodi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Rasakinda; T: Chintil VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Titta-Kinda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. S: Bu-Kinda, Wal-Kinda, Rasa-Kinda DD Family : Menyanthaceae Nympoides aurantiacea (Dalz.) Kuntze EN Nympoides hydrophylla (Lour.) Kuntze S: Heen-Ambala, Heen-Olu LC Nympoides indica (L.) Kuntze S: Maha-Ambala, Olu LC Nympoides parvilora (Griseb.) Kuntze S: Bin Olu EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Molluginaceae LC Glinus lotoides L. Glinus oppositifolia (L.) A. DC. S: Heen-Ala; T: Kachchantirai LC Mollugo cerviana (L.) Seringe S: Udetta; T: Kachchantirai, Pat-padakam LC Mollugo disticha (L.) Seringe S: Manal-Thishni LC Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. VU Mollugo pentaphylla L. LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Monimiaceae Hortonia angustifolia (Thw.) Trimen Hortonia loribunda Wight ex Arn. S: Wawiya Hortonia ovalifolia Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. var. toxicaria E: Upas Tree; S: Riti; T: Netavili NT Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. ex Trecul subsp. zeylanicus Jarrett S: Kana-Gona; T: Monkey Ja, Arsini-Pala NT 287 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Artocarpus nobilis Thw. S: Bedi-Del, Del, HingalaDel, T: Arsini-pla LC Broussonetia zeylanica (Thw.) Corner S: Alandu VU Dorstenia indica Wight S: Ela-Nuga; T: Kalatti LC Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. E: Banyan; S: Kaudu-Bo, Patana-Bo LC Ficus benghalensis L. E: Krishna Bo, Krishna'S Cup; S: Maha-Nuga; T: Al, Arla LC Ficus callosa Willd. S: Wal-Gona LC Ficus caulocarpa Miq. LC Ficus costata Ait. NT Ficus diversiformis Miq. LC Ficus drupacea Thunb. var. pubescens (Roth) Corner S: Bu-Nuga LC Ficus exasperata Vahl E: Furniture Leaf; S: BuThediya, Sewan-Mediya LC Ficus fergusoni (King) Worthington S: Kos-Gona, Nuga; T: Al, Arla LC Ficus heterophylla L.f. S: Wal-Ehetu VU Ficus hispida L.f. S: Kota-Dimbula LC Ficus laevis Blume LC Ficus microcarpa L.f. LC Ficus mollis Vahl S: Wal-Aralu LC Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth S: Kalu-Maduwa LC EN Ficus pubilimba Merr. S: Attikka; T: Atti Ficus talboti King Ficus tinctoria Forst.f. subsp. parasitica (Willd.) Corner S: Gas-Anguna, Gas-Netul, Wal-Ehetu Ficus virens Ait. LC LC 288 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU S: Kiri-Pela, Kiripella B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU Ficus trimenii King Ficus tsjahela Brum.f. B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT Ficus amplissima Smith Ficus racemosa L. Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner NCS Criteria EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Plecospermum spinosum Trecul S: Katu-Timbol Streblus asper Lour. E: Crooked Rough-Bush; S: LC Geta-Netul; T: Papirai, Pirasu Streblus taxoides (Heyne) Kurz S: Gon-Gotu; E: Fig-Lime Streblus zeylanicus (Thw.) Kurz GCS Criteria LC VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Musaceae Musa acuminata L.A. Colla S: Gal Kehel, Unel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Musa balbisiana L.A. Colla S: Eti Kehel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Horsieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb. S: Iriya LC Horsieldia iryaghedhi (Gaertn.) Warb. S: Ruk, Malabodde, Malaboda, Ruk-Gedhi,Talan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c Myristica ceylanica A. DC. S: Maloboda, Malabodde VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. S: Malaboda, Perimavara; T: Palmanikam LC S: Bata Damba, Kobo Mal, Diya-Damba LC Family : Myristicaceae LCi LCi Family : Myrtaceae Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & Perry B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c+2c CR(PE) VUi A1c, B1+2c Eugenia glabra Alston CR(PE) ENi B1+2c Eugenia haeckeliana Trimen CR(PE) Eugenia haputalense Kosterm. DD Eugenia hypoleuca Thw. ex Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Eugenia insignis Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1+2c Eugenia mabaeoides Wight LC Eugenia madugodaense Kosterm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eugenia pedunculata Trimen CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eugenia amoena Thw. EN Eugenia loccifera Thw. CR(PE) Eugenia fulva Thw. 289 Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Eugenia phillyraeoides Trimen CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eugenia pseudomabaeoides Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eugenia rheophytica Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eugenia rivulorum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Eugenia rotundata Trimen NT Eugenia rufo-fulva Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Eugenia sripadaense Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Eugenia terpnophylla Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Eugenia thwaitesii Duthie LC Eugenia willdenowii DC. LC Eugenia xanthocarpa Thw. CR ENi B1+2c B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CRi B1+2c B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk. E: Wild Guava NT Syzygium alubo Kosterm. S: Alu-Bo NT Syzygium amphoraecarpus Kostermans S: Wal-Jambu NT Syzygium assimile Thw. LC S: Damba Syzygium batadamba Kosterm. Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston VU S: Heen-Dan, Rin-Dan, Dan Syzygium cordifolium (Wight) Walp. Syzygium cumini Skeels S: Madan, Maha Dan; T: Naval, Perunaval EN Syzygium cylindricum (Wight) Alston LC Syzygium fergusonii (Trimen) Gamble VU S: Wal Jambu A1c A1c, B1+2c B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC VUi Syzygium gardneri Thw. LC Syzygium hemisphericum (Walp.) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Syzygium kanneliyensis Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 290 Criteria LC Syzygium cyclophyllum (Thw. ex Duthie) Alston Syzygium irmum Thw. VUi VUi LC VU GCS A1c Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Syzygium lewisii Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Syzygium lissophyllum Thw. NT Syzygium micranthum Thw. LC Syzygium montis-adam Kosterm CR Syzygium neesianum Thw. Common name S: Panu Kera GCS Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC VUi A1c VUi B1+2c VUi A1c, B1+2c Syzygium oliganthum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Syzygium potamicum Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Syzygium revolutum Walp. LC Syzygium rotundifolium Arn. LC Syzygium sclerophyllum Thw. VU Syzygium spathulatum Thw. LC Syzygium spissum Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c Syzygium turbinatum Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Syzygium umbrosum Thw. S: Heen Damba, ValiDamba; T: Naval Syzygium wightianum Wall. ex W. & Arn. LC Syzygium zeylanicum ( L. ) DC. LC Syzygium zeylanicum var. lineare DC. VU Syzygium zeylanicum var. zeylanicum DC. S: Yakul Maran LC E: Lotus, Sacred Beam; S: Nelum; T:Tamarai LC E: Pitcher Plant; S: Bandura Wel VU S: Pita-Sudu-Pala, Pita Sudda; T: Karichcharanai, Mukkaraichchi LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Family : Nepenthaceae Nepenthes distillatoria L. Family : Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L. LC Boerhavia erecta L. Pisonia aculeata L. E: Lettuse Tree, Moluccan Cabbage; S: Vavul-Lairitiya 291 NT B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2d Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Pisonia grandis R.Br. E: Lettuce Tree, Moluccan cabbage; S: Lechchakotta, Wathabanga; T: Chandi, Lechchai Kedda, LC Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. E: Water Lily; S: Manel VU Nymphaea pubescens Willd. E: Egyptian Lotus, Water Lilly; S: Et-Olu, Olu LC Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.) Kanis S: Bo-Kera, Kera, Go-kera; T:Katharai, Ramanchi LC Ochna Jabotapita L. S: Bo-Kera, Mal-Kera; T:Chilanti LC Ochna lanceolata Spreng. S: Gal Kena, Bo-Kera, GeKaral, Mal-kera; T: Katharai, Katkarai LC Ochna obtusata DC. S: Mal-kera; T: Chilanti, Sellindi LC Olax imbricata Roxb. S: Telatiya NT Olax scandens Roxb. T: Kadalranchi LC Olax zeylanica L. S: Malla, Maila, Mella LC Strombosia ceylanica Gardner S: Pub-Beriya, Pathu-Bari VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria GCS A2ae LC Family : Nymphaeaceae LC Family : Ochnaceae Family : Olacaceae Strombosia nana Kosterm. E: Hog-Plum, Monkey Plum,Tallow Nut; T: ChiruIllantai DD Chionanthus albidilora Thw. S: Embul-Korakaha, GalMetta,Taccada-Gas VU Chionanthus zeylanica L. S: Dambu, Geratiya, Geriata; LC T: Kattimuruchan Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. E: Wild Jasmine; S: WeKanda, Wal-Pichcha, WalSaman Pichcha Ximenia americana L. Family : Oleaceae LC Jasminum auriculatum Vahl LC Jasminum bignoniaceum Wall. ex G.Don EN Jasminum lexile Vahl LC 292 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Jasminum rottlerianum Wall. ex DC. Ligustrum robustum (Roxb.) Blume NCS Criteria VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS LC S: Bora Olea paniculata R.Br. CR(PE) Olea polygama Wight LC Family : Onagraceae Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara S: Beru-Diyanilla, Beru-DiyaLC Milla Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell LC Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven LC Ludwigia perennis L. S: Piduruwella Ludwigia prostrata Roxb. LC LC LC DD Family : Opiliaceae Cansjera rheedii J.Gmelin S: Eta-Mura LC LC Opilia amentacea Roxb. Family : Orchidaceae Acampe ochracea (Lindley) Hochr. VU Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatter & Mc Cann LC Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham.ex J.E. Smith) P.F. Hunt VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Acanthephippium bicolor Lindley EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Adrorhizon purpurascens (Thw.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Aerangis hologlottis (Schltr.) Schltr. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Aerides ringens (Lindley) C.E.C Fischer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Agrostophyllum zeylanicum Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Angraecum zeylanicum Lindl. NT Anoectochilus elatus Lindl. DD Anoectochilus regalis Blume S.Wana-Raja 293 EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) A2cd; B2ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Aphyllorchis montana Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Apostasia wallichii R.Br. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundina minor Lindl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Bromheadia srilankensis Kruizinga & de Vogel. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum crassifolium Thw. ex Trimen. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum elegans Gardner ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum elliae Reichb.f. NT Bulbophyllum jayaweerae Fernando et Ormerod DD Bulbophyllum macraei Reichb. f. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum maskeliyense Livera EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum petiolare Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum purpureum Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum thwaitesii Reichb.f. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum tricarinatum Petch CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum trimenii (Hook.f.) J. J. Sm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Bulbophyllum wightii Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Calanthe triplicata (Willemet) Ames NT Cheirostylis labellata Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Cheirostylis parvifolia Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chiloschista fasciata (F.v. Mull.) Seidenf. & Ormerod. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chrysoglossum ornatum Blume. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay. NT Coelogyne breviscapa Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Coelogyne odoratissima Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Coelogyne zeylanica Hook.f. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 294 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Conchidium articulatum (Lindl.) Rauschert CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger NT Conchidium muscicola (Lindl.) Rauschert LC Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume CR Cottonia peduncularis (Lindl.) Rchb.f. NT Crepidium purpureum (Lindl.)Szlach. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Cryptostylis arachnites (Blume) Hassk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. LC Cymbidium bicolor Lindley LC Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw. VU Cyrtosia javanica Blume CR(PE) Dendrobium maccarthiae Thw. Common name S: Wesak-Mal EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dendrobium panduratum Lindley NT Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C. Fisher. LC Dendrobium diodon Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dendrobium heterocarpum Wall. ex Lindley E: Primrose Orchid Dendrobium nutantilorum A.D. Hawkes & A.H. Heller. NT Dendrobium salaccense (Blume) Lindley EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Didymoplexis pallens Griff. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Didymoplexis seidenfadenii Sathish & Ormerod. DD Dienia ophrydis (J.Konig) Ormerod & Seidenf. EN Diplocentrum recurvum Lindl. DD Diploprora championi Hook.f. NT Disperis neilgherrensis Wight. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Epipogium roseum (D.Don) Lindl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eria bicolor Lindl. NT 295 B2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Eria lindleyi Thw. NT Eria thwaitesii Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eria tricolor Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Erythrodes latiloba Ormerod VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Eulophia epidendraea (J. Köenig ex Retz.) C. E. C. Fischer LC Eulophia graminea Lindl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eulophia pulchra (Thouars) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Eulophia zollingeri (Rchb.f.) J.J.Sm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Flickingeria macraei (Lindl.) Seidenf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Gastrochilus acaulis (Lindl.) Kuntze NT Gastrodia zeylanica Schltr. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Geodorum densilorum (Lam.) Schltr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston DD Goodyera fumata Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Goodyera procera (Ker-Gawl.) Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Goodyera stelidifera Ormerod. DD Habenaria acuminata (Thw.) Trimen. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Habenaria barbata Wight ex Hook.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Habenaria crinifera Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Habenaria dichopetala Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Habenaria dolichostachya Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Habenaria macrostachya Lindl. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii) Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. E: Pigeon Orchid NT Habenaria pterocarpa Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Habenaria rhynchocarpa (Thw.) Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 296 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Habenaria roxburghii Nicolson. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Habenaria viridilora (Sw.) Spreng. NT Hetaeria oblongifolia Blume. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN A2d; B2ab(i,ii,iii) Liparis caespitosa (Lam.) Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Liparis atropurpurea Lindley EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Liparis barbata Lindley CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Liparis brachyglottis Reichb.f. ex Trimen. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Liparis cespitosa (Lam.) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Liparis elliptica Wight DD Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindley VU Liparis thwaitesii Hook.f. DD Liparis viridilora Lindley NT Liparis walkeriae R. Graham. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Liparis wightiana Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Luisia birchea Blume Rumhia. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Luisia zeylanica Lindl. LC Malaxis densilora (A.Rich.) Kuntze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Malaxis discolor (Lindley) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Malaxis thwaitesii Bennet. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Malaxis versicolor (Lindley) Abeywick. LC Nervilia juliana (Roxb.) Schlechter DD Oberonia claviloba Jayaweera EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia dolabrata Jayaweera CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia forcipata Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia fornicata Jayaweera CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ipsea speciosa Lindley Common name E: Daffodil Orchid 297 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Oberonia longibracteata Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia quadrilatera Jayaweera EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia recurva Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia scyllae Lindley EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia tenuis Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia thwaitesii Hook.f. NT Oberonia truncata Lindley EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia wallie-silvae Jayaweera CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia weragamaensis Jayaweera EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Oberonia wightiana Lindley NT Oberonia zeylanica Hook.f. NT Octarrhena parvula Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Papilionanthe cylindrica (Lindl.) Seidenf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Peristylus aristatus Lindley EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Peristylus brevilobus Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Peristylus cubitalis (L.) Kraenzlin VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Peristylus densus (Lindl.) DD Peristylus gardneri (Hook.f.) Kraenzlin EN Peristylus plantagineus (Lindley) Lindley CR(PE) Peristylus spiralis A. Rich. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Peristylus trimenii (Hook.f.) Abeywick. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Phaius luridus Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Phaius wallichii Lindl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Phalaenopsis deliciosa Rchb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phalaenopsis mysorensis C.J Sadanha. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pholidota imbricata Lindl. Common name S: Nari Ala LC 298 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Phreatia elegans Lindley CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Phreatia jayaweerae Ormerod. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Podochilus saxatile Lindley NT Podochilus falcatum Lindley VU Podochilus malabaricum Wight. NT Polystachya concreta (Jacq.) Garay & Sweet LC Pomatocalpa maculosum (Lindley) J. J. Sm. NT Pomatocalpa spicatum Breda VU Pteroceras viridilorum (Thw.) Holttum CR(PE) Rhynchostylis retusa Blume Common name E: Batticaloa Orchid, Fox-Tail EN Orchid B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) Robiquetia virescens (Gard. ex Lindley) Jayaweera NT Robiquetia brevifolia (Lindley) Garay VU B1ab(I,ii,iii) Robiquetia gracilis (Lindley) Garay EN B2ab(I,ii,iii) Robiquetia rosea (Lindley) Garay VU B1ab(I,ii,iii) Satyrium nepalense D.Don E: Hyacinth Orchid NT Schoenorchis nivea (Lindley) Schltr. NT Schoenorchis tortifolia (Jayaweera) Garay. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Seidenfadeniella iliformis (Rechb. f.) E.A. Christenson & Ormerod EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sirhookera latifolia (Wight) Kuntze CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Sirhookera lanceolata (Wight) Kuntze NT Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames. NT Stichorkis disticha (Thouars) Pitzer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Taeniophyllum alwisii Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Taeniophyllum gilimalense Jayaweera EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Tainia bicornis (Lindley) Reichb. f. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Taprobanea spathulata (L.) Christenson. VU A2d 299 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Thrixspermum pugionifolium (Hook.f.) Schlechter VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Thrixspermum pulchellum (Thw.) Schlechter LC Thrixspermum walkeri Seidenf. & Ormerod. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Trichoglottis tenera (Lindley) Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Tropidia bambusifolia (Thw.) Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Tropidia thwaitesii Hook. f. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Lodd. ex G. Don VU A2d Vanda testacea (Lindley) Reichb. f. LC Vanda thwaitesii Hook. f. CR(PE) Vanda wightii Rchb.f. DD Vanilla moonii Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Vanilla walkerae Wight VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Vanilla wightii Lindl. ex White DD Zeuxine blatteri C.E.C. Fischer. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Zeuxine longilabris (Lindley) Trimen CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Zeuxine reginasilvae Ormerod. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schlecht. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Zeuxine regia (Lindley) Trimen Common name S: Iru Raja GCS LC Family : Orobanchaceae Aeginetia indica L. S: Kolikarmal CR(PE) Aeginetia pedunculata Wall. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Campbellia cytinoides (Reuter) Wight CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Centranthera indica (L.) Gamble S: Dutu-Satutu LC Centranthera tranquebarica (Spreng.) Merr. NT Christisonia albida Thw. ex. Benth. CR(PE) Christisonia bicolor Gardner VU 300 LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Christisonia lawii Wight EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Christisonia subacaulis (Benth.) Gardner EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Christisonia thwaitesii Trimen EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Christisonia tricolor Gardner EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Legocia aurantiaca (Wight) Livera CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pedicularis zeylanica Benth. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sopubia delphinifolia (L.) G. Don LC Sopubia triida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don EN Striga angustifolia (Don) Saldanha NT Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke VU Striga lutea Lour. NT B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Oxalidaceae Biophytum intermedium Wight EN Biophytum nervifolium Thw. NT Biophytum nudum (Arn.) Wight VU Biophytum proliferum (Arn.) Wight LC Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch S: Gas-Nidikumba; S: BinNelli LC S: Kolla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Pandanaceae Freycinetia pycnophylla Solms Freycinetia walkeri Solms Pandanus ceylanicus Solms B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT S: Watta-Keyiya, DunuKeyya, O-Keyiya Pandanus furcatus Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pandanus kaida Kurz. S: Watta-Keyiya, Arulu, Watta-Keyiya-Aralu, WetaKeyiya LC Pandanus odoratissimus L. f. E: Screw-pine; S: WettaKeyiya; T:Talai LC Pandanus thwaitesii Martelli S: Duna-Keyiya, DunuKeyiya NT Family: Papaveraceae 301 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Dicentra scandens (D.Don) Walp NCS Criteria GCS Criteria VUi A1c DD Family : Passiloraceae Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) de Wilde LC S: Hondala Adenia wightiana (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Engl. VU A2 d Family : Pedaliaceae Pedalium murex L. S: Eth-Nerenchi; T: Anai-nerinchi, Periru-Ar Nerenchi, Peru-Nerinchi LC Sesamum prostratum Retz. CR Sesamum radiatum Schum LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Pentaphylaceae Adinandra lasiopetala (Wight) Choisy S: Ratu -Mihiriya EN Eurya acuminata DC. E: Wild Tea; S: Wana-Halu NT B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eurya ceylanica Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eurya chinensis R. Br. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Eurya nitida Korth EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ternstroemia emarginata (Gardner) Choisy S: Rathatiya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ternstroemia gymnanthera (White & Arn.) Beddome S: Rattota, Rattiya, PenaMihiriya, Mihiriya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Phrymaceae Peplidium maritimum (L. f.) Asch. Family : Phyllanthaceae Actephila excelsa (Dalz.) Muell. Arg. S: Et-Pitawakka LC Antidesma alexiteria L. S: Heen-Embiliya LC Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. S: Karawala- Kebella LC Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. S: Bu-Embilla LC Antidesma pyrifolium Muell. Arg. LC Antidesma thwaitesianum Mulell. Arg. S: Karawala- Kebella VU Antidesma walkeri (Tul.) Pax & Hoffm. S: Thimbiliya LC 302 B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Criteria GCS Criteria VUi A1c VUi A1c VUi A1c VUi A1c CRi B1+2c LC Aporusa acuminata Thw. Aporusa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. NCS S: Mapat-Kabella, Kampotta, LC Pepiliya Aporusa fusiformis Thw. VU Aporusa lanceolata (Tul.) Thw. S: Heen Kebella, VeliMediya LC Aporusa lindleyana (Wight) Baill. S: Barawa-Embilla, Kebella LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Bischoia javanica Blume. Blachia umbellata (Willd.) Baill. S: Goda-Ratmale, Kosatta LC Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston S: Wa, Wal-Murunga LC Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C. Fischer S: Gas-Kayila; T: Mmanipunati LC Bridelia moonii Thw. S: Patkela LC Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss. S: Ketakala; T: Mul-Venkai LC Bridelia stipularis (L.) Blume CR(PE) Cleistanthus acuminatus (Thw.) Muell. Arg. EN Cleistanthus ferrugineus (Thw.) Muell. Arg. LC Cleistanthus pallidus (Thw.) Muell. Arg. T: Visa LC Cleistanthus patulus (Roxb.) Muell. Arg. S: Wa LC Cleistanthus robustus Muell. Arg. S: Pala VU Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. S: Heen-Katu-Pila; T: Mudpulanthi LC Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt DD Glochidion acutifolium Alston NT Glochidion coriaceum Thw. LC Glochidion gardneri Thw. DD Glochidion montanum Thw. LC Glochidion mooni Thw. LC Glochidion nemorale Thw. LC Glochidion pachycarpum Alston LC 303 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Glochidion pycnocarpum (Muell.Arg.) Beddome S: Hunu Kirilla LC Glochidion stellatum (Retz.) Beddome S: Kirilla LC Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A.Juss. S: Hunu Kirilla LC Margaritaria cyanospermus (Gaertn.) Airy Shaw S: Karawu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Margaritaria indicus (Dalz.) Airy Shaw VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Meineckia parvifolia (Wight) G.L. Webster NT Criteria Phyllanthus amarus Schum. S: Pita-Wakka; T: Kilkaunelli LC Phyllanthus baillonianus Mulell. Arg. S: Kela-Karapincha VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phyllanthus cinereus Mulell. Arg. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phyllanthus dealbatus Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. S: Bim-Nelli, Pitawakka; T: Kulhainelli LC Phyllanthus emblica L. S: Nelli; T: Topu-Nelli VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phyllanthus gardnerianus (Wight) Baillon NT Phyllanthus hakgalensis Thw. ex Trimen CR(PE) Phyllanthus heyneanus Muell.Arg. CR Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. LC Phyllanthus myrtifolius (Wight) Muell. Arg. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Phyllanthus oreophilus Muell. Arg. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Phyllanthus pinnatus (Wight) Webster LC Phyllanthus polyphyllus Willd. LC Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. S: Gas-Dummella, Kaila, Wel-Kayila; T: Mipullanti, Pula, Pullanti LC Phyllanthus rheedii Wight NT Phyllanthus rotundifolius Klein ex Willd. LC Phyllanthus simplex Retz. LC Phyllanthus urinaria L. S: Rat Pita Wakka; T: Kilkaynelli Phyllanthus wheeleri G. L. Webster LC NT 304 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Phyllanthus zeylanicus Muell. Arg. Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. S: Mella Dum Kola, Japan Batu Criteria EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC EN Sauropus assimilis Thw. Sauropus bacciformis (L.) Airy Shaw NCS S: Bin-Delung, Et Pitawakka LC Sauropus quadrangularis (Willd.) Muell. Arg. CR Sauropus retroversus Wight CR(PE) Sauropus rigidus Thw. B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Ginihiriya NT S: Tammanna, Tammanua; T: Tampanai LC S: Mala-Labu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Picrodendraceae Mischodon zeylanicus Thw. Family : Piperaceae Lepianthes umbellatum (L.) Raf. B1ab(i,ii,iii) Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth NT Peperomia candolleana Miq. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Peperomia heyneana Miq. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Peperomia pseudo-rhombea C. DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Peperomia species 6 CR(PE) Peperomia tetraphylla (Forst.) Hook. & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Piper hymenophyllum Miq. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Piper sylvestre Lam. S: Mala Miris, Mala-MirisWel, Wal-Gam-Miris-Wel LC Piper trineuron Miq. NT Piper walkeri Miq. EN Piper zeylanicum Miq. LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Pittosporaceae Pittosporum ceylanicum Wight S: Ketiya NT Pittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. VU Family : Plantaginaceae Adenosma camphoratum (Vahl) Hook. f. S: Kaha-Gona-Kola 305 NT B2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Adenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr. LC Adenosma subrepens (Thw.) Benth. CR(PE) Bacopa loribunda (R. Br.) Wettst. DD LC LC LC Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell S: Lunuwila CR Callitriche stagnalis Scop. Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC S:Bimsavan Dopatrium lobelioides (Retz.) Benth. LC Dopatrium nudicaule (Willd.) Benth. LC Limnophila aquatica (Roxb.) Alston LC S: Reewul-Puruk-Wila LC LC LC Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. LC LC Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. CR(PE) LC Limnophila heterophylla (Roxb.) Benth. T: Vanetchi NT LC Limnophila indica (L.) Druce T: Thirai LC LC Limnophila laxa Benth. DD LC Limnophila polystachya Benth. DD LC LC LC Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. S; Amba-Wila Limnophila rugosa (Roth) Merr CR Limnophila sessililora (Vahl) Blume LC LC Microcarpaea minima (Koenig ex Retz.) Merr. LC LC Plantago erosa Wall. LC Stemodia viscosa Roxb. CR Veronica javanica Blume CR(PE) B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. E: Ceylon Leadwort; S: ElaNetul LC Family : Poaceae Acrachne racemosa (Heyne ex Roem. & Schult.) Ohwi CR Acroceras munroanum (Bal.) Henrard DD 306 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw. LC Agrostis pilosula Trin. EN Alloteropsis cimicina (L.)Stapf S: Budeni-Tana; T: Unni Pul Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Alloteropsis semialata (R. Br.) A. Hitchc. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Andropogon lividus Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Andropogon polyptychos Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Apluda mutica L. S: Kuru-Kuda-Ana; T: Mungil-Pul Apocopis mangalorensis (Hochst.) Henrard Aristida adscensionis L. LC S: Teli-Tana VU Aristida hystrix L.f. Aristida setacea Retz. LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) DD S: Et-Tuttiri LC Arthraxon castratus (Grifith) Narayanaswami ex Bor VU Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino NT Arundinaria debilis Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundinaria densifolia Munro EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundinaria scandens Soderstrom & Ellis CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundinaria walkeriana Munro EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundinella blephariphylla (Trimen) Hook.f. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundinella laxilora Hook. f. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundinella leptochloa (Steud.) Hook. f EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Arundinella metzii Hochst. ex Miq. DD Arundinella pumila (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Steud. CR Arundinella setosa Trin. DD Arundinella thwaitesii Hook.f. DD Arundinella villosa Arn. ex Steud. VU Arundinaria loribunda Thw. S: Mal-Bata 307 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss ex Vilmorin E: Spiny Bamboo; S: KatuUna; T: Mungil LC Criteria Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake LC Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A.Camus LC Bothriochloa pseudischaemum (Nees ex Steud.) Henrard DD Brachiaria distachya (L.) Stapf LC Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb. DD Brachiaria kurzii (Hk.f.) A.Camus DD Brachiaria paspaloides (Presl) C.E.Hubb. DD Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf LC Brachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines LC Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A. Gardner & C.E. Hubb. LC Brachiaria semiundulata (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Brachiaria semiverticillata (Rottler ex Steud.) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Brachiaria subquadripara (Trin.) A.Hitchc. LC Brachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson) P.Beauv. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Calamagrostis srilankensis Davidse CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. NT Chionachne koenigii (Spreng.)Thw. LC Chloris montana Roxb. LC Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. E:Love Grass; S:Tuttiri, T: Ottu-pul LC Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. S: Karu-vi LC Chrysopogon nodulibarbis (Steud.) Henrard VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chrysopogon orientalis (Desv.) A.Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Coelachne perpusilla (Steud.)Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Coelachne simpliciuscula (Steud.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) 308 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Coelachyropsis lagopoides (Burm. f.) Senaratne NCS LC Coix gigantea Roxb. S: Heen-Kirindi NT Coix lacryma-jobi L. S: Kirindi VU Cymbopogn caesius (Hook. & Arn.) Stapf Cymbopogn nardus (L.) Rendle E: New Citronella Grass; S: Heen-Pangiri, Lena Batu, Lena- Batu-Pengiri, Pegiri, Mana LC DD Cynodon arcuatus J.S.Presl ex C.Presl LC Cynodon barberi Rang. & Tad. NT E: Bermuda Grass, Doob Grass; S: Ruha; T: ArugamPillu, Arugam-Pul LC Cyrtococcum deccanense Bor VU Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Hochst. ex Steud.) Stapf NT Cyrtococcum patens (L.) A.Camus DD Cyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.) A.Camus LC Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT Cymbopogn polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Criteria S: Putu-Tana B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Davidsea attenuata (Thw.) Soderstrom & Ellis VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dendrocalamus cinctus R.B.Majumder ex Soderstrom & Ellis CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Dichaetaria wightii Nees ex Stude. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dichanthium foveolatum (Del.) Roberty CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Digitaria abyssinica (A.Rich.) Stapf EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Digitaria cliaris (Retz.) Koeler DD Digitaria bicornis (Lam.) Loud. LC Dichanthium caricosum (L.) A.Camus Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler S: Geta Mana S: Guru- Tana; T: Akki-Pul, Arisi-Pul LC Digitaria cruciata (Nees ex Steud.) A. Camus DD Digitaria fuscescens (J.S. Presl in K.B. Presl) Henrard EN 309 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Digitaria grifithii (Hook.f.) Henrard DD Digitaria longilora (Retz.) Pers. LC Digitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. & Schult. DD Digitaria thwaitesii (Hack) Henrard DD Digitaria tomentosa (Koenig ex Willd.) Henrard VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Digitaria violascens Link CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Digitaria wallichiana (Steud.) Stapf VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria aristata (Hack.) Senaratna DD Dimeria avenacea (Retz.) C.E.C.Fischer EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria ballardii Bor EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria fuscescens Trin. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria gracilis Steud. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria lehmannii (Steud.) Hack. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria leptorhachis Hack. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria pubescens Hack. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Dimeria thwaitesii Hack. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Echinochloa colona (L.) Link S: Gira Tana; T: Adipul LC Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) P.Beauv. LC Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P.Beauv. LC Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. S: Bela-Tana, Wal-MalKurakkan, Wal-Kurkkan LC Elytrophorus spicatus (Willd.) A. Camus DD Enteropogon dolichostachyus (Lagasca) Keng ex Lazarides LC Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl) K.Schum. ex Engl. VU Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor LC Eragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf) Bor EN Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Hook. & Arn. LC Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.)Trin. ex Steud. LC 310 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Eragrostis cilianensis (Allioni) Janchen DD Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. LC Eragrostis ciliata (Roxb.) Nees DD Eragrostis curvula (Schrad) Nees DD Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud. S: Ela-Kuru-Tana LC Eragrostis japonica (Thumb.) Trin. LC Eragrostis minor Host DD Eragrostis nigra Nees ex Steud. VU Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. LC Eragrostis pilosa (L.) P.Beauv. LC Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees LC Eragrostis subsecunda (Lam.) E. Fourn. DD Eragrostis tenuifolia (A.Rich) Hochst. ex Steud. VU Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. LC Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin. LC Eragrostis zeylanica Nees et Meyer. DD Eremochloa muricata (Retz.) Hack. NT Eremochloa zeylanica (Trimen) Hack. VU Eriachne triseta Nees ex Steud. S: Pini Tuttiri Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) DD Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. LC Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) Kuntze NT Eulalia thwaitesii (Hack.) Kuntze EN Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henrard LC Garnotia courtallensis (Arn. & Nees) Thw. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Garnotia exaristata Gould VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Garnotia fergusonii Trimen NT Garnotia fuscata Thw. CR(PE) 311 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Garnotia micrantha Thw. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Garnotia panicoides Trimen CR(PE) Garnotia scoparia Thw. NT Hackelochloa granularis (L.) Kuntze LC Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Helictotrichon virescens (Nees ex Steud.) Henarard EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hemarthria compressa (L.f.) R.Br. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Hemisorghum venustum (Thw.) W.D. Clayton VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Heteropholis nigrescens (Thw.) C.E.Hubb. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. & Schult. Common name S: I-Tana LC Heteropogon triticeus (R.Br.) Stapf NT Holcolemma canaliculatum (Steud.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb. LC Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees S: Go-Jabba NT Hymenachne amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees LC Hyparrhenia ilipendula (Hochst.) Stapf VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ichnanthus pallens (Sw.) Munro ex Benth. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Imperata cylindrica (L.) Rausch. S: Illuk LC Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze S: Bata-Della LC Isachne kunthiana (Wight & Arn. ex Steud.) Miq. LC Isachne multilora (Thw.) Ferguson CR(PE) Isachne walkeri (Arn. ex Steud.) Wight & Arn. ex Thw. NT Ischaemum barbatum Retz. LC Ischaemum ciliare Retz. LC S: Rat-Tana Ischaemum commutatum Hack. LC Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor DD Ischaemum muticum L. S: Bada-Mal-Tana 312 LC GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Ischaemum polystachyum J. & C.Presl NCS Criteria CR(PE) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. S: Kudu Kedu LC Ischaemum timorense Kunth S: Rila-Rat-Tana LC Iseilema laxum Hack. LC Iseilema prostratum (L.) Andersson LC Jansenella grifithiana (C.Mueller) Bor LC Leersia hexandra Sw. S: Layu, Lev LC Leptaspis urceolata (Roxb.) R.Br. NT Leptaspis zeylanica Nees ex steud. NT Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees LC Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth LC Leptochloa neesii (Thw.) Benth. LC Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi LC Leptochloa srilankensis N. Snow CR Leptochloa unilora Hochst. ex A.Rich LC Lepturus repens (G.Forst.) R.Br. NT Lophatherum gracile Brongn. LC Lopholepis ornithocephala (Hook.) Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Melanocenchris monoica (Koenig ex Rottler) C. Fischer EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Microstegium nudum (Trin.) A. Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth LC Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex Steud.) Hook.f. CR(PE) Ochlandra stridula Moon ex Thw. S: Bata-Li, Bata LC Ophiuros exaltatus (L.) Kuntze EN Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. LC 313 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. LC Oplismenus thwaitesii Hook. f. CR(PE) Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) Roem. & Schult. DD Oropetium thomaeum (L.f.) Trin. LC Oryza eichingeri A. Peter LC Oryza granulata Nees & Arn. ex G. Watt EN Oryza nivara Sharma & Shastry NT Oryza rhizomatis Vaughan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oryza ruipogon W. Grifith EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Panicum curvilorum Hornem. S: Wal-Meneri, Meneri; T: Shamai-Karunai LC Panicum brevifolium L. LC Panicum gardneri Thw. LC Panicum humile Trin. LC Panicum luzonense J. & C. Presl CR(PE) Panicum notatum Retz. LC Panicum paludosum Roxb. LC Panicum phoiniclados Naik & Patunkar NT Panicum repens L. S: Etora; T: Injii-Pul LC Panicum sparsicomum Nees ex Steud. Paspalidium lavidum (Retz.) A.Camus LC E: Arisi-Pul; S: Ha-Thana LC Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf LC Paspalidium punctatum (Brum.f.) A. Camus LC Paspalum distichum L. LC Paspalum longifolium Roxb. LC Paspalum scrobiculatum L. S: Amu; T: Varagu, Waragu 314 LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Paspalum vaginatum Sw. LC Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze. LC Perotis junceum (Roxb.) Ham DD Pharagmites karka (Retz.) Steud. S: Nala-Gas LC Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth LC Pommereulla cornucopiae L.f. CR(PE) Pseudanthistiria umbellata (Hack.) Hook.f. LC Pseudechinolaena polystachya (HBK) Stapf DD Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.) Vick. LC Pseudoxytenanthera monadelpha (Thw.) Soderstrom & Ellis VU Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W.D. Clayton LC Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. S: Rambuk; T: PeyKarunmu, Pi-Karumbu CR(PE) Saccharum spontaneum L. S: Wal-Uk LC Sacciolepis curvata (L.) Chase LC Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase LC Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf LC Sacciolepis myosuroides (R.Br.) A.Camus NT Sehima nervosum (Rottler) Stapf LC Setaria gracillima Hook.f. CR(PE) Setaria intermedia Roth ex Roem. & Schult. LC Setaria palmifolia (Koenig) Stapf S: Reli-Tana LC Setaria parvilora (Poir.) M.Kerguelen S: Kavalu, Kawalu LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. Setaria verticillata (L.) P.Beauv. Criteria S: Hiwal Tana LC Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Sorghum propinquum (Kunth) A.Hitchc. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) 315 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Sphaerocaryum malaccense (Trin.) Pilger Spinifex littoreus (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Maha-Ravana-Ravula; T: Ravana-Meesai NCS Criteria VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay LC Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.) Kunth LC Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv. LC Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton LC Sporobolus maderaspatanus Bor VU Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth LC Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth S: Mudu-Etora LC Sporobolus wallichii Munro ex Trimen VU Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (L.) Brongn. LC Streptogyna crinita P.Beauv. VU Themeda cymbaria Hack. S: Kara-Wata-Mana Themeda forskalii Hackel Themeda tremula (Steud.) Hack. B2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC DD S: Pini-Bara-Tana LC Themeda triandra Forssk. LC Thuarea involuta (G.Forst.) R.Br. ex Roem. & Schult. DD Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda NT Trachys muricata (L.) Trin. LC Tragus roxburghii Panigrahi LC Tripogon bromoides Roth ex Roem. & Schult VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Urochloa setigera (Retz.) Stapf LC Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash E: Khas-Khas; S: Sawandara, Sevendara; T: Vettiver LC LC Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr. 316 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Dalzellia ceylanica (Gardner) Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen) Willis ex Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner) J.B.Hall VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Polypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B.Hall CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl. CR(PE) Zeylanidium olivaceum (Gardner) Engl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Zeylanidium subulatum (Gardner) C.Cusset EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Family : Podostemaceae Family : Polygalaceae Polygala arillata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don LC Polygala chinensis L. LC Polygala elongata Klein ex Willd. DD Polygala glaucoides L. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Polygala glomerata Lour. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Polygala hirsutula Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Polygala jacobii Chandrab. DD Polygala javana DC. LC S: Tilo Guru Polygala longifolia Poir EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Polygala macrolophos Hassk. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Polygala rosmarinifolia Wight & Arn. NT Polygala telephioides Willd. LC Polygala trilora L. NT Salomonia ciliata (L.) DC. VU S: Palala LC Persicaria attenuata (R. Br.) Sojak S: Sudu-Kimbul-Wenna LC Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara S: Ratu-Kimbul-Wenna LC Xanthophyllum zeylanicum Meijden B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Polygonaceae 317 LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. in D.Don) H.Gross LC Persicaria decipiens (R.Br.) K.L.Wilson DD Persicaria glabra (Willd.) Gomez de la Maza LC Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach DD Persicaria minor (Hudson) Opiz DD Persicaria nepalensis (Meissner) H.Gross DD Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach LC Persicaria praetermissa (Hook.f.) H.Hara DD Persicaria strigosa (R.Br.) Nakai LC Polygonum plebeium R.Br. LC LC Family : Pontederiaceae Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms-Laub S: Diya-Habarala, Jabara NT LC Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl S: Diya habarala, Jabara LC LC Portulaca oleracea L. S: Genda-kola; T: Pulikkirai, Pulichchankirai LC Portulaca quadriida L. S: Heen-Genda-Kola LC Family : Portulacaceae Portulaca suffruticosa Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. LC S: Uru-Genda Portulaca wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn. LC VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton nodosus Poir. LC Potamogeton pectinatus L. LC Potamogeton perfoliatus L. LC LC Family : Primulaceae Aegiceras corniculata (L.) Blanco S: Heen Kadol; T: Vitlikanna LC CR Ardisia colorata Roxb. 318 B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Ardisia crenata Sims Ardisia elliptica Thunb. NCS Criteria EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC S: Balu-Dan Ardisia gardneri Clarke LC Ardisia lankaensis Kosterm. VU Ardisia missionis Wall.ex A.DC. LC Ardisia moonii Clarke LC Ardisia paucilora Heyne NT Ardisia polylepis Mez EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ardisia solanacea Roxb. S: Balu-Dan Ardisia wightiana (Wall. ex A.DC.) Mez Ardisia willisii Mez S: Lunu-Dan Ardisia zeylanica Clarke LC Embelia aurantiaca (Wall.) Wadhwa EN Embelia ribes Burm. f. S: Wel-Embilla B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A.DC. NT Lysimachia laxa Baudo VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lysimachia procumbens Baudo EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Maesa indica (Roxb.) A. DC. LC Myrsine ceylanica (Mez) Wadhwa NT Myrsine robusta (Mez) Wadhwa LC Myrsine thwaitesii (Mez) Wadhwa NT Myrsine wightiana Wall. ex A.DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Proteaceae Helicia ceylanica Gardner Family : Putranjivaceae Drypetes gardneri (Thw.) Pax & Hoffm. S: Eta-Wira, Gal-Wira NT EN Drypetes lanceolata (Thw.) Pax & Hoffm. 319 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Drypetes longifolia (Blume) Pax & Hoffm. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax & Hoffm. LC Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. T: Karippalai, Vitchurunai LC Putranjiva zeylanica (Thw.) Muell. Arg. S: Pelan LC Family : Ranunculaceae Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. CR(PE) Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Clematis smilacifolia Wall. S: Nara-Wel CR(PE) Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC S: Nara-Wel NT Ranunculus sagittifolius Hook. E: Buttercup VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ranunculus wallichianus Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Thalictrum javanicum Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Rhamnaceae Colubrina asiatica (L.) Brongn. S: Tel-Hiriya; T: Mayirmanikkam Gouania microcarpa DC. NT Rhamnus arnottianus Gardner ex Thw. VU Rhamnus wightii Wight & Arn. NT Sageretia hamosa (Wall.) Brongn. EN Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz T: Tudari, Tuvadi B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC LC Ventilago gamblei Susseng. Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn. var. .madraspatana S: Yakada-Wel; T: Vempadam LC Ziziphus lucida Moon ex Thw. S: Eraminiya CR Ziziphus mauritiana var mauritiana Lam. S: Dabara, Maha-Debara, Masan; T: Ilantai, Allantai LC Ziziphus napeca (L.) Willd. S: Yak-Eraminiya LC Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Miller S: Heen Eraminiya; T: Churai, Perilantai LC Ziziphus rugosa Lam. S: Maha Eraminiya; T: Churai NT 320 B2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. S: Kakuru; T: Nari-Ilantai NT Criteria GCS EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B2ab(i,ii,iii) NT Criteria Family : Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny E: Mangrove; S:Mal-Kadol Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. S: Dawata NT Carallia calycina Benth. S: Ubberiya EN Cassipourea ceylanica (Gardner) Alston S: Pana, Kos Daththa, Gal Guliya; T:Kannu LC Ceriops decandra (Grifith) Ding Hou CR Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. T: Chiru-Kandal NT LC Rhizophora apiculata Blume S: Kadol, Rana Kadol; T: Kandal NT LC Rhizophora mucronata Poir. E: Mangrove; S:Kadol, Kandal LC LC A1ci Family : Rosaceae Agrimonia zeylanica Moon ex Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Alchemilla indica Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Photinia integrifolia Lindley S: Lunu-Warala; T: Anreepawlaycody-Maram LC Potentilla polyphylla Wall. ex Lehman EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Potentilla sundaica (Blume) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq. S: Golu-Mora, KankumbalKetiya NT ENi B1+2c Prunus walkeri (Wight) Kalkman S: Golu-Mora, KankumbalKetiya LC VUi A1c Rubus ellipticus Smith E: False Blackberry, OvelLeaved Bramble; S: Nara-Bute LC Rubus fairholmianus Gardner NT Rubus gardnerianus Kuntz NT Rubus indicus Thunb. LC S: Vel-Batu Rubus leucocarpus Arn. NT Rubus micropetalus Gardner VU 321 B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Rubus niveus Thunb. E: Woody-Berried Bramble; S: Rodu-Ketambila NT Rubus rugosus Smith LC Rubus sorbifolius Maxim. DD Sanguisorba indicum (Gardner)Tirv. CR(PE) Criteria GCS Family : Rubiaceae Acranthera ceylanica Arn. ex Meissner LC Aidia gardneri (Thw.) Tirv. S: Seru VU Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich. ex Walp. S: Nawatha, Ambul Bakmi, Ela Bakmi, Kalamba NT Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirv. S: Pudan LC Byrsophyllum ellipticum (Thw.) Hook. f. S: Kalu Diyapara, Kalu Godapara VU Canthium campanulatum Thw. Canthium coromandelicum (Burm. f.) Alston B1ab(i,ii,iii) NT S: Kara; T: Karai LC Canthium macrocarpum Thw. CR(PE) Canthium puberulum Thw. ex Hook. f. NT Canthium rheedii DC. NT Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. S: Kukuruman; T: Karai LC Ceriscoides turgida (Roxb.) Tirv. S: Pita Madu EN Chassalia curvilora (Wall.) Thw. LC Dentella repens J.R. & G. Forst. LC Dichilanthe zeylanica Thw. B1ab(i,ii,iii) S: Emberella Diplospora erythrospora (Thw.) Hook. f. B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Discospermum sphaerocarpum Dalz. ex Hook. f. T: Vella LC Diyaminauclea zeylanica (Hook. f.) Ridsd. S: Diya-Mi EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) Exallage auricularia (L.) Bremek. S: Geta-Kola VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Fergusonia tetracocca (Thw.) Baill. CR(PE) Gaertnera divaricata (Thw.)Thw. VU 322 B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Gaertnera gardneri Thw. CR(PE) Gaertnera rosea Thw. ex Benth. LC Gaertnera ternifolia Thw. VU Gaertnera vaginans (DC.) Merr. LC Gaertnera walkeri (Arn.) Blume NT Galium asperifolium Wall. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Gardenia crameri Tirv. S: Galis Gardenia fosbergii Tirv. B1ab(i,ii,iii) Geophila repens var asiatica (Cham. & Schlecht.) Fosberg S: Agu Karni VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Guettarda speciosa L. S: Nil Pichcha; T:Panir VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. S: Kolon; T:manchal Kadampa, Raja Murunkai LC Hedyotis cinereoviridis Thw. CR(PE) Hedyotis coprosmoides Trimen VU Hedyotis cyanantha Kurz NT Hedyotis cyanescens Thw. CR(PE) Hedyotis dendroides Alston NT Hedyotis evenia Thw. CR(PE) Hedyotis lavescens Thw. NT Hedyotis fruticosa L. B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC S: Veraniya Hedyotis fumata Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis gardneri Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis gartmorensis Ridsd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis inamoena Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis lessertiana Arn. LC Hedyotis macraei Hook. f. DD Hedyotis marginata (Thw. ex Trimen) Alston EN 323 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria VUi A1c ENi B1+2c VUi A1c, B1+2c Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Hedyotis membranacea Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis neesiana Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis neolessertiana Ridsd. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis nodulosa Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis obscura Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis quinquinervia Thw. CR(PE) Hedyotis rhinophylla Thw. ex Trimen EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis srilankensis Deb & Dutta EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis subverticillata Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis thwaitesii Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis trichoneura Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis tridentata Ridsd. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Hedyotis trimenii var. trimenii Deb & Dutta LC Hydrophylax maritima L. f. Common name S: Mudu-Geta-Kola Ixora calycina Thw. Criteria ENi B1+2c VUi A1c LC VU Ixora coccinea L. S: Ratambala, Rat-Mal; T: Vedchi LC Ixora jucunda Thw. S: Goda-Rathambala, GoraRatambela, Wal-Rathmal LC Ixora pavetta Andr. S: Maharatambala; T: Kanmuttankirai, Karankutti, Painkuray LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ixora thwaitesii Hook. f. NT Knoxia hirsuta Arn. VU Knoxia platycarpa Arn. LC Knoxia spicata (Thw. ex Trimen) Ridsd. NT Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. NT Knoxia zeylanica L. NT B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lasianthus chrysocaulis Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) 324 GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Lasianthus foetulentus Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lasianthus gardneri (Thw.) Hook.f. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Lasianthus moonii Wight LC Lasianthus neolanceolatus Ridsd. VU Lasianthus obliquus (Thw.) Thw. LC Lasianthus oliganthus (Thw.) Thw. LC Lasianthus protractus (Thw.) Thw. CR(PE) Lasianthus rhizophyllus (Thw.) Thw. CR Lasianthus strigosus Wight LC Lasianthus thwaitesii Hook.f. CR(PE) Lasianthus varians (Thw.) Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Leucocodon reticulatum Gardner EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Metabolus decipiens (Thw.) Ridsd. LC Mitragyna parvifolia var parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. T: Nir-Kadampa, Chelampi LC Mitragyna tubulosa (Arn.) Havil. S: Helamba EN Morinda citrifolia L. S: Ahu LC Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. S: Ahu; T: Manchavanna LC Morinda umbellata L. S: Kiri-Wel, Maha-Kiri-Wel LC Mussaenda frondosa L. S: Mus-Wenna, Wal-ButSarana, Mussenda LC Mussaenda samana Jayaweera LC Nargedia macrocarpa (Thw.) Boddome LC Nauclea orientalis (L.) L. S: Bakmi, Rata-Bakmi; T: Vammi, Atuvangi LC Neanotis nummularia (Arn.) W.H. Lewis LC Neanotis nummulariformis (Arn.) W.H. Lewis VU Neanotis quadrilocularis (Thw.) W.H. Lewis CR(PE) 325 Criteria VUi B1+2c ENi B1+2c B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Neanotis monosperma (Wight & Arn.) W.H. Lewis GCS B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Neanotis richardiana (Arn.) W.H. Lewis CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Neurocalyx calycinus (R. Br. ex Benn.) Robinson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Neurocalyx championii Benth. ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Neurocalyx gardneri Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Neurocalyx zeylanicus Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Oldenlandia bilora L. LC Oldenlandia brachypoda DC. LC Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Common name S: Wal-Path-Padagam LC Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. LC Oldenlandia erecta (Mani. & Sivarajan) Ridsd. DD Oldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb. LC Oldenlandia ovatifolia (Cav.) DC. EN Oldenlandia pumila (L. f.) DC. DD Oldenlandia stricta L. NT Oldenlandia trinervia Retz. NT Oldenlandia umbellata L. E: Chay Root; S: Saya; T: Chaya Ophiorrhiza mungos L. LC CR Ophiorrhiza glechomifolia Thw. S: Dathketiya EN Ophiorrhiza pallida Thw. CR(PE) Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. LC S: Kiri Makulu B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Ophiorrhiza nemorosa Thw. Ophiorrhiza radicans Gardner ex Thw. B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. angustifolia (Thw.) Ridsd. LC Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. argentea (Hook.f.) Deb & Mondal CR(PE) Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. decumbens (Gardner & Thw.) Deb & Mondall CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Oxyceros rugulosus (Thw.) Tirv. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) 326 GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria Pavetta agrostiphylla Bremek. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pavetta badullensis Ridsd. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Pavetta blanda Bremek. Common name S: Pavatta; T: Pavaddai Pavetta gardneri Bremek. Pavetta gleniei Thw. ex Hook. f. LC S: Gal Hambella, Ela Terana; NT T:vetpavaddai NT S: Pavatta; T:Pavaddai LC Pavetta involucrata Thw. NT Pavetta macraei Bremek. CR Pavetta zeylanica (Hook. f.) Gamble S: Es-Rudha B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT Pleiocraterium plantaginifolium (Arn.) Bremek. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Prismatomeris albidilora Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) Schumann VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pseudaidia speciosa (Beddome) Tirv. DD Psilanthus travancorensis (Wight & Arn.) Leroy S: Gas-Pitchcha VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Psilanthus wightianus (Wight & Arn.) Leroy T: Kaddumallikai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Psychotria dubia (Wight) Alston Psychotria gardneri (Thw.) Hook. f. Criteria DD Pavetta glomerata Bremek. Pavetta indica L. GCS S: Kalu-Kuratiya NT VUi A1c NT ENi B1+2c Psychotria glandulifera Thw. ex Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Psychotria longipetiolata Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Psychotria meeboldii Deb & M.G. Gangop. DD Psychotria moonii (Thw.) Hook.f. CR(PE) Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.) Alston LC Psychotria plurivenia Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c Psychotria sarmentosa Blume S: Wal-Gonika Psychotria sohmeri Kiehn NT VU 327 B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family/ Scientiic Name NCS Criteria GCS Psychotria sordida Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) ENi Psychotria stenophylla (Thw.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Psychotria waasii Sohmer NT VUi A1c, B1+2c Psychotria zeylanica Sohmer LC Psydrax dicoccos Gaertn. Common name E: Ceylon Boxwood; S: Gal Karanda, Panakarawa, Panduru; T: Vatchikuran, Yerkoli LC Psydrax grandifolius (Thw.) Ridsd. CR(PE) Psydrax montanus (Thw.) Ridsd. NT Psydrax pergracilis (Bourd.) Ridsd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Rubia cordifolia L. S: Manda Madini-Wel, Yogama-Wel Saprosma foetens (Wight) Schumann subsp. ceylanicum (Gardner) Gang. LC Saprosma glomeratum var. gardneri (Thw.) Gang. NT Saprosma scabridum (Thw.) Beddome EN Schizostigma hirsutum Arn. LC Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Scyphostachys coffaeoides Thw. E: Wild Coffee; S: Wal-kopi Scyphostachys pedunculatus Thw. CR(PE) Spermacoce articularis L.f. LC Spermacoce hispida L. S: Hin Geta Kola; T: Nattaichchuri, Yar EN Spermacoce pusilla Wall. DD Spermacoce ramanii Sivarajan & Nair DD Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirv. & Sastre S: Et-Kukuruman, Wadiga VU Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex Schumann S: Tarana; T: Karanai LC Timonius lavescens (Jack) Baker LC S: Peddimella, Ngana 328 LC LC Spermacoce prostrata Aublet Tarenna lava Alston B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria B1+2c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Uncaria elliptica R.Br. ex G.Don LC Urophyllum ceylanicum (Wight) Thw. LC Urophyllum ellipticum (Wight) Thw. LC Wendlandia bicuspidata Wight & Arn. S: Rawan Idala Criteria GCS LC Family : Ruppiaceae LC Ruppia maritima L. LC Family : Rutaceae Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. S: Ankenda LC Atalantia ceylanica (Arn.) Oliver S: Wal-Dehi, Yakinaran; S: Yak-Dehi; T: Pey kuruntu LC Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC. S: Dodan Pana LC Atalantia racemosa Wight ex Hook. NT Atalantia rotundifolia (Thw.) Tanaka S: Yaki-Naran VU Chloroxylon swietenia DC. E: Satin Wood; S: Buruta; T:Moodudad Marum, Muritai, VU Mutirai Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. S: Ganda-Pana, Et Kara, Bembiya, Weda-Pana LC Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver S: Migon Karapincha; T: Pannai, Purankainari LC Glycosmis angustifolia Lindley in Wall. ex Wight & Arn. S: Bol-Pana LC Glycosmis cyanocarpa (Blume) Spreng EN Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka LC Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A.DC. S: Dodan-Pana; T: Kulapannai LC Limonia acidissima L. E: Elephant-Apple, Wood Apple; S: Divul; T: Mayaladikkuruntu, Vila, Vilatti LC LC Luvunga angustifolia (Oliver) Tanaka Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T. Hartley S: Lunu-Ankenda LC Micromelum minutum (Forst.f.) Wight & Arn. var. ceylanicum S: Wal-Karapincha; T: Kakaipalai LC Murraya gleniei Thw. ex Oliver Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. NT E: Curry Leaf; S: Karapinch; T: Karivempu 329 LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) A2 cd B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack E: Orange Jessamine; S: Etteriya LC Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson S: Wal-Beli VU Pamburus missionis (Wight) Swingle S: Pamburu; T: Kurantu, Kuruntu, Perum Kuruntu LC Paramignya armata (Thw.) Beddome ex Oliver LC Paramignya beddomei Tanaka EN Paramignya monophylla Wight S: Wellangiriya LC Pleiospermium alatum (Wight & Arn.) Swingle S: Tumpat Kurundu, Tunpat Kurundu LC Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. S:Kudu Miris; T: Kandai LC Zanthoxylum caudatum Alston Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. S: Katu-Keena Zanthoxylum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. Criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Sabiaceae Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim S: Nika Daula, Wal-Bilin; T: Kusavi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. S: El-Badda, El-Bedda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Salicaceae Casearia thwaitesii Briq. Casearia tomentosa Roxb. S: Kiri Makulu NT Casearia zeylanica (Gaertn.) Thw. S: Wal-Waraka; T: Kakapalai, Kakapelar, Kakkaipalai,Tey Pala LC Dovyalis hebecarpa (Gardner) Warb. E: Ceylon Gooseberry; S: Ketambila EN Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Uguressa, Dik-Patana, Katukurundu, Wal-Divul, Ukkuressa, Katukutundu; T:Katukali, Kurumurukki, Mulanninchil LC Homalium ceylanicum (Gardner) Benth. S: Liyang, Eta-Heraliya, Liyan, Walu LC CR Homalium dewitii Kosterm. Scolopia acuminata Clos S: Katu-Kenda, KatuKurundu Scolopia crassipes Clos Scolopia pusilla (Gaertn.) Willd. LC LC S: Damhi, Katte Kurundu, Katu-Kenda, Katu-Keeree- 330 LC B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Azima tetracantha Lam. S: Katuniyanda; T: Ichanku, Iyanku LC Salvadora persica L. S: Maliththan, Peelu; T: Uvay, Viyay NT Criteria Family : Salvadoraceae Family : Santalaceae Ginalloa spathulifolia (Thw.) Oliver EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Korthalsella japonica (Thunb.) Engl. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Notothixos loccosus (Thw.) Oliver EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Osyris wightian Wall ex Wight NT Scleropyrum wallichianum (Wight & Arn.) Arn. EN Viscum articulatum Burm.f. LC Viscum capitellatum Smith NT Viscum heyneanum DC. LC Viscum monoicum Roxb. ex DC. VU Viscum orientale Willd. LC Viscum ramosissimum Roxb. ex DC. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Sapindaceae Allophylus cobbe (L.) Räusch. S: Kobbe, Bukobbe, Kobo, Moodu- Kobe, Wal-Kobbe LC Allophylus zeylanicus L. S: Wal-Kobbe LC Cardiospermum canescens Wall. S: Loco Penela VU Cardiospermum halicacabum L. S: Wel-Penela, Penela-Wel LC Dimocarpus gardneri (Thw.) Leenh. T: Nurai VU Dimocarpus longan Lour. S: Penni-More, Mora, Mora Mora, Rasa-Mora LC Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. S: Eta-Werella; T: Virali LC Filicium decipiens (Wight & Arn.) Thw. S: Pehimbiya; T: Chittirai Vempu LC Glenniea unijuga (Thw.) Radlk. S: Wal-Mora; T: Kuma LC Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. S: Na-Imbul, Pundalu VU 331 B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Lepisanthes erecta (Thw.) Leenh. Lepisanthes senegalensis (Juss.ex Poir.) Leenh. S: Gal-Kuma; T: Kal-Kuma NCS Criteria VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria LC Lepisanthes simplocifolia (Thw.) Leenh. EN Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. LC Pometia pinnata J.R. & G. Forst. S: Gal-Mora, Na - Imbul, Bulu-Mora Sapindus emarginata Vahl E: Soap Nut Tree; S: Kaha-Penela, Matambala, LC Embilla, Gas-Penela, Penela Sapindus trifoliata L. S: Kaha Penela, Kon, Kone; T: Puva, Kula NT Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken E: Ceylon Oak; S : Kon; T: Kula, Puvu LC S: Rata Lawulu, Lawulu; T: Kat Illupai NT B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Family : Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum roxburghii G.Don. Isonandra compta (Thw. ex Clarke) Dubard EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Weliwarana, Kirihembiliya, VU Molpedda B1ab(i,ii,iii) Isonandra montana (Thw.) Gamble EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Isonandra zeylanica Jeuken VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Isonandra lanceolata Wight Madhuca clavata Jayasuriya E: Clavate Mi; S:Ritigala Mi, Wanami EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Madhuca fulva (Thw.) Macbride S: Wana-Mi, Kiripede VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Madhuca indica Gmelin E: Indian Butter Tree; S: Urulu Mi; T: Kaattu Illuppai DD Mohwa, Mahwa Madhuca longifolia (L.) Macbride E: Mousey Mi; S: Mi, Mi, Gam Mi, Gula Pushpa; T: Illupai ; NT Madhuca microphylla (Hook.) Alston S: Wana-Mi EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2c EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c ENi B1+2c Madhuca moonii ( Thw.) H.J. Lam. Madhuca neriifolia ( Thw.) H.J. Lam. S: Gan-Mi VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) Manilkara hexandra ( Roxb.) Dubard S: Palu; T: Palai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Mimusops andamanensis King & Gramble Mimusops elengi L. S: Munamal, Sinha- Kesara; T:Makil, Mukalai 332 NT Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS Palaquium canaliculatum (Thw.) Engl. S: Elakirihembiliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) ENi B1+2cd Palaquium grande (Thw.) Engl. S: Kirihambiliya, Kiripedda, Rathatiya, Kiriheriya, Mihiriya, Molpedda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c Palaquium hinmolpedda van Royen S: Hinmolpedda, Miriya, KiriMeeriya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Palaquium laevifolium (Thw.) Engl. S: Wana-Mi, Molpedda EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR Palaquium paucilorum (Thw.) Engl. S: Kirihambiliya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi Palaquium petiolare (Thw.) Engler S: Golabodu, Kiri-Hambiliya, Kiri-Nuga VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Lci Palaquium rubuginosum (Thw.) Engl. S: Kiriwavula, Tawenna, Kiri-Pedda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c, B1+2c Palaquium thwaitesii Trimen S: Rathatiya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VUi A1c CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi D2 EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Palaquium zeylanicum Verdc. Xantolis tomentosa ( Roxb.) Raf. T: Mulmakil Family : Schizandraceae Kadsura heteroclita (Roxb.) Craib Family : Scrophulariaceae Glosssostigma diandra (L.) Kuntze DD Verbascum chinense (L.) Satapau CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Simaroubaceae Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston E: White Siris; S: Wal-Bilin; T:Peru CR Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. E: Macassar kernel; S: Thiththa Kohomba LC Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Noot. S: Samadara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Smilacaceae Smilax aspera L. Smilax perfoliata Lour. S: Maha-Kabarassa, Kabarassa LC Smilax zeylanica L. S: Heen-Kabaressa, Kabarassa LC Family : Solanaceae Lycianthes bigeminta (Nees) Bitter VU 333 B1ab(i,ii,iii) Criteria B1+2cd A1c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Physalis micrantha Link S: Mottu, Nalal Batu, Lin -Mottu, Heen-Mottu DD Solanum erianthum D.Don S: Hekarilla DD Solanum giganteum Jacq. GCS Criteria DD Solanum lasiocarpum Dunal S: Mala-Batu DD Solanum mauritianum Scop. S: Hakarilla DD Solanum pubescens Willd. VU Solanum torvum Sw. S: Tibbatu, Gona-Batu LC Solanum trilobatum L. S: Wel-Tibbatu; T: Tuttuvalai LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Solanum violaceum Ortega Solanum virginianum L. Criteria S: Kara- Batu, Katuwel-Batu; LC T: Kandan-Kattari Family : Sphenocleaceae LC Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. Family : Staphyleaceae Turpinia malabarica Gamble S: Kankumbala Eta-Hirilla, Garandi-Kidaran LC Family : Stemonaceae CR(PE) Stemona curtisii Hook. f. Family : Stemonuraceae Gomphandra coriacea Wight VU Gomphandra tetranda (Wall.) Sleumer NT Stemonurus apicalis (Thw.) Miers S: Urul-Honda, Uru-Kanu B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT Family : Stylidiaceae Stylidium uliginosum Sw. ex Willd. CR(PE) Family : Surianaceae CR(PE) Suriana maritima L. Family : Symplocaceae Symplocos bractealis Thw. S: Bombu EN Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.Moore S: Wal-Bombu, Bobu, Bombu LC 334 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi B1+2c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) VUi EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos cuneata Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos diversifolia Brand Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos elegans Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos elegans var. angustata CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos kurgensis Clarke CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex DC. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos obtusa Wall. ex G.Don VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos obtusa var obtusa Wall. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos obtusa var. cucullata Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos obtusa var. pedicellata (Clarke) Noot. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos pendula Wight EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos pulchra Wight EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Symplocos cordifolia Thw. Symplocos coronata Thw. S: Galparre, Guduhal Family : Tamaricaceae Tamarix ericoides Rottler & Willd. DD Tamarix indica Willd. LC Family : Tetramelaceae Tetrameles nudilora R.Br. S: Muguna, Niguna LR/ LCi LC Family : Theaceae Camellia kissi Wall. Gordonia ceylanica Wight DD EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) Gordonia dassanayakei Wadhwa et Weerasooriya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Gordonia elliptica Gardner EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Ashoka EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) S: Naha NT Gordonia speciosa (Gardner) Choisy S: Rathatiya, Mihiriya Family : Thymelaeaceae Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg 335 Criteria B1+2c Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Gyrinops walla Gaertn. S: Wal-Aha, Walla, WallaPatta, Patta-Walla VU A3bd Phaleria capitata Jack CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Wikstroemia canescens Meissner LC GCS Family : Triuridaceae Hyalisma janthina Champ. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sciaphila secundilora Thw. ex Benth. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Sciaphila tenella Blume DD Family : Typhaceae E: Bull-Rush, Cat Tail; S: Hambu-Pan LC E: Indian Elm; S: Goda Kirilla; T: Ayil, Kauchia, Velaylii NT S: Maha-Diya-Dul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Boehmeria rugosissima (Blume) Wedd. CR(PE) Chamabainia cuspidata Wight CR(PE) Typha angustifolia L. LC Family : Ulmaceae Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Family : Urticaceae Boehmeria glomerulifera Miq. Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. E: Wild Rhea; S: Gas-Dul LC Debregeasia wallichiana (Wedd.) Wedd. S: Muda-Kenda NT Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Elatostema acuminatum (Poir.) Brongn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Elatostema lineolatum Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Elatostema surculosum Wight CR(PE) Elatostema walkerae Hook.f. CR(PE) Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis E:Nilgiri Nettle; S: GasKahambilia Laportea bulbifera (Sieb. & Zucc.) Wedd. Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew S:Wal-Kahambilia 336 EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS Criteria Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall. ex Royle) Wedd. CR(PE) Oreocnide integrifolia (Gaudich.) Miq. EN Pellionia heyneana Wedd. CR(PE) Pilea angulata (Blume) Blume VU Pilea melastomoides (Poir.) Wedd. NT Pilea wightii Wedd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pouzolzia auriculata Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pouzolzia bennettiana Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Pouzolzia cymosa Wight DD Pouzolzia triandra (Blume) Blume EN Pouzolzia walkeriana Wight LC Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. LC Procris crenata C.Robinson LC B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Family: Vahliaceae Vahlia dichotoma (Murr.) Kuntze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) Family : Verbanaceae Chascanum hyderobadense (Walp.) Moldenke CR(PE) Phyla nodilora (L.) Greene LC Family : Violaceae Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. T: Oritad-Tamarai LC Hybanthus ramosissimus (Thw.) Melchior CR Rinorea bengalensis (Wall.) Kuntze EX Rinorea decora (Trimen) Melchior EX Rinorea virgata (Thw.) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Viola betonicifolia Sm. E: Violet VU Viola hamiltoniana D.Don E: Violet CR(PE) Viola pilosa Blume E: Violet LC 337 B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) GCS Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name NCS S: Towel, Rata-Bulat-Wel; T: Sambaravali NT Criteria GCS Family : Vitaceae Ampelocissus indica (L.) Planch Ampelocissus pheoenicantha Alston Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Gagnep. NT S: Geranda-Dul-Wel, MediaWel; T:Kattuppirandaa, Naralai LC Cayratia reticulata (Lawson) Mabb. Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin LC S: Wal-Rat-Diya-Labu LC Cissus adnata Roxb. EN Cissus gardneri Thw. LC Cissus glyptocarpa Thw. EN Cissus heyneana Steud. S: Wal-Muddarappalam LC Cissus latifolia Lam. S: Wal-Diya-Labu LC Cissus lonchiphylla Thw. Cissus quadrangularis L. B2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) NT S: Hirassa, Sirassa; T: Arugni, Indirvalli, Kiritti, Pirandai, Puraindai, Uchiradam, Uttansanjivi, Vachiravalli LC LC Cissus trilobata Lam. Cissus vitiginea L. S: Wal-Nivithi; T: Kaddumuntiri LC Cyphostemma setosum (Roxb.) Alston T: Anaitta Dichchai NT Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Burulla, Gurulla; T: Nyckki, Otta-Nali LC LC Tetrastigma nilagiricum (Miq) Shetty Family : Xanthorrhoeaceae Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC S: Monara-Pretan LC Family : Xyridaceae Xyris capensis Thunb. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) LC Xyris complanata R.Br. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC Xyris indica L. NT 338 LC Criteria Family/ Scientiic Name Common name Xyris paucilora Willd. NCS Criteria LC LC Family : Zingiberaceae Alpinia abundilora Burtt & Smith LC Alpinia fax Burtt & Smith VU Alpinia rufescens (Thw.) Schum. CR(PE) Amomum acuminatum Thw. CR(PE) Amomum benthamianum Trimen CR(PE) Amomum echinocarpum Alston S: Bu-Kiriya, Niya B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Amomum fulviceps Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Amomum graminifolium Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Amomum hypoleucum Thw. CR(PE) Amomum masticatorium Thw. EN Amomum nemorale (Thw.) Trimen CR(PE) Amomum pterocarpum Thw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) Amomum trichostachyum Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Curcuma albilora Thw. S: Haran-Kaha EN Curcuma aromatica Salisb. S: Dada-Kaha, Wal-Kaha DD Curcuma oligantha Trimen VU Cyphostigma pulchellum (Thw.) Benth. NT B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii) Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton E: Cardamomum; S: Ensal , Rata-Ensal, Cardamungu; T: Alaka, Ellakai, Cardumunga VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Globba marantina L. S: Hinguru-Piyali, Naharai; T: EN Kechulu Kalanga B1ab(i,ii,iii) +2ab(i,ii,iii) Zingiber cylindricum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Zingiber wightianum Thw. NT Family : Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris L. S: Sembu-Nerinchi, Gokatu; T:Chiru Nerinchi 339 LC GCS Criteria Analysis of Seed Plants of Sri Lanka Siril Wijesundara1, H. S. Kathriarachchi2, S. W. Ranasinghe1, G. Hapuarachchi2 1 Department of National Botanic Gardens 2 University of Colombo Seed-bearing plants or seed plants are perhaps the most obvious group of plants on earth. They include gymnosperms and angiosperms. In gymnosperms the seeds are not enclosed in a fruit. Gymnosperms can be further classiied into gnetophytes, cycads, ginkgo, and conifers. In Sri Lanka there are no native conifers, gnetophytes or ginkgo. There are only two gymnosperm species In Sri Lanka belonging to genus Cycas in the family Cycadaceae. They are Cycas nathorstii (madu) and Cycas zeylanica (Lindstrom & Hill, 2007). Of these two species, Cycas zeylanica (maha madu) is a highly threatened species. The habitat of this species was damaged by tsunami in 2005 and it is believed that the population of this species was seriously affected (Lindstrom & Hill, 2007). Angiosperms are lowering plants that produce seeds enclosed in a fruit. They are the most diverse group of plants with an estimated number of 200,000 to 400,000 species (Thorne, 2002). These species are classiied into 415 families (APG, 2009) Sri Lanka’s angiosperm lora has been explored, studied and documented by many botanists since the colonial times (Jayasuriya, 2007). Trimen’s Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon (Trimen, 1893-1900), was considered as one of the most comprehensive loras of that time. Based on Trimen’s Flora, Abeywickrama (1945) reported 1,065 genera and 2,855 species in 171 families. Out of those 853 species were considered to be endemic to Sri Lanka. The revision of the Trimen’s Flora (Dassanayake et al., 1980-2000) described 3,771 species in 1,363 genera and that included many naturalized species. The total number of endemic species (including varieties and subspecies) was about 1,000 according to that revision. Compared to the other countries in South Asia, angiosperm diversity in Sri Lanka is remarkably higher due to multitudes of factors. Origin, afinities and biogeography of our lowering plants have been discussed by several authors in the past (Trimen, 1885; Abeywickrama, 1945; Ashton and Gunatilleke, 1987). One of the striking features of our angiosperm lora is the high percentage of endemic species. Analyses done during the preparation of this Red List revealed that there are 894 endemic angiosperm species in Sri Lanka. These species are distributed mainly in the central and south west region of the island (The map preceding page). However, there may be more endemic species in the north east and eastern areas of the country which were not botanized as extensively as the south western regions. 340 Distribution of Endemic Angiosperm species in Sri Lanka There are no endemic families in Sri Lanka. But there are about 14 endemic genera. Taxonomy of angiosperms was revolutionized recently by the application of molecular techniques in plant systematics (Yakandawala, 2006). Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, an informal international group of systematic botanists, published angiosperm classiications in 1998 (APG I), 2003 (APG II) and 2009 (APG III) to address deiciencies in earlier angiosperm classiication systems (APG III, 2009). This list uses the classiication proposed in APG III and the changes made to the family names widely used in the past are given in Table 1. 341 Table 1: Changes of families and genera according to Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classiication for the lowering plants: APG III (2009) Previous Family (Genera) Family according to APG III in the Angiosperm list Agavaceae Asparagaceae Alliaceae Amaryllidaceae Alangiaceae (Alangium) Cornaceae Anthericaceae Asparagaceae Apiaceae (Hydrocotyle) Araliaceae Apostasiaceae Orchidaceae Asclepiadaceae Apocynaceae Avicenniaceae Acanthaceae Bombacaceae Malvaceae Callitrichaceae Plantaginaceae Capparaceae (Cleome) Cleomaceae Caprifoliaceae (Viburnum ) Adoxaceae Celastraceae ( Bhesa) Centroplacaceae Chenopodiaceae Amaranthaceae Clusiaceae (Calophyllum, Mesua) Calophyllaceae Cochlospermaceae Bixaceae Convallariaceae Asparagaceae Cuscutaceae Convolvulaceae Datiscaceae (Tetrameles) Tetramelaceae Dipsacaceae Caprifoliaceae Dracaenaceae Asparagaceae Euphorbiaceae (Putranjiva, Drypetes) Putranjivaceae Euphorbiaceae (Mischodon) Picrodendraceae Euphorbiaceae (Actephila, Antidesma, Aporusa, Bischoia, Phyllanthaceae Breynia, Bridelia, Cleistanthus, Fluggea, Glochidion, Margaritaria, Meineckia, Phyllanthus, Sauropus) Flacourtiaceae (Hydnocarpus,Trichadenia) Achariaceae Flacourtiaceae (Casearia, Dovyalis, Flacourtia, Homalium, Scolopia) Salicaceae Hippocrateaceae Celastraceae Hyacinthaceae Asparagaceae Hydrophyllaceae Hydroleaceae Icacinaceae (Stemonurus,Gomphandra) Stemonuraceae Lamiaceae (Priva, Stachytarpheta) Leeaceae Lemnaceae Limnocharitaceae Verbenaceae Vitaceae Araceae Alismataceae Lobeliaceae Campanulaceae Loganiaceae (Fagraea) Gentianaceae Melastomataceae (Axinandra) Crypteroniaceae Memecylaceae Molluginaceae (Gisekia) Myrsinaceae Najadaceae Nyctanthaceae Melastomataceae Gisekiaceae Primulaceae Hydrocharitaceae Oleaceae Periplocaceae Apocynaceae Phormiaceae Xanthorrhoeaceae 342 Portulacaceae Cactaceae Potamogetonaceae (Ruppia) Ruppiaceae Rhizophoraceae (Anisophyllea) Anisophylleaceae Scrophulariaceae (Adenosma, Bacopa, Dopatrium, Limnophila, Microcarpaea, Scoparia, Stemodia) Plantaginaceae Scrophulariaceae (Artanema,Lindernia ,Torenia) Linderniaceae Scrophulariaceae (Calceolaria) Calceolariaceae Scrophulariaceae (Centranthera, Pedicularis, Sopubia, Striga) Orobanchaceae Scrophulariaceae (Peplidium) Phrymaceae Sonneratiaceae Lythraceae Sterculiaceae Malvaceae Symphoremaceae Lamiaceae Taccaceae Dioscoreaceae Theaceae (Adinandra,Eurya,Ternstroemia) Pentaphylacaceae Tiliaceae Malvaceae Trapaceae Lythraceae Trichopodaceae Dioscoreaceae Turneraceae (Turnera) Passiloraceae Ulmaceae (Aphananthe , Celtis, Gironniera,Trema) Cannabaceae Valerianaceae (Valeriana) Caprifoliaceae Verbenaceae (Aegiphila, Clerodendrum, Glossocarya, Gmelina, Premna , Vitex ) Lamiaceae Viscaceae Santalaceae Zingiberaceae (Costus) Costaceae Senaratne (2001) listed 4,143 lowering plant species in 1,522 genera belonging to 214 families. According to her 25% of these are exotics and out of the exotics 32% are naturalized. During the preparation of this Red List the distribution data of each species were carefully analyzed by an expert panel and only those species which were undoubtedly native were used for evaluation. Thus, the total number of angiosperm species evaluated was 3,154. These species are in 186 families. Of these the Poaceae (grass family) has the largest number of species (262 species). The ten largest angiosperm families in Sri Lanka are given in Table 2. Nearly 45% of all angiosperm species in the country are in those 10 families. Table 2. The 10 largest angiosperm families in Sri Lanka. Family Number of Species Poaceae 262 Fabaceae 221 Orchidaceae 184 Rubiaceae 179 Cyperaceae 170 Acanthaceae 105 Asteraceae 86 Malvaceae 72 Melastomataceae 71 Lamiaceae 70 343 Out of 3,154 species evaluated 1,386 are threatened (critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable). This is about 44% of the total angiosperm lora in Sri Lanka. Five species are believed to be extinct (Table 17). These extinct species are Strobilanthes caudata (Acanthaceae), Blumea angustifolia (Asteraceae), Crudia zeylanica (Fabaceae), Rinorea bengalensis and Rinorea decora (Violaceae). It is alarming to note that 177 species are in the IUCN Red List category of CR(PE) meaning that those species are possibly extinct. Alphonsea hortensis (Annonaceae) and Doona ovalifolia (Dipterocarpaceae) are believed to be found only in cultivation at Botanic Gardens (extinct in the wild). Out of the 186 families evaluated, 81 families have 50% or more threatened species and in 24 families all species are threatened. These 24 families are each represented by less than 5 species and more than half of these families are represented by a single species. Only 45 families have no threatened species. The distribution of the threatened species shows that the highest number of threatened species are found in the wet zone districts such as Kandy, Ratnapura, Nuwara Eliya, Badulla, Galle and Kalutara. These districts also house the largest diversity of angiosperm species (Table 3). Data show that in Ratnapura, Kandy, Kilinochchi, Galle, Nuwara Eliya Kalutara, Kegalle, and Matara districts over 60% of the endemic species are threatened. Table 3. Distribution of threatened plants in different Districts in Sri Lanka. District Ampara Anuradhapura Badulla Number of threatened species Total species 477 94 Number of endemic species Threatened endemic species 39 17 956 236 100 47 1129 421 246 145 Batticaloa 474 85 24 12 Colombo 652 174 111 53 Galle 1050 411 385 252 Gampaha 418 81 48 24 Hambantota 885 178 65 24 Jaffna 546 97 21 7 Kalutara 902 361 338 213 Kandy 1952 868 567 388 Kegalle 699 281 275 167 Kilinochchi 43 11 3 2 Kurunegala 825 215 128 55 Mannar 365 77 13 5 Matale 1125 344 212 111 Matara 667 261 276 165 Monaragala 766 217 108 48 Mullaitivu 86 22 7 3 Nuwara Eliya 1261 596 400 260 Polonnaruwa 645 127 52 21 Puttalam 694 117 47 13 1539 739 570 397 Trincomalee 594 101 29 8 Vavuniya 218 41 9 5 Ratnapura 344 Threats to angiosperms may range from direct causes such as habitat loss to indirect factors such as unavailability of pollinators or dispersal agents. Whatever the causal factors there may be, the proportion of threatened plants is exceedingly high. Therefore, the indings of the Red List need to be paid serious attention, without delay, by all concerned. References Abeywickrama, B. A. 1945 The origin and afinities of the Flora of Ceylon Proc. Ann. See. Ceylon A.A.S. Part 2. 99-121 pp. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2009. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classiication for the orders and families of lowering plants: APG III. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol 161. 105-121 pp Gunatilleke, C. V. S. & P. S. Ashton, 1987. New light on the plant geography of Ceylon II. The ecological biogeography of the lowland endemic tree lora. Journal of Biogeography, 14: 295–327 pp. Dassanayake, M. D., Fosberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. (eds). 1980-2000. A Revised Handbook To The Flora of Ceylon . Vol 1-14 Jayasuriya, A.H.M. 2007. Flora. in National Atlas of Sri Lanka, Survey Department of Sri Lanka Lindstrom, A.J. and K.D. Hill. 2007. The genus Cycas (Cycadaceae) in India. Telopea 11(4) 463–488 pp. Senaratne, L.K. 2001 A checklist of lowering plants of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation, Colombo. 440 p. Thorne R. F. 2002. How many species of seed plants are there? Taxon, Vol. 51, Number 3, 1, 511-512(2) Trimen, H. 1893-1900. The Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon., Vol. 1-5. Dalau, London Trimen H. 1885 Remarks on the composition, geographical afinities and origin of the Ceylon lora Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch) 9. Yakandawala, Deepthi 2006. Recent developments in angiosperm phylogeny and classiication in the light of molecular data and cladistics. J. Natn. Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka 34(4): 177-187 pp. 345 Potential Applications of the National Red List and the Way Forward The National Red List provides the conservation status of the assessed species in a given country at that particular time. It is also a tool that guides conservation planning in a country as it; • • • • • • • • • • provides baseline information necessary for the preparation of species proiles of threatened species, a basis for prioritising conservation efforts and information necessary for the preparation and implementation of recovery plans; indicates information gaps regarding speciic taxa and geographic areas; Provides a scientiic basis for the development of a country’s research agenda on biodiversity; allows for objective prioritisation of funding for conservation-oriented research; provides a basis to analyse biodiversity hotspots that will help identify priority areas for conservation of species and ecosystems; provides a scientiic basis for the formulation and revision of legislation related to biodiversity conservation; provides a scientiic framework for new policies and regulations related to biodiversity conservation; provides information for the creation of awareness and conservation education among different stakeholders; provides a sound decision-making platform for regional and local administrative bodies (i.e., at provincial and town level planning ) for formulation of local development plans; and provides a framework for monitoring spatial and temporal changes in biodiversity Therefore, identifying species at risk is only the irst step in species conservation. This should be followed with a programme of activities aimed at recovering species at risk. The aim of this chapter is to propose a set of actions that are needed along with detailed action plans in order to achieve effective biodiversity conservation in Sri Lanka. Further, these actions are aimed at ensuring the future sustenance of the Redlisting process, and facilitate its use towards the conservation of threatened species in Sri Lanka. 1. Ensuring sustainability of the Redlisting process All species are subjected to dynamic changes driven by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Therefore, the conservation status of a species changes with time. Thus, it is essential that the assessment of the conservation status of species is a continuing process. The Redlisting of Sri Lankan biodiversity has been carried out at least ive times over the past two decades. The responsibility of the Redlisting process should lie with a government institute to ensure transparency and reliability of the inal outcome. Therefore, a Species Conservation Unit (SCU) dedicated for constant monitoring and regular updating of the conservation status of species and coordinate all activities related to conservation of threatened species, has been established at the Biodiversity Secretariat (BDS) of the Ministry of Environment. The SCU should be strengthened through relevant training and other logistic support to continue their functions eficiently in order to ensure sustainability of the Redlisting programme of Sri Lanka. 346 Further, evaluation of the conservation status of species is based on an objective process that requires great deal of information on species. In order to facilitate collection and analysis of such data, a National Species Database (NSD) has been established in the BDS. The database needs to be expanded in order to accommodate as many taxonomic groups as possible. Further, the information on species has to be updated regularly as new information becomes available. Thus, the NSD should be maintained and updated on a regular basis by the SCU, with inputs from individual researchers and other institutions. In order to ensure wider use of NSD, it should be made available to researchers and students through the Internet. However, this should be made possible only after ensuring data safety and integrity as well as a detailed set of guidelines for users. Researchers should be encouraged to use the database for non-commercial purposes, analyse it to identify trends and also update the NSD with their own research indings. Such a process could be facilitated through a formal agreement between the Ministry of Environment and the individual researcher and/or research institute. A MOU should be developed to facilitate such information exchange. Further, the NSD should be integrated with other relevant databases (i.e. the national wetland database) after formulation of necessary guidelines for data sharing. Also, an incentive/ a rewarding mechanism should be established to encourage individual researchers to deposit publications (research papers, articles, books, monographs, thesis etc.) in the SCU library. As a part of this exercise, a virtual library containing all published information on Sri Lankan biodiversity should be established in the BDS. As a part of their terms of reference, the SCU should prepare quarterly catalogues on new research outputs related to biodiversity, and forward it to researchers. Further, the national Redlist should be updated at least every two years based on new data that becomes available on species. Area of focus Responsible Institution/s Technical support Time Frame Expansion of the database to include taxa that are not currently available BDS (SCU) NASCAG, Expert groups Ongoing process Collection of new information on taxa that are already listed in the database BDS (SCU) INASCAG, Expert groups Ongoing process Evaluation or reevaluation of species based on new information BDS (SCU) NASCAG, Expert groups Ongoing process Updating and publication of the National Redlist BDS (SCU) NASCAG, Expert groups January 2015 Propose revisions to the IUCN global Redlist BDS (SCU) IUCN, Expert groups Ongoing process Ensure data safety and integrity BDS (SCU) NASCAG, Expert groups, NEC-Bd Ongoing process Prepare guidelines to use the database BDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd June 2013 Host the database in the Worldwide Web BDS (SCU) NASCAG December 2013 Establish a network of researchers that can contribute to the Redlist BDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd December 2013 Publish a quarterly catalogue on research outputs related to Biodiversity of Sri Lanka SCU NASCAG Ongoing process 347 Establish a virtual library on Sri Lankan Biodiversity at the Biodiversity Secretariat BDS (SCU) NASCAG Ongoing process Formulate guidelines for sharing and integrating the NSD with other relevant databases BDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd June 2013 Integrate NSD with other relevant databases BDS (SCU) NASCAG December 2013 BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, NEC-Bd - National Experts Committee on Biodiversity 2. Linking the Red list with ongoing cross-sectoral initiatives Although four National Red lists were published during the last two decades, these lists have not been adequately integrated to National Policy nor have they been included into other ongoing national conservation actions. Because of this, previous Red Lists have failed to make a signiicant impact on overall conservation of species in Sri Lanka. This may be because there was a lack of awareness among relevant line agencies about the different purposes, signiicance and relevance of the National Red List and the need to integrate it into their planning processes. It could also be a result of lack of ownership of the Red List as being a truly national tool for conservation. Therefore, as a follow up action it is essential that awareness is created among relevant line agencies in order to develop a framework in each of the line agencies so that they integrate the results of the Red List into their ongoing activities. Some of the key conservation-related activities that should be considered and the corresponding line agencies are listed below. It is proposed that a two day residential workshop be held with the participation of at least one high-ranking representative from each of these line agencies with the speciic aim of drafting a document including the activities to be undertaken by each of the line agencies to implement various facets of the Red List and to develop mechanisms through which these outcomes are achieved. This activity should to be completed by July 2013. Area of focus Responsible Institution/s MOE, DWC, and FD Protected area gap analysis Habitat mapping and biodiversity baseline surveys in selected protected areas of DWC DWC National Species Conservation Strategy MOE Protected area management plan preparation DWC, FD, CEA Revision of fauna and lora protection ordinance DWC Revision of other conservation-related legislation DWC, FD, CCD, DF., DC, CEA, ID etc. Regulation of species subjected to export trade DWC, FD, DC, DF Conservation of crop wild relatives DA NSF, Universities, Research Institutes Non Funding and conducting biodiversity related research Governmental Organizations Conservation of medicinal species Ministry of indigenous medicine Ex situ conservation of species with special emphasis of establishing a captive breeding programme for threatened DBG, DZG, etc., species National policy and planning Department of physical planning 348 MOE: Ministry of Environment, DWC: Department of Wildlife Conservation, FD: Forest Department, CEA: Central Environmental Authority, CCD: Coast Conservation Department, DC: Department of Customs, DF: Department of Fisheries, ID: Irrigation Department, DA: Department of Agriculture, NSF: National Science Foundation, DBG: Department of Botanical Gardens, DZG: Department of Zoological Gardens 3. Update local level biodiversity proiles The NSD contains a wealth of information that has been used to prepare the regional biodiversity proiles to assist decision-making at a regional level. These proiles needs to be updated with the new information that has become available during the preparation of current Red List. Further, awareness about the Red List and its implications to local developmental planning should also be created among local government bodies. A series of district level workshops should be held with the participation of representatives from local government bodies with the aim of formulating a set of local level actions to implement various facets of the Red List results. The Biodiversity Secretariat (BDS) of the Ministry of Environment (MOE) should organise these workshops, between the period of June to December 2013. 4. Implement programmes to recover populations of threatened species The primary aim of assessing the conservation status of species to identify conservation actions needed to protect these species so that natural populations can recover to a point where they can be down-listed or de-listed after a period of time. However, a simple comparison of the Red Lists published to date indicates that the status of most threatened species has remained unchanged or has worsened with time and this is therefore a very serious issue. This may be because necessary conservation measures have not been taken despite Red List data. Therefore, it is proposed that the proposed species conservation strategy be completed as an essential and immediate follow-up action of the Red List. As a part of the species conservation strategy, a set of single or multi species recovery plans should be identiied and developed, and a mechanism should be devised to implement these plans, in order that as many of the species that are listed are recovered. Thus far a single recovery programme for Puntius bandula (Bandula pethiya) has been carried out with inancial support from BDS under the overall supervision of NASCAG. The lessons learned from this project should be documented and incorporated in conducting future recovery programmes. Area of focus (links) Complete the species conservation strategy Identify a set of single and multi species recovery plans Prepare recovery plans Seek funds for the implementation of recovery plans Implement recovery plans Responsible Institution/s Technical support NASCAG, NEC-Bd, BDS (SCU) Expert groups NASCAG, NEC-Bd, BDS (SCU) Teams identiied by the BDS BDS, NSF, Other funding agencies Relevant line agencies Expert groups Time Frame June 2013 June 2013 NASCAG December 2013 NASCAG June 2014 Teams that prepared the recovery plans June 2014 BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, NEC-Bd - National Experts Committee on Biodiversity 349 5. Initiatives to conserve point endemics occurring outside PA’s According to the NSD, a number of endemic species in Sri Lanka have highly restricted distribution patterns, where they are known to exist only in one or a few locations. The NSD also reveals that many such point endemics exist outside the protected area network. Therefore, these species are at a high risk of extinction if appropriate conservation measures are not taken. In many of these cases simply integrating these locations into the existing protected area network may not be possible. Therefore, it will be desirable to develop other conservation models such as community-based conservation actions where local communities and civil society can play a major role in conserving these species. The NSD provides a platform to identify such point endemics. Therefore, it is proposed that such point endemics that needs immediate conservation action should be identiied and management plans prepared for their conservation. Area of focus (links) Identify point endemics that occur outside the PA network Prepare management plans to conserve these point endemics Responsible Technical support Time Frame BDS NASCAG June 2013 DWC, FD, CEA NASCAG, December 2013 NASCAG January 2014 Institution/s Implementation of these DWC, FD, CEA, management plans NGO’s BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, DWC - Department of Wildlife Conservation, FD - Forest Department, CEA - Central Environment Agency, NGO - Non Governmental Agencies 6. Develop a research agenda for threatened species and initiate island-wide surveys on biodiversity One of the major constraints during the Redlisting process was lack of data, except for their distribution, on most of the evaluated taxa. Even baseline data, particularly for invertebrates, is not available for several key ecosystems in Sri Lanka. The BDS over the past few years has provided seed grants to researchers to conduct investigations on threatened species as well as critical ecosystems that have lead to a wealth of new information. However, BDS does not have the capacity to sustain such research at a large scale due to limited amount of funds available at its disposal. Therefore, a sustainable funding mechanism to support such research initiatives should be established in collaboration with funding agencies such as National Science Foundation and National Research Council. Therefore, it is essential that a research agenda is developed to ill these gaps. Further, national expertise on many invertebrate and lower plant taxa is inadequate due to lack of trained personnel. Therefore, investment in capacity building in areas where expertise is lacking or weak is also a timely need. BDA have held a series of workshops on such lower taxa as well as produced communication tools to popularize study of such taxa. These activities needs to be continued and expanded to other areas of Sri Lanka with the aim of establishing regional groups using the university network as hubs. Another constraint faced during redlisting is the inability to assess temporal changes for most species as data has not been gathered using standard procedures. The following set of activities is proposed to overcome these limitations. 350 Responsible Institution/s Area of focus Technical support Time Frame Develop a research agenda for biodiversity related work BDS, NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG June 2013 Award research contracts to implement the research agenda NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG December 2013 Develop guidelines for a standard, methodological approach for conducting biodiversity-related research NSF, BDS NASCAG June 2013 Conduct a series of workshops to create awareness about research gaps as well as use of standard methods for data collection NSF, BDS NASCAG August 2013 Conduct a series of workshops to develop capacity for research on lower taxa BDS and NSF NASCAG December 2013 Initiate baseline biodiversity surveys in selected sites NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG January 2014 BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, DWC - Department of Wildlife Conservation, FD - Forest Department, CEA - Central Environment Agency, NGO - Non Governmental Agencies 7. Assess status of infra-species variations for useful species Even though the species is considered as the unit of conservation, there are number of taxa that show much infra species variation. In such cases, it may be prudent to plan conservation action at an infra species level in order to ensure conservation of genetic diversity. Therefore, an attempt should be made to document the diversity below the species level, especially for agro-biodiversity, given that that several indigenous crops and livestock varieties and their wild relatives have lost their genetic variability in the recent past. Responsible Institution/s Area of focus Technical support Time Frame Prepare checklists of crop varieties and their wild relatives that should be conserved Department of Agriculture Crop Wild Relatives Project June 2013 Prepare checklists of livestock varieties and their wild relatives that should be conserved Department of Livestock Indigenous Livestock Project June 2013 Identify indigenous species that show appreciable infra species variability BDS Individual experts on such taxa December 2013 Identify a set of actions needed to conserve such infra species variation BDS Individual experts on such taxa December 2013 BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat 351 These actions are necessary to ensure long term conservation of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity. The SCU based at the biodiversity secretariat will act as the coordinating body to initiate these actions. However, as can be seen, successful completion of these tasks will require great deal of inter-agency cooperation without which conservation of the biodiversity of Sri Lanka will indubitably fail. The future of the species diversity of Sri Lanka lies in gathering solid scientiic baseline data, analysing these data using the best possible methods, identifying gaps and priorities based on these scientiic foundations and developing conservation action plans from the information gathered. It is essential that these efforts are buttressed by conservation education that creates awareness not only about the threats facing species and their current status, but also about the role each stakeholder can play in the conservation of Sri Lanka’s lora and fauna. It is only when such a holistic and scientiically-based effort is made that engages and involves all stakeholders that conservation will move from being rhetoric to effective action. 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Wijeyamohan, S., Jayaratne, B. I. R., de Silva, M. & Santiapillai, C., (1998). A preliminary study of crocodiles in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. In: A. de Silva, ed. 1998. Biology and conservation of the amphibians, reptiles and their habitats in South Asia. Peradeniya: Amphibia and Reptiles Research Organization of Sri Lanka, pp.206-213. Wildlife Conservation Society-Galle., (2008). The Study of the Faunal Diversity in Galle District – Southern, Sri Lanka. [pdf]. Available at: <http://www.wildlife.lk/data_iles/downloads/Galle_BD.pdf> [Accessed 20 November 2010] Wildlife Conservation Society-Galle., (2009). The Study of the Faunal Diversity in Matara District – Southern, Sri Lanka. [pdf] Available at: <http://www.wildlife.lk/data_iles/downloads/Matara_BD.pdf>[Accessed 20 November 2010] Wimalasekara, I. W. C. S. & Wickramasinghe, S., (2010). Avifaunal diversity in the Mihintale sanctuary of Sri Lanka. Lyriocephalus special issue, 7(1-2), pp.123-129. Yakandawala, D. M. D., Sirisena, U. M. & Dasanayake, M. D., (2005). Two New Records of Juncus sp. (Rush Family-Juncaceae) in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.), 33, pp. 33-44. Young Zoologists Association of Sri Lanka (YZA)., (1989a). Trip Report of Labugama. Panivudaya, pp.1-4. Young Zoologists Association of Sri Lanka (YZA)., (1989b). Trip Report of Labugama, News Letter, Young Zoologists Association, pp.1-4. 369 Provisional Checklist of Sea Urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri Lanka Sevvanadi Jayakody University of Wayaba Introduction One of the most important groups of phylum Echinodermata is commonly known as Sea urchins which belong to the class Echinoidea. They are exclusively marine and occupy habitats from the intertidal zones to depths of more than 5000m and also from the equator to southern and northern poles. All extant Sea urchins are divided into two major groups, the regular echinoides (globose test and pentameral symmetry commonly known as sea urchins) and irregular echinoides (heart urchins and sand dollars). The echinoderms of the Indian Ocean are known since ancient times. This is mainly due to various expeditions such as Challenger expedition (1873-1874), Deutchen Tiefsee expedition (1902-1903), Percy Sladen Trust expedition (1904), John Murray expedition (1933-1934), Swedish Deep Sea expedition (1947-1948) and the Danish Deep Sea expedition (1961-1965). But some of the literature available relates to the “Indian Ocean” or in connection with the Gulf of Mannar making it dificult to work out the exact Sri Lankan echinoderm diversity. The echinoderm fauna of island of Sri Lanka was irst recorded by Bell (1887) and several other studies conducted during the early part of the 20th century, notably by Herdman et al., (1904), Clark (1915) and the monographs compiled by Mortensen (1928, 1935, 1940, 1943). Herdmen (1904) in his report to then Government of Ceylon on the pearl oyster isheries, has recorded 109 echinoids including 30 species of Holothuroidea, 13 species of Crinoidea, 28 species of Echinoidea, 24 species of Asteroiedea and 14 species of Ophiuroidea. Clark (1915) has also recorded 14 regular sea urchins. Since then little work has been done on sea urchins for several decades. In recent years, work done by Malik Fernando, Prassana Weerakkody, S. Jayakody and R.M.G.N. Thilakaratne has resulted in addition of few new species to the list of sea urchins in Sri Lanka as well as re-establishing presence of some species listed in the checklist of Clark and Rowe (1971). Currently, 28 species of sea urchins are recognized from the coast of Sri Lanka. Identiication now relies on Echinoid Directory, an online key adopted by British Natural History Museum, UK and a monograph by Clark and Rowe (1971). Out of the 28 recognised species in Sri Lanka, only a single species, Heterocentrotus mammillatus (Slate Pencil urchin) is listed as protected in the Flora and Fauna Protection Ordinance (2007). The species is commercially exploited and are exported for ornamental trade. The lack of population data and also scanty information available for regulatory bodies to identify them has allowed the unregulated exploitation of sea urchins. As in the case of other marine species, a vast amount of work is pending with regard to Sea Urchins. Therefore, to encourage future research into echinoides the following recommendations are made: 370 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Establishment of a national echinoide collection and relevant literature Studies to determine the role played by echinoides in the coastal ecosystems Training young researchers and institutions on species collection and identiication Strengthening the capacity of relevant institutions working on marine research Development of a species identiication guide to popularize the study of sea urchins as well as for the use of regulatory bodies 6. Development and implementation of detailed studies that would furnish information necessary to conduct conservation status assessment of the sea urchins in the future References Alvarado, J. J. & Cortes, J., (2009). “Echinoderms.” Monographiae Biologicae, 86, pp.421-433. Clark, H. C., (1915). The Echinoderms of Ceylon other than Holothurians. Spolia Zeylanica, X, pp.83-102. Clark, A. M. & Rowe, F. W. E., (1971). Monograph of shallow-water Indo-West Paciic echinoderms, i-vii. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). Herdman, W. A., Herdman, J. B. & Bell, F. J., (1904). Report by the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster isheries of the Gulf of Mannar. Supplementary Reports No X on the Echinodermes. Jayakody, S., Thilakaratne, R. M. G. N. & Amerasinghe, M. D., (in press). A study on diversity and population status of sea urchins in relation to their habitat characteristics and anthropogenic disturbance. (RG/2006/MS/03) Mortensen, T., (1928). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Voloum I. Cidaroidea. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel,. Mortensen, T., (1935). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Volume ii, Bothriocidaroida, Melonechinoida, Lepidocentroida and Stirodonta. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel. Mortensen, T., (1940). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Volume iii. 1, Aulodonta. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel,. Mortensen, T., (1943). A monograph of the Echinoidea iii2. Camarodonta 1. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel. Smith, A. B., (1984). Classiication of the Echinodermata. Paleontollogy, 2(3), pp.431-439. Thilakaratne, R. M. G. N., Jayakody, S., (2008). A study on identiication and distribution of sea urchins (Phylum: Echinodermata, Class; Echinoidea) in coastal zone of Sri Lanka. In: The Student Conference on Conservation Science (SCCS). 9th Student conference on conservation science. University of Cambridge, UK, March 25 - 27, 2008, UK: University of Cambridge, (Proceedings) pp.57. Thilakarathna, R.M.G.N., Jayakody, S. and Amarasinghe M.D. (2010) Fluctuations of sea urchins (Class: Echnoidea) in Hikkaduwa (protected but highly disturbed) and Ahangama (unprotected and less disturbed) in Sri Lanka with macro algae cover. In: The Student Conference on Conservation Science (SCCS). 11th Student conference on conservation science. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, 14-16 September 2011, UK: University of Cambridge, (Proceedings). Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. ed., (2006). The fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. In addition following documents were also used Recent records by Malik Fernando *, Prasanna Weerakkody** and Gayani Thilakaratne and Sevvandi Jayakody ***, MA Gayashan and Sevvandi Jayakody**** NR = new record $ = exported ornamental species P = protected Summarized from A.M. Clark & F.W.E. Rowe (1971) Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Paciic Echinoderms with recent addiions to this list and observaions. ** Recent records by Malik Fernando * Recent records by Prasanna Weerakkody (Ophiuroidea) , ***Recent records by S. Jayakody & RMGN Thilakaratne. NR = new record; $ = exported ornamental species; P = protected 371 Provisional checklist of regular and irregular echinoids of Sri Lankan shallow coastal areas The checklist given below has been compiled using the documented literature of listed publications. Where appropriate information on current density calculations have also been given with the location. Class Echinoidea Family Echinoneidae Family Cidaridae Echinoneus cyclostomus ** Echinoneus abnormalis **NR Eucidaris metularia Phyllacanthus imperialis Family Clypeasteridae Prionocidaris baculosa ?**5 Clypeaster fervens Clypeaster humilis ** Clypeaster rarispinus ** Clypeaster reticulatus ** Prionocidaris bispinosa Family Echinothuriidae Asthenosoma varium Asthenosoma intermedium ?**NR$6 Family Fibulariidae Family Diadematidae Fibularia cribellum (?) Fibularia oblonga (?) Fibularia volva (?) Astropyga radiata **$ Diadema savignyi ** Diadema setosum ** Family Laganidae Echinothrix diadema ** Laganum depressum ** Peronella lesueuri Peronella macroproctes ** Peronella oblonga Echinothrix calamaris*** Family Stomopneustidae Stomopneustes variolaris **$ Family Scutellidae Echinodiscus auritus ** Echinodiscus bisperforatus ** Family Temnopleuridae Microcyphus ceylanicus ** Salmaciella dussumieri*** Family Echinolampadidae Salmacis bicolor **$ Echinolampas alexandri Echinolampas ovata ** Salmacis virgulata **$**** Salmacis belli *** Salmacis toreumaticus Family Spatangidae Temnotrema siamense Maretia planulata Pseudomaretia alta Family Toxopneustidae Gymnechinus robillardi Family Loveniidae Pseudoboletia indiana Lovenia elongata ** Pseudoboletia maculata **$ Family Schizasteridae Toxopneustes pileolus **$*** Paraster gibberulus ** Prymnaster ? investigatoris **NR Tripneustes gratilla ** Family Echinometridae Family Brissidae Colobocentrotus atratus Echinometra mathaei **$ (both brown and ash colour morphs) Echinostrephus molaris ** Heterocentrotus mammillatus **P Brissus latecarinatus ** Metalia latissima Metalia sternalis ** Metalia dicrana **NR Rhynobrissus pyramidalis 372 Provisional Checklist of Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea & Holothuroidea Malik Fernando NR= New Record Class: Crinoidea Family Comasteridae 1. Capillaster macrobrachiusNR 2. Capillaster multiradiatus 3. Capillaster sentosus 4. Comanthina schlegeli 5. Comanthus parvicirrus 6. Comanthus samoanus 7. Comatella maculata 8. Comatella stelligera 9. Comatula pectinata (?) Family Zygometridae 10. Zygometra andromeda(?) Family Himerometridae 11. Amphimetra ensifera 12. Amphimetra tessellataNR 13. Heterometra amboninae 14. Heterometra bengalensis 15. Heterometra reynaudi 16. Himerometra persicaNR 17. Himerometra robustipinna Family Mariametridae 18. Dichrometra sp. NR 19. Lamprometra palmata 20. Oxymetra inschi 21. Stephanometra echinus (?) 22. Stephanometra indica (?) 23. Stephanometra spicata 24. Stephanometra tenuipinna Family Colobometridae 25. Cenometra herdmani 26. Decametra modica 27. Decametra taprobanes 28. Oligometra serripinna Family Tropiometridae 29. Tropiometra carinata Family Antedonidae 30. Mastigometra micropoda Class: Ophiuroidea Family Ophiomixidae 1. Ophiomyxa australis 2. Ophiomyxa compactaNR Family Gorgonocephalidae 3. Astroboa clavata Family Ophiacanthidae 4. Ophiacantha indica Family Amphiuridae 5. Amphioplus depressus 6. Amphiura luetkeni Family Ophiactidae 7. Ophiactis savignyi Family Ophiotrichidae 8. Gymnolophus obscura 9. Macrophiothrix aspidota 10. Macrophiothrix hirsuta(?) 11. Macrophiothrix longipeda 12. Macrophiothrix variabilis 13. Ophiocnemis marmorata 14. Ophiogymna elegans 15. Ophiomaza cacaotica 16. Ophiopteron elegans 17. Ophiothrix exigua 18. Ophiothrix foveolata 19. Ophiothrix trilineata 20. Ophiothrix proteus 21. Ophiothrix purpurea 22. Ophiothrix nereidina Family Ophiocomidae 23. Ophiarthrum elegans 24. Ophiocoma brevipes 25. Ophiocoma dentataNR 26. Ophiocoma erinaceus 27. Ophiocoma pica 28. Ophiocoma scolopendrina 29. Ophiocomella sexradia 30. Ophiomastix annulosa Family Ophionereidae 31. Ophionereis dubia 32. Ophionereis porrecta Family Ophiodermatidae 33. Cryptopelta grannulifera 34. Ophiarachna incrassata 35. Ophiarachnella gorgonia 36. Ophiarachnella macranthaNR 37. Ophiarachnella septemspinosa 38. Ophiarachnella sphenisci 39. Ophiochaeta hoeschmaiNR 40. Ophiopeza fallax 41. Ophiopeza spinosaNR 373 Family Ophiuridae 42. Ophiolepis cincta 43. Ophiolepis rugosa 44. Ophiolepis superba 45. Ophioplocus imbricatus 46. Ophiura kinbergi 31. Stichopus naso 32. Stichopus variegatus 33. Thelenota ananas 34. Thelenota anax Family Psolidae 35. Psolus complanatus Class : Holothuroidea Family Holothuriidae 1. Actinopyga echinites 2. Actinopyga lecanora 3. Actinopyga maunliana 4. Actinopyga miliaris 5. Actinopyga serratidens 6. Bohadschia argus 7. Bohadschia marmorata 8. Bohadschia tenuissima 9. Bohadschia vitiensis 10 Colochirus robustus 11. Holothuria (Halodeima) atra 12. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis 13. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) glandifera 14. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea 15. Holothuria fuscogilva 16. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota 17. Holothuria pardalis 18. Holothuria (Mertensiothuna) pervicax 19. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) scabra 20. Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis 21. Holothuria (Platyperona) dificilis 22. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus 23. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii 24. Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens 25. Holothuria (Semperothuria) imitans 26. Holothuna (Theelothuria) kurti 27. Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera 28. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla 29. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens Family Stichopodidae 30. Stichopus chioronotus Family Cucumariidae 36. Havelockia herdmani 37. Havelockia versicolor 38. Hemithyone semperi 39. Pentacta armatus 40. Pentacta quadrangularis 41. Pseudocolochirus tricolor 42. Pseudocolochirus violaceus 43. Staurothyone rosacea 44. Stolus buccalis 45. Stolus conjugens 46. Thyone papuensis 47. Trachythyone imbricata 48. Trachythyone typica Family Phyllophoridae 49. Actinocucumis typicus 50. Ohshimella ehrenbergi 51. Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) parvipedes 52. Phyllophorus (Phyllothuria) cebuensis 53. Phyllophorus (Urodemella) brocki Family Caudinidae 54. Acaudina molpadiodes Family Synaptidae 55. Opheodesoma grisea 56. Synapta maculata 57. Synaptula recta 58. Synaptula striata Family Chirotidae 59. Polycheira rufescens Clark, A.M. & F.W.E. Rowe. 1971. Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Paciic Echinoderms. British Museum (Natural History). 3-26. Fernando, Malik. 2006. Coral Associated Invertebrates: An Overview of the Current Taxonomic Status. In Bambaradeniya, Channa N. B. Ed. The Fauna of Sri Lanka, Section 3: Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka (2006), IUCN – The World Conservation Union. 259-273. Weerakkody, Prasanna. 1998. Observations on some shallow-water Brittlestars (Ophiuroidea) from the south and south-western coasts; with notes on ield identiication of the observed species. Sri Lanka Naturalist II(3): 2230. Perera, E. N. R. & P. Weerakkody. 2004. A Biodiversity Status Proile of subtidal and intertidal habitats of the Rekawa, Ussangoda and Kalametiya area. Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No. 5, March 2004. IUCN The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka Country Ofice, Colombo. Blue Zoo Aquatics. 2011. Dissanayake, D.C.T. and Wijayaratne M.J.S. 2007. Studies on the sea cucumber ishery in the North Western coastal region of Sri Lanka. Elanganayagam, Padmini. 1983. Study on ecology and some aspects on biology of Sri Lankan holothurians. Fernando, Malik. 2006. Coral Associated Invertebrates: An Overview of the Current Taxonomic Status. In Bambaradeniya, Channa N. B. Ed. The Fauna of Sri Lanka, Section 3: Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka (2006), IUCN – The World Conservation Union. 259-273. 374 Provisional checklist of soft corals recorded in Sri Lanka S. Krishnaraja The Open University of Sri Lanka Lobophytum crebriplicatum Von Marenzeller, 1886 Species Lobophytum critigalli Von Marenzeller, 1886 Family: Alcyoniidae Lobophytum delectum Tixier-Durivault, 1966 Sinularia brassica May, 1898 Lobophytum michaelae Tixier-Durivault, 1966 Sinularia dura (Pratt, 1903) Lobophytum ransoni Tixier-Durivault, 1959 Sinularia erecta Tixier-Durivault, 1945 Lobophytum packeli Tixier-Durivault, 1956 Sinularia irma Tixier-Durivault, 1970 Sarcophyton acutangulam Tixier-Durivault, 1966 Sinularia grandilobata Verseveldt, 19 Sarcophyton crassoc Moser, 1919 Sinularia granosa Tixier-Durivault, 1970 Sarcophyton crassum Tixier-Durivault, 1946 Sinularia leptoclados(Ehrenberg, 1834 ) Sarcophyton ehrenbergi Von Marenzeller, 1886 Sinularia lochmodos kolonko, 1926 Sarcophyton latum(Dana, 1846) Sinularia macropodia Hickson & Hites, 1900 Sarcophyton trocheliophorum Von Marenzeller, 1886 Sinularia microspiculata Tixier-Durivault, 1970 Sinularia minima Verseveldt, 1971 Sinularia polydactyla Ehrenberg, 1834 Family: Nephtheidae Sinularia imbrilobata Verseveldt, 1974 Dendronephthya gigantia(Verrill, 1864) Cladiella humsi Verseveldt, 1974 Sterionephthya costatocyania Burchardt, 1898 Cladiella spp. Tortus pacilloporaformis Cladiella subtilis Tixier-Durivault, 1970 Lobophytum altum Tixier-Durivault, 1956 Family: Xeriidae Lobophytum compactum Tixier-Durivault, 1956 Xenia spp. Lobophytum crassum Von Marenzeller, 1886 Reference K. D. Arudpragasam & S. Krishnaraja. 1983. Taxonomy and Distribution of Soft Corals in Sri Lanka, NSF Report. 375 Provisional Checklist of Corals in Sri Lanka Arjan Rajasuriya National Aquatic Resources & Research Development Agency Historical background The descriptions of hard corals from Sri Lanka dates back to the 19th century (Dana, 1846; Edwards & Haime. 1860; Ridley. 1883; Ortmann 1889; Rehberg. 1892; Brook, 1892). Bourne (1905) described corals collected by Herdmann from Pearl Banks in the Gulf of Mannar. Thereafter, Pillai (1972) recorded 90 species of hard corals belonging to 39 genera. The physiographic zonation and ecological aspects of reefs at Hikkaduwa and Negombo was described by Mergner and Scheer (1974) and Arudpragasam (1984) respectively. Based on previous records and collections from Hikkaduwa, Scheer (1984) recorded 40 species of hermatypic (zooxanthellate) corals. De Silva and Rajasuriya (1985, 1986 and 1987) and Rajasuriya & De Silva (1988) identiied 64 species of hermatypic corals in 15 genera that had not been previously recorded for Sri Lanka and from specimens collected during surveys carried out by the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Thereafter Rajasuriya (1987, 1994, 2007a and 2007b) has listed 15 new species from Sri Lanka. Veron (2000) described three species of hermatypic corals occurring in the southern coast of Sri Lanka of which two are new to science. The current checklist of hard coral species for Sri Lanka contains 208 species in 71 genera divided among 19 families. Taxonomy The taxonomic status of some hard coral species recorded for Sri Lanka has changed since the checklist of hard corals for Sri Lanka was published by Rajasuriya & De Silva (1988). Three genera; Euphyllia, Catalaphyllia and Plerogyra previously included in the family Caryophyllidae has been placed in a new Family, Euphyllidae by Veron (2000). Fungiacyathus stephana that was previously included in the family Fungiidae is now listed under the family Fungiacyathidae. In a revision of the ‘Staghorn Corals of the World’, Wallace (1999) renamed Acropora formosa as Acropora muricata citing the original description of the species. However, Veron (2000) in ‘Corals of the World’ has retained Acropora formosa as the valid name for this species. However, this species is listed as Acropora muricata in the present checklist of stony corals for Sri Lanka. Distribution of Corals and reef habitats in Sri Lanka Most Hard Corals exhibit a wide distribution within the Asian region. However, Veron (2000) has described two new species of hard coral from Sri Lanka; Podabacea lankaensis (Family: Fungiidae) and Echinopora robusta (Family: Faviidae) that have not been reported from elsewhere to date. However, further investigations in the region are necessary to conirm whether these two species are endemic to Sri Lanka. Reef surveys carried out by the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency indicate that the rarest species recorded to date is Blastomussa merleti which was collected at Unawatuna in late 1980s. This species has not been reported from any other location in Sri Lanka. 376 Extensive coral growth is limited to a depth of about 12 meters in Sri Lanka due to the turbidity that exist in coastal waters. The Gulf of Mannar has the most extensive shallow coral reefs in Sri Lanka (Swan 1983; Rajasuriya & De Silva, 1988). Fringing coral reefs are common in the northern, eastern and southern coastal waters. A few offshore patch reefs are found in the western coast between Chilaw and Colombo that are located ca. 10 to 20 kilometers from the shore line and at an average depth of 20 meters. Sandstone and rock reef habitats are widespread on the continental shelf. Generally, the hard coral cover is low on these substrates compared to extensive coral habitats (Rajasuriya & De Silva, 1988; Rajasuriya, Ohman & Johnstone, 1998; Rajasuriya, Ohman & Svensson, 1998). However, in some areas the diversity of hard corals is higher on sandstone reef habitats than on extensive coral habitats. Extensive hard coral reefs tend to be dominated by a few species belonging to branching and tabulate Acropora species, Echinopora lamellosa or foliose Montipora species and massive corals of the families, Faviidae and Poritidae. Threats The major widespread threat to corals is from climate change. In 1998 large extents of shallow water corals became bleached and many reefs were damaged extensively. Their recovery is variable and even within a single reef area such as the Bar Reef individual patch reefs has shown different levels of recovery (Rajasuriya 2005, 2008). Coral bleaching with some regularity has been observed recently, especially on reefs in the east and north. In 2010 there was severe bleaching of the coral reefs in the Pigeon Island National Park and Dutch Bay in Trincomalee. These reefs are heavily degraded and have not shown good signs of recovery. However such bleaching events appear to be localized as some fringing reefs at Kutchchaveli located north of Trincomalee was not bleached during the same period. Crown of Thorns starish populations dwindled after the 1998 large scale coral bleaching, but an increase in their numbers has been observed recently in Trincomalee. The 2004 Tsunami caused serious damage to some coral reefs mainly in the eastern and southern region. This physical damage still remains and combined with other forms of impacts including coral bleaching and human induced damage continue to degrade the quality of coral reefs. The use of destructive ishing methods including blast ishing is still widespread, especially in the eastern and northwestern coastal waters. Over harvesting of species such as herbivorous reef ish, the Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) that feed on juvenile Crown of Thorns starish and many other species that are important for the maintenance of the ecological balance of coral reefs continue to take place. Pollution from coastal development and industries has affected all near shore reefs in Colombo and reefs in the vicinity of major cities in the southern coast. Unplanned development of tourist facilities along the coast has caused beach pollution and contributed to the damage of near shore reefs due to expansion of tourism related activities beyond the carrying capacity of an area and through direct impacts such as trampling of corals by visitors. Most of the damage is caused by Sri Lankan visitors who disregard the advice given to them by local authorities. 377 Conservation All species of hard corals are protected in Sri Lanka through the Fauna and Flora Protection Act by the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Corals and reef habitats are also protected under the Coast Conservation Act, but are limited to the coastal zone, which is a two kilometer wide strip of coastal water around the country. Four marine protected areas have been established to date under the Department of Wildlife Conservation, namely Hikkaduwa Marine National Park, Pigeon Island Marine National Park, Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary and Rumassala Marine Sanctuary. Due to inadequate implementation of wildlife and isheries regulations there is little protection given to reef habitats, even within the marine protected areas. The creation of special management areas under the Coastal Zone Management Plan has led to the development of management plans for the Hikkaduwa Marine National Park and the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary. However, most of the recommendations for the protection of coral reefs in these two areas have not been implemented. Recommendations Individual species of hard corals can best be protected by protecting entire reef habitats. Species based conservation will only be successful in localities where a rare species is found. Corals release gametes into the water and coral larvae travel widely in ocean currents and settle on suitable substrates. Therefore, protection of entire reef habitats is the only method to ensure the protection of corals in Sri Lanka. Although there are several management plans for coral reef areas and despite the fact that corals have been given legal protection under the Fauna and Flora Protection Act, both coral reefs and corals receive little protection in the natural environment. References Arudpragasam, K. D. 1984. Ecology of Rocky Shores and Estuaries of Sri Lanka. In Ecology and Biogeography in Sri Lanka (ed C. H. Fernando): Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. Bourne C. G. 1905. Report on solitary corals collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rept. Govt. Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Gulf of Mannar (Suppl.) 29: 187 - 242. De Silva M. W. R. N., & Rajasuriya A. 1985. Checklist of stony corals for Sri Lanka with ecological notes on new records. 41st Annual Scientiic Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Colombo. De Silva M. W. R. N., & Rajasuriya A. 1986. Geographical extension of the range of the Fungid coral genus Zoopilus Dana, 1846 to the Indian Ocean. 42nd Annual Scientiic Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Colombo. Mergner, H. & Scheer, G. 1974. The physiographic zonation and the ecological conditions of some South Indian and Ceylon reefs. pp. 3 - 30 Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane, Australia. NARA, CORDIO/IUCN/GCRMN, & SLSAC. 2005. Rapid assessment of tsunami damage to coral reefs in Sri Lanka. Interim report No. 1.: NARA/CORDIO/IUCN. 9. Ortmann A. 1889. Beobachtungen an Steinkorallen von der Sudkuste Ceylons. Zool. Jahrb. (Syst.) 4: 493 - 590. Pillai C. S. G. 1972. Stony corals of the seas around India. Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs, 191 - 216. Rajasuriya A. & De Silva, M. W. R. N. 1987. Two Genera and ive Species of Hermatypic Corals New to Sri Lanka. 43rd Scientiic Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science,. Colombo: Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Rajasuriya, A. & De Silva, M. W. R. N. 1988. Stony Corals of the Fringing Reefs of the Western, Southwestern and Southern Coasts of Sri Lanka. In Proc 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, pp. 287-296. Australia. 378 Rajasuriya A. 1994. Three genera and twelve species of stony corals new to Sri Lanka. Second Annual Scientiic Sessions of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Rajasuriya A. 2005. Status of coral reefs in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the 1998 coral bleaching event and 2004 tsunami. In: Souter D and Linden O, eds. Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean: Status Report 2005. University of Kalmar, Sweden: CORDIO, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Kalmar, Sweden. 83 - 96. Rajasuriya A. 2007. Coral reefs in the Palk Strait and Palk Bay in 2005. J. Nat. Aquat. Resour. Res. Dev. Agency 38 (2007): 77 - 86. Rajasuriya A. 2007a. Leptoseris gardineri (Agariciidae) and Merulina ampliata (Merulinidae): two species of hermatypic corals, new records for Sri Lanka. (Abs.) Scientiic Sessions at the 25th Anniversary of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Colombo. Rajasuriya A. 2007b. A revised and updated checklist of stony corals which includes eight species new to Sri Lanka. (Abs.) 13th Annual Scientiic Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Colombo: Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Rajasuriya A. 2008. Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern, Western and Southern Coastal Waters of Sri Lanka. In: Obura D, Tamelander J and Linden O, eds. Ten Years after bleaching - facing the consequences of climate change in the Indian Ocean. CORDIO Status Report 2008. Mombasa: CORDIO/Sida - SAREC. 11 - 22. Rajasuriya A, and De Silva M. W. R. N. 1988. Stony Corals of the Fringing Reefs of the Western, Southwestern and Southern Coasts of Sri Lanka. Proc 6th International Coral Reef Symposium. Australia, 287-296. Rajasuriya A, Ohman M. C., and Johnstone R. 1998. Coral and sandstone reef habitats in northwestern Sri Lanka: patterns in the distribution of coral communities. Hydrobiologia 362: 31-43. Rajasuriya A, Ohman M. C, and Svensson S. 1998. Coral and Rock Reef Habitats in Southern Sri Lanka: Patterns in the Distribution of Coral Communities. AMBIO 27: 8: 723-728. Ridley S. O. 1883. The coral faunas of Ceylon with descriptions of new species. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 11: 250-262. Scheer G. 1984. The distribution of reef corals in the Indian Ocean with a historical review of its investigation. Deep Sea Research 31: 885 - 900. Swan B. 1983. An introduction to the Coastal Geomorphology of Sri Lanka. National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Veron, J. E. N. 2000. Corals of the World. Townsville, QLD. Australia.: Australian Institute of Marine Science. Wallace, C. 1999. Staghorn Corals of the World: a revision of the coral genus Acropora. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO 379 Checklist of corals recorded for Sri Lanka Species Montipora millepora Crossland, 1952 Montipora monasteriata (Forskal, 1775) Family: Acroporidae Montipora undata Bernard, 1897 Acropora aculeus (Dana, 1846) Montipora verrucosa (Lamarck, 1816) Acropora anthocercis (Brook, 1893) Astreopora gracilis Bernard, 1896 Acropora ceylonica (Ortmann, 1889) Anacropora forbesi Ridley, 1884 Acropora clathrata (Brook, 1891) Family: Astrocoeniidae Acropora cytherea (Dana, 1846) Stylocoeniella guentheri Basset-Smith, 1890 Acropora danai (Edwards & Haime, 1860) Family: Agariciidae Acropora divaricata (Dana, 1846) Gardineroseris planulata (Dana, 1846) Acropora elegantula (Ortmann, 1889) Pavona clavus (Dana, 1846) Acropora hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834) Pavona decussata (Dana, 1846) Acropora humilis (Dana, 1846) Pavona divaricata (Lamarck, 1816) Acropora hyacinthus (Dana, 1846) Pavona duerdeni Vaughan, 1907 Acropora lamarcki Veron, 2000 Pavona explanulata (Lamarck, 1816) Acropora lianae Nemenzo, 1967 Pavona minuta Wells, 1954 Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834) Pavona varians Verrill, 1864 Acropora microphthalma (Verrill, 1869) Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg, 1834) Acropora multiformis (Ortmann, 1889) Pavona maldivensis (Gardiner, 1905) Acropora muricata (Dana, 1846) Leptoseris explanata Yabe & Sugiyama, 1941 Acropora natalensis Riegl, 1995 Leptoseris gardineri Horst, 1921 Acropora nasuta (Dana, 1846) Leptoseris hawaiiensis Vaughan, 1907 Acropora nobilis (Dana, 1846) Leptoseris papyracea (Dana, 1846) Acropora orbicularis Brook, 1892 Leptoseris mycetoseroides Wells, 1954 Acropora pinguis Wells, 1950 Leptoseris scabra Vaughan, 1907 Acropora robusta (Dana, 1846) Pachyseris rugosa (Lamarck, 1801) Acropora rudis (Rehberg, 1892) Pachyseris speciosa (Dana, 1846) Acropora russelli Wallace, 1994 Family: Caryophyllidae Acropora samoensis (Brook, 1891) Deltocyathus rotulus (Alcock, 1898) Acropora scherzeriana (Bruggemann, 1877) Acropora secale (Studer, 1878) Paracyathus stokesi (Milne Edwards and Haime, 1848) Acropora selago (Studer, 1878) Paracyathus striatus (Philippi, 1842) Acropora seriata (Ehrenberg, 1834) Heterocyathus aequicostatus Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848 Acropora solitaryensis Veron & Wallace, 1984 Acropora tenuis (Dana, 1846) Acropora valenciennesi (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1860) Acropora verweyi Veron & Wallace, 1984 Tropidocyathus herdmani (Bourne, 1905) Family: Dendrophylliidae Balanophyllia imperialis (Kent, 1871) Acropora yongei Veron & Wallace, 1984 Balanophyllia afinis (Semper, 1872) Montipora aequituberculata Bernard, 1897 Balanophyllia parallela (Semper, 1872) Montipora danae (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1851) Balanophyllia taprobanae (Bourne, 1905) Montipora digitata (Dana, 1846) Balanophyllia cumingii (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848) Montipora exserta (Quelch, 1886) Montipora effusa Dana, 1846 Montipora foliosa (Pallas, 1766) Montipora friabilis Bernard, 1897 Psammoseris sulcata (Verrill, 1866) Heteropsammia cochlea (Spengler, 1781) Tubastrea aurea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833) 380 Tubastrea micrantha Ehrenberg, 1834 Cyphastrea chalcidicum (Forskal, 1775) Dendrophyllia gracilis (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848) Cyphastrea serailia (Forskal, 1775) Echinopora lamellosa (Esper, 1795) Dendrophyllia minuscula (Bourne, 1905) Echinopora robusta Veron, 2000 Dendrophyllia robusta (Bourne, 1905) Oulophyllia crispa (Lamarck, 1816) Turbinaria peltata (Esper, 1794) Family: Flabellidae Turbinaria mesenterina Lamarck, 1816 Flabellum stokesi Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848 Turbinaria quincuncialis (Ortmann, 1889) Placotrochus laevis Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848 Family: Euphyllidae Euphyllia glabrescens (Chamisso & Eysenhardt, 1821) Family: Fungiidae Euphyllia divisa Veron & Pichon, 1980 Cycloseris cyclolites (Lamarck, 1801) Cycloseris costulata (Ortmann, 1889) Cycloseris hexagonalis (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848) Euphyllia ancora Veron & Pichon, 1980 Catalaphyllia jardinei (Saville - Kent, 1893) Cycloseris patelliformis (Boschma, 1923) Plerogyra sinuosa (Dana, 1846) Diaseris distorta (Michelin, 1843) Family: Faviidae Diaseris fragilis Alcock, 1893 Favia danae Verrill, 1872 Ctenactis echinata (Pallas, 1766) Favia favus (Forskal, 1775) Fungia danai Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851 Favia matthaii Vaughan, 1918 Fungia fungites (Linnaeus, 1758) Favia maxima Veron & Pichon,1977 Fungia repanda Dana, 1846 Favia pallida (Dana, 1846) Fungia moluccensis Horst, 1919 Favia speciosa Dana, 1846 Fungia paumotensis Stutchbury, 1833 Favia veroni Moll & Borel Best,1984 Fungia scutaria Lamarck, 1801 Favia rotundata (Veron & Pichon, 1977) Herpolitha limax (Houttuyn, 1772) Favites abdita (Ellis & Solander, 1786) Podabacia crustacea (Pallas, 1766) Favites chinensis (Verrill, 1866) Podabacia lankaensis Veron, 2000 Favites pentagona (Esper, 1794) Polyphyllia talpina (Lamarck, 1801) Favites halicora (Ehrenberg, 1834) Sandalolitha robusta Quelch, 1886 Favites melicerum (Ehrenberg, 1834) Zoopilus echinatus Dana, 1846 Favites spinosa (Klunzinger, 1879) Family: Fungiacyathidae Favites lexuosa (Dana, 1846) Fungiacyathus stephanus (Alcock, 1893) Montastrea valenciennesi (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848) Family: Merulinidae Montastrea curta (Dana, 1846) Hydnophora exesa (Pallas, 1766) Diploastrea heliopora (Lamarck, 1816) Hydnophora microconos (Lamarck, 1816) Plesiastrea versipora (Lamarck, 1816) Merulina ampliata (Ellis and Solander, 1786) Goniastrea edwardsi Chevalier, 1971 Merulina species Goniastrea pectinata (Ehrenberg, 1834) Family: Mussidae Goniastrea retiformis (Lamarck, 1816) Acanthastrea echinata (Dana, 1846) Goniastrea aspera Verrill, 1865 Acanthastrea species Platygyra carnosus Veron, 2000 Australomussa rowleyensis Veron, 1985 Platygyra lamellina (Ehrenberg, 1834) Blastomussa merleti Wells, 1961 Platygyra sinensis (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1849) Cynarina lacrymalis (Milne Edwards and Haime, 1848) Platygyra daedalea (Ellis & Solander, 1786) Lobophyllia corymbosa (Forskal, 1775) Platygyra pini Chevalier, 1975 Lobophyllia hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834) Leptoria phrygia (Ellis & Solander, 1786) Micromussa diminuta Veron, 2000 Leptastrea purpurea (Dana, 1846) Micromussa minuta (Moll and Borel-Best, 1984) Leptastrea transversa Klunzinger, 1879 381 Symphyllia agaricia Milne, Edwards and Haime, 1849 Family: Siderastreidae Symphyllia radians Milne Edwards and Haime, 1849 Pseudosiderastrea tayamai Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935 Symphyllia recta (Dana, 1846) Psammacora contigua (Esper, 1797) Symphyllia valenciennesi Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849 Psammacora digitata Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851 Family: Milleporidae Distichopora violacea (Pallas, 1766) Millepora exesa (Forskal, 1775) Coscinaraea columna (Dana, 1846) Family: Stylasteridae Millepora platyphyllia (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1834) Millepora tenella (Ortmann, 1892) Family: Oculinidae Galaxea astreata (Lamarck, 1816) Galaxea fascicularis (Linnaeus, 1767) Family: Pectiniidae Pectinia species Mycedium elephantosus (Pallas, 1766) Echinophyllia aspera Ellis & Solander, 1788 Echinophyllia echinata Saville - Kent, 1871 Family: Pocilloporidae Pocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) Pocillopora elegans Dana, 1846 Pocillopora eydouxi Milne Edwards and Haime, 1860 Pocillopora cf. informis Dana Pocillopora molokensis Vaughan, 1907 Pocillopora verrucosa (Ellis and Solander, 1786) Stylophora pistillata Esper, 1797 Family: Poritidae Porites annae Crossland, 1952 Porites cribripora Dana, 1846 Porites desilveri Veron 2000 Porites echinulata Klunzinger, 1879 Porites fragosa Dana, 1846 Porites gaimardi Milne Edwards and Haime Porites lutea Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851 Porites lobata Dana, 1846 Porites rus (Forskal, 1775) Porites solida (Forskal, 1775) Porites sp 1 as recorded by Mergner & Scheer, 1974 Porites sp 2 as recorded by Mergner & Scheer, 1974 Poritipora paliformis Veron 2000 Stylaraea punctata (Linnaeus, 1758) Goniopora bernardi Faustino, 1927 Goniopora fruticosa Saville-Kent, 1893 Goniopora stokesi Edwards & Haime, 1851 Alveopora viridis Quoy & Gaimard, 1833 Alveopora verrilliana Dana, 1872 Alveopora fenestrata (Lamarck, 1816) 382 References For Corals Recorded For Sri Lanka Bourne, C.G. 1905. Report on solitary corals collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rept. Govt. Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Gulf of Mannar (Suppl.) 29: 187 - 242 pp. De Silva, M.W.R.N. and A. Rajasuriya. 1985. Checklist of Stony Corals for Sri Lanka with Ecological Notes on New Records. 41st Scientiic Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Colombo. De Silva, M.W.R.N. and A. Rajasuriya. 1986. Geographical extension of the range of the Fungid coral genus Zoopilus Dana, 1846 to the Indian Ocean. 42nd Annual Scientiic Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Colombo. Mergner, H. and G. Scheer. 1974. The physiographic zonation and the ecological conditions of some South Indian and Ceylon reefs. pp. 3 - 30 Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane, Australia. Pillai, C.S.G. 1972. Stony corals of the seas around India. pp. 191 - 216 Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs. Rajasuriya, A. and De Silva, M.W.R.N. 1987. Two genera and ive species of Hermatypic Corals New to Sri Lanka. 43rd Scientiic Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science,, Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science., Colombo. Rajasuriya, A. 1994. Three genera and twelve species of stony corals new to Sri Lanka. Second Annual Scientiic Sessions of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Rajasuriya, A. 2007. Leptoseris gardineri (Agariciidae) and Merulina ampliata (Merulinidae): two species of hermatypic corals, new records for Sri Lanka. Scientiic Sessions at the 25th Anniversary of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Colombo. Rajasuriya, A. 2007. A revised and updated checklist of stony corals which includes eight species new to Sri Lanka. (Abs.) proceedings of the 13th Annual Scientiic Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources., Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources., Colombo. Veron, J.E.N. 2000. Corals of the World (Vol 1, 2, &3). Australian Institute of Marine Science, Qld. 490 pp. 383 Provisional Checklist of Marine Aquatic Shelled Molluscs Of Sri Lanka Excluding Freshwater Gastropods Malik Fernando Part 1: Provisional Checklist of Species of Gastropods in Sri Lanka Part 2: Provisional Checklist of Species of Bivalves in Sri Lanka The Phylum MOLLUSCA Cuvier, 1795 contains numerous classes that include animals of numerous forms, both terrestrial and aquatic. This checklist deals only with aquatic forms, carrying external shells consisting of one or two pieces, in the classes Gastropoda and Bivalvia inhabiting marine and brackish waters (see box 01). Box 01 Phylum Mollusca Cuvier, 1793 Class: Aplacophora von Hering, 1876 – Spiny, shell-less molluscs Class: Polyplacophora Blainville, 1816 – chitons; with 8-shell plates Class: Monoplacophora Odhner, 1940 – cap-shell molluscs; deep sea Class: Gastropoda Cuvier, 1795 – snails; includes shell-less slugs Class: Bivalvia Linnaeus, 1758 – bivalves; clams, mussels, oysters Class: Scaphopoda Keferstein in Bronn, 1862 – tusk shells Class: Cephalopoda Cuvier, 1797 – octopuses, squids, cuttleishes and nautiluses After de Bruyne, 2003 Box 02 CLASS GASTROPODA BIVALVIA ORDER 6 10 SUPERFAMILY 30 28 FAMILY 60 42 GENERA 173 113 SPECIES 469 287 Terrestrial forms are found only among the Gastropoda (some species in Orders Architaenioglossa & Pulmonata) and consist of terrestrial and arboreal species; these are excluded from this checklist. The great majority of species in this class are wholly marine; a minority occurs in brackish water, some ranging into water that may be fresh in tidal rivers. Others are entirely freshwater inhabitants (some species in Orders Neritopsina, Sorbeoconcha & Pulmonata) and are excluded from this checklist. The Order Opisthobranchia contains mostly species with no shells or greatly reduced shells that are internal; however, a few families of species with external shells are included here. The Bivalvia are wholly aquatic and essentially marine with very few freshwater species. As all three undoubted species of freshwater bivalves (Family Unionidae) have been collected and photographed they have been included in the checklist. One record reported by Hadl (1974) from a single specimen is excluded; it was probably a misidentiication referring to a brackish water species (Family Corbiculidae) that is included here. The species in this list have been arranged in natural orders according to de Bruyne (2003) pages 309 to 316. The list is simpliied to some extent, the species being listed under Class, Sub-class, Order, Superfamily and Family; the divisions Superorder, Suborder and Subfamily are not employed except in three instances where the subfamily category has been used. 384 Subgenera have generally not been used except where it was considered useful and such a division was found in the literature. Lack of uniformity in this regard is a shortcoming that needs to be addressed in future versions. This is not going to be an easy task. Box 02 summarises the taxa listed. The principal dificulty in compiling this checklist was the non-availability of suficient primary literature of a monographic nature with extensive synonymies to enable harmonisation between the lists of different authors and the lack of access to named collections for conirmation of identities by comparison. Reliance on a variety of literature, mostly not recent, has led to nomenclature that may not be uniform. The same species may therefore be represented under more than one name. The checklist was compiled primarily based on the personal collections of the compiler, mostly collected by diving. Many specimens were obtained cast ashore on beaches or snagged on ishing nets, presumably in Sri Lankan waters. Some were purchased from itinerant vendors or from shell shops. The provenance of some of these items not collected personally may be in doubt. All these specimens have been identiied personally using a variety of literature and two web-based databases; the complete Bibliography is attached to this checklist. All the specimens have been photographed and these will be available on a DVD in due course. All the named specimens are preserved and are available for reference. The checklist contains incompletely identiied species, not all specimens having been identiied down to speciic rank; in some even the genus is unknown. There are a number of collected specimens still awaiting identiication – and many, no doubt, still awaiting collection – so the checklist will keep growing. All species have been photographed and most include descriptions as identiication often requires examination of shell features not obvious in a photograph. In addition to the personal collection, reference has been made to published lists by Parakrama Kirtisinghe1 (1978), Darshani de Silva2 (2006) and D. H. Fernando3 (1977). Misidentiications and identiied synonyms in these publications have been excluded and the remainder included. It has not been possible to examine the Kirtisinghe collection; the other two publications are not backed by specimens. Future work towards a complete checklist includes physical veriication of the Kirtisinghe collection and inclusion of specimens in the Rodney Jonklaas and Kalika Perera collections in the Colombo National Museum and the Cedric Martenstyn collection. All three are known to be named. But, however many specimens are examined unless there is access to recent literature including monographs and facilities of comparing specimens with those in major collections, doubts will remain. 1 Kirtisinghe, Parakrama. 1978. Sea shells of Sri Lanka. Tuttle, Tokyo. 2 de Silva, Darshani. Current Status of Taxonomy and Ecology of Marine Molluscs in Sri Lanka. In: Bambaradeniya, Channa (Ed), The Fauna of Sri Lanka (2006), IUCN, 274-287. 3 Fernando, D. H. Lamellibranchiate Fauna of the Estuarine and Coastal Areas in Sri Lanka. Bull. Fish. Res. Stn., Sri Lanka, Vol. 27, 1977, 20-54. 385 Part 1: Provisional Checklist of Species of Gastropods in Sri Lanka Family: Patellidae Cellana eucosmia Cellana luchuana Cellana rota (Gmelin, 1791) * Patella lexuosa Quoy and Gaimard, 1834 * Turbo intercostalis Menke, 1843* Turbo marmoratus Turbo petholatus Linnaeus, 1758* Turbo stenogyrus Family: Neritidae Family: Acmaeidae Acmaea saccharina (Linnaeus, 1758) * Patelloida striata Quoy and Gaimard, 1834 * Family: Haliotidae Haliotis varia Linnaeus, 1758 * Haliotis cf. pustulata Notohaliotis sieboldi Sunhaliotis planata Family: Fissurellidae Clypidina notata (Linnaeus, 1758) * Diodora lima Diodora mus (Reeve, 1850) * Diodora sp. * Emarginula issurata Holten, 1802 * Macroschisma sp. Scutus unguis (Linnaeus, 1758) * Family: Trochidae Calliostoma sp. * Clanculus cf. atropurpureus (Gould, 1849) * Euchelus asper Euchelus cf. atratus (Gmelin) * Euchelus quadricarinatus (Holten, 1802) * Euchelus sp.1 * Monilea callifera Tectus pyramis Born, 1778 * Trochus callicoccus Reeve * Trochus gibberulus Trochus maculatus Trochus radiatus Gmelin * Trochus sacellum Trochus tentorium Gmelin * Trochus sp.1 * Umbonium vestiarum Linnaeus, 1758 * Clithon oualaniensis Lesson, 1831 Naticarius ruilabris Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758 Nerita articulata Gould, 1847 Nerita chamaeleon Linnaeus, 1758 Nerita costata Gmelin, 1791 Nerita insculpta Nerita plicata Linnaeus, 1758 Nerita polita Linnaeus, 1758 Neritopsis radula Nerita (Theliostyla) textilis Gmelin, 1791 Ritena maura Neritina (Dostia) siquijorensis (Recluz, 1843) Family: Cerithiidae Cerithium citrinum Sowerby, 1855 * Cerithium echinatum Cerithium obeliscus Bruguiere * Cerithium sowerbyi Clypeomorus batillariaeformis (Habe and Kosuge, 1966) * Clypeomorus chemnitzianus Clypeomorus sp. 1 * Clypeomorus sp. 2 * Clypeomorus sp. 3 * Clypeomorus sp. 4 * Ochetoclava sp. Rhinoclavis aspera Rhinoclavis sinensis Family: Modulidae Modulus tectum Gmelin, 1791 Family: Planaxidae Planaxis niger Quoy & Gaimard, 1834 * Planaxis sulcatus (Born, 1778)* Family: Turbinidae Family: Potamididae Angaria delphinus Linnaeus, 1758* Astralium costatum Astralium heimburgi (Dunker)* Astralium rhodostoma Astralium semicostata (Kiener, 1850) * Astralium sp. 1 * Liotinaria cidaris Cerithidea cingulata (Gmelin, 1791) * Cerithidea quadrata Cerithidea sp. 1 * Telescopium telecopium (Linnaeus, 1758)* Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) * 386 Family: Siliquariidae Family: Xenophoridae Tenagodus anguina (Linnaeus, 1758) * Tenagodus cumingii Mörch, 1861 * Xenophora helvacea Xenophora cf. exuta *? Xenophora pallidula Reeve, 1843 * Xenophora tenuis Family: Turritellidae Turritella columnaris Kiener, 1840 * Turritella duplicata (Linnaeus, 1758) * Turritella terebra Family: Vermetidae Serpulorbis cf. sipho Lamarck,1818 * Vermetus sp.1 * Vermetus sp.2 * Family: Littorinidae Echinolittorina millegrana (Philippi, 1848) * Littoraria intermedia (Philippi) * Littoraria scabra (Linnaeus, 1758) * Littoraria undulata (Gray, 1839) * Nodilittorina quadricincta (von Mühlfeldt, 1824) * Nodilittorina trochoides (Gray, 1839) * Family: Cypraeidae Family: Rostellariidae Rostellariella delicatula Tibia insulaechorab Roding, 1798 Family: Seraphidae Terebellum terebellum (Linnaeus, 1758) Family: Strombidae Gibberulus gibberulus Lambis chiragra Linnaeus, 1758 * Lambis crocata Link, 1807 * Lambis lambis (Linnaeus, 1758) * Lambis scorpius (Linnaeus, 1758) * Lambis truncata Humphrey, 1786 * Strombus aurisdianae Linnaeus, 1758 * Strombus canarium Linnaeus, 1758 * Strombus decorus (Roding, 1798) * Strombus dentatus Strombus klineorum Abbott * Strombus listeri T. Gray, 1852 * Strombus luhuanus Strombus marginatus Linnaeus, 1758 * Strombus mutabilis Swainson, 1821 * Strombus plicatus sibbaldi Sowerby, 1842 * Strombus vittatus Linnaeus, 1758 * Strombus sp. 1 * Family: Hipponicidae Hipponix conicus (Schumacher, 1817) * Hipponix pilosus Family: Calyptraeidae Cheilea tectumsinense Crucibulum extinctorum Lamarck, 1822 * Crucibulum violaceum Crucibulum sp. 1 * Syphopatella walshi (Hermannsen in Reeve, 1859) * Cypraea errones Cypraea scurra Cypraea (Bistolida) hirundo Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Blasicura) interrupta Gray, 1824 * Cypraea (Cribraria) cribraria Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Cypraea) tigris Linnaeus * Cypraea (Erosaria) erosa Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Erosaria) helvola Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Erosaria) ocellata Linnaeus * Cypraea (Erronea) caurica Linnaeus Cypraea (Erronea) caurica dracaena * Cypraea (Erronea) felina listeri (Gray, 1825) * Cypraea (Leporicypraea) mappa Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Luria) isabella Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Luria) pulchra Gray, 1824 * Cypraea (Lyncina) argus Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Lyncina) carneola Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Lyncina) lynx Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Lyncina) vitellus Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Mauritia) histrio Gmelin, 1791 * Cypraea (Mauritia) mauritiana Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Monetaria) moneta Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Nuclearia) nucleus Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Ornamentaria) annulus Linnaeus, 1758 Cypraea (Palmadusta) asellus Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Palmadusta) clandestina Linnaeus, 1767 * Cypraea (Purpuradusta) gracilis Gaskoin, 1849 * Cypraea (Pustularia) cicercula Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Ravitrona) caputserpentes Linnaeus, 1758* Cypraea (Staphylaea) staphylaea Linnaeus, 1758 * Cypraea (Talparia) talpa Linnaeus, 1758 * Adusta onyx Derstolida stolida Erosaria nebrites ceylonensis Erosaria poraria Mystaponda nivosa Ovatipsa coloba gregori Palmadusta punctata Peribolus depressus Pustularia globulus Ravitrona gangrenosa Talostolida teres 387 Family: Ovulidae Calpurnus lacteus Calpurnus verrucosus Linnaeus, 1758 * Ovula ovum Linnaeus, 1758 * Volva brevirostris Volva volva Volva sp. 1 Family: Triviidae Trivia edgari Shaw * Family: Naticidae Mamilla kurodai Natica euzona Natica tigrina (Roding, 1798) * Natica traillii Reeve, 1855 * Natica vitellus Linnaeus, 1758 * Natica (Naticarius) alapapilionis (Röding, 1798) * Naticarius lineata Naticarius ruilabris *? Polinices mamilla (Linnaeus, 1758) * Polinices powisianus Polinices (Neverita) albumen (Linnaeus, 1758) * Polinices (Neverita) didyma (Roding, 1798) * Sinum javanicum (Grifith & Pidgeon, 1834) * Sinum planulatus Family: Bursidae Bufonaria crumena (Lamarck, 1816) * Bufonaria echinata (Link, 1807) * Bufonaria nobilis Bursa bufonia (Gmelin, 1791) * Bursa granularis (Röding, 1798) * Bursa granularis (Röding, 1798) [tuberculated form]* Bursa rana (Linnaeus) Bursa spinosa Tutufa bubo Linnaeus, 1758 * Tutufa bufo (Röding, 1798) * Tutufa rubeta (Linnaeus, 1758) * Family: Cassidae Cassis cornuta Linnaeus, 1758 * Casmaria erinacea Casmaria ponderosa Cypraecassis rufa (Linnaeus, 1758) * Phalium areola Phalium canaliculatum Phalium imbria (Gmelin, 1791) * Phalium glaucum Linnaeus, 1758 * Family: Ranellidae Apollon gyrinum (Linnaeus, 1758) * Charonia tritonis Linnaeus, 1758 * Cymatium cingulatum Cymatium kleineri Cymatium lotorium Cymatium muricinum Cymatium perryi Emmerson & Old, 1963 * Cymatium rubeculum Cymatium spengleri Cymatium (Cymatriton) nicobaricum Roding, 1798 * Cymatium (Gelagna) clandestina Cymatium (Ranularia) pyrum Cymatium (Ranularia) retusum Lamarck, 1822 * Cymatium (Septa) aquatile Reeve, 1844 * Cymatium (Septa) pileare Linnaeus, 1758 * Distorsio anus Linnaeus, 1758 * Distorsio reticulata Roding, 1798 * Family: Tonnidae Malea pomum Tonna canaliculata (Linnaeus, 1758) * Tonna dolium (Linnaeus, 1758) * Tonna galea Linnaeus, 1758 Tonna perdix Tonna sulcosa Tonna tessalata Family: Ficidae Ficus icus Ficus subintermedius (d’Orbigny, 1852) * Ficus variegatus Röding, 1798 * Family: Epitoniidae Epitonium (Gyroscala) perplexum Deshayes * Family: Janthinidae Janthina globosa Swainson, 1822 * Janthina janthina Linnaeus, 1758 * Family: Eulimidae Eulima sp. 1 * Thyca crystallina (Gould, 1846) * Family: Coralliophilidae Coralliophila neritoidea Lamarck, 1816 * Coralliophila pyriformis Kira * Magilus sp. Rapa bulbiformis Family: Muricidae Chicoreus brunneus Link, 1807 * Chicoreus palmarosae Lamarck, 1822 * Chicoreus ramosus (Linnaeus, 1758) * Chicoreus saulii Soweby, 1841 * Chicoreus torrefactus (Sowerby, 1841) * Chicoreus virgineus Röding * 388 Haustellum haustellum (Linnaeus, 1758) * Haustellum kiiensis (Kuroda in Kira, 1959 * Murex pecten Lightfoot, 1786 * Murex racemosa Murex ternispina Lamarck, 1822 * Murex tribulus Linnaeus, 1758 * Subfamily: Rapaninae Cymia lacera (Born, 1778) * Drupa morum Drupa ricina Linnaeus, 1758 * Drupella fusconigra Drupella ochrostoma var. spectrum (Blainville) / (Reeve) * Drupella rugosa (Born, 1778) * Mancinella mancinella (Linnaeus, 1758) * Morula granulata (Duclos, 1832) * Morula serrialis (Laborde?) * Morula (Cronia) margariticola Broderip, 1832 * Morula sp. 1 * Morula sp. 2 * Purpurea persica (Linnaeus, 1758) * Rapana rapiformis (Born, 1778) * Thais tissoti Petit, 1852 * Thais (Mancinella) bufo (Lamarck, 1822) * Thais mutabilis * Family: Buccinidae Babylonia spirata Linnaeus, 1758 * Babylonia zeylanica Bruguiere, 1789 * Cantharus (Pollia) fumosus Dillwyn, 1817 * Cantharus tranquebaricus Cantharus (Pollia) undosus Linnaeus, 1758 * Cantharus sp. 1 * Engina melanozona Tomlin * Engina pulchra Engina zonata Engina sp. 1 * Engina sp. 2 * Phos senticosus (Linnaeus, 1758) Phos textum * Family: Columbellidae Pyrene lava Bruguiere, 1789 * Pyrene lavida Pyrene terpsichore Lamarck* Pyrene testudinaria (Link, 1807) * Pyrene turturina Pyrene versicolor (Sowerby, 1832) * Family: Fasciolariidae Fusinus longicaudatus (Lamarck, 1822) * Fusinus nicobaricus Röding, 1798 * Hemipolygona amaliae (Kuster & Kobelt, 1874) * Latirus gibbulus (Gmelin, 1791) * Latirus polygonus Gmelin, 1791 * Latirolagena smaragdula Peristernia nassatula Pleuroploca ilamentosa Röding, 1798 * Pleuroploca persica (Reeve, 1847) * Pleuroploca trapezium Linnaeus, 1758 * Turrilatirus craticulatus (Linnaeus, 1758) * Turrilatirus turritus (Gmelin, 1791) * Family: Melongenidae Pugilina cochlidium Linnaeus, 1758 * Family: Nassariidae Alectrion suturalis Bullia vittata Linnaeus * Bullia sp. 1 * Nassa francolinus Nassarius albescens (Dunker, 1846) * Nassarius bicolor Dunker * Nassarius gaudiosus (Hinds, 1844) * Nassarius hepaticus (Montagu) * Nassarius cf. livescens Philippi * Nassarius pallidulus (Adams) * Nassarius pullus (Linnaeus, 1758) * Nassarius sp. 1 * Nassarius (Zeuxis) dorsatus (Röding, 1798) * Zeuxis olivaceus Zeuxis (Telasco) reeveanus f. velatus (Gould) * Zeuxis sp. 1 * Zeuxis sp. 2 * Family: Harpidae Harpa armouretta Harpa davidis Röding, 1798 * Harpa harpa (Linnaeus, 1758) * Harpa major Röding, 1798 * Family: Marginellidae Marginella angustata Marginella strigata Marginella sp. 1 Volvarina angustata Sowerby, 1846 * Family: Mitridae Chrysame anbigua Chrysame chrysalis Chrysame eremitarum Chrysame ferruginea Mitra (Strigatella) litterata Lamarck, 1811 * Mitra mitra Mitra (Mitra) papalis Linnaeus, 1758 * Mitra cf. pellisserpentes Reeve, 1844 * Mitra sp. * Mitropifex crebrillirata 389 Conus (Cylinder) natalis Sowerby Conus (Cylinder) textile Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Darioconus) episcopus Hwass, 1793 Conus (Darioconus) omaria Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Darioconus) pennaceus Born, 1758 Conus (Dauciconus) augur Lightfoot, 1786 * Conus (Dauciconus) litoglyphus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Dauciconus) vitulinus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Gastridium) geographus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Gastridium) obscurus Sowerby, 1833 Conus (Hermes) nussatella Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Hermes) terebra Born, 1780 * Conus (Leptoconus) amadis Gmelin 1791 * Conus (Leptoconus) generalis Linnaeus, 1767 * Conus (Leptoconus) monile Hwass, 1792 Conus (Lithoconus) eburneus Hwass, 1792 Conus (Lithoconus) leopardus Roding, 1798 * Conus (Lithoconus) litteratus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Lithoconus) tessulatus Born, 1778 * Conus (Pionoconus) pertusus Hwass, 1792 Conus (Puncticulis) arenatus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Puncticulis) pulicarius Hwass, 1792 Conus (Puncticulis) zeylanicus Gmelin, 1791 * Conus (Regiconus) aulicus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Rhizoconus) capitaneus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Rhizoconus) miles Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Rhizoconus) mustelinus Hwass, 1792 Conus (Rhizoconus) rattus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Rhizoconus) vexillum Gmelin, 1791 Conus (Rhombus) zonatus Hwass, 1782 Conus (Stephanoconus) varius Linnaeus, 1758 Conus (Strioconus) striatus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Textilia) nimbus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Virgiconus) lavidus Lamarck, 1810 Conus (Virgiconus) virgo Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Virroconus) ceylanensis Bruguiere, 1792 * Conus (Virroconus) coronatus Gmelin 1791 * Conus (Virroconus) chaldaeus Röding, 1798 Conus (Virroconus) distans Hwass, 1792 Conus (Virroconus) ebraeus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Virroconus) lividus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Virroconus) musicus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Virroconus) piperatus Dilwyn, 1817 Tiara loccata Tiara isabella Tiara morchi Family: Olividae Agaronia cinnamomea Agaronia nebulosa (Lamarck, 1811) * Agaronia (?) sp. 1 * Ancilla (?) sp. 1 * Oliva annulata Gmelin, 1791 * Oliva bulbosa Röding, 1798 * Oliva erythrostoma Oliva miniacea Oliva oliva Linnaeus, 1758 * Oliva ornata Oliva paxillus Reeve, 1850 * Oliva reticulata Röding, 1798 * Oliva sericea Oliva sidelia Duclos, 1835 * Oliva textilina Lamarck, 1811 * Oliva tremulina Lamarck, 1811 * Oliva vidua Röding, 1798 * Olivancillaria gibbosa Born * Olivancillaria hiatula Olivancillaria steeriae Family: Turbinellidae Turbinella pyrum (Linnaeus, 1758) * Turbinella pyrum f. napus Lamarck,1822 * Family: Volutidae Melo melo Lightfoot, 1786 * Voluta (Harpulina) arausiaca Lightfoot, 1876 * Voluta (Harpulina) lapponica (Linnaeus, 1767) * Voluta (Lyria) cloveriana Weaver, 1963 * Voluta magniica Family: Cancellariidae Cancellaria scalarina Trigonostoma trigonostoma Family: Conidae Conus (?) sp. 1 * Conus (?) sp. 2 * Conus (Asprella?) sp. 3 * Conus (Chelyconus) achatinus Gmelin, 1791 Conus (Chelyconus) catus Hwass, 1792 Conus (Conusprella) sowerbyi Conus (Cleobula)betulinus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Cleobula) igulinus Linnaeus, 1758 * Conus (Cleobula) igulinus loroisii Kiener * Conus (Cleobula) suratensis Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Conus) nicobaricus Hwass, 1792 * Conus (Cylinder) abbas Hwass, 1792 * Family: Terebridae Abretiella cerithina Cinguloterebra serotina Impages hectica Linnaeus, 1758 * Myurella pretiosa Terebra commaculata Terebra crenulata Linnaeus, 1758 * Terebra dimidiata Linnaeus, 1758 * Terebra (Duplicaria) duplicata Linnaeus * Terebra guttata Roding, 1798 * Terebra maculata Linnaeus, 1758 * Terebra stylata Hinds, 1844 * 390 Terebra subulata Linnaeus, 1767 * Terebra sp. 1 Triplostephanus lima Family: Turridae Family: Acteonidae Maxacteon fabreanus (Crosse, 1874) * Solidula solidula Linnaeus, 1758 * Family: Hydatinidae Brachytoma crenularis Lophiotoma acuta Perry, 1811 * Lophiotoma indica Röding, 1798 * Turris undosa Turricula javana (Linnaeus, 1767) * Unedogemmula unedo Xenoturris cingulifera (Lamarck, 1822) * Hydatina physis Linnaeus, 1758 * Hydatina velum Family: Architectonicidae Haminoea crocata Pease, 1860 * Haminoea cymbalum * Architectonica laevigatum Lamarck, 1861 * Architectonica perspectiva (Linnaeus, 1758) * Haliacus variagatus Philippia hybrida Family: Bullidae Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758 * Family: Haminoeidae Family: Siphonariidae Amathina tricarinata (Linnaeus, 1758) * Siphonaria cf. acmaeoides Pilsbury * Siphonaria alternata Say, 1826 * Siphonaria atra Siphonaria javanica (Lamarck, 1819) * Family: Pyramidellidae Family: Ellobiidae Otopleura auriscati Holten, 1802 * Cassidula nucleus (Gmelin, 1791) * Ellobium gangeticum (Pfeiffer, 1855) * Melampus fasciatus (Deshayes, 1830) * Melampus sp. 1 * Pythia plicata (Ferrusac) Gray, 1825 * Family: Amathinidae 391 Part 2: Provisional Checklist of Species of Bivalves in Sri Lanka Family: Arcidae Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus Anadara complanata (Chemnitz) Anadara clathrata (Reeve) Anadara granosa (Linnaeus, 1758)* Anadara lateralis (Reeve)* Anadara maculosa (Reeve) Anadara nodifera (Martens, 1860)* Anadara pilula Reeve Anadara satowi Dunker* Anadara sp. ‘Wellawatte’* Anadara cf. troscheli * Arca arabica Philippi Arca bistrigata Dunker Arca lienosa Arca navicularis Bruguiere, 1789* Arca sp. 1* Arca sp. 2* Arca sp. 3* Arca sp. 4* Arca sp. 5* Arca sp. 6* Arca ventricosa Lamarck, 1819* Arca (Trisodos) tortuosa (Linnaeus, 1758)* Barbatia foliata (Forsskal,1775)* Barbatia fusca (Bruguiere, 1789)* Barbatia sp. 1* Barbatia sp. 2* Barbatia sp. 3* Barbatia sp. 4* Barbatia virescens (Reeve)* Barbatia virescens obtusoides (Nyst)* Scapharca inaequivalvis (Bruguière, 1789)* Family: Cucullaeidae Cucullaea labiata (Lightfoot, 1786) Family: Glycymerididae Glycymeris oblingus (Reeve)* Glycymeris rotunda (Dunker) Glycymeris sp. 1* Family: Mytilidae Brachiodontes sp. 1* Brachiodontes sp. 2* Brachiodontes sp. 3* Lithophaga cinnamomea (Lamarck) Lithophaga cf. lima (Lamy)* Lithophaga nigra (d’Orbigny) Lithophaga teres (Philippi, 1846)* Modiolus auriculatus (Krauss, 1848)* Modiolus philippinarum Hanley, 1843* Modiolus metcalfei (Hanley) Modiolus tulipa (Lamarck) Modiolus cf. micropterus (Deshayes, 1836)* Modiolus sp. 1* Musculus (Reynella) cupreus (Gould)* Mytilus sp. 1 * Perna perna (Linnaeus, 1758) * Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758)* Septifer bilocularis Linnaeus, 1758* Septifer virgatus (Wiegmann)* Septifer (?) sp. 1 (Wellawatte 5.9.2010)* Family: Isognomonidae Isognomon ephippium (Linnaeus) Isognomon isognomum (Linnaeus, 1758)* Isognomon perna Linnaeus, 1767* Family: Malleidae Malleus albus Lamarck, 1819* Malleus malleus Linnaeus, 1758* Malleus sp.* Vulsella vulsella (Linnaeus, 1758)* Family: Pteriidae Electroma (Pterelectroma) zebra (Reeve, 1857)* Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758)* Pinctada radiata (Leach, 1814)* Pteria brevialata (Dunker, 1872)* Pteria inquinata (Reeve)* Pteria penguin (Roding, 1758)* “Pteria” sp.* Family: Pinnidae Atrina pectinata (Linnaeus) Atrina vexillum (Born, 1778)* Pinna bicolor Gmelin* Pinna muricata Linnaeus Streptopinna saccata (Linnaeus) Family: Limidae Ctenoides ales (Finley, 1927)* Ctenoides annulata Lamarck* Lima vulgaris (Link, 1807)* Limaria basilanica (Adams & Reeve, 1950)* Limaria fragilis (Gmelin, 1791)* Family: Gryphaeidae Hyotissa hyotis (Linnaeus, 1758)* Family: Ostreidae Crassostrea belcheri (Sowerby)* 392 Crassostrea cf. madrasensis (Preston)?* Crassostrea sp. 1* Crassostrea cf. gryphoides (Scholtheim, 1813)* Dendostrea folium (Linnaeus, 1758)* Lopha cristagalli Linnaeus, 1578* Ostrea sp. 1* Ostrea sp. 2* Ostrea sp. 3* Saccostrea cucullata (Born, 1778)* Saccostrea mordax (Gould, 1850)* Family: Chamidae Family: Pectinidae Diplodonta rotundata (Montagu, 1803)* Diplodonta semiasperatoides Nomura Amusium pleuronectes (Linnaeus) Chlamys irregularis Sowerby Chlamys senatorius Gmelin, 1791* Chlamys (Excellichlamys) spectabilis Reeve, 1853* Chlamys (Mimachlamys) nobilis Reeve* Chlamys gloriosus Reeve Chalmys pelseneeri Dautzenberg & Bavay Chlamys pyxidata (Born) Chlamys tranquebarica (Gmelin) Chlamys sp. 1* Decatopecten striatus (Schumacher, 1817)* Pecten (Cryptopecten) pallium Linnaeus, 1758* Pecten nodosus Linnaeus Pecten townsendi Sowerby ? Pecten sp. 1* ? Plicatula sp. 2* Chama dunkeri Lischke* Chama fragum Reeve* Chama lazarus Linnaeus, 1758* Chama pulchella Reeve, 1846* Chama relexa Reeve, 1846* Family: Lucinidae Codakia punctata (Linnaeus) Family: Ungulinidae Family: Carditidae Cardita bicolor Lamarck* Cardita crassicosta (Lamarck, 1819)* Cardita variegata Bruguiere, 1792* Cardita sp. Family: Crassatellidae ? Eucrassatella sp. 1* Family: Cardiidae Anomia achaeus Gray Afrocardium latum (Born)* Afrocardium setosum (Redfern)* Fragum hemicardium (Linnaeus, 1758)* Fulvia australis I(Sowerby) Fulvia asiatica (Bruguière) Laevicardium biradiatum (Bruguiere, 1789)* Laevicardium sp. 2* Laevicardium sp. 3* Laevicardium sp. 4* Nemocardium lyratum (Soweby, 1841)* Trachycardium angulatum (Lamarck, 1822)* Trachycardium elongatum Bruguière, 1789* Trachycardium enode (Sowerby), 1841* Trachycardium lavum (Linnaeus, 1758)* Trachycardium sp. 1* Vasticardium lacunosum (Reeve)* Vasticardium rubicundum (Reeve) Vasticardium arenicola (Reeve) Vasticardium lavum (Linnaeus) Vasticardium assimile (Reeve) Vepricardium asiaticum (Bruguière, 1792)* Undetermined genus* Family: Placunidae Sub-family Tridacninae Placuna placenta (Linnaeus)* Tridacna maxima (Röding)* Family: Unionidae Family: Mactridae Lamellidens lamellatus (Lea, 1838)* Lamellidens testudinarius (Spengler, 1793)* Parreysia corrugata (Müller, 1774)* Lutraria arcuata Reeve* Mactra complanata Deshayes Family: Spondylidae Spondylus imperialis* Spondylus layardi Reeve Spondylus nicobaricus Schreibers Spondylus versicolor Schreibers,1793* Spondylus cf. barbatus* Spondylus cf. cruentus Lishke* Spondylus cf. marisrubri Roding* Spondylus sp. 1* Spondylus sp. 2* Spondylus sp. 3* Spondylus sp. 4* Spondylus sp. 5* Family: Anomiidae 393 Mactra cuneata Chemnitz Mactra mera Reeve* Mactra ornata Gray, 1836* Mactra lurida (Philippi) * Mactra turgida Gmelin Mactra sp. 1* Mactra sp. 2* Mactra sp. 3* Mactrinula laevis (Chemnitz) Oxyperas bernardi (Pilsbury)* Oxyperas triangularis (Lamarck)* Spisula sp. Macoma bruguierei Hanley* Tellina angulata Gmelin Tellina coarctata Philippi Tellina palatan (Iredale, 1929)* Tellina remies Linnaeus, 1758* Tellina timorensis (Lamarck, 1818)* Tellina cf. virgata Linnaeus, 1758* Tellinimactra sp. 1* Family: Pharidae Family: Corbiculidae Geloina coaxans (Gmelin, 1791)* Ensis sp. 1* Ensis sp. 2 Ensiculus philippinus (Dunker) Siliqua radiata Linnaeus, 1758* Family: Trapeziidae Trapezium rostrata Lamarck* Trapezium sp. 1* Superfamily: Veneroidea Family 33: Petricolidae Petricola (?) sp. 1* Family: Solenidae Solen brevis Gray, in Hanley,1842* Solen exiguus Dunker Solen lamarckii Deshayes, 1839* Solen roseomaculatus Pilsbury, 1901* Solen strictus Gould Family: Donacidae Donax cuneatus Linnaeus. 1758* Donax deltoides Lamarck, 1818* Donax faba Gmelin, 1791 * Donax scortum Linnaeus* Donax variabilis Say. 1822* Family: Psammobiidae Asaphis dichotoma (Anton) Gari elongata (Lamarck, 1818)* Gari maculosa (Lamarck, 1818)* Gari cf. sibogai Prashad* Gari sp. 1* Scutarcophagia linguafelis (Linnaeus) Soletellina diphos (Linnaeus, 1771)* Family: Semelidae Semele cordiformis (Holten, 1803)* Semele jukesi A. Adams, 1853* Semele radiata Ruppel Semele sp. 1* Semele (?) Sp. 2* Family: Solecurtidae Solecurtus exaratus Philippi Family: Tellinidae Gastrana polygona (Hanley) Family: Veneridae Antigona lamellaris Schumacher Anodontia edentula (Lin.) Anodontia ovum (Reeve) Anomalocardia donacina (Lamarck) Anomalocardia producta Kuroda & Habe Callanaitis disjecta Perry Callista erycina Linnaeus* Callista chinensis (Holten) Circe scripta Linnaeus* Dosinia biscocta (Reeve)* Dosinia cretacea (Reeve) Dosinia histrio (Gmelin, 1791)* Dosinia juvenilis Chemnitz Dosinia puella Angas Dosinia trigona (Reeve) Dosinia variegata (Gray) Ctene divergens (Philippi) Gafrarium dispar (Dillwyn)* Gafrarium divaricatum (Gmelin, 1791)* Gafrarium tumidum Roding, 1798* Lioconcha castrensis Linnaeus, 1758* Lioconcha dautzenbergi Prashad Lioconcha fastigiata Sowerby, 1851* Marcia hiantina (Lamarck, 1818)* Marcia opima (Gmelin, 1791)* Meretrix casta Gmelin* Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus, 1758)* Meretrix sp. ‘Rekawa’ ?casta* Mesodesma glabratum (Lamarck) Paphia alapapilionis Röding, 1798* Paphia amabilis Philippi Paphia exarata (Philippi)* Paphia gallus f. lentiginosa (Reeve, 1864)* Paphia textilis (Gmelin, 1791)* 394 Paphia sp. 1* Paphia sp. 2* Paphia sp. 3* Paphia sp. 4* Paphia sp. 5* Paphia sp. 6* Periglypta reticulata (Linnaeus, 1758)* Pitar ceylonensis (Sowerby) Pitar sulfureum (Pilsbury) Pitar striata (Gray) Sunetta effossa (Reeve, 1843)* Sunetta meröe (Schumacher) Sunetta scripta (Linnaeus)* Sunetta truncata (Deshayes, 1853)* Sunetta sp. 1* Sunetta sp. 2* Sunettina cf. solanderii (Gray, 1825)* Tapes deshayesi (Hanley) Tapes literatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Tapes radiata (Chemnitz)* Tapes sp. 1* Timoclea arakana (Nevill, 1871) * Timoclea marica Linnaeus* Venus toreuma Gould, 1851* Undetermined Gen. 1* Corbula sp. 1* Family: Corbulidae Family: Cuspidariidae Corbula sulcata Lamarck, 1801* Cuspidaria sp. 1* Family: Gastrochaenidae Gastrochaena sp. 1 * Gastrochaena sp. 2 * Gastrochaena sp. 3 * Family: Hiatellidae Hiatella arctica (Linnaeus, 1767)* Family: Pholadidae Martesia striata (Linnaeus, 1758)* Pholas orientalis (Gmelin, 1791)* Undetermined genus sp. 1* Family: Teredinidae “Teredo” sp. 1 + Family: Clavagellidae Brechites penis (Linnaeus, 1758)* Family: Periplomatidae Periploma (?) sp. 1* 395 Provisional Check List of the Marine Crustaceans (Arthropoda; Crustacea) in Sri Lanka Prasanna Weerakkody Introduction Sri Lanka is surrounded by the Indian Ocean. The shallow seas in the continental shelf region gently slope from sub-littoral zone to depths of around 30-50m, where it will begin to drop at a steep incline to depths of 600m to over 1000m. The width of the shelf from the shore line can vary from 5-15 km and connects with the Indian continental shelf in the Palk bay area. Beyond the Territorial seas, the Exclusive Economic Zone of the country claims a sea area of 200 nautical miles in extent except at the boundary it shares with India. The extent of the Territorial sea and the Exclusive Economic Zone of Sri Lanka stands at 21,500 Km2 and 517,000 Km2 respectively, the latter amounting to nearly 8 times the total land area of the country. Sri Lankan marine environment contain a diverse array of habitats that range from coastal shallows to deep oceanic and pelagic regions, on soft and hard bottoms as well. These habitats house a diverse assemblage of marine crustacean fauna. The marine crustaceans are a highly diverse group of invertebrates classiied under the Phyllum Arthropoda, and consists primarily of Marine and Aquatic forms. Indian shores contain about 3500 species of crustaceans and checklist published for the State of Tamil-nadu contains about 419 species. This paper aims to cover the marine crustacean fauna of the shallow seas and the oceanic epi-pelagic zones and does not cover the deep sea fauna of the region. The list is compiled by collecting available records speciied for Sri Lanka. The regional records were not considered during the compilation of this list. However, some species recorded in the Indian shores of the Palk Strait and Mannar basin were selectively included based on personal observations made by the author while diving in reef habitats or inspecting of incidental and ishing by-catch. Since the boundary of the estuarine species is not clearly deined, transitional zone fauna are also included in this list. The provisional checklist of marine crustaceans of Sri Lanka presented in this paper includes 742 species. Based on the probabilities of occurrence it is estimated that the total Sri Lankan Crustacean fauna would comprise of approximately 1500 species. Taxonomy Probably the most extensive collection of records on marine invertebrates of Sri Lanka is given in “Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar” by W. A. Herdman (1903-06). This list however needs to be revised and veriied based on the current information available on crustacean taxonomy and distribution that has resulted due to signiicant amount of work that has been carried out by regional scientists and Indian Ocean Explorations. Further, the commercially important crustacean species have been well studied across the region and information regarding this species can be found in the FAO species catalogues for the region. This paper is a preliminary effort at updating the list of Crustacea in Sri Lanka based on available information and should not be considered as a complete list as it may contain inadequacies. 396 Distribution Many Marine species including the Crustacea reproduce through release of eggs and larvae into the water column. The duration of time the larvae spend drifting in the ocean as plankton, existing pattern of currents and the ability to ind a suitable substrate for settlement will dictate the rate of dispersal of the species. Under favourable conditions sedentary species may cross deep oceans to settle on distant shores regularly. In addition to the demersal species, the Crustacea contain a large group of taxa that inhabit the Pelagic or open seas as part of the Plankton or Nekton throughout their lives and may inhabit and traverse large expanses of Oceanic waters and shores. Therefore, many marine species display wide distribution patterns occupying similar habitats across the region. Further, dispersal strategies of most marine species and the lack of hard ecological barriers prevent the establishment of endemic species in the marine environment. The Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar represent a shallow and narrow stretch of sea between the shores of Southern India and Sri Lanka. The general homogeneity of habitats across the shores of the two countries and their close proximity would make it highly probable that both shores would harbour a similar species assemblage. Threats Crustacea include species of commercial interest both as local food species and exploited for the export trade both as food and Ornamental species. While harvesting of Shrimps, Prawns and Crabs for local consumption is high, the most severe exploitation of Crustaceans occur due to the export industry. The spiny lobster isheries take place around the shores of Sri Lanka and have a signiicant impact on the wild populations. The population densities on exploited reefs have depleted signiicantly and on occasion they have reached near-extinction levels on certain reefs. Though regulations are in place for some species the populations are on the decline due to inadequate enforcement. The collection of high value ornamental species is causing signiicant reduction of reef Shrimps, Crabs, Hermit crabs Mantis shripms and Lobster species. The excessive collection of reef shrimp species that play an important role on the reef as cleaners of other species can result in a reduction of health of reef fauna and abandonment of sections of the reef by other animal species affecting the balance of the eco-system. However, habitat loss, including the degradation of coral reef environments, probably pose a greater threat to Marine Crustacean Diversity than that of direct extraction. Conservation Several species of Marine crustaceans are currently listed as Protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance. These include the Painted/Harlequin/Orchid Shrimp (Hymenocera elegans), Scarlet/Reef Lobsters in the genus Enoplometopus (E.ocedentalis ,E. debellius and E.holthuisi) and the Hairy-red/ White-spotted Orange Hermit-Crab (Dardanus megistos). However, providing legal protection to many species has not had a signiicant impact as on site enforcement is ineffective. Therefore, the unregulated harvest/extraction of many species of crustaceans tends to have signiicant impacts on their populations. 397 Most species of crustaceans still survive in the reefs located in the Northern and Eastern coast that were spared of human impacts for 3 decades due to the war. However, these reefs are also being subject to the same fate at present with the opening up of these areas after the end of the war. Therefore, study and conservation of these reefs and their diversity is of prime importance to ensure survival of these species and the crustacean bio-diversity of Sri Lanka. Conclusions and recommendations The Current level of knowledge on marine Crustacea is far from complete with signiicant gaps in the knowledge on many groups of taxa as well as the status of their populations. It is important to carry out detailed studies on the Sri Lankan Marine Crustacean fauna as early as possible as the populations are under threat both from excessive extraction as well as major habitat loss. Only a few studies have focussed on marine Crustacea of Sri Lanka. Further, most of the work carried out by local scientists to date focused mainly on commercially important food species. During the last 3 decades the diving scientists contributed signiicantly for the furthering of knowledge on marine natural habitats including marine crustacea. The extensive extraction of crustaceans as an export resource both as food and for the ornamental marine aquarium trade have also indirectly added to the knowledge of species in our waters. As in the case of most marine invertebrate fauna, a signiicant amount of work needs to be carried out to gain a better understanding of the true diversity of marine Crustaceans of Sri Lanka as well as their biology and conservation status. An effort has to be taken to effectively enforce the existing ishing regulations with a better mechanism for monitoring the eficiency of enforcement. Further, steps must be taken to phase out tightly regulate all wild collection of Marine ornamental species. The inancial beneits achieved through exploitation of ornamental species for export can be nulliied by the beneits that can be accrued from tourism and the ecosystem services that can be obtained by retaining healthy reefs. The greatest need however, is to conserve the critical marine habitats to ensure long term survival of our rich marine biodiversity. 398 Provisional Check List of the Marine Crustaceans Scientiic Name Scientiic Name Common Name Order: Pedunculata (Stalked barnacles) Family: Asteropidae Asterope oculata1 Family: Artemiidae Asterope quadrata1 Artrmia parthegenetica 22 Asterope arthuri1 Family: Lepadidae Lepas anserifera1 Lepas anatifera1 Lepas tenuivulvata 1 Goose Barnacle Cyclasterope similis1 Goose Barnacle Family: Vypridinidae Goose Barnacle Cypridina faveolata1 Dichelaspis equina1 Pyrocypris chiechiae1 Dichelaspis pellucida1 Paecilasma kempferi Codonocera crenulata1 1 Family: Sarsiellidae Sculpellum grurelli1 Sarsiella ornithoides1 Sculpellum alcockianum1 Sarsiella carinata1 Sculpellum squamiferum1 Sarsiella gracilis1 Sculpellum truncatum1 Sculpellum tenue1 Sarsiella similis1 Sculpellum sublavum1 Sarsiella crispata1 Conchoderma sp.41 Whale Barnacle Sarsiella tumida1 Order: Sessilia (Barnacles) Family: Halocyprididae Family: Chthamalidae Conchoecia magna1 Chthamalus challengeri10 Star Barnacles Conchoecia clausii1 Chthamalus stellatus1 Poli’s Stellate barnacle Conchoecia acuminata1 Halocypris concha1 Family: Tetraclitidae Family: Cypridae Tetraclita squamosa10 Acorn Barnacle Tetraclita serrata1 Macrocypris decora1 Volcano Barnacle Macrocypris orientalis1 Family: Balanidae Macrocypris similis1 Balanus tintinabulum1,10 Acorn Barnacle Balanus amphitrite1,10 Macrocypris maculata1 Acorn Barnacle Balanus amaryllis1,10 Pontocypris robusta1 Acorn Barnacle Balanus longirostrum10 Pontocypris elegans1 Acorn Barnacle Pontocypris rostrata1 Armatobalanus allium 1 Pontocypris tumida1 Armatobalanus terebratus1 Eurythorocypris herdmani1 Solidobalanus socialis1 Solidobalanus cilliatus Bairdia villosa1 1 Bairdia attenata1 Pyrgoma conjugtum1,10 Acorn Barnacle Bairdia woodwardiana1 Family: Cornulidae Chelonibia testudinaria Bairdia amygdaloides1 42 Bairdia faveolata1 Stephanolepas muricata42 Bairdia hirsuta1 Chelolepas cheloniae42 Bairdia inornata1 Family: Pygomatidae Creusia spinulosa1 Bairdia robusta1 Coral Barnacle Anchistrocheles bradyi1 Family Archaeobalanidae Acasta cyathus 1 Pseudocythere minuta1 Sponge barnacle Paradoxostoma cingalense1 Acasta funiculorum1 Paradoxostoma attenuatum1 399 Common Name Paradoxostoma stebbingi1 Xestolebris margaritea Family: Odontodactylidae 1 Xestolebris tumefacta1 Xestolebris aurentia1 Xestolebris variegata1 Odontodactylus scyllarus30,31 Peacock MantisShrimp Odontodactylus brevirostris1 Short-nose MantisShrimp Odontodactylus japonicus Xestolebris squamigera1 Family: Gonodactylidae Xestolebris irrasa1 Gonodactylus chiragra1 Smasher Shrimp Paracytheridea perplexa1 Gonodactylus smithii33 Purple-spot Smasher-Shrimp Cytherura concinna Gonodactylaceus glabrous1 Smasher Shrimp 1 Smasher Shrimp Xestolebris tumida1 1 Loxoconcha anomala1 Gonodactylopsis herdmani Loxoconcha alata1 Hoplosquilla acanthurus Loxoconcha papillosa1 1 Smasher Shrimp Family: Squillidae Loxoconcha sculpta1 Harpiosquilla indica41 Spearer MantisShrimp Harpiosquilla raphidea1 Spearer MantisShrimp Cythere inconspicua1 Oratosquilla sp.41 Mantis-Shrimp Cythere ovalis1 Family: Protosquillidae Loxoconcha australis1 Cythere bimammillata1 Cythere darwini 1 Cythere polytrema1 Rainbow Mantis Shrimp Pseudosquilla cillata1 Cythere rectangularis1 Haptosquilla trispinosa1 Cythere ruperti1 Chrlorisquilla spinosissima1 Cythere stimpsoni1 Cythere subcuneata1 Order:Mysida (Mysid shrimps) Cythere knoxi1 Family: Mysidae Cythere chalmersi1 Siriella paulsoni1 Mysid shrimp Cythere imthurni Haplostylus erythraeus1 Mysid shrimp 1 Cythere thompsoni1 Cythere donnani1 Order: Amphipoda (Amphipods) Cythere willeyi1 Family: Amaryllidae Cythere hornelli Cythere halyi Vijaya tenuipes11,12 1 1 Amphipod Family: Lysianassidae Cythere kelaarti1 Socarnella bonide12 Cythere willisi 1 Lysianassa cinghalens Cythere coletti Lysianassa coelochir12 Amphipod Orehomenella nana12 Amphipod 1 Cythere holdsworthi1 Amphipod 12 Amphipod Amphipod Family: Cytherellidae Tryphosa eucullata Cytherella ondaatjei Anonyx schmardae 12 1 12 Amphipod Cytherella vraspillaii1 Family: Ampeliscidae Order: Leptostraca Ampelisca tridens 12 Amphipod Family: Nebalidae Ampelisca scabries 12 Amphipod Nebalia bipes1 Ampelisca brevicornis 12 Amphipod Order: Stromatopoda (mantis shrimps) Ampelisca cyclops 12 Amphipod Ampelisca zamboangae12 Amphipod Family :Lysiosquillidae Lysiosquilla maculata30,31 Family: Haustoriidae Spearing / Zebra Mantis-Shrimp 400 Phtyischnopus herdmani 12 Amphipod Urothoe spinidigitus Amphipod 12 Photis longimanus12 Family: Argissidae Argissa hamatipes 12 Amphipod Photis nana Amphipod 12 Amphipod Family: Phoxocephalidae Cheriphotis megacheles12 Amphipod Paraphoxus unicirostrata Chevaria avriculae Amphipod 12 Amphipod Family: Amphilochidae Family: Ampithoidae Cyproidea ornata12 Ampithoe ramondi12 Amphipod Family: Leucothoidae 12 Amphipod Carapus abditus12 Amphipod Erichthonius macrodactylus Erichthonius brasillensis Stenothoe gallensis12 12 Amphipod Siphonocaetes orientalis12 Amphipod Amphipod Corophium triaenonyx Amphipod Podocerus laevis12 Amphipod 12 Amphipod Amphipod Cirolana willeyi11 12 Amphipod Amphipod Isopod Family: Taneidae Tanais gracilis1 Family: Eusiridae Eusiroides diplinyx12 Eusiroides orchomenipes Amphipod Family: Cirolanidae Family: Tironidae Amphipod 12 Isopod Heterotanais crassicornis1 Isopod Leptochelia mirabilis 1 Isopod 1 Isopod Leptochelia lifuensis Family: Atylidae Atylus grannulosa12 Amphipod Family: Anthuridae Calathura sp.1 Family: Gammaridae 12 Melita obtusata12 12 Maera subcarinata12 12 Maera inaequipes 12 Order: Isopoda (Isopods) Periculodes serra12 Maera tenella 12 Podocerus brasillensis Family: Oedicerotidae Maera othonidea Amphipod Podocerus zeylanicus Family: Liljborgidae Melita fresnelli 12 Family: Podoceridae Colomastix pusilla12 Tiron Thompsoni Amphipod Amphipod Family: Colomastigidae Liljborgia pallida Amphipod 12 12 Family: Anamyxidae Stenothoe monoculoides Amphipod Family: Corophidae Leucothoe spinicarpa12 Leucothoe funima 12 Isopod Amphipod Family: Gnathiidae Amphipod Gnathia insolita1 Amphipod Family: Eurydicidae Amphipod Cirolana sulcaticaudata1 Isopod Amphipod Cirolana parva Isopod Isopod 1 Amphipod Conilopheus herdmani Ceradocus rubromaculatus12 Amphipod Elasmopus spinimanus12 Amphipod Hansenolana sphaeromiformis1 Elasmopus pectinicrus12 Amphipod Family: Agarthonidae Elasmopus dubius12 Amphipod Agarthona normani1 Parelasmopus suluensis12 Amphipod 12 Lanochira gardineri 1 Isopod Isopod Isopod 1 Isopod Family: Dexamanidae Lanochira zeylanica Isopod Dexamine serraticrus Family: Aegidae Polycheria atolli 12 Amphipod Aega ommatophylax1 Amphipod Rocinela orientalis Family: Melphidippidae Hornella incerta 12 Family: Aoridae Amphipod Lembos chelatus12 Amphipod 1 Isopod Rhiothra callipia1 Isopod 1 Isopod Irona nanaoides Nerocila sigani Eurytheus atlanticus12 Family: Sphyromidae Photis longicaudata Isopod Anilocra dimidiata1 Family: Photidae 12 Isopod Family: Cymothoidae Amphipod Lembos podoceroides12 1 Amphipod 18 Sphyroma walkeri1 Amphipod 401 Isopod Isopod Cilicaea latreillii1 Cilicaea whiteleggei Isopod 1 Cilicaea beddardi1 Isopod Parapenaeopsis sculptilis Isopod Parapenaeopsis stylifera3 Kiddi Shrimp Parapenaeopsis tenella3 Smoothshell Shrimp Parapenaeopsis uncta3 Uncta Snrimp Cymodoce bicarinata1 Isopod Cymodoce inornata1 Isopod Family: Amesopodidae Amesopous richardsonae1 Parapenaeus longipes Isopod Family: Idoteidae Idotea sp.1 Family: Astacillidae Isopod Family: Janiridae Janira nana1 Isopod Jaeropsis curvicornis1 Isopod Flamingo Shrimp 3 Indian White Shrimp Peneus merguiensis3 Banana Prawn Penaeus canaliculatus3 Witch Prawn Penaeus latisulcatus3 Western Kingprawn Giant Tiger Prawn Penaeus monodon3 Penaeus semisulcatus Faamily: Stenetriidae Penaeus japonicus Stenetrium chiltoni1 Rainbow Shrimp 3 Peneus indicus3 Isopod Astacilla amblyurna1 Dwarf Shrimp Parapenaeopsis nana3 Isopod Green Tiger Prawn 3 43 Trachypenaeus cavirostris3 Family: Munnidae Trachypenaeus granulosus Pleurocope dasyura1 Cocktail Shrimp 3 Isopod Malayan Rough Shrimp Trachypenaeus sedili3 Family: Ligiidae Sea Slater /Sea roach Ligia exotica1 Family: Solenoceridae Solenocera choprai4 Ridgeback Shrimp Solenocera crassicornis4 Coastal Mud Shrimp Deep Sea Mud Shrimp Order: Euphausiacea (Krill) Family: Euphausiidae Euphausia sibogae24 Krill Euphausia paragibba11 Krill Solenocera hexii4 Euphausia mutica1 Krill Family: Sergastidae Euphausia latifrons1 Krill Nematoscelis microps 1 Krill Order: Decapoda (Prawns, shrimps) Atypopeneus stenodactylus3 Periscope Shrimp Metapenaeops hilarula3 Minstrel Shrimp Metapenaeops mogiensis3 Velvet Shrimp Metapenaeops stridulans3 Fiddler Shrimp Metapenaeops toloensis3 Tolo Velvet Shrimp Metapenaeus afinis3 Jinga Shrimp Metapenaeus dobsoni Metapenaeus elegans3 Fine Shrimp Metapenaeus ensis3 Greasyback Shrimp Metapenaeus monoceros 3 Jawla paste Shrimp Acetes eurythaeus4 Tsivakihini paste Shrimp Acetes sibogei4 Acetes johni4 Leucifer typus4 Family: Stenopodidae Kadal Shrimp Metapenaeus lysianassa 3 Acetes indicus4 Acetes japonicus4 Family: Penaeidae 3 Coarse Shrimp Stenopus hispidus41 Banded Boxing Shrimp Stenopus cyanoscelis41 Blue-legged Boxing shrimp Stenopus zanzibaricus41 Zanzibar Boxing Shrimp Stenopus goyi41 Bird Shrimp Kalpitiya boxing shrimp Stenopus sp.41 Speckled Shrimp Moyebi Shrimp Family: Palaemoninae Parapenaeopsis acclivirostris3 Hawknose Shrimp Macrobrachium rosenbergii3 Giant River Prawn Parapenaeopsis cornuta3 Coral Shrimp Parapenaeopsis coromandelica3 Coromandel Shrimp Macrobrachium equidens3 Rough River Prawn Metapenaeus moyebi 3 Parapenaeopsis maxillipedo3 Hairy River Prawn Macrobrachium rude3 Macrobrachium latimanus Torpedo Shrimp 402 4 Monsoon River Prawn Alpheus malleodigitatus1 Expalaemon stylifer3 Rushna Shrimp Alpheus spongiarum1 Nematopalaemon tenuipes4 Spider Prawn Alpheus paralcyone1 Macrobrachium malcomsoni 4 Brachycarpus biunguiculatus18 Alpheus miersi1 Urocaridella antonbruunii Alpheus pareuchirus1 32 Bristle Snapping Shrimp Flathead Snapping Shrimp Family: Pontoininae Alpheus bi-incisus 1 Periclimenes imperator32 Emperor Shrimp Periclimenes brevicarpalis32 Peacock-tail Anemone Shrimp Periclimenes magniicus32 Anemone shrimp Periclimenes holthuisi32 Purple spotted cleaner Shrimp Synalpheus laticeps1 Periclimenes soror32 Sea star Shrimp Synalpheus biunguiculatus1 Periclimenes tenuipes Alpheus edwardsii1 Alpheus malabaricus1 Caulilower coral snapping shrimp Alpheus lottini1 Synalpheus comatulorum1 32 Periclimenes psamathe32 Synalpheus neomeris1 Periclimenes incertus18 Synalpheus carinatus1 Periclimenes spp. Athanas nitescens1 41 Stegopontonia commensalis32 Athanas orientalis1 White Striped Urchin Shrimp Potamalpheops galle23 Vir phillippinus32 Family: Crangonidae Coralliocaris viridis18 Coral shrimp Aegaeon cataphractus1 Coralliocaris sp.41 Family: Hippolytidae Jocuste lucina18 Harpiliopsis beaupresii 18 Harpiliopsis depressa18 Kamponia elegans18 Kamponia grandis18 Kamponia tenuipes18 Family: Pandalidae Heterocarpus woodmasoni3 Indian Nylon Shrimp Family: Atyidae Lysmata debellius41 Scarlet Cleaner Shrimp Lysmata vittata41,1 Pepermint Cleaner Shrimp Saron marmorata41,1 Marbled Shrimp Saron neglectus41 Spotted Marbled Shrimp Marbled Shrimp 41 Heptacarpus futilirostris Family: Rhynchocinetidae Ambon Shrimp 1 Latreutes ceylonensis1 Camel / HingeRhynchocinetus durbanensis41 beak shrimp Family: Gnathophyllidae Gnathophyllum americanum41 Uniform-hingebeak Shrimp Family: Hymnoceridae Henderson’s Hingebeak Shrimp Hymenocera elegans41 Bumblebee Shrimp Painted/ Orchid/ Harlequin Shrimp Family: Thalasssinidea Family: Alphaedae Alpheus soror Lysmata amboinensis41 Thor amboinensis Caradina vitiensis1 hendersoni Hunter Shrimp Peppermint Cleaner Shrimp Saron spp.41 Atyopsis moluccensis Cinetorhynchus concolor41 Exhippolysmata ensirostris3 23 Thalassina anomala8 Mub Lobster Alpheus fasqueli23 Fasquel’s snapping shrimp. Family: Palinuridae Panulirus ornatus3 Alpheus tricolor23 Three-colored snapping shrimp. Ornate Spiny Lobster Alpheus bellulus41 Tiger Pistol Shrimp Panulirus versicolor3 Painted Spiny Lobster Panulirus longipes3 Longlegged Spiny lobster Alpheus ideocheles1 403 Scalloped Spiny lobster Family: Diogenidae Panulirus homarus3 Panulirus penicilliatus3 Pronghorn Spiny Lobster Aniculus maximus41 Panulirus polyphagus3 Mud Spiny Lobster Dardanus magistos41 Puerulus sewelli3 Arabian Whip lobster Dardanus logopodes41 Aniculus aniculus (?)41 Dardanus pedunculatus Family: Scyllaridae Red Hermit Crab Hairy red Hermit Crab Hare Hermit Crab 41 Parribacus antarcticus3 Sculptured Mitten Lobster Dardanus guttatus41 Blue-knee Hermit Crab Scyllarus batei3 Soft locust Lobster Dardanus gemmatus41 Jewelled hermit crab Scyllarus martensii3 Striated locust Lobster Dardanus setifer41 Thenus orientalis3 Flathead Lobster Dardanus deformis5 Family: Nephropidae Enoplometopus occidentalis41 Red Reef lobster Enoplometopus holthuisi41 Holthuis’s Reef Lobster Enoplometopus debellius41 Debellius’s reef Lobster Diogenes diogenes5 Diogenes miles5 Diogenes custos5 Diogenes costatus5 Trizopagurus kremi5 Calcinus herbsti5 Family: Galatheidae Uroptchas bacillimanus9 Squat lobster Uroptchas indicus9 Squat lobster Uroptchas nonophrys9 Squat lobster Calcinus gaimardi41 Yellow antennae hermit Crab Calcinus laevimanus41 Left-handed Hermit Crab Seurat’s hermit Crab Agononida prolixa9 Squat lobster Allogalethea elegans9 Squat lobster Calcinus seurati41 Squat lobster Calcinus taeniatus41 Galacantha bellis9 Galathea australensis Squat lobster 9 Galathea corallicola9 Squat lobster Munida japonica9 Squat lobster Munida microps Pale hermit Crab Dardanus aspar5 Squat lobster 9 Calcinus virescens41 Greenish Hermit Crab Calcinus latens41 Hidden Hermit Crab Munidopsis antonil9 Squat lobster Calcinus morgani41 Munidopsis bairdii9 Squat lobster Paguristes incomitatus41 Munidopsis edwardsii9 Squat lobster Munidopsis sinclari9 Squat lobster Munidopsis spissata9 Squat lobster Munidopsis wardeni9 Squat lobster Raymunida elegantissima9 Squat lobster clibanarius pedavensis5 Family: Porcellanidae Ancylocheles gravelei7 White inger Hermit Crab clibanarius longitarsus5 Long-legged Hermit Crab clibanarius striolatus5 Ribbed Hermit Crab clibanarius merguiensis5 Porcellaine crab Porcellaine crab Petrolisthes ornatus7 Neopetrolisthes maculatus clibanarius bimaculatus41 41 clibanarius cruentatus41 Porcellaine crab Spotted Black Hermit crab clibanarius aequabilis7 Family: Hippidae Emerita asiatica41 Mole Crab Family: Paguridae Emerita rathbunae ?41 Mole Crab Pagurus sp.41 Hermit crab Paguritta spp.41 Coral boring hermits” Family: Cenobitidae Cenobita rugosa41 Stridulating Land Hermit Crab Cenobita c.f. perlates41 Strawberry Land hermit crab Family: Dromiidae Dromia dromia6 Dromia Intermedia1 404 Dromia dehanni14 Urnalena haematosticta1 Sponge crab Dromiopsis australensis1 Hiplyra platycheir1 Cryptodromia canaliculata1 Hiplyra adamsi1 Cryptodromia bullifera1 Hiplyra elegans19 Cryptodromia demani1 Philyra globus1 Cryptodromia hilgendori1 Pseudophilyra tridentata1 Cryptodromia gilesi1 Pseudophilyra melita1 Conchaecetus artiiciosus1 Heterolithadia fallax1 Conchaecetus andamanicus1 Arcania gracilis1 Family: Raninnidae Arcania erinaceus1 Rannina ranina14 Arcania tuberculata1 Spanner Crab Notosceles serratifrons1 Ixa pulcherrima1 Family: Dorippidae Ixa cylindrus1 Notopus dorsipes1 Dorippoides facchino 1 =Dorippe dorsipes Family: Majidae =Dorippe facchino Sunipea indicus1 Menaethius monoceros41 Family: Calappidae Calappa calappa41 Giant Box Crab Schizophrys aspera6 Calappa lophos2 Box Crab Paramithrax aculeatus6 Calappa gallus2 Lumpy Box Crab Hyastenus plannasius6 Calappa hepatica2 Reef Box Crab Maja proteus1 Calappa capellonis2 Box Crab Micippa philyra1 Calappa japonica41 Box Crab Micippa thalia1 Calappa phillargius 2 Box Crab Micippa margaritifera1 Mursia bicristimana1 Micippa parca1 Cyloes marisrubri1 Schizophrys aspera1 Family: Matutidae Cyclax suborbicularis1 Matuta planipes41 moon Crab Phalangipus arachnoides1 Matuta victor2 moon Crab Pseudomicippe nodosa1 Ashtoret lunaris41 moon Crab Rochinia sp.14 Spider crab moon Crab Hyas araneus14 Spider crab moon Crab Family: Inachidae Ashtoret miersii 2 Ashtoret picta2 Achaeus lacertosus1 Family: Leucosidae Leucosia pubescens6 Pebble Crab Achaeus dubia1 Leucosia anatum1 Pebble Crab Oncinopus aranea1 Myra afinis15 Pebble Crab Paratymolus hastatus1 Myra brevimanna15 Pebble Crab Camposcia retusa1 Myra fugax Pebble Crab Family: Epialtidae Pebble Crab Xenocarcinus tuberculatus1 15 Myrine kesslerii 15 Cryptocnemus holdsworthi1 Simocarcinus simplex1 Oreotlos havelocki1 Menaethius monoceros1 Nursia plicata1 Acanthonyx scutellatus1 Nursia lar1 Hyastenus pleione1 Ebalia diadumenna1 Nut Crab Hyastenus hilgendori1 Ebalia maldiviensis1 Nut Crab Hyastenus convexus1 Euclosiana obtusifrons1 Hyastenus brockii1 Coleusia urania1 Naxioides hirtas1 Urnalena cumingi1 Naxiodes investigatoris1 Doclea rissoni1 405 Decorator crab Doclea alcocki1 Family: Atelecyclidae Tylocarcinus styx 1 Family: Hymenosomatidae Trachycarcinus ovalis2 Elamena cristatipes6 Family: Corystidae Elamena sindens13 Elamena truncata Gomeza bicornis1 1 Twin-Horn Helmut Crab Family: Thiidae Elamenopsis woodmasoni13 Palapedia integra Elamenopsis tuberculata13 Family: Portunidae Family: Aethridae Aethera scruposa2,16 Twin horn Helmut Crab Catoptrus nitidus1,2 Stone Crab Lissocarcinus laevis1,2 Drachiella sculpta1 Lissocarcinus orbicularis1,2 Family: Parthinopidae Cryptopodia angulata20 Lissocarcinus polybioides1,2 Bat Crab Portunus pelagicus3 Blue swimming Crab/ Flower Crab Aulacolambrus hoplodontus1 Portunus sanguinolentus3 Three-spot Swimming crab Lambrus calappoides1,2 Portunus argentatis2 Pseudolambrus beaumonti1,2 Portunus gracillimanus1,2 Pseudolambrus harpax1 Portunus grannulatus1 Lambrus carinatus1 Rhinolambrus pelagicus1,2 Aulacolambrus curvispinis Portunus haani1 1 Rhinolambrus contrarius1,2 Portunus longispinus1 Rhinolambrus longispinis1 Portunus hastatoides1 Parthenope longimanus2 Portunus convexus1 Parthenope echinatus2 Portunus petreus1 Parthenope cybelis Portunus euglyphus1 2 Portunus spinipes1 Parthenope lamellifrons2 Portunus longispinosus1 Parthenope longimanus2,1 Parthenope petalophorus Macropipus tuberculatus1 2 Doldoria horrida2 Rubble Crab Neptunus argentatus1 Cryptopodia fornicata1,2 Common Buckler Crab Neptunus hastatoides1 Cryptopodia pan1 Neptunus tenuipes(de Haan 1835)1 Furtipodia petrosa1 Cavoportunus dubius1 Family: Scalopidiidae Lupocyclus rotundatus1,2 Scalopidia spinosipes1 Lupocyclus philippinensis1 Family: Pilumnidae Charybdis cruciata41 Cross Crab Charybdis miles Soldier Crab Zebrida adamsi 1 Harrovia albolineata 41 Charybdis ferriata41 1 Pilumnus cursor1 Charybdis annulatus2,6 Pilumnus longicornis1,2 Charybdis helleri2 Pilumnus minutus2 Charybdis lucifera2,6 Pilumnus vespertillio Charybdis natator1,2 1,2 Charybdis orientalis1,2 Actumnus setifer1 Charybdis ornata1 Actumnus asper1 Actumnus calypso Thalamita chaptali1,2 1 Actumnus issifrons1 Mertonia lanka1 406 Thalamita crenata1,2 Mangrove Swimming Crab Thalamita ocules2 Swimming Crabs Thalamita picta2 Swimming Crabs Atergatis integerrimus2 Bashful Crab Actaea alcocki Swimming Crabs Atergatopsis alcocki Thalamita chaptali1 Swimming Crabs Actumnus setifer1,2 Thalamita sexlobata2 Swimming Crabs Actumnus squamosus2 Thalamita sima2 Swimming Crabs Carpilius maculatus41 Spotted reef Crab Swimming Crabs Carpilius convexus Red Egg Crab Swimming Crabs Cymo andreossyi Swimming Crabs Cymo melanodactylus2 Swimming Crabs Calmania prima1 Thalamita investigatoris1 Swimming Crabs Calvactaea tumida2 Thalamita sexlobata1 Swimming Crabs Chlorodiella nigra1 Swimming Crabs Chlorodiella laevissima25 Swimming Crabs Chlorodopsis areolata1 Thalamita prymna 1,2 Thalamita poissoni Thalamita admete 1 1 Thalamita exetastica1 Thalamita integra 1 Thalamita woodmasoni 1 Thalamita oculea1 Podophthalmus sp. 2,1 41 1,2 Chlorodopsis pilumnoides1 41 Scylla cirrata3 Giant Mud Crab Calamania prima2 Scylla olivacea Orange Mud Crab Demania buccalipes2 Scylla tranquebarica Purple Mud Crab Demania splendida1 Macropipus tuberculatus1 Epixanthus frontalis2 Family: Goneplacidae Euxanthus exsculptus2 Mertonia lankae Euxanthus herdmani1 2 Family: Trapeziidae Etisus analglypticus2 Trapezia wardi41 Etisus splendidus41 Splendid Spooner Etisus laevimanus Smooth Spooner Cymodoce Guard Crab Trapezia cymodoce1,2 Eriphia scabricula2 Red-eyed Rock Crab Eriphia sebana ?41 Red-eyed Rock Crab Crimson-spotted Guard Crab Eriphia smithi ??41 Red-eyed Rock Crab Honey-combed Guard Crab Forestia depressa2 Trapezia digitalis2 Trapezia ferruginea1,2 Trapezia lutea 2 Trapezia rufopunctata Trapezia septata 1,2 2 Eumedonus zebra2 Trapezia tigrina2 Gaillardius rupelliae2 Trapezia maculata1 Tetralia glaberrima Gorgonariana sodalis2 Harrovia albilineata2 1,2 Harrovia elegans2 Tetralia rubridactyla2 Quadrellia coronata1,2 Quadrellia maculosa Hypocolpus rugulosus1 2 Halimede ochtodes1 Quadrellia reticulata2 Lybia caestifera2 Family: Xanthiidae Liomera bella2 Actaea calculosa Actaeaperonii 25,41 Liomera cinctimana2 1,2 Liomera tristis 1 Actaea granulata1 Liomera laevis41 Actaea savignii Liomera monticulosa2 2,6 Liomera rugata2 Actaea speciosa25 Actaea rupelliae Liomera venosa2 1 Actaeodes tomentosum Lophozosymus incisus 2 Atergatis loridus Ruby Reef Crab 1,2 Lophozosymus dodone1 Atergatis diladatus2 2 Colourful reef crab 1 Lophozosymus pulchellus1,2 Flowery Crab 407 Leptodius exaratus1,2 Family: Palicidae Macromadaeus crassimanus Pseudopalicus serripes1,2 2 Family: Gecarcinidae Macromadaeus distinguendus1 Menippe rumphii Cardiosoma carnifex41 2 Neoxanthops lineatus1,2 Nanopilumnus rouxi2 Ozius rugulosus2,6 Ozius tuberculosus 1 Palapedia nitida1 Pseudoliomera speciosa1,2 Pseudoliomera variolosa1 Psaumis cavipes2 Pseudoactaea corallina2 Platypodia anaglypta Brown land Crab Family: Grapsidae Grapsus tenuicrustatus41 Common Sally light-foot Crab Grapsus albolineatus2 Mottled Sally lightfoot Crab Grapsus strigosus14 Swift footed rock crab Varuna literata41 Paddler Crab Geograpsus stormii41 Red-brick Shore Crab Geograpsus crinipes1 Brown Land Crab Percnon planissimum1,2 Green-lined Flat Crab Percnon guinotae41 Red-eyed Flat Crab 1,2 Platypodia ceylonica41 Pilodius aereolatus2 Pilodius pugil 1,2 Plagussia depressa1 Phymodius nitidens2 Rafting Crab Metopograpsus latifrons Phymodius ungulatus2 Metopograpsus messor Phymodius sculptus25 2 Rock crab 1,8,14 Rock crab Metopograpsus thukhar21 Paraxanthias notatus1,2 Serenius ceylonicus1,2 Parasesarma plicatum2 Xantho scabrerrimus6 Family: Macrophthalmidae Macrophthalmus latreillei2 Lamarck’s Crab Xanthias lamarcki1,2 Macrophthalmus depressus Xanthias punctatus2 Pseudoserarma edwardsii1 Zebrida adamsi2 Zosymus anaeus25,41 Neosermatium malabaricum8 Killer Crab Zosymodus cavipes2 Venitus latreillei1 Family: Cryptochiridae Family: Sesarmidae Hepalocarcinus marsupialis2 Coral gall crabs Perisesarma bidens2,8 Pea crab Perisesarma darwinensis Family: Ocypodidae Ghost Crab Ocypode ceratophthalma1 Horn-eyed Ghost crab Ocypode cordimana2 Smooth-handed Ghost Crab Ocypode platytasus Stalk eyed ghost crab Uca annulipes1,2 Thysaenys pehlevi1 Fiddler Crab Uca vocans Naxia spinosa1 Fiddler Crab Thusaenys irami1 Uca lactea 2 8 Uca dussumieri8 Dotilla myctiroides Scopimera pilula 41 17 Red Clawed Crab 8 Perisesarma bengalensis Ocypode saratan41 1,14 Face-banded Sesarmine Crab Perisesarma indiarum8 Family: Pinnotheridae Pinnotheres margaritiferae1 Sentinel Crab 8 Perisesarma guttatum21 Episesarma versicolor21 Neosermatium smithii21 Family: ? Lahaina agassizi1 Fiddler Crab Paramithrax longispinosus1 Fiddler Crab Stenocionops cervicornis1 Soldier Crab Neopalicus jukesii1 Sand-bubbler Crab 408 References 1 W. A. Herdman, 1903-6. Report To The Government Of Ceylon On The Pearl Oyster Fisheries Of The Gulf Of Mannar. The Royal Society Vol. I-V 2 Dr. Tsune Sakai. 1976. Crabs Of Japan And The Adjacent Seas revised and extended by: Dr. Michael Türkay,. Dr. Danièle Guinot, Dr. Peter Davie 3 George H.P. De Bruin, Barry Russell, Andre Bogusch. 1994. FAO Species Identiication Field Guide for Fishery Purposes. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations 4 W. Fischer, G. Bianchi (eds). 1984. FAO Species Identiication Sheets For Fishery Purposes: Western Indian Ocean- Fishing Area 51. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations. Volume I-V 5 M, M. Thomas. On A Collection Of Hermitcrabs From The Indian Waters Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin-6S2 031 6 Chaapgar, B.F. 1957. Marine Crabs Of Bombay State. Theraporevala Marine Biological Station 7 Feroz A. Siddiqui And Quddusi B. Kazmi1986 A Checklist Of Marine Anomurans (Crustacea: Decapoda) Of Pakistan, Northern Arabian Sea 8 Leonard Pinto. Mangroves Of Sri Lanka. Naresa 9. Patricia Cabezas, Chia-Wei Lin, Martha Nizinski, Celso Rodrigues & Kareen E. Schnabel. 2008. Catalogue Of Squat Lobsters Of The World. J. Zootaxa 10 A.Daniel. Marine Inter-Tidal Barnacles Of The Indian Ocean. Marine survey division Zoological surveys of India 11 World Register Of Marine Species (Website) 12 K. Nagappan Nayar. On The Gammaridean Amphipoda Of The Gulf Of Mannar, With Special Reference To Those Of The Pearl And Chank Beds* 13 Lucas, J. S., 1980. Spider Crabs Of The Family Hymenosomatidae Records of the Australian Museum 33(4): 148–247. 14 Kuganathan, S.,2008. A Monograph On Marine Crabs Of Point- Pedro Coast Sri Lanka 15 B.S. Galil. 1817. A Revision Of Myra Leach, (Crustacea: Decapoda: Leucosioidea) 16 Peter K. L. Ng. A Synopsis Of The Genus Aethra Latreille 17 Christopher John Allen Ecology Of The Intertidal Crab Dotilla Intermedia From Tsunami-Impacted Beaches In Thailand 18 Xinzheng LI, Alexander Bruce. 2006. Further Indo-West Paciic palaemonoid shrimps. Journal of Natural History,; 40(11–12): 611–738 19 Reza Naderloo & M. Apel. 2009. Leucosiid Crabs of the Genus Hiplyra Galil, (Crustacea: Brachyura: Leucosiidae) from the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, with Description of a New Species 20 S. Ravichandran*, Ramasamy Anbuchezhian, K. Sivasubramaniyan & G. Rameshkumar . Southeast Coast of India 21 S.H.R.Priyadarshini, S.C. Jayamanna & Y.N. Hirimuthugoda. 2008. Diversity Of Crabs In Kadolkele, Negombo Estuary, NARA SRI Lanka. S.L. J. Aquatic sci. 13 22 M.M. Kuruppu & S.U.K.Ekarathne.1995. Characterization Of Brine Shrimp Artemia From Sri Lanka. J. Natn. Sci. Coun. Sri Lanka 23(4) 23 Arthur Anker. 2005. Presence of the alpheid shrimp genus potamalpheops powell. The rafles bulletin of zoology Supplement No. 12: 31–37 24 K. J. Jayalakshmi, P. Jasmine, K. R.Muraleedharan, M. P. Prabhakaran, H. Habeebrehman, Josia Jacob, and C. T. Achuthankutty. 2011. Aggregation of Euphausia sibogae during Summer Monsoon along the Southwest Coast of India. Journal of marine biology 25 C. SANKARANKUTTY. 1962. On Decapoda Brachyura From The Andaman And Nicobar Islands, Family Xanthidae**. J. Mar. biol Ass. India 26 Notes on Crustacea Decapoda in the Indian Museum. XII. Secpimerinae Stanley Kemp Records of the Indian Museum 16:305-348 (1919) 27 Christian Schmidt & Andreas Leistikow. Catalogue of genera of the terrestrial Isopoda (Crustacea: Isopoda: Oniscidea) 28 Shane T. Ahyong. 2001. Revision Of The Australian Stomatopod Crustacea. Records of the Australian Museum 409 29 Stephenson, W., and Frank A. McNeill, 1955. The Australian Stomatopoda,(Crustacea) In The Collections Of The Australian Museum, with a check list and key to the known Australian species. Records of the Australian Museum 23(5): 239–265. 30 Prasanna Weerakkody and Laksiri Kaurnarathne. 1993. Status And Bio-Diversity Of The Buona-Vista Coral Reef, Rumassala, Galle. Natcog 1993-4 31 Prasanna Weerakkody, Nishan Perera. 2005. A Biodiversity Status Proile Of Sub-Tidal And Inter Tidal Habitats Of The Rekawa, Ussangoda And Kalametiya Area. Occasional papers of IUCN Sri Lanka, No.5, March 32 Ranjith De Silva, Prasanna Weerakkody. 2010. Study 18, A Review Of Coral Reefs On The East Coast Of Sri Lanka: Distribution, Ecology, Status And Threats. Green tech Consultants/NECCDEP. 33 Stanley Kemp. 1919. Notes on crustacea decapoda in the indian museum. Xii. Scopimerinae Records of the Indian Museum 16:305-348 34 Mathew D. Richmond. 1997. A guide to the seashores of eastern africa. Sida 35 Patrick Collins & Charles Arneson. 1991. Tropical Paciic Invertebrates. CRRF 36 Terrance Gosliner, David Behrens & Gary Williams. 1996. Coral Reef Animals Of The Indo-Paciic. Sea Challengers 37 Gerald Allen, Roger Steene. 1994. Indo-Paciic Coral Reef Field Guide. Tropical Reef Research 38 Holthuis, L.B. 1980. Shrimps And Prawns Of The World. An annotated catalogue of species of interest to isheries: FAO species catalogue. Vol.1. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations 40 Xinzheng Li & Alexander J. Bruce. Further Indo-West Paciic Palaemonoid Shrimps 41 Authors personal recods- Prasanna Weerakkody 42 Deraniyagala, 1939 43 S. Kuganathan personal records *In addition to personal observations and records; species with speciic records from Sri Lanka or Gulf of Mannar for mud/sand living species were included in the list from published sources. Where published data was available I have given precedence to the record it over my own records. **Records from Herdman need updating- this has been carried out in some sections. Not all taxa from Herdman have been added where more aiuthoratative recent lists were available and due to in suficient time to verify all records. 410 Provisional Checklist of Marine ish of Sri Lanka Terney P. Kumara P.B. and Kasun R. Dalpathadu Department of Oceanography and Marine Geology, University of Ruhuna, Matara Introduction Consisting of more than 32,000 species, marine ish are the most diverse group of organisms among the chordates (Froese & Pauly, 2012). They are found in most bodies of water and found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. Depending on the oceanic zone they occupy, ish can be divided into three main categories, pelagic, demersal and reef ishes. Pelagic ish live near the surface or in the water column of coastal, ocean and lake waters. Demersal ish, live on or near the bottom of the water body while reef ish are associated with coral reefs (Lal & Fortune, 2000). Marine pelagic ish can be divided into coastal (inshore) ish and oceanic (offshore) ish (McLintock, 2007). Coastal ish inhabit the relatively shallow and sunlit waters above the continental shelf, while oceanic ish (which may well also swim inshore) inhabit the vast and deep waters beyond the continental shelf (Walrond, 2007). Fish are an important resource worldwide, especially as a source of protein. Commercial and subsistence ishery depend on wild stocks or more intensive culture of selected ish species under captive conditions. Marine ish are also caught by recreational ishers, kept as pets, raised by ish keepers, and exhibited in public aquaria. Therefore, depending on the use, ish can be divided mainly into major categories, food ish and recreational ish. Sri Lanka enjoys an eight time larger maritime zone than its land area. A variety of habitats such as sea grass beds, lagoons, estuaries, coral reefs and fertile coastal waters around the country. These diverse array of habitats support a rich marine ish fauna. Taxonomy A complete systematic study of Sri Lankan marine ish is still lacking. However, the literature on Sri Lankan ishes dates back to the early 19th century (De Bruin, et al., 1994). Most of the early records of Sri Lankan marine ish have appeared in ‘Ceylon Journal of Science’ and in various reports by marine biologists appointed by the Sri Lankan government (Munro, 1955; De Bruin, et al., 1994). Among them Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, the former Director of the national Museum in Colombo and Ian S. R. Munro (1955) has made remarkable contribution to further our knowledge on marine ish (De Bruin, et al., 1994). Munro (1955) has listed 856 marine, brackish water and fresh water ish species for Sri Lanka. However, at present most of these early taxonomic works have been largely revisited and eclipsed by more modern taxonomic treatments. De Bruin, et al. (1994) lists about 800 marine and brackish water ishes in Sri Lankan waters. The FAO “Fishery and Aquaculture Country Proiles of Sri Lanka” (FAO, 2004) indicates that there are about 975 marine and brackish water ish (610 species of coastal ish, 60 species of sharks, 90 species of oceanic pelagic species of ish and 215 demersal species). In addition, Öhman, Rajasuriya, & Linden (1993) have listed over 300 species of reef and reef associated ish belonging to 62 families. Thus, the actual number of marine and brackish water ishes living in Sri Lankan Waters could be in excess of 1800 species (The Government of Sri Lanka, 2006; Weerakkody, 2012). 411 Threats In addition to the excess ishing pressure, marine ish are facing number of problems including environmental degradation, e.g., discharge of contaminated waters by domestic and foreign vessels, heated water from land based industries, pollutants and other nonbiodegradable materials (such as oil spills). Higher amounts of nutrients and toxic pollutants in the coastal waters also cause stress conditions and physiological changes that leads to reduced reproductive rates, shorter life spans, behavioural changes, rapid expansion or total disappearance of some species. In addition, climate change, ocean acidiication and sea level rise could further aggravate these conditions. Overishing, ishing in proscribed areas and use of unauthorized gears and methods all have major impacts on the marine ish resource, which require immediate attention. Blast ishing, bottom set nets, moxy nets, trammel nets, trawl nets and push nets are banded in Sri Lanka. Though it is banned, moxy nets are frequently used as a ishing gear by ornamental ish catchers. The use of trawl nets, especially by Indian ishermen in Sri Lankan territorial waters has become a major threat not only to marine ish fauna, but also to the complete ecosystem in the North and North western parts of the country. Conservation Sri Lanka has ratiied and signed several international treaties in order to conserve and manage marine ish resources in a sustainable manner. Further, there are number of state level legislations available to conserve and effectively manage marine and coastal ish resources. Some of them directly control the management of marine ish resources while others can be used indirectly to regulate the exploitation of marine ish. Sri Lanka has also established four Marine Protected areas, The Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, Rumassala Marine Sanctuary, Pigeon Island National Park and Hikkaduwa National Park and two isheries management areas, Great and Little Basses isheries management area and Polhena isheries management area. Although several MPAs exist in Sri Lanka, most are not managed, and resource extraction and habitat degradation continue unabated (Perera & De Vos, 2007). In 1998, the Export and Import of Live Fish Regulations were introduced. These regulations deine which species of ish are prohibited from being exported or imported and denote that permits are required to export certain ish species and/or live ish eggs, roe or spawn. Marine ish resources are over exploited in most part of the country and the ishing stress is unimaginable. However still there are rarely exploited resources in deep sea environments where the possibility for undescribed species is still very high. Further, the expansion of EEZ into the high seas may add new species to the marine ish list of Sri Lanka. Thus the actual number of marine ish spices in Sri Lankan waters may be higher than the recorded number in this provisional check list. All the species and family names were checked for the synonyms using the online resources (World Register of Marine Species and Fish Base). Thus the currently accepted name is listed with its synonym and its source for easy veriication. 412 References De Bruin, G. H. P., Russell, B. C. & Bogusch, A., (1994). FAO Species Identiication Field Guide for Fishery Purpose: The Marine Fishery Resources in Sri Lanka. Rome: FAO. Froese, R. & Pauly, D. eds., (2012). FishBase [Online] (Updated October 2012) Available at: <http://www.ishbase.org/search.php> [Accessed 22 November 2012]. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), (2004-2012). Fishery and Aquaculture Country proiles: Sri Lanka. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online] (Updated 5 August 2004). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ishery/countrysector/FI-CP_LK/en> [Accessed 22 November 2012]. Lal, B. V. & Fortune, K. eds., (2000). The Paciic Islands: An encyclopedia. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. McLintock, A. H. ed., (1966). An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand: FISH, MARINE. [Online] (Updated 23 April 2009) Available at: <http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/ish-marine/1> [Accessed 22 November 2012]. Munro, I. S. R., 1955. The marine and freshwater ishes of Ceylon. Dept. of External Affairs. Colombo. Öhman, M.C., Rajasuriya, A. & Linden, O., (1993). Coral reefs in north-western Sri Lanka; biology and human disturbances. Proc. Coll. Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Miami: Rosential School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, pp.404-409. Perera, N. & De Vos, A., (2007). Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka: A Review. Environ Manage, 40, pp.727–738. The Government of Sri Lanka., (2006). The Gazette Extraordinary of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka-: No. 1429/11, 2006 January 24th Tuesday. (Part I: Sec. I). Sri Lanka. Walrond, C., (2007). Oceanic ish - New Zealand’s oceanic species, Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. [Online] (Updated 02 March 2009). Available at: <http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/oceanic-ish/1> [Accessed 22 November 2012]. Weerakkody, P., (2012). Personal Records. [e-mail] (Personal communication, 12 November, 2012). 413 Provisional Check List of Marine and Brackish water ish in Sri Lankan waters. Kasun Randika Dalpathadu. Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences & Technology, University of Ruhuna. Family: Antennariidae Boney Fishes Antennarius indicus Schultz, 1964 5 Acanthurus leucosternon Bennett, 1832 1, 5, 7 Antennarius maculatus (Desjardins, 1840) 5 Antennarius pictus (Shaw, 1794) 19, 21 Antennarius striatus (Shaw, 1794) 19, 21 Acanthurus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23 Antennatus tuberosus (Cuvier, 1817) 21 Acanthurus mata (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5 Antennarius hispidus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 19 Family: Acanthuridae Acanthurus dussumieri Valenciennes, 1835 1 Acanthurus nigricauda Dunker and Mohr, 1926 1, 5 Antennarius commerson (Lacepède, 1798) 19 Acanthurus nigrofuscus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Antennarius nummifer (Cuvier, 1817) 19 Histrio histrio (Linnaeus, 1758) 5, 19 Acanthurus tennentii Gunther, 1861 1, 5 Acanthurus triostegus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23 Family: Aploactinidae Acanthurus tristis Tickell, 1888 1, 5 Acanthurus xanthopterus Valenciennes, 1835 1, 5 Cocotropus monacanthus (Gilchrist, 1906) 18, 21 Acanthurus pyroferus Kittlitz, 1834 5 Acanthurus bariene Lesson, 1831 2 Acanthurus nigricans (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 Paraploactis taprobanensis (Whitley, 1933) 1, 21 Ctenochaetus striatus Quoy and Gaimard, 1824 1, 5, 23 Acropoma japonicum Günther, 1859 18, 20 Ctenochaetus strigosus (Bennett, 1828) 1, 5 Apogon spp.2 Ctenochaetus binotatus Randall, 1955 Apogon aureus (Lacepede, 1802) 5 5 Family: Apogonidae Naso annulatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) 1 Apogon fraenatus Valenciennes, 1832 5 Naso brevirostris (Valenciennes, 1835) Apogon nigrofasciatus (Lachner, 1953) 5 1, 5, 7 Naso lituratus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5 Apogon cookii Macleay, 1881 22 Naso thynnoides (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Apogon taeniophorus Regan, 1908 22 Naso tuberosus Lacepede, 1802 1 Apogon cyanosoma Bleeker, 1853 22 Naso unicornis (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Naso vlamingi (Valenciennes, 1835) 2 Paracanthurus hepatus (Linnaeus, 1766) 5 Zebrasoma scopas (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5 Zebrasoma veliferum (Bloch, 1795) 1, 20, 21 Zebrasoma xanthurum (Blyth, 1852) 1 Apogon apogonides (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Zebrasoma desjardeinii (Bennett, 1836) 5, 20 Apogon kallopterus Bleeker, 1856 22 Archamia fucata (Cantor, 1849) 20, 22 Archaemia spp.2 Cheilodipterus spp.2 Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Cuvier, 1828 5 Cheilodipterus macrodon (Lacepede, 1802) 22 Cheilodipterus artus Smith, 196122 Family: Acropomidae Acropoma japonicum Gunther, 1859 Sphaeramia nematoptera (Bleeker, 1856) 5 18 Synagrops malayanus Weber, 1913 18 Family: Albulidae Family: Ariidae Albula glossodonta (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Arius jella Day, 18771 Albula neoguinaica Valenciennes, 1846 1 Arius maculatus (Thunberg, 1792) 1, 20 Arius subrostratus Valenciennes, 1840 1 Family: Alepocephalidae Alepocephalus blanfordii Alcock, 1892 Arius sumatranus Bennett, 1840 1 1 Batrachocephalus mino (Hamilton – Buchanan, 1822) 1 Family: Ambassidae Nemapteryx caelata (Valenciennes, 1840) 1, 20 Netuma bilineata (Valenciennes, 1840) 1, 20 Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Netuma thalassina (Rüppell, 1837) 1, 21 Osteogeneiosus milittaris (Linnaeus, 1758)1 Family: Anguillidae Plicofollis dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1840) 1, 20 Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (Gray, 1831) 1 Plicofollis platystomus (Day, 1877) 1, 21 Anguilla bicolor bicolor McClelland, 1844 1 Sciades sona (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 20 414 Ecsenius bicolor (Day, 1888) 5 Ecsenius midas Starck, 1969 5 Family: Ariommatidae Ariomma indica (Day, 1871) 18, 20, 21 Family: Atherinidae Atherinomorus lacunosus (Forster, 1801) 1 Hypoatherina temminckii (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Family: Aulostomidae Aulostomus chinensis (Linnaeus, 1766) 1 Family: Balistidae Abalistes stellatus (Lacepede, 1798) 1, 5 Balistapus undulatus (Park, 1797) 1, 5 Balistoides conspicillum (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5, 9 Balistoides viridescens (Bloch, 1801) 1, 5 Canthidermis maculata (Bloch, 1786) 1, 21 Melichthys indicus Randall and Klausewitz, 1973 1, 5 Melichthys vidua (Richardson, 1845) 20, 21, 22 Melichthys niger (Bloch, 1786) 22 Odonus niger (Ruppell, 1840) 1 Pseudobalistes fuscus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5, 9 Pseudobalistes lavimarginatus (Rupell, 1829) 22 Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7 Rhinecanthus rectangulus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5 Rhinecanthus verrucosus (Linnaeus, 1758) 22 Suflamen chrysopterus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5 Suflamen fraenatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5 Suflamen bursa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5 Suflamen albicaudatum (Rüppell, 1829) 21, 22 Escanius spp.2 Exallias brevis (Kner, 1868) 19, 21 Helcogramma striata Hansen, 1986 22 Helcogramma spp. 22 Istiblenius edentulous Forster & Schneider, 1801 2 Istiblennius andersoni (Day, 1870) 19 Istiblennius lineatus (Valenciennes, 1836) 19 lstiblennius edentulus (Forster & Schneider, 1801) 19, 21 Istiblennius unicolor (Rupell, 1838) 19 Meiacanthus smithi Klausewitz, 1962 5, 22 Petroscirtes variabilis Cantor, 1849 20, 22 Petroscirtes mitratus Rüppell, 1830 20, 21, 22 Petroscirtes breviceps (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 20 Plagiotremus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1857) 22 Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos (Bleeker, 1852) 22 Plagiotremus phenax Smith-Vaniz, 1976 22 Salarias fasciatus (Bloch, 1786) 2 Salarias alboguttatus Kner, 1867 19 Family: Bothidae Arnoglossus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1866) 1 Bothus pantherinus (Ruppell, 1830) 1 Bothus myriaster (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846) 1 Family: Bathyclupeidae Bothus mancus (Broussonet, 1782) 5 Bathclupea hoskynii (Alcock) 18 Chascanopsetta lugubris Alcock, 1894 1 Crossorhombus azureus (Alcock, 1889) 1 Family: Batrachoididae Allenbatrachus grunniens (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 21 Family: Belonidae Crossorhombus valderostratus (Alcock, 1890) 1 Engyprosopon grandisquama (Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) 1, 21 Grammatobothus polyophthalmus (Bleeker, 1866) 1 Ablennes hians (Valenciennes, 1846) Strongylura leiura (Bleeker, 1850) Ecsenius nalolo Smith, 1959 22 Ecsenius yaeyamaensis (Aoyagi, 1954) 21, 22 Ecsenius gravieri (Pellegrin, 1906) 21, 22 Ecsenius lineatus Klausewitz, 1962 21, 22 Ecsenius frontalis (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 21 Entomacrodus striatus (Valenciennes, 1836) 19 Entomacrodus spp.2 1 1 Laeops kitaharai (Smith & Pope) 18 Parabothus polylepis (Alcock, 1889) 1 Strongylura strongylura (van Hasselt, 1823) 1 Tylosurus acus melanotus (Bleeker, 1850) 1 Family: Caesionidae Tylosurus crocodilus crocodilus (Peron and Le Seur, 1821) 1 Caesio caerulaurea Lacepede, 1802 1 Family: Blenniidae Alticus saliens (Forster, 1788) 19 Aspidontus taeniatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1834 21, 22 Aspidontus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 21, 22 Blenniella periophthalmus (Valenciennes, 1836) 19, 21 Cirripectes stigmaticus Strasburg & Schultz, 1953 20, 22 Cirripectes auritus Carlson, 1981 22 Caesio cuning (Bloch, 1791) 1 Caesio lunaris Cuvier, 1830 1 Caesio teres Seale, 1906 1 Caesio varilineata Carpenter, 1987 1 Caesio xanthonota Bleeker, 1853 1 Dipterygonotus balteatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1 Gymnocaesio gymnoptera (Bleeker, 1856) 1 Pterocaesio chrysozona (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Pterocaesio pisang (Bleeker, 1853) 1 415 Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Seriola rivoliana (Valenciennes, 1833) 1 Seriolina nigrofasciata (Ruppell, 1829) 1 Trachinotus baillonii (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Trachinotus blochii (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Trachinotus mookalee (Cuvier, 1832) 1 Trachinotus botla (Shaw, 1803) 1, 21 Ulua mentalis (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Uraspis helvola (Forster, 1801) 1 Pterocaesio tessellata Carpenter, 1987 1 Pterocaesio tile (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Family: Callionymidae Synchiropus stellatus Smith, 1963 5 Family: Caproidae Antigonia rubescens (Gunther, 1860) 1 Antigonia malayana Weber, 1913 18 Family: Carapidae Family: Caracanthidae Carapus mourlani (Petit, 1934) 1 Caracanthus zeylonicus (Day, 1869) 1 Family: Centriscidae Family: Carangidae Aeoliscus strigatus (Günther, 1861) 22 Centriscus scutatus Linnaeus, 1758 1 Alectis ciliaris (Bloch, 1788) 1 Alectis indicus (Ruppell, 1830) 1 Alepes djedaba (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Family: Centropomidae Alepes melanoptera (Swainson, 1839) 1 Alepes vari (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Alepes kleinii (Bloch, 1793) 1, 21 Atropus atropos (Schneider, 1801) 1 Atule mate (Cuvier, 1833) 1, 21 Carangoides armatus (Ruppell, 1830) 1 Carangoides coeruleopinnatus (Rüppell, 1830) 1, 21 Carangoides chrysophrys (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Carangoides ferdau (Forsskål, 1775) 1, 20 Carangoides fulvoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Carangoides gymnostethus (Cuvier, 1833) 1, 14 Carangoides hedlandensis (Whitley, 1933) 1 Carangoides malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1 Carangoides oblongus (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Carangoides plagiotaenia (Bleeker, 1851) 1 Carangoides praeustus (Bennett, 1830) 1 Carangoides talamparoides (Bleeker, 1852) 1 Carangoides coeruleopinnatus (Rüppell, 1830) 1, 21 Caranx heberi (Bennett, 1830) 1, 14 Caranx ignobilis (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Caranx melampygus Cuvier, 1833 1, 20 Caranx papuensis (Alleyne and Macleay, 1877) 1 Caranx sexfasciatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Caranx tille (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Decapterus macarellus (Cuvier, 1833) 1 Decapterus macrosoma (Bleeker, 1852) 1 Decapterus russelli (Ruppell, 1830) 1 Elagatis bipinnulata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Gnathanodon speciosus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Megalaspis cordyla (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Naucrates ductor (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Parastromateus niger (Bloch, 1795) 1 Scomberoides commersonianus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Scomberoides lysan (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Scomberoides tala (Cuvier, 1832) 1 Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) 1 Selar crumenophthalmus (Bloch, 1793) 1 Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1796) 1 Psammoperca waigiensis (Cuvier, 1828) 1 Family: Cepolidae Owstonia weberi (Gilchrist, 1922) 18, 21 Family: Chaetodontidae Chaetodon vagabundus Linnaeus, 1758 2, 5, 7 Chaetodon decussatus Cuvier, 1829 2, 5 Chaetodon cittrinellus Cuvier, 1831 2 Chaetodon trifascialis Quoy and Gaimard, 1825 2, 5 Chaetodon trifasciatus Park, 1797 2, 5, 7 Chaetodon meyeri Bloch and Schneider, 1801 2, 5, 9 Chaetodon lunula (Lacepede, 1802) 2, 5, 7 Chaetodon collare Bloch, 1787 2, 5 Chaetodon auriga Forsskal, 1775 2, 5, 7 Chaetodon plebeius Cuvier, 1831 2, 5, 12 Chaetodon xanthocephalus Bennett, 1832 2, 5, 9 Chaetodon unimaculatus Bloch, 1787 2, 5, 9 Chaetodon kleinii Bloch, 1790 2, 5 Chaetodon madagascariensis Ahl, 1923 3, 5, 9 Chaetodon gardneri Norman, 1939 3, 5 Chaetodon semeion (Bleeker, 1855) 5, 9 Chaetodon octofasciatus Bloch, 1787 5, 9 Chaetodon ornatissimus Cuvier, 1831 5, 9 Chaetodon ephippium Cuvier, 1831 5, 9 Chaetodon bennetti Cuvier, 1831 5, 9 Chaetodon triangulum Cuvier, 1831 5, 9 Chaetodon citrinellus Cuvier, 1831 5, 7 Chaetodon falcula Bloch, 1795 5, 7, 9 Chaetodon guttatissimus Bennett, 1833 5 Chaetodon interruptus Ahl, 1923 5 Chaetodon lineolatus Cuvier, 1831 5 Chaetodon oxycephalus Bleeker, 1853 22 Chaetodon melannotus Bloch & Schneider, 1801 5 416 Chaetodon mertensii Cuvier, 1831 5 Chaetodon raflesi Anonymous [Bennett], 1830 5, 9 Forcipiger lavissimus Jordan & Evermann, 1898 3, 5 Forcipiger longirostris Broussonet, 1782 3, 5 Hemitaurichthys zoster (Bennett, 1831) 3, 5 Heniochus singularis Smith & Radcliffe, 1911 3, 5 Heniochus monoceros Cuvier, 183 3, 5, 9 Heniochus acuminatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 3, 5, 7 Heniochus pleurotaenia (Cuvier, 1831) 5, 9 Heniochus diphreutes Jordan, 1903 22 Parachaetodon ocellatus (Cuvier, 1831) 22 Prognathodes guyotensis (Yamamoto & Tameka, 1982) 22 Nematalosa galatheae Nelson and Rothman, 1973 1 Nematalosa nasus (Bloch, 1795) 1, 14 Sardinella albella (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 14 Sardinella imbriata (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 21 Sardinella gibbosa (Bleeker, 1849) 1, 14 Sardinella jussieu (Lacepède, 1803) 1, 20 Sardinella longiceps (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Spratelloides delicatulus (Bennett, 1831) 1 Spratelloides gracilis (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846) 1 Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Tenualosa toli (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Family: Congridae Ariosoma anago (Schlegel, 1849) 1 Conger cinereus (Ruppell, 1828) 1 Uroconger lepturus (Richardson, 1848) 1 Family: Chanidae Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Family: Chauliodontidae Chauliodus sloani Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1 Family: Coryphaenidae Coryphaena hippurus Linneaus, 1758 1 Family: Chaunacidae Chaunax pictus Lowe, 1846 1 Family: Cynoglossidae Family: Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Chirocentrus nudus (Swainson, 1839) 1 Family: Chlorophthalmidae Chlorophthalmus agassizi (Bonaparte, 1850) 1 Chlorophthalmus bicornis (Norman, 1939) 1 Family: Cirrhitidae Cirrhitus pinnulatus (Forster, 1801) 2 Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) 5 Cirrhitichthys bleekeri Day, 1874 5 Cirrhitichthys aprinus (Cuvier, 1829) 7 Oxycirrhites typus Bleeker, 1857 5 Paracirrhites forsteri (Schneider, 1801) Paracirrhites arcatus (Cuvier, 1829) 5 2, 5 Family: Clinidae Springeratus xanthosoma (Bleeker, 1857) 1, 20 Family: Clupeidae Amblygaster clupeoides Bleeker, 1849 1, 14 Amblygaster leiogaster (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Amblygaster sirm (Walaum, 1792) 1, 14 Anodontostoma chacunda (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 20 Dayella malabarica (Day, 1873) 1 Dussumieria acuta (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 14 Dussumieria elopsoides Bleeker, 1849 1, 21 Ehirava luviatilis Deraniyagala, 1929 1 Escualosa thoracata (Valenciennes, 1847) 1, 14 Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus (Ruppell, 1837) 1 Hilsa kelee (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Cynoglossus arel (Schneider, 1801) 1 Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Cynoglossus kopsii (Bleeker, 1851) 1, 21 Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 1 Cynoglossus puncticeps (Richardson, 1846) 1 Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day, 1877 1 Cynoglossus marleyi Regan, 192118 Paraplagusia bilineata (Bloch, 1784) 1 Symphurus septemstriatus (Alcock, 1891) 1 Symphurus trifasciatus (Alcock, 1894) 1 Family: Dactylopteridae Dactyloptena orientalis (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5 Family: Diodontidae Cyclichthys orbicularis (Bloch, 1785) 1, 21 Diodon holocanthus Linneaus, 1758 1 Diodon hystrix (Linneaus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23 Diodon liturosus Shaw, 1804 5 Family: Drepanidae Drepane punctata (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Family: Echeneidae Echeneis naucrates Linneaus, 1758 1, 5 Remora australis (Bennett, 1840) 1 Remora remora (Linneaus, 1758 1 Remora albescens (Temminck and Schlegel, 1843) 1 Family: Elopidae Elops machnata (Forsskal, 1775) 1 417 Plagiogeneion rubiginosum (Hutton, 1875) 1, 21 Parexocoetus mento (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Prognichthys brevipinnis (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Family: Engraulididae Family: Fistulariidae Coilia dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Coilia neglecta (Whitehead, 1968) 1 Encrasicholina devisi (Whitly) 1 Encrasicholina heteroloba (Ruppell, 1873) 1 Encrasicholina punctifer Fowler, 1938 1 Setipinna taty (Valenciennes, 1848) 1 Stolephorus commersonnii Lacepede, 1803 1 Stolephorus indicus (van Hasselt, 1823) 1 Stolephorus insularis Hardenberg, 1933 1 Stolephorus waitei Jordan and Seale, 1926 1 Thryssa baelama (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Thryssa dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1848) 1 Thryssa encrasicholoides (Bleeker, 1852) 1 Thryssa gautamiensis Babu Rao, 1971 1 Thryssa hamiltonii (Gray, 1835) 1 Thryssa malabarica (Bloch, 1795) 1 Thryssa mystax (Schneider, 1801) 1 Thryssa polybranchialis Wongratana, 1983 1 Thryssa purava (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Thryssa setirostris (Broussonet, 1782) 1 Thryssa vitrirostris (Gilchrist & Thompson, 1908) 1, 21 Fistularia commersonii (Ruppell, 1835) 1, 23 Fistularia petimba (Lacepede, 1803) 1 Gerres erythrourus (Bloch, 1791) 1, 21 Gerres longirostris (Lacepède, 1801) 1, 21 Gerres ilamentosus (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Gerres limbatus Cuvier, 1830 1, 21 Gerres oblongus (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Gerres oyena (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Pentaprion longimanus (Cantor, 1850) 1 Family: Ephippidae Family: Gobiidae Family: Emmelichthyidae Ephippus orbis (Bloch, 1787) 1 Platax orbicularis (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5, 7 Platax teira (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Platax pinnatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5, 9 Family: Gadidae Physiculus peregrinus (Gunther, 1872) 18 Family: Gempylidae Gempylus serpens (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Lepidocybium lavobrunneum (Smith, 1849) 1 Neoepinnula orientalis (Gilchrist and von Bond, 1924) 1 Rexea prometheoides (Bleeker, 1856) 1 Ruvettus pretiosus Cocco, 1829 1 Family: Gerreidae Acentrogobius caninus (Valennciennes, 1837) 19 Acentrogobius masoni (Day, 1873) 19 Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Valennciennes, 1837) 19 Alburnus arborella (Bonaparte 1841) 19, 20 Amblyeleotris spp.2 Family: Epigonidae Epigonus robustus (Barnard, 1927) Amblyeleotris diagonalis Polunin & Lubbock, 1979 5 18, 21 Epigonus telescopus (Risso, 1810) 18 Family: Exocoetidae Cheilopogon atrisignis (Jenkins, 1904) 1 Cheilopogon cyanopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Cheilopogon furcatus (Mitchill, 1815) 1 Cheilopogon nigricans (Bennett, 1846) 1 Cheilopogon spilopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Cheilopogon suttoni (Whitley and Colefax, 1938) 1 Cheilopogon katoptron (Bleeker, 1865) 1, 21 Cypselurus naresii (Gunther, 1889) 1 Cypselurus oligolepis (Bleeker, 1866) 1 Cypselurus opisthopus (Bleeker, 1866) 1 Cypselurus poecilopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Exocoetus monocirrhus Richardson, 1846 1 Exocoetus volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Hirundichthys coromandelensis (Hornell, 1923) 1 Hirundichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1857) 1 Hirundichthys speculiger (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Parexocoetus brachypterus (Richardson, 1846) 1 Amblyeleotris steinitzi (Klausewitz, 1974) 5 Amblyeleotris periophthalma (Bleeker, 1853) 21, 22 Amblyeleotris wheeleri (Polunin & Lubbock, 1977) 22 Amblygobius hectori (Smith, 1957) 5 Amblygobius nocturnus (Herre, 1945) 22 Amblygobius semicinctus (Bennett, 1833) 22 Asterropteryx semipunctatus Rüppell, 1830 22 Asterropteryx spp.2 Bathygobius fuscus (Rupell, 1830) 19 Bostrychus sinensis Lacepède, 1801 19, 20 Bryaniops spp.2 Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 21 Butis koilomatodon (Bleeker, 1849) 19, 20 Callogobius mannarensis Rangarajan 1968 22 Callogobius hasselti (Bleeker, 1851) 22 Callogobius spp.2 Cryptocentrus cryptocentrus (Valenciennes, 1837) 2, 22 Cryptocentrus caeruleomaculatus (Herre, 1933) 22 Cryptocentrus cinctus (Herre, 1936) 22 Ctenogobius aurocingulus (Herre, 1935) 22 418 Pomadasys commersonnii (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Pomadasys furcatus (Schneider, 1801) 1 Pomadasys kaakan (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch, 1797) 1, 21 Pomadasys multimaculatum (Playfair, 1866) 1 Pomadasys olivaceus (Day, 1875) 1, 21 Pomadasys guoraca (Cuvier, 1829) 21, 22 Ctenogobiops spp.2 Eleotris fusca (Forster, 1801) 19, 20 Exyrias belissimus (Smith, 1959) 20, 21, 22 Eviota zonura Jordan & Seale, 1906 19, 21 Fusigobius sp.5 Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 20 Gnatholepis spp.2 Gobiodon citrinus (Rüppell, 1838) 5 Gobiodon quinquestrigatus (Valenciennes, 1837) 20, 21, 22 Gobiodon atrangulatus Garman, 1903 22 Gobiodon rivulatus (Rüppell, 1830) 19, 21 Aldrovandia afinis (Günther, 1877) 1, 21 Family: Hemiramphidae Istigobius spp.2 Istigobius decoratus (Herre, 1927) 5 lstigobius ornatus (Rüppell, 1830) 19, 21, 22 Oligolepis acutipennis (Valenciennes, 1837) 19 Ophiocara porocephala (Valenciennes, 1837) 19 Oplopomus oplopomus (Valenciennes, 1837) 22 Oxyurichthys microlepis (Bleeker, 1849) 19 Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes, 1837) 19 Paragobiodon echinocephalus (Rüppell, 1830) 22 Paragobiodon lacunicolus (Kendall & Goldsborough, 1911) 20, 22 Periophthalmus barbarus (Linnaeus, 1766) 19, 21 Periophthalmus argentilineatus Valenciennes 1837 19, 21 Pleurosicya bilobata (Koumans, 1941) 19, 21 Priolepis semidoliata (Valenciennes, 1837) 19, 21 Psammogobius biocellatus (Valenciennes, 1837) 19, 20 Pseudogobius javanicus (Bleeker, 1856) 19, 21 Sicyopterus lagocephalus (Pallas, 1770) 19, 21 Stenogobius gymnopomus (Bleeker, 1853) 19, 21 Stigmatogobius sadanundio (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 21 Valenciennea helsdingenii (Bleeker, 1858) Valenciennea puellaris (Tomiyama, 1956) Family: Halosauridae 5 5 Valenciennea sexguttata (Valenciennes, 1837) 5 Valenciennea strigata (Broussonet, 1782) 5 Valenciennea longipinnis (Lay & Bennett, 1839) 20, 22 Valenciennea muralis (Valenciennes, 1837) 22 Valenciennea helsdingenii (Bleeker, 1858) 20, 22 Euleptorhamphus viridis (van Hasselt, 1823) 18 Hemiramphus archipelagicus Collette and Parin, 1978 1 Hemiramphus far (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Hemiramphus lutkei (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Hyporhamphus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Hyporhamphus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Hyporhamphus quoyi (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Rhynchorhamphus georgii (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Rhynchorhamphus malabaricus Collette, 1976 1 Family: Holocentridae Myripristis kuntee (Cuvier, 1831) 1 Myripristis botche Cuvier, 1829 1, 21 Myripristis adusta (Bleeker, 1853) 2, 5, 10 Myripristis berndti Jordan & Evermann, 1903 5 Myripristis murdjan (Forsskål, 1775) 5 Myripristis chryseres Jordan & Evermann, 1903 10 Myripristis botche Cuvier, 1829 10 Myripristis pralinia Cuvier, 1829 10 Myripristis violacea Bleeker, 185110 Neoniphon samara (Forsskal, 1775) 2, 5 Neoniphon opercularis (Valenciennes, 1831) 22 Sargocentron diadema (Lacepede, 1803) 1, 5 Sargocentron punctatissimum (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Sargocentron rubrum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Sargocentron spiniferum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Sargocentron caudimaculatum (Rüppell, 1838) 2, 5 Family: Gonostomidae Phosichthys argenteus Hutton, 1872 18, 21 Polymetme corythaeola (Alcock, 1898) 18, 20 Family: Haemulidae Diagramma pictum (Thunberg, 1792) 1, 5, 21 Plectorhinchus ceylonensis (Smith, 1956) 1, 14 Plectorhinchus gibbosus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Plectorhinchus schotaf (Forsskål, 1775) 1, 21 Plectorhinchus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 7 Plectorhinchus vittatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5 Plectorhinchus albovittatus (Ruppel, 1838) 5, 9 Plectorhinchus orientalis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 Pomadasys argenteus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Pomadasys argyreus (Valenciennes, 1833) 1 Family: Istiophoridae Istiophorus platypterus (Shaw and Nodder, 1792) 1, 6, 13, 14 Makaira indica (Cuvier, 1832) 1, 13, 14 Makaira mazara (Jordan & Snyder, 1901) 13, 14 Tetrapturus angustirostris Tanaka, 1915 1, 21 Tetrapturus audax (Philippi, 1889) 1, 13, 14 Family: Kuhliidae Kuhlia mugil (Forste, 1801) 1 Kuhlia rupestris (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Family: Kurtidae Kurtus indicus Bloch, 1786 1 419 Family: Kyphosidae Pseudocheilinus hexataenia (Bleeker, 1857) 5 Kyphosus cinerascens (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Pseudocheilinus octotaenia Jenkins, 1901 20, 22 Pseudojuloides erythrops Randall & Randall, 1981 22 Family: Labridae Stethojulis spp.2 Anampses meleagrides Valenciennes, 1840 1 Anampses caeruleopunctatus Rüppell, 1829 5 Anampses lineatus Randall, 1972 5 Anampses melanurus Bleeker, 1857 22 Bodianus bilunulatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Bodianus diana Lacepede, 1802 1, 5 Stethojulis bandanensis (Bleeker, 1851) 5 Bodianus axillaris (Bennett, 1832) 2, 5 Bodianus neilli (Day, 1867) 5 Bodianus macrourus (Lacepède, 1801) 22 Cheilinus chlorourus (Bloch, 1791) 1, 20 Cheilinus fasciatus Bloch, 17911 Cheilinus trilobatus Lacepede, 18011 Cheilinus undulatus Ruppell, 18281 Cheilio inermis (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Choerodon anchorago (Bloch, 1791) 1 Choerodon robustus Gunther, 1862 1 Cirrhilabrus rubrisquamis Randall & Emery, 1983 5 Coris cuvieri (Bennett, 1831) 1, 21 Coris aygula Lacepede, 1802 1, 5, 9 Coris frerei Gunther, 1866 1, 5 Coris cuvieri (Bennett, 1831) 5 Coris batuensis (Bleeker, 1856-57) 22 Diproctacanthus xanthurus (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Epibulus insidiator Pallas, 1770 1, 20 Gomphosus caeruleus Lacepede, 18011, 5 Halichoeres hortulanus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 2, 5 Halichoeres dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 2 Halichoeres marginatus (Ruppell, 1835) 1, 2, 5 Halichoeres scapularis (Bennett, 1831) 1, 2, 5 Halichoeres zeylonicus (Bennett, 1832) 1 Halichoeres nebulosus (Valenciennes, 1839) 2 Halichoeres timorensis (Bleeker, 1852) 2 Halichoeres leucoxanthus Randall & Smith, 1982 2, 5 Halichoeres margaritaceus (Valenciennes, 1839) 20, 22 Halichoeres notospilus (Günther, 1864) 20, 22 Halichoeres biocellatus Schultz, 1960 20, 22 Halichoerus spp.2 Hemigymnus fasciatus (Bloch, 1792) 1, 5 Hemigymnus melapterus (Bloch, 1791) 1, 5 Hologymnosus annulatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Hologymnosus doliatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Labroides dimidiatus (Lacepede, 1839) 1, 5, 7 Labroides bicolor (Fowler and Bean, 1928) 5, 9 Macropharyngodon ornatus Randall, 1978 5 Macropharyngodon meleagris (Valenciennes, 1839) 22 Novaculichthys taeniourus Lacepede, 18011, 5 Oxycheilinus digramma (Lacepède, 1801) 1, 21 Paracheilinus mccoskeri Randall & Harmelin-Vivien, 1977 5 Pseudodax moluccanus (Valenciennes, 1839) 1 Stethojulis trilineata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5 Stethojulis interrupta (Bleeker, 1851) 22 Stethojulis albovittata (Bonnaterre, 1788) 22 Stethojulis strigiventer (Bennett, 1833) 22 Thalassoma hebraicum (Lacepede, 1801) 2 Thalassoma janseni (Bleeker, 1856) 2, 5 Thalassoma hardwickii (Bennett, 1830) 2, 5 Thalassoma quinquevittatum (Lay & Bennett, 1839) 2, 5 Thalassoma lunare (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7 Thalassoma purpureum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Thalassoma trilobatum (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Thalassoma amblycephalum (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Xyrichtys pavo (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 5 Xyrichtys pentadactylus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Family: Lactariidae Lactarius lactarius (Schneider, 1801) 1 Family: Leiognathidae Equulites elongatus (Günther, 1874) 1, 21 Equulites rivulatus (Temminki & Schlegel, 1845) 18 Equulites leuciscus (Günther, 1860) 1, 21 Eubleekeria splendens (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 21 Gazza achlamys Jordan and Starks, 1917 1 Gazza minuta (Bloch, 1797) 1 Leiognathus berbis (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Leiognathus brevirostris (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Leiognathus daura (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Leiognathus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 8 Leiognathus fasciatus (Lacepede, 1803) 1 Leiognathus lineolatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Leiognathus longispinis (Valenciennes, 1835) 1, 21 Nuchequula blochii (Valenciennes, 1835) 1, 21 Photopectoralis bindus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1, 21 Secutor insidiator (Bloch, 1797) 1 Secutor ruconius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Family: Lethrinidae Gnathodentex aureolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 20 Gymnocranius elongatus Senta, 1973 1 Gymnocranius grandoculis (Valenciennes, 1830) 1 Gymnocranius griseus (Schlegel, 1844) 1 Lethrinus conchyliatus (Smith, 1959) 1 Lethrinus crocineus Smith, 1959 1 Lethrinus harak (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Lethrinus lentjan (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Lethrinus mahsena (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Lethrinus microdon Valenciennes, 1830 1 420 Lethrinus nebulosus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Lethrinus obsoletus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Lethrinus olivaceus Valenciennes, 1830 1, 14 Lethrinus ornatus Valenciennes, 1830 1 Lethrinus rubrioperculatus Sato, 1978 1 Lethrinus semicintus Valenciennes, 1830 1 Lethrinus variegates Valenciennes, 1830 1 Lethrinus spp.1 Monotaxis grandoculis (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Wattsia mossambica (Smith, 1975) 1 Family: Lobotidae Pinjalo pinjalo (Bleeker, 1850) 1 Pinjalo lewisi (Randall, Allen and Anderson, 1987) 1 Pristipomoides ilamentosus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1 Pristipomoides multidens (Day, 1870) 1 Pristipomoides sieboldii (Bleeker, 1857) 1 Pristipomoides typus Bleeker, 1852 1, 14 Pristipomoides zonatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1 Family: Macrouridae Caelorinchus labellispinnis (Alcock 1894) 18 Coryphaenoides woodmasoni (Alcock, 1890) 1 Hymenocephalus heterolepis (Alcock, 1889) 1 Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch, 1790) 1 Family: Malacanthidae Family: Lophiidae Lophiodes mutilus (Alcock, 1893) Lophiomus setigerus (Vahl, 1797) 1 1 Malacanthus brevirostris Guichenot, 1848 5 Malacanthus latovittatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 5 Family: Megalopidae Family: Lutjanidae Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet, 1782) 1 Aphareus furca (Lacepede, 1802) Aphareus rutilans Cuvier, 1830 1 Aprion virescens Valenciennes, 1830 1 Etelis carbunculus Cuvier, 1828 1 Etelis coruscans Valenciennes, 1862 1 Etelis radiosus Anderson, 1981 1 Lipocheilus carnolabrum (Chan, 1970) 1 Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Lutjanus bengalensis (Bloch, 1790) 1 Lutjanus biguttatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1 Lutjanus bohar (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Lutjanus guilcheri Fourmanoir, 1959 1 Lutjanus johnii (Bloch, 1792) 1 Lutjanus kasmira (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Lutjanus lemniscatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1 Lutjanus lunulatus (Park, 1797) 1 Lutjanus lutjanus Bloch, 1790 1 Lutjanus madras (Valenciennes, 1831) 1 Lutjanus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1 Lutjanus monostigma (Cuvier, 1828) 1 Lutjanus quinquelineatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5 Lutjanus rivulatus (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 14 Lutjanus russellii (Bleeker, 1849) 1, 21 Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier, 1828) 1 Lutjanus sebae (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 5 Lutjanus vitta (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1, 20 Lutjanus decussatus (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 5 Lutjanus ehrenbergii (Peters, 1869) 1 Lutjanus erythropterus Bloch, 1790 1 Lutjanus fulvilamma (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 14 Lutjanus fulvus (Schneider, 1801) 1, 2 Lutjanus gibbus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Macolor niger (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Paracaesio sordida Abe and Shinohara, 1962 1, 21 Paracaesio xanthura Bleeker, 1869 1, 20 1 Family: Menidae Mene maculata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1 Family: Ptereleotridae Nemateleotris decora Randall & Allen, 1973 5 Nemateleotris magniica Fowler, 1938 5 Ptereleotris evides (Jordan & Hubbs, 1925) 5 Ptereleotris hanae (Jordan & Snyder, 1901) 5 Ptereleotris heteroptera (Bleeker, 1855) 5 Ptereleotris microlepis (Bleeker, 1856) 5 Ptereleotris zebra (Fowler, 1938) 5 Ptereleotris monoptera Randall & Hoese, 1985 22 Family: Molidae Mola mola (Linneaus, 1841) 1 Ranzania laevis (Pennant, 1776) 1 Family: Monacanthidae Acreichthys tomentosus (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Aluterus monoceros (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Aluterus scriptus (Osbeck, 1765) 1 Amanses scopas (Cuvier, 1829) 2, 5 Anacanthus barbatus (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Cantherhines pardalis (Ruppell, 1835) 1 Oxymonacanthus longirostris (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5 Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker, 1852) 1 Paramonacanthus nipponensis (Kamohara, 1939) 1 Pervagor janthinosoma (Bleeker, 1854) 5 Stephanolepis diaspros Fraser-Brunner, 1940 1 Family: Monocentridae Monocentris japonica (Houttuyn, 1782) 1, 21 421 Family: Monodactylidae Echidna nebulosa (Ahl, 1789) 1, 5, 21, 23 Monodactylus argenteus (Linneaus, 1758) 1, 5 Monodactylus falciformis Lacepede, 1801 1 Monodactylus kottelati Pethiyagoda, 19911 Echidna xanthospilos (Bleeker, 1859) 1, 21 Family: Moridae Physiculus argyropastus Alcock, 1893 1 Family: Moringuidae Moringua bicolor Kaup, 1856 1 Family: Mugilidae Liza macrolepis (Smith, 1849) 1 Liza melinoptera (Valenciennes, 1836) 1 Liza parsia (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Liza subviridis (Valenciennes, 1836) 1 Liza tade (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 21 Liza vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Mugil cephalus Linneaus, 1758 1 Oedalechilus labiosus (Valenciennes, 1836) 1 Sicamugil cascasia (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 20 Valamugil buchanani (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Valamugil cunnesius (Valenciennes, 1836) 1 Valamugil seheli (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Valamugil speigleri (Bleeker, 1858) 1 Family: Mullidae Mulloidichthys lavolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 5 Mulloidichthys vanicolensis (Valenciennes, 1831) 1 Mulloidichthys mimicus Randall & Gueze, 1980 22 Parupeneus barberinus (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Parupeneus bifasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Parupeneus heptacanthus (Lacepède, 1802) 1, 21 Parupeneus cyclostomus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Parupeneus indicus (Shaw, 1803) 1, 5 Parupeneus macronema (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Parupeneus rubescens (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Upeneus japonicus (Houttuyn, 1782) 1, 21 Upeneus moluccensis (Bleeker, 1855) 1 Upeneus sulphureus Cuvier, 1829 1 Upeneus sundaicus (Bleeker, 1855) 1 Upeneus taeniopterus Cuvier, 1829 1 Upeneus tragula Richardson, 1845 1 Upeneus vittatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Family: Muraenesocidae Congresox talabon (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Congresox talabonoides (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Muraenesox bagio (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1 Muraenesox cinereus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Serrivomer beanii Gill & Ryder, 1883 1, 21 Family: Muraenidae Echidna delicatula (Kaup, 1856) 1 Echidna polyzona (Richardson, 1845) 22 Enchelycore bayeri (Schultz, 1953) 22 Gymnomuraena zebra (Shaw, 1797) 5 Gymnothorax favagineus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5 Gymnothorax imbriatus (Bennett, 1831) 1 Gymnothorax meleagris (Shaw and Nodder, 1795) 1 Gymnothorax pseudothyrsoidea (Bleeker, 1852) 1 Gymnothorax punctatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 22 Gymnothorax rueppellii (McClelland, 1844) 1, 21 Gymnothorax undulatus (Lacepede, 1803) 1, 23 Gymnothorax javanicus (Bleeker, 1859) 2, 23 Gymnothorax breedeni McCosker & Randall, 1977 22 Gymnothorax buroensis (Bleeker, 1857) 22 Gymnothorax chilospilus (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Gymnothorax enigmaticus McCosker & Randall, 1982 22 Gymnothorax lavimarginatus (Rüppell, 1830) 22 Gymnothorax herrei Beebe & Tee-Van, 1933 22 Gymnothorax melanospilus (Bennett,) 22 Gymnothorax permistus (Smith, 1962) 22 Gymnothorax pindae Smith, 1962 22 Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Bleeker, 1853) 22 Gymnothorax zonipectis Seale, 1906 22 Gymnothorax pictus (Ahl, 1789) 1, 21 Gymnothorax thyrsoideus (Richardson, 1845) 1, 20 Gymnothorax griseus (Lacepède, 1803) 21, 22 Pseudechidna brummeri (Bleeker, 1859) 1, 21 Rhinomuraena quaesita Garman, 1888 5 Strophidon sathete (Hamilton, 1822) 1, 21 Uropterygius concolor (Ruppell, 1835) 1 Uropterygius marmoratus (Lacepede, 1803) 1 Family: Myctophidae Diaphus knappi Nafpaktitis, 1978 18, 21 Diaphus splendidus (Brauer, 1904) 1, 21 Lampanyctus macropterus (Brauer, 1904) 18 Family: Nemipteridae Nemipterus bipunctatus (Ehrenberg, 1830) 1 Nemipterus furcosus (Valenciennes, 1831) 1 Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch, 1791) 1 Nemipterus nematophorus (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Nemipterus peronii (Valenciennes, 1830) 1 Nemipterus randalli Russell, 1986 1 Nemipterus zysron (Bleeker, 1856-57) 1 Nemipterus hexodon (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 18 Parascolopsis aspinosa (Rao and Rao, 1981) 1 Parascolopsis eriomma (Jordan and Richardson, 1909) 1 Parascolopsis inermis (Schlegel, 1843) 1 Scolopsis bilineata (Bloch, 1793) 1, 20 Scolopsis bimaculatus Ruppell, 1828 1, 21 Scolopsis taeniatus (Ehrenberg, 1830) 1, 21 Scolopsis vosmeri (Bloch, 1792) 1, 21 422 Family: Neoscopelidae Family: Percophidae Neoscopelus macrolepidotus Johnson, 1863 18 Bembrops caudimacula Steindachner, 1876 1, 18, 21 Family: Nomeidae Family: Peristediidae Cubiceps whiteleggii (Waite, 1894) Peristedion riversandersoni Alcoclk, 1894 19 18, 21 Peristedion halyi (Day, 1888) 19 Satyrichthys adeni (Lloyd, 1907) 19, 21 Family: Ogcocephalidae Coelophrys micropa (Alcock, 1891) Halieutaea stellata (Vahl, 1797) 1 1, 21 Family: Pinguipedidae Parapercis clathrata Ogilby, 1910 5 Parapercis cylindrical (Bloch, 1792) 5 Parapercis hexophthalma (Ehrenberg, 1829) 1, 5 Parapercis millepunctata (Gunther, 1860) 1, 5 Parapercis pulchella (Schlegel, 1843) 1 Parapercis punctata (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Parapercis robinsoni (Fowler, 1932) 1 Family: Ophichthidae Bascanichthys kirkii (Günther, 1870) 19, 21 Callechelys marmorata (Bleeker, 1853) 19, 21 Leiuranus semicinctus (Lay & Bennett, 1839) 19, 21 Muraenichthys gymnopterus (Bleeker, 1853) 19 Myrichthys colubrinus (Boddaert, 1781) 5 Myrichthys maculosus (Cuvier, 1816) 5 Ophichthus rutidoderma (Bleeker, 1853) 19, 21 Parapercis signata Randall, 1984 5 Ophichthus apicalis (Anonymous [Bennett], 1830) 19, 20 Ophichthus altipennis (Kaup, 1856) 19, 20 Ophichthus polyophthalmus Bleeker, 1864 19, 21 Family: Platycephalidae Cociella crocodile (Tilesius, 1812) 1 Grammoplites scaber (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Grammoplites suppositus (Troschel, 1840) 1 Inegocia japonica (Tilesius, 1812) 1 Platycephalus indicus (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Rogadius pristiger (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Rogadius serratus (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Sorsogona tuberculata (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Suggrundus macracanthus (Bleeker, 1869) 1 Pisodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson, 1848) 19, 20 Family: Ophidiidae Hephthocara simum (Alcock, 1892) 1 Monomitopus conjugator (Alcock, 1896) 1 Hypopleuron caninum Smith & Radcliffe, 1913 18, 20 Family: Ostraciidae Lactoria cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Lactoria fornasini (Biancorni, 1846) 19 Ostracion cubicus Linnaeus, 1758 5 Ostracion meleagris Shaw, 1796 5, 7, 19 Ostracion tuberculatum Linnaeus, 1758 7 Tetrosomus gibbosus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Family: Plesiopidae Plesiops nigricans (Ruppell, 1828) 1 Family: Pleuronectidae Poecilopsetta colorata Gunther, 1880 1 Poecilopsetta praelonga Alcock, 1894 1 Samaris cristatus Gray, 1831 1 Samariscus longimanus Norman, 1927 1 Family: Paralepididae Lestidium nudum Gilbert, 1905 18 Family: Plotosidae Family: Paralichthyidae Pseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogiby, 1912 1 Pseudorhombus javanicus (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Pseudorhombus malayanus Bleeker, 1866 1 Pseudorhombus triocellatus (Schneider, 1801) 1 1 Plotosus canius Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 1 Plotosus limbatus Valenciennes, 1840 1 Plotosus lineatus (Thunberg, 1787) 1, 5 Family: Polymyxiidae Polymixia japonica Günther, 1877 18, 21 Family: Pempheridae Family: Polynemidae Pempheris oualensis Cuvier, 1831 2 Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) 1 Filimanus similis Feltes, 1991 1 Filimanus xanthonema (Valenciennes, 1831) 1 Leptomelanosoma indicum (Shaw, 1804) 1, 21 Polydactylus sexilis (Valenciennes, 1831) 1, 21 Polydactylus sextarius (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 1, 21 Pempheris schwenkii Bleeker, 1855 2 Pempheris vanicolensis Cuvier, 1831 22 Parapriacanthus spp.2 423 Polynemus plebeius Broussonet, 1782 1 Polynemus paradiseus (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Family: Pomacentridae Abudefduf septemfasciatus (Cuvier, 1830) 2 Abudefduf sordidus (Forsskål, 1775) 2 Abudefduf vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 2, 5 Abudefduf saxatilis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 Abudefduf notatus (Day, 1870) 22 Abudefduf sexfasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) 22, 23 Abudefduf bengalensis (Bloch, 1787) 22 Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster (Bleeker, 1847) 22 Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett, 1830) 5, 12 Amphiprion nigripes Regan, 1908 5 Pomacentrus proteus Allen, 19912 Pomacentrus similis Allen, 19915, 12 Pomacentrus melanochir Bleeker, 1877 7 Pomacentrus caeruleus Quoy & Gaimard, 1825 22 Pomacentrus coelestis Jordan & Starks, 1901 22 Pomacentrus pavo (Bloch, 1787) 22 Pomacentrus phillippinus Evermann & Seale, 1907 22 Pomacentrus tripunctatus Cuvier, 1830 22 Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert, 1772) 5, 9 Stegastes albifasciatus (Schlegel & Müller, 1839) 22 Stegastes fasciolatus (Ogilby, 1889) 22, 23 Stegastes lividus (Forster, 1801) 22 Stegastes nigricans (Lacepède, 1802) 22 Stegastes obreptus (Whitley, 1948) 22 Amphiprion sebae Bleeker, 1853 5 Amphiprion akallopisos Bleeker, 1853 22 Amphiprion chrysogaster Cuvier, 1830 22 Centropyge bispinosus (Gunther, 1860) 5, 9 Chromis atripectoralis Welander & Schultz, 19515 Chromis dimidiata (Klunzinger, 1871) 5 Chromis viridis (Cuvier, 1830) 5 Chromis caeruleus (Cuvier, 1830) 7 Chromis lepidolepis Bleeker, 1877 22 Chromis nigrura Smith, 1960 22 Chromis ternatensis (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Chromis opercularis (Günther, 1867) 22 Chromis weberi Fowler & Bean, 1928 22 Chrysiptera brownriggii (Bennett, 1828) 2, 5 Chrysiptera glauca (Cuvier, 1830) 2 Chrysiptera biocellata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 2, 5 Chrysiptera spp.2 Chrysiptera kuiteri (Allan and Rajasuriya, 1995) 5 Chrysiptera unimaculata (Cuvier, 1830) 22 Dascyllus aruanus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Dascyllus carneus Fischer, 1885 5 Dascyllus trimaculatus (Rüppell, 1829) 2, 5, 7 Lepidozygus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Neoglyphidodon bonang (Bleeker, 1852) 2 Neoglyphidodon melas (Cuvier, 1830) 22 Neopomacentrus azysron (Bleeker, 1877) 2, 5 Neopomacentrus cyanomos (Bleeker, 1856) 5 Neopomacentrus taeniurus (Bleeker, 1856) 5 Plectroglyphidodon dickii (Liénard, 1839) 2, 23 Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 2, 23 Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus Fowler & Ball, 1924 22 Plectroglyphidodon imparipennis (Vaillant & Sauvage, 1875) 22 Family: Pomacanthidae Apolemichthys xanthurus (Bennett, 1833) 3, 5 Apolemichthys trimaculatus (Cuvier, 1831) 9 Centropyge lavipectoralis (Randall and Klausewitz, 1977) 3, 5, 9 Centropyge eibli Klausewitz, 1963 3, 5 Centropyge multispinis (Playfair, 1867) 3 Centropyge bispinosus (Gunther, 1860) 5, 9 Pomacanthus imperator (Bloch, 1787) 3, 5 Pomacanthus annularis (Bloch, 1787) 3, 5, 7, 23 Pomacanthus semicirculatus (Cuvier, 1831) 3, 5, 7 Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert, 1772) 5, 9 Family: Priacanthidae Cookeolus japonicus (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Heteropriacanthus cruentatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Priacanthus hamrur (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Priacanthus tayenus Richardson, 1846 1 Family: Pristigasteridae Ilisha elongata (Bennett, 1830) 1 Ilisha iligera (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Ilisha kampeni (Weber and de Beaufort, 1913) 1 Ilisha megaloptera (Swainson, 1839) 1 Ilisha melastoma (Schneider, 1801) 1 Ilisha obfuscate Wongratana, 1983 1 Ilisha sirishai Seshagiri Rao, 1975 1 Ilisha striatula Wongratana, 1983 1 Opisthopterus tardoore (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Pellona dayi Wongratana, 1983 1 Pellona ditchela (Valenciennes, 1847) 1 Raconda russeliana Gray, 1831 1 Plectroglyphidodon leucozonus (Bleeker, 1859) 22 Family: Psettodidae Pomacentrus chrysurus Cuvier, 1830 2 Psettodes erumei (Schneider, 1801) 1 Pomacentrus indicus Allen, 19912 Pomacentrus trilineatus Cuvier, 1830 2 424 Family: Pseudochromidae Chlidichthys inornatus Lubbock, 1976 5 Pseudochromis dilectus Lubbock, 1976 5 Pseudochromis fuscus Müller & Troschel, 1849 5 Family: Rachycentridae Rachycentron canadum (Linneaus, 1766) 1 Family: Scaridae Calotomus carolinus (Valenciennes, 1840) 1 Calotomus spinidens (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Cetoscarus bicolor (Rüppell, 1829) 5 Chlorurus rhakoura Randall & Anderson, 1997 2 Chlorurus atrilunula (Randall & Bruce, 1983) 5 Chlorurus oedema (Snyder, 1909) 1, 21 Chlorurus sordidus (Forsskål, 1775) 1, 21 Chlorurus strongylocephalus (Bleeker, 1854) 21, 22 Hipposcarus harid (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Leptoscarus vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Scarus ghobban Forsskal, 1775 1 Scarus niger Forsskal, 1775 1 Scarus psittacus Forsskal, 1775 1 Scarus quoyi Valenciennes, 1840 1 Scarus rivulatus Valenciennes, 1840 1 Scarus rubroviolaceus Bleeker, 1847 1 Scarus russelii Valenciennes, 1840 1 Scarus frenatus Lacepède, 1802 22 Scarus caudofasciatus (Günther, 1862) 22 Family: Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus (Bloch, 1758) 1 Family: Sciaenidae Argyrosomus amoyensis (Bleeker, 1863) 1 Chrysochir aureus (Richardson, 1846) 1 Daysciaena albida (Cuvier, 1830) 1, 20, 21 Dendrophysa russellii (Cuvier, 1830) 1, 21 Johnius amblycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) 1 Johnius belangerii (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Johnius carouna (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Johnius carutta (Bloch, 1793) 1 Johnius elongatus Mohan, 1976 1, 20 Johnius macropterus (Bleeker, 1853) 1 Johnius macrorhynus (Mohan, 1976) 1 Johnius mannarensis (Mohan, 1969) 1 Johnius trewavasae Sasaki, 1992 1, 20 Johnius borneensis (Bleeker, 1851) 1, 20, 21 Kathala axillaris (Cuvier, 1830) 1 Nibea maculata (Schneider, 1801) 1 Nibea soldado (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Otolithes cuvieri Trewavas, 1947 1 Otolithes ruber (Schneider, 1801) 1 Otolithoides biauritus (Cantor, 1850) 1 Panna microdon (Bleeker, 1849) 1 Pennahia anea (Bloch, 1793) 1 Protonibea diacanthus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Pterotolithus maculates (Kuhl and Van Hassel, 1830) 1 Family: Scombridae Acanthocybium solandri (Cuvier, 1831) 1, 6, 13 Auxis rochei (Risso, 1810) 1, 6, 13, 14 Auxis thazard (Lacepede, 1800) 1, 6, 13, 14 Euthynnus afinis (Cantor, 1849) 1, 6, 13, 14 Gymnosarda unicolor (Ruppell, 1838) 1 Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 6, 13, 14 Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1817) 1, 20 Sarda orientalis (Temminck and Schlegel, 1844) 1 Scomberomorus commersoni (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 6, 13, 14 Scomberomorus guttatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 13 Scomberomorus koreanus (Kishinouye, 1915) 1 Scomberomorus lineolatus (Cuvier, 1831) 1, 13 Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788) 1, 6, 13, 14 Thunnus abesus (Lowe, 1839) 1, 6, 13, 14 Thunnus tonggol (Bleeker, 1851) 1, 13 Family: Howellidae Howella sherborni (Norman, 1930) 18 Family: Scorpaenidae Apistus carinatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 21, 22 Choridactylus multibarbus Richardson, 1848 22 Dendrochirus biocellatus (Fowler, 1938) 5 Dendrochirus brachypterus (Cuvier, 1829) 5 Dendrochirus zebra (Cuvier, 1829) 5 Inimicus ilamentosus (Cuvier, 1829) 22 Minous monodactylus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22 Pterois antennata (Bloch, 1787) 5 Pterois russelli Bennett, 1831 5 Pterois volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) 2, 5, 7, 23 Pterois radiata (Cuvier, 1829) 5, 9 Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828) 7 Pterois mombasae (Smith, 1957) 22 Parascorpaena picta (Cuvier, 1829) 2 Parascorpaena bleekeri (Day, 1878) 22 Pseudovespicula dracaena (Cuvier, 1829) 20, 22 Rhinopias frondosa (Gunther, 1891) 22 Rhinopias eschmeyeri Condé, 1977 22 Scorpaenodes parvipinnis (Garrett, 1864) 5 Scorpaenodes guamensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 22 Scorpaenodes parvipinnis (Garrett, 1864) 21, 22 Scorpaenopsis diabolus (Cuvier, 1829) 22 Scorpaenopsis gibbosa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22 Scorpaenopsis venosa (Cuvier, 1829) 22 Scorpaenopsis oxycephala (Bleeker, 1849) 22 Setarchus longiceps (Gunther) 22 Sebastapistes cyanostigma (Bleeker, 1856) 22 Sebastapistes erostris (Alcock, 1896) 22 Sebastapistes strongia (Cuvier, 1829 22 Synanceia verrucosa Bloch & Schneider, 1801 22 425 Synanceia horrida (Linnaeus, 1766) 22 Taenianotus triacanthus Lacepede, 1802 22 Tetraroge niger (Cuvier, 1829) 20, 22 Family Siganidae Family: Serranidae Aethaloperca rogaa (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 21 Cephalopholis argus (Schneider, 1801) 1, 5, 7, 23 Cephalopholis aurantia (Schneider, 1801) 1 Cephalopholis boenack (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5, 7 Cephalopholis formosa (Shaw, 1804) 1, 5 Cephalopholis leopardus (Lacepede, 1801) 1 Cephalopholis minata (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5, 14 Cephalopholis sexmaculata (Ruppell, 1828) 1, 5 Cephalopholis sonnerati (Valenciennes, 1825) 1, 2 Cephalopholis urodeta (Forster, 1801) 1 Cromileptes altivelis (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Diploprion bifasciatum Cuvier, 1828 1 Epinephelus areolatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Epinephelus bleekeri (Vaillant, 1877) 1 Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5 Epinephelus chlorostigma (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton, 1822) 1 Epinephelus diacanthus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Epinephelus erythrurus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Epinephelus fasciatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Epinephelus faveatus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1 Epinephelus lavocaeruleus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 5, 9 Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Epinephelus hexagonatus (Schneider, 1801) 1 Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5, 9 Epinephelus latifasciatus (Temminck and Schlegel, 1842) 1 Epinephelus longispinis (Kner, 1865) 1 Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 14 Epinephelus merra Bloch, 1793 1, 23 Epinephelus poecilonotus (Temminck and Schlegel, 1842) 1 Epinephelus radiatus (Day, 1867) 1, 20 Epinephelus tauvina (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Epinephelus tukula Morgans, 1959 1 Epinephelus undulosus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1, 14 Epinephelus rivulatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 22 Epinephelus spilotoceps Schultz, 1953 22 Grammistes sexlineatus (Thunberg, 1792) 1, 5 Plectropomus laevis (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5 Plectropomus pessuliferus (Fowler, 1904) 1 Pogonoperca punctata (Valenciennes, 1830) 5 Pseudanthias cooperi (Regan, 1902) 5 Pseudanthias evansi (Smith, 1954) 5 Pseudanthias hypselosoma Bleeker, 1878 5 Pseudanthias ignites (Randall & Lubbock, 1981) 5 Pseudanthias squamipinnis (Peters, 1855) 5 Rabaulichthys stigmaticus Randall & Pyle, 1989 5 Variola albimarginata (Baissac, 1952) 1, 5 Variola louti (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5 Siganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797) 1 Siganus javus (Linneaus, 1766) 1 Siganus lineatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Siganus spinus (Linneaus, 1758) 1 Siganus stellatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Siganus vermiculatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Siganus virgatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1 Siganus argenteus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 22 Siganus guttatus (Bloch, 1787) 22 Family Sillaginidae Sillago aeolus Jordan and Evermann, 1902 1 Sillago ingenuua McKay, 1985 1 Sillago lutea McKay, 1985 1 Sillago sihama (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Sillago vincenti McKay, 1980 1 Family Soleidae Brachirus orientalis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 1, 21 Heteromycteris oculus (Alcock, 1889) 1 Solea elongata Day, 1877 1 Synaptura commersonnii (Lacepède, 1802) 1, 21 Zebrias quagga Kaup, 1858 1 Zebrias synapturoides (Jenkins, 1910) 1 Family: Solenostomidae Solenostomus paradoxus (Pallas, 1770) 1, 5 Solenostomus cyanopterus Bleeker, 1854 22 Solenostomus spp.2 Family: Sparidae Acanthopagrus berda (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Acanthopagrus bifasciatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Acanthopagrus latus (Houttuyn, 1758) 1 Argyrops spinifer (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Rhabdosargus sarba (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Family: Sphyraenidae Sphyraena acutipinnis Day, 1876 1 Sphyraena barracuda (Walbaum, 1792) 1 Sphyraena forsteri Cuvier, 1829 1 Sphyraena jello Cuvier, 1829 1 Sphyraena obtusata Cuvier, 1829 1 Family: Sternoptychidae Polyipnus spinosus Gunther, 1887 18 Family: Stomiidae Astronesthes richardsoni (Poey, 1852) 18 Stomias nebulosus (Alcock, 1889) 1 426 Family Stromateidae Family: Toxotidae Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) 1 Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen, 1788) 1 Toxotes chatareus (Hamilton – Buchanan, 1822) 1 Family: Trachichthyidae Gephyroberyx darwinii (Johnson, 1866) 1 Hoplostethus mediterraneus Cuvier, 1829 1 Family: Syngnathidae Corythoichthys amplexus Dawson & Randall, 1975 5 Corythoichthys lavofasciatus (Rüppell, 1838) 19, 21 Doryrhamphus excisus Kaup, 1856 21, 22 Doryrhamphus janssi (Herald & Randall, 1972) 20, 22 Doryrhamphus spp.2 Halicampus grayi Kaup, 1856 19, 21 Hippocampus kuda Bleeker, 1852 5 Hippocampus fuscus Ruppell 1838 22 Hippocampus spinosissimus Weber 1913 22 Ichthyocampus carce (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 20 Microphis brachyurus (Bleeker, 1854) 19 Microphis cuncalus (Hamilton, 1822) 19, 20 Siokunichthys southwelli (Duncker, 1910) 19, 21 Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Bloch, 1785) 19 Trachyrhampus serratus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1850) 19, 20 Trachyrhampus longirostris Kaup, 1856 19 Family: Triacanthidae Halimochirurgus centriscoides Alcock, 1899 18 Pseudotriacanthus striglifer (Cantor, 1849) 1 Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch, 1786) 1, 19 Family: Trichiuridae Eupleurogrammus glossodon (Bleeker, 1866) 1 Eupleurogrammus muticus (Gray, 1831) 1 Lepturacanthus pantului (Gupta, 1966) 1 Lepturacanthus savala (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Trichiurus gangeticus Gupta, 1966 1 Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758 1 Family: Trichonotidae Trichonotus setiger Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1, 20 Family: Synodontidae Family: Triglidae Saurida nebulosa (Valenciennes, 1849) 1 Saurida tumbil (Bloch, 1795) 1 Saurida undosquamis Richardson, 1848 1 Synodus binotatus Schultz, 1953 1 Synodus dermatogenys Fowler, 1912 1 Synodus indicus (Day, 1873) 1 Synodus jaculum Russell and Cressey, 1979 1 Synodus sageneus Waite, 1905 1 Synodus variegatus (Lacepede, 1803) 1, 22 Trachinocephalus myops (Forster, 1801) 1 Lepidotrigla longipinnis Alcock, 1890 1, 21 Lepidotrigla faurei (Gilchirst & Thompson, 1914) 18 Family: Tripterygiidae Family: Terapontidae Family: Veliferidae Pelates quadrilineatus (Bloch, 1790) 1 Terapon jarbua (Forsskal, 1775) 1 Terapon puta (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Terapon theraps (Cuvier, 1829) 1 Pterygotrigla leptacanthus (Günther, 1880) 18, 20 Tripterigion spp.2 Family: Uranoscopidae Ichthyscopus lebeck Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1, 21 Velifer hypselopterus Bleeker, 1879 18, 21 Family: Xiphidae Xiphias gladius Linnaeus, 1758 1, 6, 13, 14 Family: Tetraodontidae Family: Zanclidae Arothron nigropunctatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 2, 5 Arothron meleagris (Anonymous, 1798) 2, 5, 23 Arothron mappa (Lesson, 1831) 5 Arothron hispidus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Arothron stellatus (Anonymous, 1798) 20, 22 Arothron immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22 Canthigaster solandri (Richardson, 1845) 2, 5, 23 Canthigaster janthinoptera (Bleeker, 1855) 5 Canthigaster valentine (Bleeker, 1853) 5 Canthigaster coronata (Vaillant & Sauvage, 1875) 7 Zanclus cornutus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5, 7, 23 Family: Zenionidae Zenion leptolepis (Gilchrist & von Bonde, 1924) 18, 21 Cartilaginous Fishes. Sharks. Family: Alopiidae Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788) 1, 16, 17 Alopias superciliosus (Lowe, 1839) 17 Alopias pelagicus (Nakamura, 1935) 17 427 Family: Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus albimarginatus (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 17 Carcharhinus altimus (Springer, 1950) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides (Whitley, 1934) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus amboinensis (Muller and Henle, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus brevipinna (Muller and Henle, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus falciformis (Bibron, 1839) 1, 14, 16, 17 Carcharhinus hemiodon (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus longimanus (Poey, 1861) 1, 14, 15, 16, 17 Carcharhinus macloti (Muller and Henle, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1, 5, 16, 17 Carcharhinus plumbeus (Nardo, 1827) 17 Carcharhinus sealei (Pietschmann, 1916) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus sorrah (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 16, 17 Carcharhinus wheeleri (Garrick, 1982) 15, 16, 17 Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Bleeker, 1856) 15, 17 Carcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839) 15 Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) 11, 15, 16, 17 Galeocerdo cuvier (Peron and Le Seuer, 1822) 1, 15, 16, 17 Glyphis gangeticus (Müller & Henle, 1839) 15 Lamiopsis temmincki (Muller & Henle, 1839) 16, 17 Loxodon macrorhinus Muller and Henle, 1839 1, 16, 17 Negaprion acutidens (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 16, 17 Negaprion brevirostris (Poey. 1868) 15, 17 Prionace glauca (Linneaus, 1758) 1, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17 Rhizoprionodon acutus (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 16, 17 Rhizoprionodon oligolinx Springer, 1964 1, 16, 17 Scoliodon laticaudus Muller and Henle, 1838 1, 16, 17 Triaenodon obesus (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 5, 16, 17 Isurus paucus (Guitart Manday, 1966) 17 Isurus spp.14 Family: Odontaspididae Carcharias tricuspidatus Day, 1878 1, 21 Eugomphodus taurus (Rainesque, 1810) 15, 16, 17 Odontaspis noronhai (Maul, 1955) 17 Odontaspis ferox (Risso, 1810) 17 Family: Proscylliidae Eridacnis radcliffei Smith, 1913 1, 16, 17 Family: Pseudocarchariidae Pseudocarcharias kamoharai (Matsubara, 1936) 17 Family: Rhincodontidae Rhincodon typus Smith, 1828 1, 16, 17 Family: Scyliorhinidae Atelomycterus marmoratus Bennett, 1830 1, 17 Halaelurus hispidus Alcock, 1891 1, 17 Family: Sphyrnidae Eusphyra blochii (Cuvier, 1817) 1, 16, 17 Sphyrna lewini (Grifith and Smith, 1834) 1, 16, 17 Sphyrna mokarran (Ruppell, 1837) 1, 15, 16, 17 Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 15, 16, 17 Family: Squalidae Centrophorus squamosus (Bonaterre, 1788) 17 Centroscyllium ornatum (Alcock, 1889) 17 Dalatias licha (Bonnaterra, 1788) 17 Family: Echinorhinidae Family: Stegostomatidae Echinorhinus brucus (Bonnaterre, 1788) 1, 16, 17 Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann, 1783) 1, 16, 17 Family: Ginglymostomatidae Family: Triakidae Nebrius ferrugineus (Lesson, 1830) 1, 16, 17 Mustelus manazo (Bleeker, 1854) 17 Mustelus mosis (Hemprich and Ehrenbergh, 1899) 1, 16, 17 Family: Hemigaleidae Chaenogaleus macrostoma Bleeker, 1852 1, 16, 17 Hemigaleus microstoma Bleeker, 1852 1, 16, 17 Hemipristis elongatus (Klunzinger, 1871) 1, 16, 17 Batoids. Family: Dasyatididae Family: Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium griseum Muller and Henle, 1838 Chiloscyllium indicum (Gmelin, 1789) 1, 5, 16, 17 Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Bennett, 1830) 1, 5, 16, 17 1, 5, 16, 17 Family: Hexanchidae Hexanchus griseus (Bonaterre, 1788) 17 Notorynchus cepedianus (Peron, 1807) 16, 17 Family: Lamnidae Isurus oxyrinchus Rainesque, 18101, 15, 16, 17 Dasyatis kuhlii (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 4, 17 Dasyatis marginatus (Blyth, 1860) 1, 4, 17 Dasyatis pastinacus (Linnaeus, 1758) 17 Dasyatis zugei (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 4, 17 Himantura bleekeri (Blyth, 1860) 1, 17 Himantura gerrardi (Gray, 1851) 1, 4, 17 Himantura imbricata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17, 20 Himantura uarnak (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 4, 17 Pastinachus sephen (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 4, 17 Taeniura lymma (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 17 Taeniura meyeni Muller and Henle, 1841 1, 17 Urogymnus asperrimus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17 428 Gymnura poecilura (Shaw, 1804) 1, 17 Narcine brunnea Annandale, 1909 1, 17 Narcine timlei (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17 Family: Mobulidae Family: Pristidae Mobula kuhlii (Valenciennes in Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 4, 17 Mobula eregoodootenkee (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 4, 17 Mobula japanica (Muller and Henle, 1841) 4 Mobula tarapacana (Philippi, 1892) 4 Anoxypristis cuspidata (Latham, 1794) 1, 17, 20 Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 1, 17 Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851 1, 17 Family: Gymnuridae Family: Rajidae Fenestraja mamillidens (Alcock, 1889) 1, 17, 20, 21 Family: Myliobatididae Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790) 1, 4, 14, 17 Aetomylaeus maculatus (Gray, 1834) 1, 17, 20 Aetomylaeus nichoii (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17 Family: Rhinobatidae Glaucostegus granulatus (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 17, 20, 21 Rhina ancylostoma Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1, 17 Rhinobatos annandalei Norman, 1926 1, 17 Rhynchobatus djiddensis (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 17 Family Rhinopteridae Rhinoptera adspersa (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 17 Rhinoptera javanica (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 4, 14, 17 Total = 1377 Family: Narcinidae Narke dipterygia (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 17 References: (For the check list) 1. De Bruin, G.H.P. Russell, B.C. & Bogusch, A., 1994. FAO Species Identiication Field Guide for Fishery Purpose: The Marine Fishery Resources in Sri Lanka. Rome: FAO. 2. Perera, N. & Weerakkody, P., 2004. Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No: 5- A Biodiversity Status Proile of Sub-tidal and Inter-tidal Habitats of the Rekawa, Ussangoda and Kalametiya Area. Colombo: IUCN Sri Lanka Country Ofice. 3. Rajasuriya, A., n.d. The Present Status of Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka. 4. Dalpathadu, K. R., 2011. Study on skate and ray ishery in the southern coast of Sri Lanka. Bsc (Sp.). University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka. 5. Long, B. G. et al., 2010. Sri Lanka isheries atlas volume 1: Status of resources, isheries and management initiatives on sea cucumber, chank, shrimp and marine aquarium ish in the North West, South and East coast of Sri Lanka. Colombo: National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. 6. Dayaratne, P. Maldeniya, R. Amarasooriya, D & Senadhira, R., 1996. Large pelagic isheries in Sri Lanka: Annual ishery statistics 1995. Colombo: National Aquatic resource Research and Development Agency. 7. Claasz, D., 1985. A reef inventory off Wellawatta. Loris, XVII(01), pp. 25-27. 8. Lankadhikara, L. M. C. V., 2004. Food and feeding habits of common pony ish Leiognathus equulus in Negomo estuary. Sri Lanka Naturalist, VI(01-02), pp. 10-11. 9. Rajasuriya, A., 2004. The marine aquarium ishery in Sri Lanka. Business Lanka, 22(02), pp. 2-8. 10. Moosleitner, H., 1998. Myripristis adusta and M. violacea: two new records of holocentrid ishes from Sri Lanka. Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3(1), pp. 53-54. 11. De Silva, R. I., 1993. The great white shark Carcharodon carcharias in Sri Lanka. Loris, XX(01), pp. 10-11. 12. Christoffelsz, A. Fernando, M. & Rajasuriya, A., 2002. Reef check’ 99: A new threat to the Pigeon Islands’ corals?. Sri Lanka Nature, pp. 18-23. 13. Jayathilaka, et al., 2010. Atlas of tuna ishery and resources in Sri Lanka – OFCF Tuna Atlas Project in the IOTC Waters: Tuna Atlas Series No. 4. Colombo: National Aquatic resources Research and Development Agency. 14. National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA). 2005. Sri Lanka Fisheries Year book -EXPLANATORY NOTES. [Online] (Updated 12 Feb. 2008). Available at: http://www.nara.ac.lk/ybook2005/explan.html [Accessed 29 October 2012]. 429 15. De Silva, R. I., 2012. Shark attacks in Sri Lanka. [Online] (Updated 6 February 2012) Available at: http://sharkattacksrilanka.blogspot.com/2012/02/shark-attacks-in-sri-lanka-rex-i.html [Accessed 12 November 2012]. 16. De Silva, R. I., 1988. The sharks of Sri Lanka: A key to the different species and a preliminary checklist. CEYLON J.SCI. (BIO.SCI.), 17 & 18, pp. 56-66. 17. De Silva, R.I., 2006. Taxonomy and status of sharks and rays of Sri Lanka. In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed. The Fauna of Sri Lanka – status of taxonomy, research and conservation. Colombo. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Sri Lanka and Government of Sri Lanka, pp. 297-301. 18. Munasinghe, N.L.R., 1977. A Description of some Deep Sea Fishes from the Gulf of Mannar and Adjecent Waters. Bull.Fish. Res. Stn. Sri Lanka (Ceylon). 19. Munro, I. S. R., 1955. The marine and freshwater ishes of Ceylon. Dept. of External Affairs. 20. Froese, R. & Pauly, D. eds., 2012. FishBase [Online] (Updated October 2012) Available at: http://www.ishbase.org/search.php [Accessed 22 November 2012]. 21. Appeltans, W. et al. eds., 2012. World Register of Marine Species. [Online]. Available at: http://www.marinespecies.org [Accessed 22 November 2012]. 22. Weerakkody, P., 2012. Personal Records. [e-mail] (Personal communication, 12 November, 2012). 23. Kumara, P. B. T. P. Cumaranathunga P. R. T. & Linden, O., 2005. Bandaramulla reef of Southern Sri-Lanka: Present status and impacts of coral mining. In: D. Souter & O. Linden, eds. CORDIO. Kalmar, Sweden, pp. 233-242. 430 Provisional Checklist of the Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Sri Lanka R. Gnaneswaran, Department of Zoology, University of Jaffna, Jaffna Introduction Leafhoppers are small phytophagous insects with a worldwide distribution in almost all habitat types. They belong to Family Cicadellidae, the largest family in the Suborder Auchenorrhyncha of the Order Hemiptera, which includes more than 22,000 described species in 40 subfamilies and 98 tribes (Oman et al., 1990; Dietrich, 2005). Phytophagous feeding habit of the adults and the nymphal stages of leafhoppers results in four types of plant injuries: loss of plant sap due to feeding, contamination of plant with phytotoxins through injection of toxic saliva while feeding, enhancing fungus growth and transmission of disease causing microbes such as virus and phytoplasma. Among the 22,000 known species of leafhoppers, 170 have been reported as vectors of plant pathogens of cultivated crops. Taxonomy Since the description of 130 species by Melichar (1903) and 62 species belonging to 40 genera by Distant (1908, 1916 & 1918), the family Cicadellidae has not been extensively examined in Sri Lanka for nearly 80 years. In 1994, Dworakowska has described 76 species of Sri Lankan leafhoppers including 7 genera and 22 species that are new to science, after examining the specimens located in the Natural History Museum in London. Thereafter, Viraktamath and Parvathi (2002) and Viraktamath (2007b) described three new genera and seven new species. This was followed by the description of a new subgenus and a new species by Viraktamath & Gnaneswaran (2009). Finally, Gnaneswaran, et al., (2007, 2008a and 2009) have added one genus and 5 species with their host plant records, to the list of Sri Lankan leafhopper fauna. Of the 25 subfamilies of Cicadellidae found in the Indian sub-continent 17 are found in Sri Lanka. At present the leafhopper fauna of Sri Lanka consists of 257 species belonging to 120 genera. Distribution Leafhoppers of Sri Lanka are distributed throughout the island and their distribution is mainly related to the vegetation type. Many species recorded from Sri Lanka are known only from museum specimens and the information of their ecology and host plant association is not available (Melicher, 1903; Distant, 1908, 1916 & 1918). A recent study on leafhoppers in Sri Lanka by the author (from 2006-2008), revealed more information about species (including the discovery of new species), their host plant associations and distribution patterns. For instance, Kamaza sadakorni Dworakowska, earlier recorded from Bangkok (Thailand) on Erythrina fusca and Manthal (Jammu and Kashmir, India) on Ficus sp, was found breeding extensively on wing bean in Kandy District (Gnaneswaran, et al., 2008). This study further indicated that species richness and abundance of leafhoppers were higher in natural ecosystems compared to managed ecosystems. 431 Threats The majority of leafhoppers except tiny Typhlocybines (which can disperse by wind) are generally slow dispersers associated with specialized habitats or limited numbers of host plants. Therefore, these species are potentially threatened by habitat destruction or fragmentation due to human activities. Only a few species were observed in vegetable plots (S = 25) and paddy ields (S = 27) compared to Grassland (S=49) and forest with scattered grass patches (S=58) in the Mid country Wet Zone of Sri Lanka (Gnaneswaran, 2010) and species diversity appears to be high in natural habitats. Thus, damage to such natural habitats as a result of human activities pose a major threat to leafhoppers. Research Gaps The natural history of the Sri Lankan leafhoppers has been neglected by native scientists for nearly 100 years since the work done by Distant (1918). Their role in the ecosystem was not given due consideration apart from being considered as a pest/ disease vector in agroecosystem. Recent studies have led to the discovery of several new species of leafhoppers from Sri Lanka. This clearly indicates that there can be more species present in Sri Lanka unknown to science and the need to carry out detail investigation on this less known yet economically important faunal group. Recommendations 1. An intensive island wide survey should be conducted by academic/research institutions to document the diversity, density and distribution of the leafhoppers. 2. Appropriate molecular biological studies should be promoted within the country to conirm the taxonomic and vector status of the leafhoppers. 3. Ecological studies should be encouraged in different ecosystems throughout the island, with the aim of identifying whether leafhoppers can be used as indicator species to measure habitat quality. References Dietrich, C.H., 2005. Keys to the families of Cicadomorpha and subfamilies and tribes of Cicadellidae (Hemiptera: Auchenorhyncha). Fla. Entomol. 88: 502- 517. Dworakowska, I., 1994. Typhlocybinae (Auchenorrhyncha, Cicadellidae) known to occur in Sri Lanka. Ann. Zool. Bot. 216: 3-39. Gnaneswaran, R. 2010. Taxonomy and Ecology of Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Sri Lanka. Post Graduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Ph.D. Thesis , Pp. 243 Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra, K.S., Viraktamath , C.A., Ahangama , D., Wijayagunasekara H.N.P., Wahundeniya. I. 2007. Idioscopus nagpurensis (Pruthi) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Idiocerinae): A New Member of Mango Leafhopper Complex in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research. 19: 78 – 90. Gnaneswaran, R, Viraktamath, C.A., Hemachandra,K.S., Ahangama, D., Wijayagunasekara, H.N.P. and Wahundeniya,I. 2008 Typhlocybine Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Cicadellidae) Associated with Horticultural Crops in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agiricultural research. 20: 1-11. Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra,K.S. Ahangama,D . Wijayagunasekara,H.N.P. and Wahundeniya,I, 2008a. Species of Nephotettix Matsumura Hemiptera: Auchenorhyncha: Cicaedellidae) Sri Lanka. Short communication: 432 Tropical agricultural research. 20: 414-418. Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra, K.S., Wijegunasekara, H.N.P. and Ahangama.D., 2009. A Key for identiication of Deltocephaline Genera (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae) Associated with Vegetable ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Short communication: Tropical agricultural research. 21: (in Press). Gnaneswaran, R., Viraktamath, C.A. and Hemachandra, K.S., 2009a. Taxonomic studies on Deltocephaline leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae) of Sri Lanka. At 14th International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2009, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. 18th -19th December 2009. Proceedings Part. I abstract p.62. Oman, P.W., Knight W.J. and Nielson, M.W., 1990. Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) A bibiliography, Generic Check-list and Index to the World Literature 1956-1985. CAB International Institute of Entomology. Wallingford. P.368. Viraktamath, C.A, 2007. New genera and species of idiocerine leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) from India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. Biosystematica 1(1):21-30. Viraktamath, C. V and Gnaneswaran, R , 2009. Three new species of Goniagnathus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) from the Indian Subcontinent with description of a new subgenus. Zootaxa, 2224: 51-59. Viraktamath, C. A. and Parvathi, C., 2002. Description of a new Idiocerine Genus Periacerus. Hemiptera: Cicadellidae, and two new species from India and Sri Lanka. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 99: 488-494. 433 Provisional Checklist of Leafhoppers in Sri Lanka Distribution (DZ, WZ,IMZ) Habitat Host plants /at light WZ H long bean Austroagallia bifurcata Sawai Singh and Gill DZ, WZ G grass, lower bush Austroagallia quadtrinotata (Melichar) DZ, WZ G grass, lower bush Anatkina helena (Distant) WZ F grass Anagonalia melichari (Distant) WZ F grass Atkinsoniella sp. WZ F grass Cofana lineata (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass , paddy Cofana spectra (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass, paddy, brinjal Cofana unimaculata (Signoret) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass Cofana sp. WZ F grass Kolla ceylonica (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ C,P,V,F grass, coconut Kolla paulula (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ F, C grass Ujna delicatula Distant IMZ F grass Ujna sp IMZ F grass Calodia ostenta (Distant) WZ H,F grass, croton Thagria introducta (Distant) WZ F grass Aconeurella sp.I DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass Aconeurella indica DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass Balclutha rudrostriata (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,P,G grass Balclutha incisa (Mastumura) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G grass Balclutha rosea (Scott) WZ,IMZ V,G grass Balclutha viridinervis Mastumura WZ, IMZ V,G grass Banus oblatus Distant WZ F grass Changwhania ceylonensis (Baker) WZ,IMZ P,G grass Chiasmus mustilinus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ G grass Chiasmus sp. DZ WZ,IMZ G grass Cicadulina bipunctata (Melichar) WZ,IMZ P,G grass Exitianus indicus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,F,C grass Exitianus nanus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,F grass Goniagnathus (T.) zeylonicus Viraktamath &Gnaneswaran IMZ G grass Goniagnathus (T.) nervosus Distant WZ,IMZ F,G, grass Leafhopper Species Sub family: Acostemminae Acostemma walkeri Kirkakdy Sub family: Agalliinae Sub family: Cicadellinae Sub family: Coelidiinae Sub family: Deltocephalinae 434 Goniagnathus (T.) puntifer (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ C,G grass Goniagnathus (T.) fumosus Distant DZ G grass Goniagnathus (T.) appallans Baker DZ G grass Hecalus arcuatus (Motschulsky) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass Hecalus porrectus (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass Hecalus paraumballaensis Rao DZ, WZ H at light Hecalus.ghaurii Rao and Ramakrishnan WZ G Hecalus prasinus (Mastumura) DZ G grass Hecalus nervosus Melichar WZ G grass Hishimonus phycitis (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,T,H,C grass. brinjal, tea, coconut Leofa (Leofa) mysorensis (Distant) DZ G grass Litura unda Knight DZ, WZ,IMZ T,G tea, grass Macrosteles vaga (Melichar) WZ G grass Maiestas distincta (Motschulsky) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grass Maiestas portica (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ P.G grass Maiestas dorsalis (Motschulsky) P,V,G DZ, WZ,IMZ grass Paddy, grass, coconut Maiestas sp, DZ G grass Monobazus fuscovarious (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ F,G,O,S Grass, Nephotettix parvas Ishihara & Kiwase DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,V paddy, grass Nephotettix virescencs (Distant) Pruthi DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G.C paddy, grass Nephotettix malayanus shihara and Kawase DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G Nephotettix nigropictus (Stal) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,V paddy, grass Neohotettix sympatricus Ghauri DZ, WZ,IMZ G Grass Orosius albicinctus Distant WZ,IMZ V,O grass, mango Platyrectus marginatus Melichar WZ,IMZ F,G,C Grass Scaphoideus morosus Melichar WZ F,G,C Grass and at light Scaphoideus sculptellus Virak. & Mohan WZ Scaphotettix sp. IMZ F grass Stirellus sp I. WZ G grass Stirellus sp II DZ, WZ G grass Stirellus indra (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,C grass Stirellus jacosa Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,G grass Yuanamia sp. New WZ G grass Batrocomorphus sp. I DZ, WZ F,G grass Batrocomorphus sp. II DZ,IMZ F,G grass Batrocomorphus sp.III DZ F,G grass F,G paddy, grass grass Subfamily: Lassinae 435 Krisna sp. female only WZ H mussaenda and at light O,H,F mango Sub family: Idiocerinae Amritodus brevistylus Viraktamath. DZ, WZ,IMZ Busoniomimus manjunaththi Virak.& Vira DZ, WZ,IMZ Jogocerus freytagi Viraktamath IMZ F attariya Idioscopus nitidulus (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ O,H,F mango, asoka Idioscopus nagpurensis (Pruthi) DZ, WZ,IMZ F O,H,F clove mango, jampola, cocoa avocado,na, rambuttan, carambola,teak, pepper, coffee O,H,F mango, jampola, avocado, na, rambutan, teak ,cocoa carambola, teak,pepper, coffee. WZ F badulla, na IMZ G,C grass Pediopsoides (Pediopsoids) sp. WZ F,G grass Macropsis sp. WZ F,G grass Kana thoracica Distant WZ F,G grass Nirvana pallida Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ V,F.G grass Nirvana suturalis Melichar WZ F,G grass Sophonia longitudinalis (Distant) WZ F,G grass Neodartus acocephaloides Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ F,G,V grass Uzelina thaloriensis Sharma WZ F grass Penthimia sp. WZ F grass Thambila sp. WZ F grass Bhatia olivercea Melichar WZ F,G grass Bhatia Distanti Zang and Webb WZ F,G grass Drabescus conspicuus Distant WZ F,G grass Drabescus stramineus Distant WZ F,G grass Kutata transversa Zang and Webb WZ F,G grass DZ, WZ,IMZ G grass Idioscopus clypealis (Lethierry) DZ, WZ,IMZ Idioscopus unimaculatus (Melichar) Sub family: Ledrinae Petacephala sp. Sub family : Macropsinae Sub family: Nirvaninae Sub family: Penthiminae Sub family : Selanocephalinae Subfamily: Signoretinae Preta gratiosa Melichar Sub family: Typhlocybinae 436 Alebroides nigroscutellata (Distant) WZ G grass, at light Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida) DZ, WZ,IMZ V, H brinjal, okra, bitter-gourd, potato, cow pea. at light Amrasca splendens Ghauri DZ, WZ O, H mango, asoka, ,at light Baguoidea rubra (Melichar) WZ H at light Empoasca sp. WZ,IMZ Empoascanara (E.) maculifrons Dworak. DZ, WZ,IMZ Empoascanara (E.) cilla Dworak. DZ, WZ,IMZ Empoascanara (Bza) regularis Dworak. WZ Empoasca (Empoasca) triangularis Dworak. WZ V Faiga dropica Dwarakowsha WZ F Apheliona bioculata (Melichar) WZ F,G grass Heliona constricta Melichar WZ F,H at light Kamaza sadakorni Dworakowska WZ V,H winged bean Lankasca centromaculata (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ O,F, cocoa, mousey mi, at light Motschulskyia (Togaritettix) serratus (Mats.) WZ,IMZ Seriana sagara Dworakowska WZ F,G grass Seriana sp I WZ F,G,C indian almond Thaia subrufa (Motschulsky) WZ P,G grass Thia (Nlunga) sp. WZ G grass Uzeldikra citrina (Melichar) WZ G grass Velu caricae Ghauri WZ F, at light WZ,IMZ F at light O,H P,V,G P,V,G F F,O mango, rambutan, cocoa grass grass grass, at light agati, beat root , carrot, brinjal, bush bean, long bean, castor grass, at light mango,rambuttan at light Sub family : Xestocephalinae Xestocephalus sp. Habitat:C-Coconut estate; F- Forest; G- Grass land; H-Home garden; O- Ochard: P- Paddy; T- Tea estate; V- Vegetable garden; Ecological Zone: DZ- Dry Zone; WZ- Wet Zone; IMZ- Intermediate Zone 437 A Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Sri Lanka Enoka P. Kudavidanage and Deepchandi Lekamge Department of Natural Resources, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Beihul Oya Introduction Dung beetles are scavengers that feed and breed on dung, carrion, decaying fungi, or litter. The Scarabaeinae subfamily comprises about 4,500 described species known as true dung beetles exclusively feeding on dung. There are dung-feeding beetles in other families, such as the Geotrupidae (the earth-boring dung beetles) and Aphodiinae. Aphodiinae beetles are relatively small and comprise the bulk of dung dwellers. Scarabaeinae are more common in tropical regions, but in northern latitudes Aphodiinae tend to dominate the dung beetle assemblage. Dung beetles mainly use herbivore and omnivore dung, particularly from mammals, but occasionally from birds and reptiles. They provide several ecological services such as waste removal, secondary seed dispersal and vertebrate parasite suppression. Dung beetles are characterized by how they process dung. These groups are called guilds or clades of which there are four rollers (telecoprid nesters), tunnelers (paracoprid nesters), dwellers (endocoprid nesters) and kleptoparasites. Dung beetles have well-understood ecological roles and species composition is known to changes distinctly across habitat types. Taxonomy Scarabaeinae dung beetles of Sri Lanka have been recorded in two classic, regional volumes covering parts of South Asia, Arrow 1931 and Balthasar 1963. These volumes cover the diversity of lamellicorn beetles in a wide geographical region from Sri Lanka, India, China Java and Arabia. The Monograph of the Scarabaeidae and Aphodiidae of the Palaearctic and Oriental region Coleoptera: Lamellicornia by Vladimir Balthasar (1963) includes ifty dung beetle species found in Sri Lanka, whereas the whole volume describes the distribution of dung beetles in Europe, Central, South and Southeast Asia. Prior to Arrow’s (1931) relatively comprehensive publication on the Sri Lankan lamellicorn fauna (beetles with lamellate terminal segments in the antennae; includes the scarabaeids and stag beetles), a single paper briely discussed some of the lamellicorns collected in Sri Lanka by Gille, 1924. It records 47 species from three subfamilies: Coprinae, Aphodiiane and Troginae. More recent work includes a study on the diversity of dung beetles in dung of cattle and buffalo conducted in Kandy, Sri Lanka (Nawodinee & Edirisinghe, 2007) and a four year ecological study that assessed the effects of habitat fragmentation and land use change on dung beetle communities of the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka (Kudavidanage, 2012). This was coupled with an island-wide survey to document the species distributions of dung beetle across the bio-climatic zones of Sri Lanka (Kudavidanage, 2012; Lekamge, in preparation). The geographic distribution of dung beetles sampled was compared with the historical distributions indicated by Arrow (1931) to identify possible changes in distribution patterns. Specimen collected were identiied through the assistance of the National Museum of Sri Lanka, Ashoka Trust of India, the British Museum of Natural History, the ScarabNet Global Taxon Database Version 1.5 and and primarily, Oxford University Museum of Natural History which supported the taxonomic work. The checklist is yet to be completed in collaboration with the above institutes. The current list consists of all Scarabaeinae dung beetles recorded in Sri Lanka including species recorded by Arrow (1931), 438 Balthasar (1963), ScarabNet, the ScarabNet Global Taxon Database Version 1.5, specimen collections at the National Museum of Sri Lanka, Oxford University Museum of Natural History, British Museum of Natural History, and species recorded during the ield surveys. Potentially new species and dung/dung dwelling beetles of other families/sub families (Aphodiinae, Hystaridae, Cyanidae, Elataridae, Chrysomalidae, Trogidae, Bostrichidae and Scirtidae) are excluded from this list. Distribution ScarabNet Global Taxon Database lists 81 species of Scarabaeinae beetles belonging to eight tribes from Sri Lanka. The most recent study identiied 103 species of the same tribes. Out of the 103 species listed for Sri Lanka, 21 species (21%) are endemic while 63 species (61%) are found in the Indo-Sri Lankan region. The remaining species show a wider distribution. However, these numbers are likely to change once the ongoing survey and taxonomic work is completed including the description of several potentially new species. Some of the endemics recorded recently were previously only known from the type specimen (i.e., Sysiphus tarantula, which was collected from the same location as the type).Genus Onthophagus comprises of the highest number of species found in Sri Lanka. These include species that show an island wide distribution (i.e. Onthophagus unifaciatus, O. Cervus,O. spinifex) as well as species showing restricted distribution (i.e Onthophagus martialis, O. igneus), where some species showing a clear restriction to certain bio-geographical zones (i.e Onthophagus fuscopunctatus - restricted to coastal areas in the dry and arid zones). Catharcius molossus, Sisyphus longipes and Copris signatus are the most commonly found species while Catharcius molossus, is the largest tunneler beetle recorded in Sri Lanka. This species often visit homes attracted by the light. There are distinctive differences between dry and wet zone communities which can be attributed to the environmental conditions and the distribution of large mammals. Dry zone has the highest species richness and abundance of dung beetles. The wet zone supports a diverse dung beetle assemblage; however, biomass per unit area is much low compared to the dry zone. The number of species recorded from the montane zone clearly was less than that of the other zones. Paragymnopleurus melanarius is the largest roller species found in the wet zone while Scarabaeus gangeticus, the largest crepuscular roller beetle found in Sri Lanka, display a clear habitat preference to the dry and arid zones (sandy soil) where cattle and other large mammals are abundant. Genus Ochicanthon is represented by four species in the Sri Lanka and two of them (O. cingalense and O. triste) were only recorded in the montane zone above 1200 m asl. Panelus setosus was found only in the low and mid country wet zone and Caccobius. ultor, C. lilliputanus, O. ludio in the low-country intermediate zone. The genera Paraliatongus, Euoniticellus, Drepanocerus and Panelus were represented by single species only. More intense sampling is required with multiple bait types and sampling methods to establish the inal geographic range of each species. Some of the species in historical records were not found during the present survey. For example only one species in the genus Scarabaeus, S. gangeticus, was found in the present study. The other two species, Scarabaeus erichsoni and Scarabaeus sanctus, were not recorded. Further, Onthophagus regalis and O. questus recorded by Arrow (1931) were also not recorded during this study. Several previously recorded species from the genera Gymnopleurus, Caccobius, 439 Onthophagus and Panelus were also not recorded during extensive surveys. Five out of the known six Gymnopleurus species were found except G. Smaragdifer. Shifts in the distribution patterns were also observed for some species. For instance, P. melanarius that was known to be widely distributed across the wet zone in the past was recorded only from relatively undisturbed areas and good forests during this survey. Caccobius unicornis which was only recorded from the wet zone by Arrow (1931) was also found the in dry zone. Likewise, Onthophagus laevigatus that was earlier recorded in the wet-zone, was only recorded from the dry and arid zones during our survey. The distribution of Scarabaeinae beetles can be attributed to species-speciic habitat preferences interacting with climatic/geographic variation across the island and anthropogenic modiications of habitats. Spatial diversity is inluenced primarily by climate, elevation, vegetation types, available dung types and microhabitat conditions created by canopy, shrub cover, soil and litter properties. These directly affect predation, foraging and reproduction of dung beetles. Mammals are the major suppliers of dung resources. Although diversity and endemism of the mammals are high in the wet and montane zones, the dry zone forests contain most of the large mammals that are the primary suppliers of dung. The species richness of dung beetles tends to increase with rainfall. Dung beetles reproduce during rainy reasons, leading to more dung burial for egg laying. Community structure, abundance and diversity, are often negatively correlated with elevation. Lower productivity at higher elevations is suggested as one of the reasons for this decline. Further, body size of a species is considered to be a function of environmental productivity. This is consistent with the indings of this survey where smaller species were found to dominate the species assemblage in the montane zone while large and medium sized species were more abundant in all other zones. Threats and conservation priorities Dung beetles are strongly inluenced by climate change, forest modiication, deforestation and alteration of microhabitat conditions. Large dung beetles are especially susceptible to the loss of forest cover. For instance, P. melrnarius, is vulnerable to loss of forest cover and populations decrease rapidly in open, modiied areas. Change of favourable environmental conditions can signiicantly alter forest dung beetle communities. Forest loss results in increased predation by natural enemies, and loss of mammals providing dung resources. Sri Lanka has undergone massive loss of forest cover in the last century. With few exceptions, the effects of these changes on the insect fauna are virtually unknown. It is known that native, forest-inhabiting dung beetle species undergo local extinction in areas where tree cover has disappeared. In addition, deforestation in the wet zone during the 19th century caused many large mammals to move to the dry zone. Large mammals in the wet zone are mostly restricted to forests and exist in small populations. Altered habitats are often replaced by different communities that are more adapted to new conditions. In the dry and arid zones, large beetles like Scrabaeus gangeticus appear to be highly adapted to open environments and take advantage of the surfeit of dung. However, in the wet zone, dung beetle biomass is high in forest habitats compared to open modiied areas. Some of the modiied open habitats of the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka are occupied by dung beetle communities that are much less functionally eficient than the forest communities occupying the same area. 440 Forest dwelling dung beetles may beneit from good forest cover and increased connectivity between forest fragments. Sustainable management of modiied habitats to increase habitat complexity, shade and soil quality and availability of dung resources through the presence of mammals can favour healthy dung beetle communities. Overuse of pesticides and fertilizer is a known threat to dung beetles elsewhere. Use of pesticides and other chemicals in intensely cultivated areas adjoining large forests and fragments may have detrimental effects. Community education efforts can greatly contribute to the sustainable management of human modiied areas. Importance of dung beetles and their ecological services, speciically their role in enhancing soil fertility are not well known and understood by the local communities. Wanton destruction of dung beetles is an issue infrequently discussed. Catharsius molossus is often burned in rural areas due to a mythological belief among tea plantations workers. Collecting and killing of Scarabaeus gangaticus was observed in the arid agricultural areas. Awareness development can reduce negative impacts of human activities and facilitate more biodiversity friendly anthropogenic habitats. Research needs and recommendations The “imbalance in the number of collections, experts, and species” is a common problem faced by many countries in the Asian region including Sri Lanka. Many Sri Lankan invertebrates are less known, revised taxonomic keys are rarely available, and reference collections with type specimens are primarily found in European museums. On the Indian subcontinent, the taxonomy of most invertebrate groups has not been revised since the publication of the Fauna of British India series in the mid-1900s. Constraints of limited access to reference specimens and lack of taxonomic expertise encountered at the initial stages of the recent dung beetle survey were tackled through resources and collaboration provided by the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. The completion of the dung beetle checklist for Sri Lanka, establishing the status of species and description of new species will require a greater sampling effort considering geographical, microhabitat, seasonal and food habit variations expressed by dung beetles. Further, more sampling is required to verify if the absence of previously recorded species. All endemic species recorded in the present study were found in the wet zone, and most were rare. This could be attributed either to natural rarity or to endemics being more vulnerable to disturbances in this landscape. Clear morphological variations were observed within certain species indicating the need for in depth taxonomic revision of Scarabaeinae dung beetles. Shifting distribution of species ranges were observed by comparing current records with the published historical records, and the locations of specimens from multiple museums. These should be interpreted in the light of changing natural habitats, climate change and resource availability. The recent inclusion of dung beetles in the global IUCN database marked a turning point in dung beetles conservation. Globally, more than 12% of the dung beetle species are threatened, and most have a restricted range, or are rare forest-dwelling species. The impacts of deforestation and land use change are heavily impinging on faunal communities. Recent studies conducted in Sri Lanka using dung beetles as an indicator of habitat change highlights the importance of assessing faunal community and functional responses to habitat disturbance. 441 References Arrow, G.J. 1931. The Fauna of the British India, including Ceylon and Burma. In: Coleoptera Lamellicornia Part III (Coprinae). Taylor and Francis, London, 428 pp. Balthasar, V. 1963. Monograph of the Scarabaeidae and Aphodiidae of the Palaearctic and Oriental regions Coleoptera: Lamellicornia. Volume 1 (Publishing house of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences) Prague. Kudavidanage, E. P. 2011. Effects of land use change and forest fragmentation on the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in the tropical lowlands of Sri Lanka. PhD Thesis. National University of Singapore. Kudavidanage, E. P., Qie, L. & Lee, J. S. H. 2012. Linking biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of dung beetles in South and Southeast Asian tropical rainforests. Rafles Bulletin for Zoology, Supplement No. 25, 141-154. Nichols, E., Larsen, T., Spector, S., Davis, A.L., Escobar, F., Favila, M., and Vuline, K. 2007. Global dung beetle response to tropical forest modiication and fragmentation: A quantitative literature review and meta-analysis. Biol Conserv 137, 1-19. 442 A Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) of Sri Lanka Tribe: Onthophagini Tribe: Canthonini Ochicanthon cingalense Arrow, 1931 Caccobius ruipennis Motschulsky, 1858 D R Caccobius (Caccophilus) indicus Harold, 1867 D Ochicanthon tristis Arrow, 1931 R Caccobius (Caccophilus) aterrimus Fabricius, 1798 D R Panelus puncticollis Arrow, 1931 Caccobius (Caccophilus) diminutives Walker, 1858 D Panelus setosus Arrow, 1931 R Panelus imitator Balthasar, 1972 Caccobius(Caccophilus) meridionalis Boucomont, 1914 D R Panelus ceylonicus Balthasar, 1972 R Caccobius(Caccophilus) unicornis Fabricius, 1798 D Panelus fallax Balthasar, 1972 R Caccobius(Caccophilus) vulcanus Fabricius, 1801 D Panelus pernitidus Balthasar, 1972 R Caccobius (Caccophilus) ultor Sharp, 1875 D Cleptocaccobius durantoni Cambefort, 1985 D Tribe: Coprini Cleptocaccobius (Caccophilus inermis Arrow, 1931 D Catharsius capucinus Fabricius, 1781 T Haroldius krali Utsunomiya & Masumoto, 2000 D Catharsiu granulates Sharp, 1875 T Haroldius herrenorum Paulian, 1985 D Catharsius molossus Linnaeus, 1758 T Onthophagus amphinasus T Catharsius pethecius Fabricius 1775 T Onthophagus centricornis Fabricius, 1798 T Copris repertus Walker, 1858 T Onthophagus cervus Fabricius, 1798 T Copris sodalis Walker, 1858 T Onthophagus cryptogenus Boucomont, 1914 T Copris fricator Fabricius, 1787 T Onthophagus dificilis Walker, 1858 T Copris indicus Harold, 1867 T Onthophagus ensifer Boucomont, 1914 T Paracopris signatus Walker, 1858 T Heliocopris bucephalus Fabricius, 1775 T Onthophagus favrei Boucomont, 1914 T Tribe: Gymnopleurini Onthophagus gemma Gymnopleurus cyaneus Fabricius, 1798 Onthophagus fuscopunctatus Fabricius, 1798 T Onthophagus gravis Walker, 1858 T R Onthophagus hystrix Boucomont, 1914 T Gymnopleurus (Garreta) smaragdifer Walker, 1858 R Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) koenigi Fabricius, 1775 R Onthophagus igneus Vigor, 1825 T Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) miliaris Fabricius, 1775 R Onthophagus laevigatus Fabricius, 1798 T Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) parvus MacLeay, 1821 R Onthophagus (Furconthophagus) lilliputanus Lansberge, 1883 T Onthophagus keiseri Frey, 1956 T Onthophagus ludio Boucomont, 1914 T Gymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) gemmatus Harold, 1871 R Onthophagus martialis Boucomont, 1914 T Onthophagus militaris Boucomont, 1914 T Paraymnopleurus melanarious Harold, 1867 R Onthophagus castetsi Onthophagus negligens Walker, 1858 T Tribe: Oniticellini Onthophagus parvulus Fabricius, 1798 T Drepanocerus setosus Wiedemann, 1823 R Onthophagus politus Fabricius, 1798 T Euoniticellus pallipes Fabricius, 1781 D Onthophagus pusillus Fabricius, 1798 T Liatongus (Paraliatongus) rhadamistus Fabricius, 1775 D Onthophagus pygmaeus Schaller, 1783 T Onthophagus refulgens Arrow, 1931?? T Tribe: Onitini Onthophagus regalis Arrow, 1907 T Ontis philemon Fabricius, 1801 D Onthophagus spinifex Fabricius, 1881 T Ontis singhalensis Lansberge, 1875 D Onthophagus taprobanus Arrow, 1931 T Ontis subopacus Arrow, 1931 D Onthophagus tritinctus Boucomont, 1914 T Onthophagus turbatus Walker, 1858 T Onthophagus troglodyte (Wiedemann, 1823) T Onthophagus unifasciatus Schaller, 1783 T 443 Onthophagus gemma Sharp, 1875 T Onthophagus (Parascatonomus) quaestus Sharp, 1875 T Onthophagus refulgens Onthophagus (Proagoderus) gemmatus Peringuey, 1901 T Onthophagus heterorrhinus Lansberge, 1885 T Onthophagus sparsepunctatus Frey, 1956 T Onthophagus (C.) occipitalis Lansberge, 1885 T Onthophagus(Serrophorus) rectecornutus Lansberge, 1883 T Onthophagus (C.) quadridentatus Fabricius, 1798 T Phaedotrogus ceylonicus Balthasar, 1972 T Onthophagus (Digionthophagus) bonasus Fabricius, 1775 T Phalops divisus Wiedemann, 1823 T Onthophagus (Digionthophagus) gazella (catta) Fabricius, 1787 T Tribe: Scarabaeini Scarabaeus gangeticus Castelnau, 1840 R Onthophagus (Micronthophagus) ochreatus d’Orbigny, 1897 T Scarabaeus sanctus Fabricius, 1798 R Onthophagus (Micronthophagus) oculatus Arrow, 1931 T Scarabaeus (Kheper) erichsoni Harold, 1867 R Onthophagus (Onthophagiellus) solmani Stebnicka, 1975 T Tribe: Sisyphini Onthophagus (Proagoderus) pactolus Fabricius, 1787 Neosisyphus tarantula Arrow, 1909 R T Sisyphus longipes Olivier, 1789 R Onthophagus (Colobonthophagus) dama Fabricius, 1798 T Sisyphus indicus Hope, 1831 R Sisyphus (Crispatus) hirtus Wiedemann, 1823 R Onthophagus(Paraphanaeomorphus) bifaciatus Fabricius 1781 T Functional groups: R= roller; T= tunneler; D= dweller 444 Records of Centipede Fauna In Sri Lanka Duminda S. B. Dissanayake and Sriyani Wickramasinghe Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka Introduction Sri Lanka, even though a small island is listed as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Myers et al., 2000). Most invertebrate fauna of Sri Lanka have been inadequately studied both in terms of their diversity and conservation priorities (Attems 1930; Balan et al., 2012; IUCN Sri Lanka and MoENR 2007; Sureshan et al., 2006). Sri Lanka consists of miscellaneous geographic and climatic zones joined with vast environment diversity and maintains a rich diversity of species in the whole island. This has been comprehensive for lora and fauna especially in vertebrates fauna and several invertebrate fauna too (Bambaradeniya 2006). Centipedes are not as popular as Butterlies, Dragonlies and Fresh water crabs. The last comprehensive study was conducted more than a century ago by several foreign researchers such as Newport (1845), A. Humbert (1865), Haase (1887), R.I Pocock (1892), Verhoeff (1905), F. Silvestri (1903). In 1973 E.H Eason described a new centipedes fauna from the collection by R.I Pocock from 1890 to 1901 in British Natural History Museum. There is no involvement of local researchers in centipedes’ taxonomy in Sri Lanka. Literature review is in progress by the authors contributing to a signiicant revision of our understanding of the actual diversity of Centipedes in the Sri Lanka. Aims of this paper are to provide a check list of centipede fauna of Sri Lanka and to highlight research gaps and priorities for further investigation. Materials And Methods All scientiic names of centipedes cited by Pocock in Vol. 7 (1892) of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society are recorded below in checklist format. The checklist was completed with author and year of each name, current order and family in which the species is placed and the current valid name. The information incorporated in this checklist includes the synonyms of each species. For the delegation of the current valid names for each species, the latest taxonomic scrutiny reference was reviewed. The authors follow the works of Newport G. (1844), Templeton R. (1846), Haase E. (1887), Silvestri F. (1919), Verhoeff K.W. (1925), Attems C. (1930, 1947), Dowdy W.W. (1951), Koch L.E. (1983, 1985) Eason E.H. (1990), Shelley R.M. (2000), Edgecombe G.D & Giribet G. (2004, 2009), Lewis J, Edgecombe G, Shelley R (2005), Edgecombe G.D (2011), Edgecombe and Bonato (2011) and Schileyko A.A & Stagl V. (2004). Also, all current valid names were checked with the use of the online database Chilobase (Minelli et al., 2006). Results And Discussion According to literature the centipedes of Sri Lanka belong to four orders, representing six families. The total centipedes species in Sri Lanka described to date includes 19 species; classiied under Order Scolopendromorpha (Family Scolopendridae – 12 species), Order Geophilomorpha (Family Mecistocephalidae – 2 species, Oryidae – 1 species), Order 445 Lithobiomorpha (Family Lithobiidae – 2 species) Order Scutigeromorpha (Family Scutigerinidae – 1 species, Family Scutigeridae – 1 species). List of the Species Order - Scolopendromorpha Pocock, 1895 Family - Scolopendridae Newport, 1844 1). Scolopendra hardwickei Newport, 1844 Synonym(s): Scolopendra bicolor Humbert, 1865, Scolopendra histrionica C.L. Koch, 1847 2). Scolopendra crassa Templeton, 1846 3). Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1815. Synonym(s): Otostigmus politoides Attems, 1953, Otostigmus politoides Attems, 1953, Otostigmus puncticeps Attems, 1953, Rhombocephalus gambiae Newport, 1845, Rhombocephalus smaragdinus Butler, 1876, Scolopendra aringensis Sinclair, 1901, Scolopendra atra Wood, 1861, Scolopendra audax Gervais, 1837, Scolopendra aurantipes Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra bispinipes Wood, 1862, Scolopendra borbonica Blanchard, 1844, Scolopendra byssina Wood, 1861, Scolopendra cephalica Wood, 1861, Scolopendra ceylonensis Newport, 1845, Scolopendra damnosa L. Koch, 1878, Scolopendra dinodon Wood, 1861, Scolopendra elongata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra lava Newport, 1845, Scolopendra lavicornis Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra gervaisii Newport, 1845, Scolopendra gracilipes Wood, 1861, Scolopendra lutea Newport, 1845, Scolopendra machaeropus Attems, 1900, Scolopendra macracanthus Bollman, 1889, Scolopendra mactans C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra meyeri Haase, 1887, Scolopendra nesuphila Wood, 1862, Scolopendra newporti Lucas, 1849, Scolopendra ornata Newport, 1845, Scolopendra parvidens Wood, 1861, Scolopendra placeae Newport, 1845, Scolopendra planiceps Newport, 1845, scolopendra plumbeolata Wood, 1861, Scolopendra polyodonta Daday, 1893, Scolopendra rarispina Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra repens Wood, 1862, colopendra rugosa Meinert, 1886, Scolopendra sandwichiana Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra septemspinosa Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra sexspinosa Newport, 1844, Scolopendra sulphurea C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra variispinosa Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra cephalica gracilis Wood, 1861, Scolopendra subspinipes gracilipes Daday, 1891, Scolopendra subspinipes molleri Verhoeff, 1892 4). Cormocephalus sarasinorum Haase, 1887 5). Cormocephalus inermipes Pocock, 1891 6). Rhysida ceylonica Gravely, 1912 7). Rhysida longipes Newport, 1845. Synonym(s): Branchiostoma afine Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma gracile Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma longipes rotundatum Haase, 1887, Otostigmus simplex Chamberlin, 1913, Rhysida yanagiharai Takakuwa, 1935 8). Rhysida immarginata Porat, 1876. Synonym(s): Branchiostoma gymnopus Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma indicum Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma subspinosum Tömösváry, 1885, Branchiostoma immarginata celebense Haase, 1887, Rhysida nuda brevicornis Wang, 1951, Rhysida nuda brevicornuta Wang, 1951. 446 9). Scolopendra morsitans Linnaeus, 1758. Synonym(s): Eurylithobius slateri Butler, 1876, Scolopendra afzelii Porat, 1871, Sv, Scolopendra angulipes Newport, 1844, Scolopendra attenuata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra bilineata Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra brachypoda Peters, 1862, Scolopendra brandtiana Gervais, 1837, Scolopendra carinipes Humbert & Saussure, 1870, Scolopendra chlorocephala Porat, 1871, Scolopendra cognata Porat, 1871, , Scolopendra crassipes Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra elegans Brandt, 1841, Scolopendra erythrocephala Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra fabricii Newport, 1845, Scolopendra formosa Newport, 1845, Scolopendra fulvipes Brandt, 1841, Scolopendra grandidieri Saussure & Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra impressa Porat, 1876, Scolopendra infesta C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra intermedia Porat, 1871, Scolopendra leachii Newport, 1844, Scolopendra limbata Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra lineata Saussure & Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra longicornis Newport, 1844, Scolopendra modesta Wood, 1862, Scolopendra mossambica Peters, 1862, Scolopendra pella Wood, 1861, Scolopendra picturata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra pilosella Porat, 1871, Scolopendra planipes C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra platypoides Newport, 1844, Scolopendra platypus Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra porphyratainia Wood, 1861, Scolopendra richardsoni Newport, 1845, Scolopendra saltatoria Porat, 1871, Scolopendra spinosella Saussure & Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra tigrina Newport, 1845, Scolopendra tongana Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra tuberculidens Newport, 1844, Scolopendra vaga Porat, 1871, Scolopendra varia Newport, 1845, Scolopendra wahlbergi Porat, 1871, Scolopendra morsitans amazonica Bücherl, 1946, Scolopendra morsitans calcarata Daday, 1891, Scolopendra morsitans fasciata Attems, 1930, Scolopendra morsitans procera Haase, 1887, Scolopendra morsitans scopoliana C.L. Koch, 1841, Scolopendra morsitans sulcipes Haase, 1887, Trachycormocephalus jodhpurensis Khanna, 1977. 10). Ethmostigmus rubripes Brandt, 1840. Synonym(s): Ethmostigmus australianus Chamberlin, 1920, Heterostoma bisulcatum Tömösváry, 1885, Heterostoma crassipes Silvestri, 1894, Heterostoma fasciata Newport, 1845, Heterostoma lava Newport G, 1845, Heterostoma rubripes grossipes Pocock, 1891, Scolopendra megacephala Newport, 1844, Scolopendra rapax Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra scabriventris Newport, 1844, Scolopendra spinulosa Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra squalidens Newport, 1844, Scolopendra sulcicornis Newport, 1844, Scolopendra sulcidens Newport, 1844. 11). Otostigmus (Otostigmus) ceylonicus Haase, 1887. 12). Otostigmus (Otostigmus) scaber Porat, 1876. Synonym(s): Branchiotrema multicarinatum Kohlrausch, 1878, Otostigmus carinatus Porat, 1876, Otostigmus malayanus Chamberlin, 1914, Otostigmus (Otostigmus) striatus Takakuwa, 1940, Otostigmus carinatus insulare Haase, 1887, Otostigmus (Otostigmus) striatus porteri Dobroruka, 1960, Otostigmus (Otostigmus) striatus striatus Takakuwa, 1940. Order- Geophilomorpha Pocock, 1895 Family- Mecistocephalidae 13). Mecistocephalus heteropus Humbert, 1865, 14). Mecistocephalus subinsularis Silvestri, 1919, 447 Family- Oryidae Cook, 1896 15). Orphnaeus brevilabiatus Newport, 1845. Synonym(s) Orphnaeus bilineatus Peters, 1855, Orphnaeus lividus Meinert, 1870, Orphnaeus phosphoreus Linnaeus, 1758, Orphnaeus xanti Tömösváry, 1885, Order - Lithobiomorpha Pocock, 1895 Family- Lithobiidae Newport, 1844 16). Australobius sculpturatus Pocock, 1901. Synonym(s): Australobius ceylanicus Attems, 1909. 17). Australobius palnis Eason, 1973 Order - Scutigeromorpha Family - Scutigerinidae 18). Scutigerina weberi Silvestri, 1903. Synonym(s): Scutigerina transvaalicus Silvestri, 1903. Order- Scutigeridae Gervais, 1837 19). Thereuopodina tenuicornis Verhoeff, 1905. According to the present knowledge altogether 19 described centipedes’ species from ive families occur in Sri Lanka. It is evident that at present we know very little about centipedes of Sri Lanka. According to published information on the ecology and biology, endemic representatives are virtually non-existent, while our knowledge on the taxonomy and distribution is very poor. Also, not a single centipedes species from Sri Lanka is included in the National 2007 IUCN Red List. References Attems, C. (1930). Myriopoda. 2. Scolopendromorpha. Das Tierreich. De Gruyter, Berlin 54: 1–308. Attems C. (1947) "Neue Geophilomorpha des Wiener Museums" Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums, Wien 55: 50-149, see p. 93. Balan, D., P.M. Sureshan & V. Khanna (2012). A new species of centipede of the genus Cryptops Leach (Scolopendromorpha: Cryptopidae) from southern Western Ghats with a key to the species of Cryptops in India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2510–2514. Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (Editor), 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. viii + 308pp. Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D.J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M.M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P.K.L., Schneider, C.J., Oommen, O.V. & Milinkovitch, M.C. (2004) Local endemism within the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. Science, 306, 479–481. Dowdy W.W. (1951) "Further ecological studies on stratiication of the arthropods"Ecology, Brooklyn 32: 37-52, see p. 334, ig.15. Eason E.H. (1990) "On the true identity of Geophilus insculptus Attems, 1895"Bulletin of the British Myriapod Group 7: 3-4 Edgecombe GE, Giribet G (2009) Phylogenetics of scutigeromorph centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda) with implications for species delimitation and historical biogeography of the Australian and New Caledonian faunas. Cladistics 25: 406–427. Edgecombe G.D., Giribet G. (2004) "Adding mitochondrial sequence data (16S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) to the phylogeny of centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda): an analysis of morphology and four molecular loci" Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 42 (2):89-134, see p. 132. Edgecombe GE (2011) Chilopoda - taxonomic overview: Order Scutigeromorpha. In: Minelli A (Ed) Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Vol. 1. Brill, Leiden, 363–370. Edgecombe GE, Bonato L (2011) Chilopoda - taxonomic overview: Order Scolopendromorpha. In:Minelli A (Ed) Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Vol. 1. Brill, Leiden, 392–407. 448 Haase E. (1887) "Die Indisch-Australischen Myriopoden. Pt. I. Chilopoden" Abhandlungen und Berichte des Königlichen Zoologischen und. Anthropologisch- Ethnographischen Museums zu Dresden 5: 1-118, see p. 43. IUCN Sri Lanka and MoENR (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources). 2007. The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Koch L.E. (1983) "Revision of the Australian centipedes of the genus Cormocephalus Newport (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae: Scolopendrinae)" Australian Journal of Zoology 31: 799-833, see p. 828. Koch L.E. (1985) "The taxonomy of Australian centipedes of the genus Rhysida Wood (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae: Otostigminae)" Journal of Natural History 19: 205-214, see p. 212 Lewis J, Edgecombe G, Shelley R (2005) A proposed standardised terminology for the external Minelli A, Bonato L, Dioguardi R et al. (Ed) (2006): Chilobase: a web resource for Chilopoda taxonomy. http:// chilobase.bio.unipd.it/ [accessed 01/May/2010] Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B. da Fonseca & J. Kent (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858. Newport G. "A list of the species of Myriapoda order Chilopoda contained in the cabinets of the British Museum with synoptic descriptions of forty-seven new species" Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 1844: 13: 94-101, see p. 96. Schileyko A.A., Stagl V. (2004) "The collection of scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda) in the Natural History Museum in Vienna: a critical re-evaluation of former taxonomic identiications" Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien, Serie B 105B: 67-137, see p. 118. Shelley R.M. (2000) "The centipede order Scolopendromorpha in the Hawaiian islands (Chilopoda)" Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 64: 39-48, see p. 42. Silvestri F. (1919) "Contributions to a knowledge of the Chilopoda Geophilomorpha of India" Record of the Indian Museum, Calcutta 16: 45-107, see p. 54. Sureshan, P.M., V. Khanna & C. Radhakrishnan (2006). Additional distributional records of scolopendrid centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) from Kerala. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(6): 2285–2291. Templeton R. (1846). "Extracts from a letter addressed to Mr Westwood on the habits and on the bite of the Scolopendrae of Ceylon" Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 17(1): 65, see p. 65. Verhoeff K.W. (1925) "Results of Dr. E. Mjöberg's Swedish Scientiic Expeditions to Australia 1910-1913. 39. Chilopoda" Arkiv för Zoologi 17A (3): 1-62, see p. 29. 449 The IUCN Red List Categories (Source: www.redlist.org) Technical deinitions of the IUCN of the IUCN REd List Categories and Criteria are give in the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 booklet and the Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Extinct (EX) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form. Extinct In The Wild (EW) A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form. Critically Endangered (CR) A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Critically Endangered and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Endangered (EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Vulnerable (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Near Threatened (NT) A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. Least Concern (LC) A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. 450 Data Deicient (DD) A taxon is Data Deicient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deicient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classiication is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justiied. Not Evaluated (NE) A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. Critically Endangered ‘Possibly Extinct’ CR (PE) Although an evidentiary approach to classifying extinctions is appropriate, this approach biases analyses of recent extinctions when based only on those species classiied as Extinct or Extinct in the Wild (when individuals survive only in captivity). For example, the number of recent extinctions documented on the IUCN Red List is likely to be a signiicant underestimate, even for well-known taxa such as birds. The tag of ‘possibly extinct’ has therefore been developed to identify those Critically Endangered species that are likely already Extinct, but for which conirmation is required. Taxa tagged as possibly extinct would then be included within bounded estimates of the number of recent extinctions to indicate plausible uncertainty in contemporary rates of extinction. Note that ‘possibly extinct’ is a tag, and not a new Red List Category. 451 Summary of the five criteria (A–E) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in a threatened category (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable). Use any of the criteria A–E Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable A. Population reduction Declines measured over the longer of 10 years or 3 generations A1 ≥ 90% ≥ 70% ≥ 50% A2, A3 & A4 ≥ 80% ≥ 50% ≥ 30% Al. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND have ceased, based on and specifying any of the following: (a) direct observation (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon (c) a decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) and/or habitat quality (d) actual or potential levels of exploitation (e) effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites. A2. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al. A3. Population reduction projected or suspected to be met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) based on (b) to (e) under Al. A4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population reduction (up to a maximum of 100 years) where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al. B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) AND/OR B2 (area of occupancy) B1. Extent of occurrence (EOO) < 100 km² < 5,000 km² < 20,000 km² B2. Area of occupancy (AOO) < 10 km² < 500 km² < 2,000 km² AND at least 2 of the following: (a) Severely fragmented, OR Number of locations =1 ≤5 ≤ 10 (b) Continuing decline in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat; (iv) number of locations or subpopulations; (v) number of mature individuals. (c) Extreme fluctuations in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) number of locations or subpopulations; (iv) number of mature individuals. C. Small population size and decline Number of mature < 250 individuals AND either C1 or C2: 25% in 3 years or 1 C1. An estimated continuing generation decline of at least: (up to a max. of 100 years in future) C2. A continuing decline AND (a) and/or (b): (a i) Number of mature < 50 individuals in each subpopulation: or (a ii) % individuals in one 90–100% subpopulation = (b) Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals. < 2,500 < 10,000 20% in 5 years or 2 generations 10% in 10 years or 3 generations < 250 < 1,000 95–100% 100% D. Very small or restricted population Either: Number of mature individuals < 50 < 250 Restricted area of occupancy D1. < 1,000 AND/OR D2. typically: AOO < 20 km² or number of locations ≤ 5 E. Quantitative Analysis Indicating the probability of extinction in the wild to be: ≥ 50% in 10 years or 3 generations (100 years max.) ≥ 20% in 20 years or 5 generations (100 years max.) 452 ≥ 10% in 100 years

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