Without the Plants, We Have No Medicine: Sowa Rigpa, Ethnobotany, and Conservation of Threatened Species in Nepal

Suresh K Ghimire

The book is an outcome of the research conducted in collaboration with the amchis of Nepal and with support from the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA), Kathmandu; WWF Nepal; Dartmouth College, USA; and the Central Department of Botany (Tribhuvan University), Nepal. The objective of this collaborative research was to document Tibetan medical knowledge, with a focus on medicinal ingredients prescribed in Sowa Rigpa and the aspects of substitution. The book is divided into three parts and four chapters. The first part describes historical and philosophical aspects of Sowa Rigpa from the perspectives of amchi from Nepal. It also includes the history of knowledge transmission and clinical practices among Nepal’s amchi practitioners. The second part deals with the current practices of Sowa Rigpa in Nepal from socio-cultural and economic perspectives, and includes an account of medicinal ingredients prescribed, including ingredients derived from rare and threatened species. The second part also covers the crucial topic of practices of substitution (Tibetan: tshab) for substances derived from species that have become endangered or are at risk. The third part is comprised of a detailed compendium of medicinal plant species. This book documents 570 medicinal plant taxa (including lichens and fungi), and 54 different types of minerals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Nepal. In addition, body parts of 46 animal species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa literature are also documented. We have identified mostly locally available products derived from plants (total 92 taxa), animals (4 domestic species) and minerals (9 types) as substitutes for rare and threatened species (25 plants and 30 wild animals) and for species not available locally (33 plants).

Without the Plants, We Have No Medicine Sowa Rigpa, Ethnobotany, and Conservation of Threatened Species in Nepal Without the Plants, We Have No Medicine Sowa Rigpa, Ethnobotany, and Conservation of Threatened Species in Nepal Suresh Kumar Ghimire, Amchi Gyatso Bista, Norbu Sangpo Lama, Sienna R. Craig Contributing authors: Amchi Wangchuk Lama, Amchi Tshampa Ngawang Gurung, Amchi Tenjing Bista, Amchi Namgyal Gurung, Amchi Tenzin Dhargye Gurung, Amchi Tengyal Zangpo, Tsewang Choeden Lama WWF Nepal Kathmandu, Nepal Himalayan Amchi Association Kathmandu, Nepal Published by: WWF Nepal Himalayan Amchi Association PO Box: 7660, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Boudha, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: info@wwfnepal.org.np Email: amchiassociationnepal@gmail.com Web: www.wwfnepal.org with support of the Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, USA and the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University (TU), Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. Copyright @ 2021, Authors All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the authors. First edition: November 2021. Citation: Ghimire S.K., Bista G., Lama N.S., Craig S.R., Lama W., Gurung T.N., Bista T., Gurung N., Gurung T.D., Zangpo T. and Lama T.C. 2021. Without the Plants, We Have No Medicine: Sowa Rigpa, Ethnobotany, and Conservation of Threatened Species in Nepal. WWF Nepal and Himalayan Amchi Association, Kathmandu, Nepal. The views expressed in the book are solely of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. Caution: The medicinal uses of ingredients explained in this book are for information purpose only and not be interpreted as medical advice. Each of the prescribed ingredients is not used in the raw form; instead one should follow a precise ingredientspecific method of processing according to Sowa Rigpa prescription. Many ingredients are highly poisonous and many are rare or endangered. Therefore, self-treatment with the remedies explained in this book would be dangerous and in some cases will be against the existing laws. Consult certified Sowa Rigpa doctors (amchis) for the medical advice and proper treatment. Cover photo: Meconopsis horridula (left), Aconitum naviculare (top right) and Delphinium brunonianum (bottom right). Back cover photo: Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora (top) and Rheum nobile (bottom). Photo © Suresh Kumar Ghimire, all photos except: Aconitum ferox and A. palmatum (© Bharat Babu Shrestha, PhD); Allium przewalskianum and Dracocephalum tanguticum (© Amchi Gyatso Bista); Parmotrema tinctorum (© Chitra Bahadur Baniya, PhD); and Polygonatum cirrhifolium (© Giri Raj Tripathi, PhD). We are grateful to Ghana Shyam Gurung, PhD, Country Representative, WWF Nepal; Shant Raj Jnawali, PhD, Chief of Party, Hariyo Ban Program II; Ineej Manandhar, Senior Program Officer, Hariyo Ban Program II; and Khem Raj Bhattarai, PhD, Independent Consultant for their kind review of the document. ISBN: 978-9937-9069-1-3 Foreword ______________________________________________________ When it comes to natural and cultural diversity, Nepal is especially unique. Situated at the heart of the Himalayan belt and at a unique juncture between two of the world’s important bio-geographic regions, it is home to thousands of ethnicities, cultures, and religions ------ each defined by their distinct relationships with the natural world around them. This unique social setting has bestowed Nepal with a trove of ancient traditional knowledge on managing, understanding, sustainably utilizing and protecting biodiversity within the cultural landscape. But this knowledge often goes untapped and overlooked. This publication, ‘‘Sowa Rigpa, Ethnobotany, and Conservation of Threatened Species in Nepal,’’ is a key example of how traditional knowledge can be leveraged and preserved to promote the sustainable use of resources. Sowa Rigpa (T. gso ba rig pa) is considered one of the ten areas of advanced learning within Tibetan studies. It is a complete and holistic medical system which flourished in ancient Tibet and across the Himalayas. While deeply connected to Tibetan Buddhism, Sowa Rigpa also emerges from Bön, the pre-Buddhist, indigenous religious and cultural practices of the region, and is, therefore, connected to the figure of Buddha Tonpa Shenrab Mewoche as well as to Shakyamuni Buddha and Sangye Menla, the Medicine Buddha. This tradition of medicinal knowledge and practice has been used in high-altitude Asian communities for at least 2500 years, including those in present-day Tibetan areas of China, Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, and various regions of north India, from Ladakh and Zanskar to Lahul, Spiti, and Kinnaur, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh, even spreading to Europe and North America in the recent past. This book will be particularly useful for practitioners, students, scholars, conservationists, governmental, nongovernmental organizations and policy makers working in the sector of biodiversity conservation under diverse cultural landscape in the Himalayas. By promoting the exchange of knowledge between Amchis within Nepal as well as countries from the greater Himalayan region and the western world, this book will help deepen the respect and connection between Amchi practitioners, botanists, Nepali-International scientists, and the conservation community. In doing so, it will increase the visibility of Amchi communities and their knowledge in the eyes of both the state and nongovernmental institutions concerned with environmental, cultural, and public health issues. The conservation benefits are two-fold; this publication will not only create an interactive database of medicinal plants and substitution practices but will also help guide conservation and traditional medicine production policies across the region. I would like to thank the Amchis of Nepal, the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA), Kathmandu; USAID’s Hariyo Ban Program; Dartmouth College, USA; the Central Department of Botany (Tribhuvan University), Nepal and all partners and individuals for providing valuable support in preparation of this book. Finally, I would like to thank Shant Raj Jnawali, PhD.; Ineej Manandhar; and Santosh Pudasaini for their untiring contributions in making this publication possible. Ghana Shyam Gurung, PhD Country Representative, WWF Nepal Snow Leopard Champion for the WWF Network v Acknowledgements ______________________________________________________ The book is an outcome of the research conducted in collaboration with the amchis of Nepal and with support from the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA), Kathmandu; WWF Nepal; Dartmouth College, USA; and the Central Department of Botany (Tribhuvan University), Nepal. This work was initiated in 2009/2010 to identify substitutes for threatened species of plants and wild animals used in compounding medicines by integrating knowledge and practices of amchis or practitioners of Sowa Rigpa (Tibetan Medicine) in Nepal. The book presents information about Sowa Rigpa, including histories of knowledge transmission and clinical practices among Nepal’s amchi practitioners; the medicinal ingredients prescribed with a focus on Himalayan medicinal plants; and the practices of substitution (Tibetan: tshab) for substances derived from species that have become rare and endangered or are at risk. It also includes a compendium of medicinal plant species. We are thankful to the HAA for giving us the opportunity to carry out this important task, and to USAID’s Hariyo Ban Program II and WWF Nepal for publication support. We thank the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) – Small Grants Program, WWF Nepal for initial funding of our field research during 2009/2010. We acknowledge the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation of the Government of Nepal for permission to carry out the work inside the country’s protected areas during our initial field works. We also acknowledge additional funding from the Claire Garber Goodman Fund, Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, USA for the preparation and publication of the book. Baseline data on medicinal ingredients used in Sowa Rigpa and practices of substitution were collected through collaborative fieldwork with amchis from Mustang and Dolpa districts as well as those living in Kathmandu. We would like to express our sincere thanks to all those amchis living in Dolpa, Mustang and Kathmandu for sharing their invaluable knowledge about substitution and other aspects of Tibetan Medicine with us. We are particularly thankful to Amchi Namgyal Gurung from Ribo Bumba Monastery, Dho Tarap, Dolpa district for providing us an original copy of the Tibetan literature on medical substitute from his home region. We are also thankful to the HAA’s senior amchis who were consulted extensively, individually or in groups, with regard to the confirmation of medicinal ingredients prescribed, and the practice of substitution. We wish to thank Amchi Dr. Jampa Lama of Chagpori Tibetan Medical Institute, Darjeeling for his help and participation during our visit to India (Sikkim and Darjeeling) where we interviewed amchis from different Tibetan Medicine institutes to find out the types of medicinal ingredients use and practice of substitution. We are thankful to Dr. Ghana Shyam Gurung, Country Representative, WWF Nepal, for all the encouragement and support that we received from him through the inception to the finalization of the book project. We should not forget to express our sincere gratitude to Mr. Dhana Prasad Rai, former staff at WWF Nepal who always supported and helped Himalayan amchis since the inception and establishment of HAA. Mr. Rai was the first who recognized the importance of our work and encouraged us to apply a grant request for publication of this book. We are equally indebted to Mr. Ineej Manandhar, WWF Nepal for his vii constant involvement, commitment and willingness to help in different capacities (administrative to technical) over the last one and half years of book writing and finalization processes. We also express our sincere thanks to other staff members at WWF Nepal, including Dr. Shant Raj Jnawali, Ms. Kanti Adhikari, Ms. Divya Karki and Ms. Shova Shilpakar for their support. We are indebted to Dr. Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas (Director of Research, CNRS, Montpellier, France) for her guidance and support during the initial phase of our research with Himalayan amchis through applied ethnobotany project of People and Plants Initiative (a joint program of UNESCO, WWF and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew); and to Dr. Sarala Khaling (Regional Director, ATREE, India) and Mr. Ang Phuri Sherpa (Country Director, Red Panda Network, Nepal) for their encouragement and support to carry out the CEPF– funded field research during 2009/2010. We are also thankful to Prof. Dr. Krishna Kumar Shrestha, President, Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal; Prof. Dr. Narendra Nath Tiwari, Ayurveda Campus, Tribhuvan University; Prof. Dr. Nanda Bahadur Singh, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University; Dr. Shant Raj Jnawali, WWF Nepal and Dr. Khem Raj Bhattarai, Gorkha Ayurved Company for their comments and suggestions on the earlier versions of the field report or the book manuscript. We thank Mr. Narayan Pokhrel for his assistance during field works. Some of the photographs reproduced in the plates are kindly provided by our colleagues, namely Dr. Chitra Bahadur Baniya (photograph of Parmotrema tinctorum), Dr. Giri Raj Tripathi (Polygonatum cirrhifolium) and Dr. Bharat Babu Shrestha (Aconitum ferox and A. palmatum), and we thank them all. HAA would also like to express its sincere thanks to the Japan Foundation Asia Center, WWF-UNESCOPeople and Plants Initiative, Drokpa Foundation, Japanese Agricultural In-service Training Institute, Atelier for Development and the Future, Global Environment Facility Small Grants Program (GEF-SGP) of the United Nations Development Program, Himal-Asia Foundation, Rubin Foundation, and the International Association for the Study of Traditional Asian Medicine (IASTAM) for financially supporting national conferences, amchi meetings, workshops and research activities that have contributed to this work, directly or indirectly. We want to thank late Ms. Yeshi Choden Lama who assisted Himalayan amchis in Nepal morally, financially and professionally. Her memory will be always with us. Finally, we thank our family members for their nonstop support, encouragement and understanding. Authors November 2021 viii Table of Contents ______________________________________________________ Foreword v Acknowledgements vii Abbreviations and Acronyms xi Introduction 1 Part I. Sowa Rigpa and the Amchi Tradition In Nepal 5 Chapter 1. History, Knowledge Practices, and Implications for the Future 7 Background 7 The beginning of humanity 8 Origins of Sowa Rigpa 9 Bön, Buddhism, and Sowa Rigpa history 10 Theories of health and disease 12 Diagnosis and treatment methods 13 The ethical qualities of Sowa Rigpa practitioners 14 Materia medica , pharmacology and therapeutics 15 Systems of qualification for Sowa Rigpa practitioners 18 Past to present: The training and status of Sowa Rigpa practitioners in Nepal 20 The Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA): history, vision, and development 22 HAA activities and accomplishments 26 Urgent needs and opportunities for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal 30 Policy implications and next steps 31 Part II. Medical Knowledge and Practices: Results of Participatory Research 33 Chapter 2. Current Practices, Types of Medicinal Ingredients, and Variation in their Use 35 Introduction 35 Approaches and methods 37 Current practices 39 Medicinal ingredients 43 Plant-based ingredients (including fungi and lichens) 43 Animal-based ingredients 58 Mineral-based ingredients 62 ix Ingredients from rare and threatened species 63 Geographical variation in the plant and animal taxa, and minerals prescribed 71 Chapter 3. Use of Substitutes: Knowledge and Practices 73 Tibetan literature on medicinal substitutes 74 Current practices and modes of substitution 75 Evaluation of substitutes 104 Patterns of variation in diversity of substitute species/ingredients use 105 Chapter 4. Medicinal Substitutes and Conservation of Threatened Species: Integration and Exchange of Amchi’s Knowledge and Practices 107 Regional exchange and sharing of knowledge 108 Improvement of the quality of medicines and opting substitutes 108 Conservation and sustainable use of threatened species 109 Conclusion and way forward 110 Part III. Compendium of Medicinal Fungi, Lichens and Plants Prescribed for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal 111 Introduction 113 Format 113 Information sources 114 Abbreviations used 115 Color plates 277 Appendices 341 Appendix 1 Essential medicines frequently cited by amchi from Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu 343 Appendix 2 List of Nepalese amchi 346 Appendix 3 Animals or their parts prescribed in Sowa Rigpa 351 Appendix 4 Precious stones, gems and other minerals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa 359 References 365 Index to botanical names 377 Index to animal names (Latin and common English names) 389 Index to English names (plants and minerals) 391 Index to Nepali and Sanskrit names 395 Index toSowa Rigpa names 402 x Abbreviations and Acronyms ______________________________________________________ General ANOVA BTMS CAA CAMP CEPF CITES CMA CTEVT ENT GEF-SGP GoN HAA IASTAM IHC IUCN NTFP PPI RADC RFC SLC TCM T-SLC TRAFFIC UNESCO WHO WWF Plant parts use Analysis of variance Bachelors in Tibetan Medicine Community Amchi Assistant Conservation Assessment Management Plan Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Community Medical Assistant Centre for Technical Education and Vocational Training Medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of ear, nose and throat disorders Global Environment Facility Small Grants Program Government of Nepal Himalayan Amchi Association International Association for the Study of Traditional Asian Medicine Institute for the Himalayan Conservation International Union for Nature Conservation Non-timber forest product People and Plants Initiative Remote Area Development Committee Relative frequency of citation School Leaving Certificate Traditional Chinese Medicine Technical School Leaving Certificate Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Health Organization World Wide Fund for Nature Ap Bl Br Cr Ex Fl Flb Fr Gl Lf Pd Psb Pt Rh Rn biennial herb herbaceous climber perennial herb shrub SPH TR WC short-lived perennial herb tree woody climber Rt Sd Sp St Tb Ts Tw Wd Wf Wl Wm Wp root seed spore stem and branches tuber tender shoot twig wood whole fungus whole lichen thallus whole mushroom whole plant parts Threat categories CR DD EN LC NT RE VU Critically Endangered Data Deficient Endangered Least Concern Near Threatened Regionally Extinct Vulnerable Other Cultv df F-value Plant habit BH HC PH SH aerial parts bulb bark corm plant extract other than resin flower flower bud fruit gall leaf peduncle pseudobulb petiole rhizome resin, sap, latex Impr kg n cultivated degrees of freedom (in statistics, it indicates the number of independent values that can vary in an analysis without breaking any constraints) a value obtained after running an ANOVA test or a regression analysis to find out if the means between two populations are significantly different imported kilogram number (sample size) xi na NMS NRs p-value R2 SD data not available nonmetric multidimensional scaling Nepali rupees level of significance in a statistical hypothesis tests. It represents the probability of obtaining the observed results of a test, assuming that the null hypothesis is correct R-squared; a statistical measure in a regression model representing the proportion of the variance for a dependent variable explained by an independent variable standard deviation . xii T., Tib. USD viz. x-axis 2 y-axis % = > ≥ < ≤ Tibetan language United States dollar videlicet, which means namely the principal axis or horizontal line on a graph chi-square statistic, a test that measures how expectations compare to actual observed data the vertical line on a graph percent or percentage equal to greater than equal to or greater than less than equal to or less than Introduction ______________________________________________________ “Without the plants, we have no medicine.” Over the course of our decades of work with amchi, practitioners of the science of healing known as Sowa Rigpa, we have heard – and, for the amchis, uttered – this refrain many times. However, the urgency of this statement has grown in recent years. To speak of the place of a “traditional” medical system such as Sowa Rigpa in the 21st century involves speaking not only about issues of science and evidence, standardization and safety, but also about environmental stewardship, climate change, and cultural transformation. Sowa Rigpa has existed as a dynamic medico-cultural system across in the Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau, Mongolia, northern India, and Bhutan for centuries. It continues to play an integral role in aspects of public health care, ecological knowledge, and forms of cultural transmission in all of these locales. In addition, Sowa Rigpa has become a globally recognized medical system that is practiced as a compliment and alternative to “western” biomedicine in communities across the world, from Berlin to Boston to Beijing and beyond. The combined pressures of increasing commodification and industrialization of Sowa Rigpa formulas, and political, social, economic and ecological change in the communities where plants grow and where this medicine is practiced, means that both the materia medica which underlies the Science of Healing and knowledge about these resources are at risk. This precarity emerges through the interdependent dynamics of politics, ecology, economy, and culture, manifesting in material terms, through the limited supply and increased cost of some of the major ingredients used in Sowa Rigpa formulations, particularly those derived from rare and threatened species of plants and animals. The situation in Nepal is particularly stark. While the Nepal Himalaya remains a major sourcing ground for key medicinal ingredients, Sowa Rigpa is not fully recognized as an official medical system within the Government of Nepal’s Ministry of Health and Population. This is in contrast to all of the other countries in which Sowa Ripga is practiced. This reality speaks not only to continued political upheavals in Nepal but also to legacies of social and political marginalization of the country’s indigenous communities, including those from the high mountains – regions that many amchi call home. This is true despite the active role that amchi play in meeting primary health care needs in many Nepali communities, in and beyond the high mountains, and amchis’ quite visible roles in conservation, environmental management, and development efforts. Formal state recognition and support for all aspects of Sowa Rigpa education, medical production, and clinical practice in Nepal is evolving at present, partly in response to the promulgation of a new constitution in 2015 and attendant changes to how the country’s diverse publics can now govern themselves, under a new federalist system. The cottage industry model of pharmacy production for Sowa Rigpa formulas in Nepal is also changing in response to many push-pull factors, from out-migration of young people from high mountain communities toward cities, to shifting regimes of natural resource management (particularly policies regarding the collection, trade, and use of non-timber forest products) and shifting ideas about what it means to manufacture efficacious, safe, and sustainable medicines. 1 It is important to remember that the dynamics that shape Sowa Rigpa in Nepal are occurring in relation to other factors: the multi-million dollar industries of Tibetan medicine production in China and India; increasing interest in these products as part of a global marketplace of Asian pharmaceuticals; deepening connections between Sowa Rigpa and biomedicine in areas of clinical research and practice; and international political efforts to recognize Sowa Rigpa as “intangible cultural heritage” within the framework of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). In other words, the localized collection of materia medica and associated small-scale artisanal production of Sowa Rigpa formulas that continues in Kathmandu and rural areas of Nepal exists simultaneously with the mass produced and mass marketed products being made and sold in other parts of South and East Asia and, in a more limited fashion, globally. Added to this is the fact that modes of knowledge transmission between generations of amchi are also shifting: learning remains inclusive of locally-grounded and lineage-based frameworks along with schools and colleges that mirror the structure of state-supported Sowa Rigpa institutions in India, China, Mongolia, and Bhutan. Given these dynamics, research aimed at documenting the status of materia medica used in producing Sowa Rigpa formulas, including substitutions for rare and endangered plant and animal ingredients, is of paramount importance. Doing this research in ways that interweave the social life of these ingredients with the social histories of amchi themselves is essential. This book represents such a project. It seeks to validate amchi knowledge in relation to plant science, environmental stewardship, Himalayan cultural systems, and public health. Our work is an engagement with “traditional ecological knowledge” in relation to scientific systems of classification, within an ethical commitment to participatory and action-oriented research. With this book, we hope to encourage ongoing discussion about what it means to translate science across culture as well as how biodiversity conservation relates to indigenous knowledge. Our collaborative scholarly effort positions amchi not merely as “key informants” or “local stakeholders” but as knowledge producers. Coauthorship matters. Ours is an interdisciplinary endeavor that places amchi – their experiences as practitioners and their engagement with key research questions – at its center. And yet amchi themselves are a diverse and sometimes divergent group. What amchi know about materia medica, including medicine substitution practices, is based on empirical evidence gained through the study of medical texts and processes of innovative application of that knowledge to making medicines and treating patients over time and across space, often under the guidance of master practitioners. Sometimes, amchi raise concerns regarding “authentic” interpretations of textual sources and theoretical principals; they can have strong opinions about regional variation in knowledge and practice. As such, a major part of supporting the efforts of contemporary Sowa Rigpa practitioners in the Nepal Himalaya and beyond to defend and transform their practice involves fostering trust and community among amchi themselves. This includes bringing together distinct strands of knowledge as well as revisiting issues regarding forms of knowing that are culturally guarded, even kept secret – as is sometimes the case for medicinal plant substitutions as well as certain practices of detoxification and the preparation of some Sowa Rigpa formulas. In short, today’s amchi need to find ways to balance an ethically-informed and culturally-grounded reticence to share knowledge with people who are not traditionally equipped to receive it with the need to find new ways to safeguard their knowledge and practice, given larger forces of transformation in which Sowa Rigpa is enmeshed. In December 2011, the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA) organized a collaborative workshop in Kathmandu that brought together about 40 amchi from across Nepal, Tibetan regions of China, and India, along with a small group of anthropologists, on the topic of making efficacious medicines. For some of the Nepali amchi present at this event, this workshop came on the heels of the fieldwork that forms the 2 empirical foundation of this book, particularly Part II. During this week-long workshop, amchi from different backgrounds, communities, and generations brought their knowledge together with a concern for the future of their practice. As a group, we experienced a Yuthog Nyingthig Buddhist teaching and empowerment ceremony; visited the herb markets of Kathmandu and discussed the challenges of sourcing potent, safe, and affordable ingredients; exchanged knowledge about the ways that materia medica are known and used in different regions; and made essential medicines, each of which represented one of the three fundamental dynamics (nyes pa) of Sowa Rigpa. Through the embodied process of tasting, feeling, and smelling medicinal ingredients as well as talking with each other, new forms of understanding unfolded, not only about these physical materials, but also about the social and ecological, cosmological and spiritual forces that give them meaning, potency and value. In many such workshops and meetings that have been convened by Sowa Rigpa practitioners, including those spearheaded by Nepal’s HAA since its founding two decades ago, amchi have shown efforts to exchange knowledge face-to-face. Works such as that represented by this book, in which different generations of practitioners work together to research, document, and debate with each other, is a foundational step in a process that further benefits from collaboration with natural and social scientists, and that can lead to successful lobbying with governance institutions and policy makers, particularly those involved in legislating around conservation and health care. Such work has social, ecological, and political implications. It also represents many ways of knowing. The perspective of an anthropologist or a botanist/ethnobotanist is synergistic with, but certainly not the same as, the perspectives held by our amchi interlocutors. We each come to the question of what matters most for the future of Sowa Rigpa from different angles, languages, and forms of expertise. Yet we are united in our commitment to documenting amchi knowledge in relation to the distinct social ecologies and interconnected political-economic worlds in which Sowa Rigpa is practiced, and to acknowledging the changing nature of this landscape. The book is an outcome of the research conducted in collaboration with the amchi of Nepal. The objective was to document medicinal ingredients prescribed in Sowa Rigpa and the aspects of substitution for ingredients derived from rare and threatened species. The book is divided into three parts and four chapters. The first part describes historical and philosophical perspectives of Sowa Rigpa, as described by Nepal’s amchi themselves. It also explains the history of knowledge transmission and clinical practices among Nepal’s amchi practitioners. The second part deals with the current practices of Sowa Rigpa in Nepal from socio-cultural and economic aspects, and types of and variation in medicinal ingredients prescribed, including ingredients from rare and threatened species. The second part also covers the crucial topic of practices of substitution (Tibetan: tshab) for substances derived from species that have become threatened or are at risk. Finally, the third part presents a detailed compendium of medicinal plant species. Research has been conducted primarily by expert amchi from the HAA (mostly those listed as authors of this publication) and a senior botanist, Dr. Suresh K. Ghimire, from Tribhuvan University. A variety of methods have been used to produce the data on which this book is based: participatory workshops, dissemination of structured questionnaires (in Tibetan), interviews with senior amchi, visits made by HAA members and plant scientists to various amchi clinics, and identification of samples of medicinal ingredients, including those used as substitutes for rare and endangered materia medica. This research also required a consensus workshop which brought amchi knowledge, plant science, and ethnographic methods together to review a first draft manuscript of this book. Authors worked closely with HAA 3 members over the years to help develop qualitative and quantitative research skills, particularly in semistructured interview techniques, the creation of questionnaires, and forms of guided discussion. In addition to the primary data collection, the research also included reviews, consolidation, and analyses of previous reports on Sowa Rigpa medicinal plants in the Himalaya (published texts, unpublished manuscripts, and gray literature) in the three relevant languages (Nepali, English, and Tibetan). This timeconsuming work has been completed in order to make sure that the book shows as accurately as possible a representation of amchi and ethnobotanical knowledge that is attentive to regional variation, Tibetan medical history and theory, and to the existing scholarship on high altitude Himalayan botany and ethnobotany. The book will be useful for practitioners, students, scholars, conservationists, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and policy makers working on biodiversity conservation in the Himalayas. The goal of producing the book is also to help promote the exchange of knowledge between amchi within Nepal as well as with others from the greater Himalayan region, as a way to deepen the respect and connections between amchi practitioners, Nepali scientists, and the conservation community; to increase the visibility of amchi and their knowledge in the eyes of both state and nongovernmental institutions who are concerned with environmental, cultural, and public health issues; and to create an interactive database of medicinal plants and substitution practices to help guide conservation and traditional medicine production policies across the region. 4 Part I SOWA RIGPA AND THE AMCHI TRADITION IN NEPAL 5 6 Chapter 1 History, Knowledge Practices, and Implications for the Future ______________________________________________________ 1.1 Background Sowa Rigpa (T. gso ba rig pa) is considered one of the ten areas of advanced learning within Tibetan studies. It is also a complete and holistic medical system which flourished in ancient Tibet and across the Himalaya. While deeply connected to Tibetan Buddhism, Sowa Rigpa also emerges from Bön, the preBuddhist, indigenous religious and cultural practices of the region, and is, therefore, connected to the figure of Buddha Tönpa Shenrab Miboche as well as to Shakyamuni Buddha and Sangye Menla, the Medicine Buddha. This tradition of medical knowledge and practice has been used in high-Asian communities for more than 2500 years, including those in present-day Tibetan areas of China, Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, and various regions of north India, from Ladakh and Zanskar to Lahul, Spiti, and Kinnaur, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Amchi, also called tsho byed, menpa or lhaje, are practitioners of Sowa Rigpa. This system of medicine relies on a vast body of scholarly knowledge and practices derived, in part, from core texts known as the Four Treatises, which have both Bön (bum bzhi) as well as Buddhist (rgyud bzhi) versions. These are foundational texts related to but also distinct from the Astanga Hridaya Samhita, a Sanskrit text, written by Vagbhata around the 7th century AD, that is fundamental to the textual history and practice of Ayurveda. The Four Treatises is divided into four volumes, each made up of many different chapters. These works cover topics such as anatomy, physiology, embryology, general internal medicine, psychology, pediatrics, and gynecology as well as details on the pharmacopeia used in formulas and methods of pharmacology, details on pathology and methods for diagnosis and treatment. In addition to the Four Treatises, others also form the foundational corpus of shared textual knowledge. They include several important commentaries on the Four Treatises, such as the 17th century Blue Beryl. This shared basis of theoretical and conceptual understandings of health and disease makes Sowa Rigpa a documented, standardized and living scientific discipline across the different environments in which it is practiced. By “standardized” we mean that this diverse system of healing shares a theoretical and textual history and approach to theories of health and disease, but it also varies in its local and regional manifestations. This ancient system known as Sowa Rigpa is also referred to as Tibetan medicine, Amchi medicine, Mongolian medicine, and Bhutanese Buddhist Medicine. At the same time, Sowa Rigpa is also a modern practice, officially recognized by the governments of India, China, Bhutan, and Mongolia and tied, in distinct ways, to the state healthcare systems in these countries. UNESCO has recently recognized aspects of Sowa Rigpa as “intangible cultural heritage.” This has also brought with it a range of political issues and 7 challenges, since Sowa Rigpa is not only the intangible cultural heritage of one country (for example India or China) but of many countries and parts of countries that stretch across the Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau, and Central Asia. The production of medicines themselves is highly dependent on plants and other natural resources, such as minerals, precious stones and animal-derived products. Central to the tradition and practice of Sowa Rigpa across these regions are the medicinal plants. Himalayan medicinal plants resources are central to the past, present, and future of Sowa Rigpa. They also present key challenges to this tradition, for reasons of sustainability. While many of the materia medica used in Sowa Rigpa remain abundant, others are rare or endangered and are subject to national and international policies such as TRAFFIC, CAMP, and CITES. This need for policy protection and conservation efforts can sometimes conflict with the reality of amchi and the patients they aim to serve with their medicines. And, at the same time, Sowa Rigpa theory and practice has a long tradition of medicinal substitution to address differences in local and regional ecology, variations in potency and efficacy of available ingredients and the relative costs or availability of different kinds of materia medica. High-altitude medicinal plant species conservation is crucial, particularly at a moment when the commercial trade in medicinal plants as well as Sowa Rigpa formulas is expanding. The relatively small amounts used by local amchi and the relatively limited collection by local villagers as a form of livelihood support is both related to and becoming threatened by the increasing demands for large-scale collection, principally for production of commodified formulas in India and China. Studies have shown that about 13 thousand tons of raw and dry medicinal and aromatic plant products are exported annually from Nepal with an average export value of USD 39.34 million (Ghimire et al. 2016). Other plants are increasingly in demand within the “natural” cosmetics, spa, and beauty industries in cosmopolitan Asia and the West. Medicinal plants are traded in large volume to urban merchants and middlemen in China, India, and other Asian countries, primarily through road links in and across the northern Himalaya. All of this leaves the tradition vulnerable. In addition, large quantities of medicinal herbs, mostly those of tropical and subtropical origins, which also include herbs derived from highly threatened taxa, are imported in Nepal for their use in Ayurvedic and Sowa rigpa medicines. This part has been greatly ignored in the medicinal plant literature of Nepal. These and other dynamics related to shifting patterns of knowledge transmission, medical production, and clinical practice means that knowledge about medicinal plant substitutes, tsap (T. tshab), is crucial. We have undertaken this book project with these dynamics in mind. Before presenting the findings from our collaborative research between Nepal’s senior amchi and ethnobotanists about medicinal plants and substitution practices in the Nepal Himalaya, we will locate this knowledge within broader cultural concepts, and then contextualize this knowledge with some information about Sowa Rigpa theories of health and disease as well as methods of diagnosis and practice. We then discuss the work of the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA) and consider the future of Sowa Rigpa practice in Nepal. 1.2 The Beginning of Humanity According to a Himalayan cultural worldview, coming into this world with a precious human body is a precious gift. Buddhist philosophy mentions that the magnificent Chenresig, also known as Avalokiteshvara or the Bodhisattva of Compassion, having conferred layperson's vows upon a magical 8 monkey, dispatched him to meditate in the snowy realm of Tibet. Eventually, Chenresig blessed the marriage of the monkey and an ogress in order that the Land of Snows might, at some future time, be a place in which the teachings of the Buddha could spread, flourish, and endure. The monkey and the ogress, being united as husband and wife, bore six children of differing dispositions, one of which was reborn from each of the six classes of beings. From here, we can say that human beings evolved across the Himalaya and Tibetan plateau. But what does it mean to be born a human? How does this relate to Sowa Rigpa knowledge, including of empirical worlds of anatomy and physiology? We understand that the human body grows step-by-step. It is like drawing water from a stream and feeding fields with this water such that crops can grow. For a total of 38 weeks, the child grows from the blood, nutrition, and reproductive substance of the woman and from the semen of the father. This is often referred to as the mixing of red and white drops. But a child also needs a consciousness – the taking of rebirth – to grow. We understand that body and mind are always connected. Furthermore, this connection is made from the beginning of our conception in our mother’s womb. Each of the three dynamics (nyes pa gsum), connected to the five elements, are present from the beginning of conception, throughout life, and finally begin to disintegrate as life leaves the body. This understanding presents one of the fundamental principles of Sowa Rigpa. 1.3 Origins of Sowa Rigpa Like all medical systems, Sowa Rigpa emerges from the cultural and historical contexts in which its knowledge was formulated. In the Tibetan and Himalayan worlds, this means that we understand that diseases and other forms of suffering have existed as part of the human experience, and the experience of other sentient beings, since their earliest days on Earth. This understanding of suffering and the desire to alleviate suffering is at the core of Sowa Rigpa theory and practice. Its goal is to help people overcome illness, disease, and other forms of affliction and to cultivate health and well-being. It is said that even in ancient times, many methods for daily living were practiced and can be seen as manifestations of early Sowa Rigpa across Tibet and the Himalayas. This included practices like consuming boiled water to cure indigestion, using hot oil compresses for wounds and swelling, cooking meat and other foods to make them easier to digest, and even learning how to prevent diseases through other diet and behavior practices, still in line with the need to live close to their natural environment. These ancient practitioners of early forms of Sowa Rigpa also included learning from the natural environment about strategies for healing. For example, people would notice that certain birds would use a particular plant to help mend an egg in their nest that had cracked; they used this knowledge from observing the non-human world to develop healing techniques for people. They also learned from other parts of their subsistence life in the Himalaya and on the Tibetan plateau. As another example, they knew that another medicinal plant would be used after a deer was hunted to help dry the blood and the wound, and so this sort of knowledge was also, over time, incorporated into Sowa Rigpa. It is at once a scientific and scholarly medical system, and one that has emerged from the indigenous knowledge connected to the lives and lifeways of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau, through empirical investigation. In this way, we can say that Sowa Rigpa has been part of these human communities for centuries. 9 1.4 Bön, Buddhism, and Sowa Rigpa History This medical knowledge and related practices have been an integral part of our history for hundreds, even thousands, of years, and is connected to Tibetan religion – both Buddhism and Bön. We can say that Sowa Rigpa is at once rooted in the core philosophical underpinnings of Bön and Buddhism and grounded in an empirical investigation of the mind, body, and diseases. Sowa Rigpa focuses on the body, mind, and spirit in relation to the human conditions of suffering. As mentioned in the final chapter of one of Sowa Rigpa’s root texts, the Blue Sky of Myriad Mind (gso rig rtswa ba thug ‘bum nam mkha’ sngon po) to liberate oneself and others from the cycle of birth, old age, sickness, and death always have been part of human aspirations. In this sense, we can say that Sowa Rigpa is old but also still very relevant to the modern world. This distinction between Bön and Buddhist origins of Sowa Rigpa medical knowledge is important to recognize because it matters to practitioners who also come from particular religious and social lineages, within Himalayan and Tibetan society. For those who come from a Bön background, the bum bzhi is viewed as the definitive origin text of this medical system, and the source of legitimacy for practitioners – a gift handed down from the Buddha Tönpa Shenrab Miboche (Tib., ston pa gshen rab mi bo che). This text includes 164 chapters, broken down into subsections that detail the categories of diseases, practices of diagnosis, and treatment as well as works on astrology and divination. “Bön” or Yungdrung Bön (Nine ways of Bön) itself simply means something like “religion” in the context of ancient Tibet, but for westerners Bön is often described as “preBuddhist” beliefs and practices of an ancient Tibet. The Buddha Tönpa Shenrab Miboche is understood, by Bön practitioners and biographies dating to the 11th and 14th centuries, to have been born about 23000 or 18,000 years ago by some, or in 6016 BC by others (Kværne 1995; Bellezza 2010; Blezer 2012). He is said to have taught with the five excellences at the southern continent of Jhambu Dvipa, our universe, close to Mount Yungdrung Gutseg, the “soul mountain”. There, he transmitted knowledge to Chebu Trishe, one of his eight sons, medical lineage holder priests and disciples, including the eight sages of medicine. Furthermore, the bum bzhi was translated into many ancient languages including that of Tagzik (Persia), the Zhang Zhung language of the western Tibetan kingdom, Chinese, and others, after the parinirvana (death) of Buddha Tönpa Shenrab Miboche. From the Zhang Zhung language, it was eventually translated into Tibetan language by Tong Gyud Thu Chen, during the reign of Nyatri Tsenpo, the first heavenly Tibetan King in the 4th century. At this point, this medical knowledge began to be incorporated into the Tibetan state. This also marked a moment in Tibetan history when renowned medical practitioners and expert physicians were known to have taught and when medical knowledge – including about various forms of ingested and external therapies and the detoxification of materia medica such as poisonous plants and heavy metals, was strongly developed. This time also marked efforts to connect and reinforce medical connections across different parts of the Tibetan world and beyond, but especially between the Zhang Zhung kingdom and other parts of the Tibetan plateau and other Tibetan kingdoms. The medical knowledge of the bum bzhi, cultivated during the Zhang Zhung dynasty, was central to later medical developments, particularly from the first (7th – 9th) and second (10th – 12th) dissemination of Buddhism across the Tibetan plateau. One of the documents that is seen as an important part of the Buddhist rgyud bzhi but that is also recognized as belonging to the Bön bum bzhi is known as the Soche Menbum Karpo, or the White Myriad of Curing Medicine. This text is recognized within the rgyud bzhi as the 10 ‘phyi ma rgyud, or the fourth and final treatise in the Four Treatises. This and other texts were recovered at the famous Samye Monastery in central Tibet during a time period that scholars date to between the 8th and 12th centuries. In this way, we can say that the glorious Four Treatises associated with Sowa Rigpa from the Tibetan Buddhist tradition are modeled on texts and practices emerging from earlier times, and from the Bön tradition. At the same time, we can also understand from practices and textual histories, that Sowa Rigpa in the form of the Four Tantras also incorporated many influences from other parts of Asia and their medical traditions, including those from India, China, and the Greco-Arab worlds. As Buddhism began to flourish in Tibet, and as it eventually became the “state religion”, the kings of Tibet also encouraged the development of Tibetan medicine and language. The thirty-third Yarlung king, Songtsen Gampo, as well as his successor, Trisong Detsen, were particularly focused on encouraging the development of Tibetan language and culture, including medical knowledge. This included the famous hosting of the 8th century meeting at Samye of medical practitioners from across Tibet, the Himalaya, and other regions of greater Asia. Although there was no such thing at that time as “Nepal” – in the sense of the modern nation state that exists today – it is worth noting that in the textual records of these most important historical meetings, representatives also came from places such as Dolpo, in present-day Nepal. This helps to show just how deep the connections between Nepal’s Himalayan regions and the history, theory, and practice of Sowa Rigpa really is. All of this knowledge was encouraged and recorded by the royal court physician Yuthog Gonpo the Elder in the 8th century – work that served, in part, as a basis for the Four Tantras. We can say, therefore, that what we know as Sowa Rigpa today comes from the important foundation provided by Bön medicine, developments in medical knowledge after the dissemination of Buddhism across Tibet, and influences from the Indian Ayurveda system, Chinese medicine, and medicine from the near east. This exchange of medical knowledge didn’t only occur by bringing famous physicians to Samye, though. There is a strong history of exchange of knowledge by Tibetan physicians traveling to other regions of Asia, especially India. Indeed, we believe that it was the work of the royal physician Yutok Yönten Gönpo (g.yu thog yon tan mgon po) the Elder, who traveled three times to India and ended up incorporating parts of core Ayurvedic texts into what became the Four Tantras. He revised previously compiled versions of this knowledge and this was the start of seeing these core texts as central to Sowa Rigpa, and also associated with Buddhism and the Medicine Buddha, Sangye Menla. Yutok Yönten Gönpo the Elder also played a very significant role in the development of Sowa Rigpa because he established the first medical college, Tanadug, in central Tibet. Based on textual histories, we can say that hundred students graduated from this institution and that, from there, students left Tibet and went to other Himalayan regions, including in the places that would eventually become the nation-states of Nepal, India, Bhutan and Mongolia. We can see, in this way, that Sowa Rigpa has been propagated in the ways that a tree grows: the seeds were planted in central Tibet and then it grew from there, branching out with roots, branches, leaves, flowers and fruits across much of Asia. This process continued through the 12th century, when the person known as Yutok Yönten Gönpo the Younger further codified, edited, and refined the Four Tantras into literary Tibetan. It is this form of the text that amchi continue to use today. Later, in the 17th century, with patronage from the 5th Dalai Lama and support from Desi Sangye Gyatso (1653–1705), the Dalai Lama’s regent and a masterful physician himself, there was further effort to create illustrations in the form of 79 thangka scroll paintings, to accompany the Four Tantras and help in teaching Sowa Rigpa. To practitioners of Sowa Rigpa, this text is a perfect synthesis of various excellent medical 11 traditions based also on the vernacular foundations of medicinal knowledge from communities of the high Himalaya and Tibetan plateau over the last several thousand years. In addition to these very significant individuals and their works, the religious and medical traditions prevalent in local communities across the Tibetan cultural world, including places like Dolpo and Mustang in present-day Nepal, played important roles in generating Sowa Rigpa knowledge. Prior to the spread of Buddhism, these were regions tied to Bön and the Zhang Zhung kingdoms of western Tibet. Such individuals participated in crucial ways to the lineages from which Yutok Yönten Gönpo the Elder and the Younger emerged and taught. While Sowa Rigpa’s connection to Bön, and to pre-Buddhist Tibet, remains very important, so too is the connection between Sowa Rigpa history and practice in highland Nepal and these regions’ connections to Tibetan Buddhism. 1.5 Theories of Health and Disease Although allopathic (“western”, biology-based) medicine remains very important to serve human health and well-being, Sowa Rigpa and other ancient healing systems are also still crucial to modern healthcare. The core philosophy of Sowa Rigpa understands that a healthy mind and a healthy body are connected, and that health or illness is based on our relationship to the three poisons – attachment, anger, and ignorance. It is from these poisons that the three dynamics (often translated as “humors”, nyes pa gsum) of wind (rlung), bile (mkhris pa), and phlegm (bad kan) regulate health and disease. Balance in individuals between these dynamics vary, but imbalance leads to illness. In addition, the five elements (defined as earth, water, fire, air, and space/consciousness) help to regulate our health or can contribute to illness. The same is true with our diet and behavior. These can both be avenues through which health is maintained or restored, or spaces of imbalance. Tibetan medicines, as well as various forms of external therapies, are made and used with attention to this relationship between the dynamics, elements, and human practices. All of these interrelated causes, however, lead back to the idea that the three poisons are the root of all disease. We also know these poisons as timug, the combination of ignorance and delusion which also relates to one of the central channels of the body. These ripen into the fruit known as phlegm. From timug, the phlegm nature arises. Timug is always located in the brain, or the crown chakra. The second channel, which comes from the navel, goes directly to the heart and governs the life-force channel (srog rtsa). This is the seat of the shedang, aggression and anger. This root of shedang produces bile. This life-force channel is also determined by the blood and is called the black channel. It is located in the second chakra directly opposite the space between the 8th and 10th vertebra. The third main bodily channel runs from the navel down to create the genitals. This is the root of desire and greed, dodchag, from which wind develops. This is located in what is called the secret chakra. Each of these channels are also indicators for where these three principal dynamics are located in the body: phlegm in the head, bile in the middle of the body, and wind in the lower part of the body. Imbalances in these dynamics create problems for the seven bodily constituents and therefore affect all of one's life – the health of one’s body and mind. According to the different strands of textual tradition that ground Sowa Rigpa, the definitions of this term (gso ba rig pa) literally means that the healing object is the vast human body. We must take into account immediate or proximate causes and conditions of illness arising from things like diet as well as daily, monetary, and seasonal behaviors. But Sowa Rigpa also recognizes that some causes of disease are 12 deeper: they arise from the mind, the spirit, nefarious beings, the karma of past lives, and other more ultimate or distanced causes and effects. This subset of Sowa Rigpa knowledge to do with how and where disease arises is a vast subject, which speaks to the vast human body, mind, and spirit. The mental poisons and afflictive emotions of attachment, anger, ignorance, arrogance, pride, and jealousy as well as selfishness and egoism can lead to imbalance which, in turn, can lead to illness. These emotions are rooted deeply in what, in Buddhist philosophy, we might describe as the ‘knowing of unknowing.’ It is like a bird flying into vast sky without an understanding that it is not its shadow. In a cosmo-physical sense, the three principle dynamics or energies (nyes pa gsum) and their relationship to the five elements map onto to what are called the seven bodily constituents (lus zungs bdun) – nutritive essence, blood, flesh, fat, bone, bone marrow, and regenerative/reproductive fluids – and are also related to the three waste products, feces, urine, and perspiration. This classification system further articulates into an etiology of disease that is psychosomatic in nature, by which we mean that there are disease classifications that relate to the poison or afflictive emotion as well as the dynamics to which they are attached and through which they manifest. To be concrete, 47 wind disorders arise from attachment, 26 bile disorders emerge from anger, and 33 phlegm disorders are rooted in ignorance. This basic categorization is further broken down and articulated in relation to types of diseases, places, or locations in which these diseases manifest, and the hollow or vital organ to which the illness is primarily associated. In total, Sowa Rigpa describes 404 diseases generally. This etiology is further broken down into 1616 categories. At the same time, amchi can describe all of these diseases in relation to those that are hot and cold in nature, akin to the ashwa and shital designations in Ayurveda or yin and yang in Traditional Chinese Medicine. 1.6 Diagnosis and Treatment Methods Both the Bön and Buddhists core texts of Sowa Rigpa describe thirty-eight primary diagnosis and treatment methods of healing. Diagnosis occurs by utilizing several principle methods: visual investigation of the patient’s tongue and complexion; urine analysis, which includes the use of sight, smell, taste, and touch; an oral examination that involves questioning the patient about their experiences of their illness as well as their medical and social history, diet, behavior, etc.; and pulse analysis, which can reveal many problems, including relationships between the three dynamics, the five elements, the seven bodily constituents, heat and cold, and the vital and vessel organs. Pulse analysis is arguably the most important and the most difficult of all diagnostic methods. This practice of knowing through the whisperings of light and heavy touches of fingers is essential. Only senior and experienced amchi can truly master this practice, as it takes years to learn. This is one of the ways that Sowa Rigpa knowledge transmission works: it grows with direct experience and accumulated wisdom, as well as leaning from colleges and universities. Many of the subtlest aspects of learning pulse diagnosis can be considered “secret” or not open to novice practitioners until they have completed a number of preliminary practices. Sometimes this knowledge is imparted from a root teacher, other times from father to son or daughter. 13 Over the course of their training, amchi learn how to identify and harvest medicinal plants, prepare medicines including removing poisonous qualities of certain ingredients and diagnosing illnesses, including through pulse analysis. They then prescribe medicine in forms of powders, pills, and decoctions. Amchi also help patients with mental illness, as do lamas and other spiritual practitioners. Unhappiness or mental disturbances are understood as connected to the stress and anxiety associated with the conditions of living, including living in the modern world. Amchi and these other practitioners understand that the mental disturbances humans experience are also linked with many diseases such as hypertension, heart conditions, diabetes, dementia, and early aging. 1.7 The Ethical Qualities of Sowa Rigpa Practitioners Amchi are trained to believe that their capacity to generate graceful compassion with which they serve their patients is the most important ethical goal. Whether in ancient times or in the modern world, we must not only face the noble truths of rebirth, sickness, old age, and death, but also to do what we can to cease that suffering. Even if you have no materials to offer, you can still offer this perspective. And when people encounter such symbols of the enlightened mind, we understand more clearly this dance of survival and renewal with their body, speech, and mind. The qualities that define a Sowa Rigpa practitioner as a healer-physician are very important, as they are for all medical traditions. For amchi, their goal is to protect people from illness and to attend to sick people, helping them to deal with and emerge again healthy from their sufferings. These methods are based, at their root, on bodhicitta, an orientation toward enlightened mind, rooted in love and compassion. Amchi must understand physical and physiological disorders in relation to their patients, but they must also have deeper understandings of the relationship between body and mind. According to the Four Treatises, the qualities of Sowa Rigpa practitioners are described through six main categories: they should be sharp and intelligent, kind-hearted, full of integrity and a commitment to practice, excellent in their medical preparation craftsmanship, hardworking, and, finally, learned in the customs of men or householders. We can elaborate by saying that to be “sharp and intelligent” means that an amchi is worthy of confidence and has mental stability. The amchi should have learned both oral and textual versions of the Four Treatises, and they should have secret knowledge and practices that were transmitted under the guidance of senior medical instructors. They should be able to provide logical and holistic healthcare to others. When it comes to “kind-heartedness,” amchi must always remain committed to sick people in the way of the bodhisattva, the enlightened one who remains in this world to help other sentient beings. They must work to cultivate what in Tibetan Buddhism are called the “four immeasurable states”: compassion, love, joy, and equanimity. By practicing virtuous deeds, the good karma that this generates bears the fruit of true happiness, while bad karma bears the fruit of disease and suffering. To say that an amchi is full of integrity and a sincere commitment to their practice means that practitioners must always regard their patients as one's own parents and, in that sense, must strive to maintain good doctor-patient relationships. Amchi must not abstain from the smells and messiness of their 14 patients in states of sickness. Rather, they must confront this messiness – pus, blood, sputum, urine, feces and other physical manifestations of sickness – without turning away. When it comes to “craftsmanship,” this means that amchi must always be experienced while preparing different kinds of medicines within the Sowa Rigpa pharmacopeia, whether powders, pills, medicinal butter, decoctions, or other formulas. They must also be skillful when it comes to using and applying external therapies such as moxibustion, cauterization, bloodletting, and cleansing the channels. They must treat the sick in their beds and must be an expert in all of the practical manifestations of this healing practice. In terms of what “hard-working” means, amchi must always be enthusiastic while collecting medicinal plants and gathering raw material ingredients. They must also stay “pure” in a physical and spiritual sense during this process: bathing but also reciting Medicine Buddha healing mantras. This is particularly important after engaging in the detoxification of poisons in some medicinal ingredients and during the preparation of medicines. Amchi must regard their own medicines as precious jewels that are in their hands, and they must perform Medicine Buddha healing rituals and empowerments according to the Tibetan calendar to make sure that their medicines have not only material efficacy but also spiritual efficacy and blessing for their patients. Amchi must practice in this way throughout their lives. They may also choose to engage in works of medical charity, like giving time to the free distribution of medicines to all, as an offering that the world may become free from all sickness and suffering. Finally, amchi should be learned in the other ways of householders. This means that they must treat patients as they themselves want to be treated – not using abusive language but rather speaking to patients with respect and understanding. They must build up trust and rapport, particularly during the patient questioning part of a diagnostic process. This is particularly important in instances where what patients say and what their bodies reveal through pulse, urine, and physical examination remain different. Sometimes patients will not be clear, and in such moments amchi must be very clever, like the eagle. At the same time, they must maintain a keen sense of their responsibilities to the patients. At the same time, while doing the work of diagnosis and treatment, amchi must be like a sheep: gentle, somewhat timid, and quiet. When patients are treated well, amchi must roar like a wolf, with success. However, if a patient misinterprets or does not follow an amchi’s advice or misbehaves, then the amchi must be brave and speak up, like a supreme conqueror: a lion or a tiger. 1.8 Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics In the tradition of Sowa Rigpa, healing medicines are derived mostly from minerals, soils, plants and other herbal ingredients which grow from the snow mountains of high elevations to the low elevation vegetation zones. These plants grow from a combination of the five elements (earth, water, fire, air, and space/consciousness). Subsequently, the tastes (ro), potencies and efficacy (phan nus, nus pa), and postdigestive tastes (zhu rjed) develop and are further identified. These different, distinctive qualities of materia medica are specified in specific chapters of the Four Treatises. These texts also identify which ingredients contain poisons which require detoxification. The tastes of ingredients are classified as: sweet, bitter, sour, salty, acrid, and astringent. The potency or efficacy of ingredients have to do with identifying their power to address particular forms of imbalance 15 of the phyco-physiological conditions or 'humours’ (nyes pa gsum) [either wind (rlung), bile (mkhris pa), or phlegm (bad kan)] resulting in disease. Medicinal ingredients are further classified according to different qualities (yon ten): smooth, heavy, hot, oily, stable, cool, mild, light, dry, astringent, moving, rough, sharp, etc. For example, wind disorders require ingredients that are at once heavily and oily while bile disorders require ingredients that are cool and mild, and ingredients that are light, rough, hot, and sharp are needed for phlegm disorders. The six tastes and five elements also combine within materia medica. When earth and water elements combine, they form a sweet taste; when fire and earth combine, they form a sour taste; when air and water combine, an astringent taste forms; when fire and air combine, it produces a sour taste; when water and air combine, we get a hot taste; and when earth and air combine, we get a bitter taste. Most medicinal plants which are non-toxic have good tastes, qualities, and post-digestive properties. Medicinal ingredients come from many organic substances. All parts of a tree, for instance, including its roots, branches, sap, bark, resin, leaves, flowers, and seeds, can be medicine. Medicinal plants naturally grow and are distributed in southern, northern and middle directions in the sunlight and shadow. They grow at high and low altitudes, in mountains and vegetative zone, in areas that are dry, moist, or combination climates. Their natural habitats authenticate their qualities and efficacy. They are categorized also according to color (white or black), gender (male, female, or neutral), old and young, as well as according to other good and bad characteristics. Even so, different tongues will sometimes experience different tastes, potencies and post-digestive tastes. Sowa Rigpa pharmacological texts stipulate that, for some amchi born in remote and isolated places where some plants recommended in the pharmacopeia are not available locally, they may have trouble meeting the needs of patients. However, it is not sufficient to just recite medical texts to cure diseases. That would be like expecting a warrior to win a war on the battleground without weapons. In these situations, remote area amchi can become like hungry ghosts searching endlessly for medicinal ingredients. If the six so-called “superlative medicines” (nutmeg, black cardamom, bamboo pitch, clove and saffron) and other raw herbs and minerals are difficult to obtain, if amchi must travel far to get medicine and then pay a high cost, then poor patients will not able to afford these medicines and they will continue to suffer and perhaps even die. In this case, amchi must practice bodhicitta, great compassion. But these shortages are another reason why the practice of pharmacological substitution is also so important: you must find ingredients that you can have access to – that you can use and afford – for the benefit of your patients. Amchi must also harvest correctly. They learn not to uproot the odorous plants. If this is done, it is like pouring water on a burning fire. Medicinal plants should also be gathered at the right season, which varies according to species and part of the plant to be gathered. In this process, the taste and potency of the plant should be maintained. Likewise, if you wait too long to use and prepare plants, or if they are not stored properly, if they lose their odor, this likely means that they have lost their power, their potency. The six superlative medicines are named as such because they are always effective in their tastes and potencies. These are like precious jewels in the amchi’s hands. Even though we speak of the problems of medicinal plant scarcity and the need for substitutes, we must also remember that according to Sowa Rigpa, no place on earth is devoid of medicinal plants. It is up to us to learn how to identify them and use them properly. Specifically, amchi must pay attention to the natural habitat in which plants grow and collection methods and timing, as well as methods for detoxification, drying, processing, grinding, and then ultimately combining ingredients into formulas. Generally, the habitat and distribution of medicinal plants 16 should be in clean mountain zones with various forms of other vegetation. Sometimes high altitude plants are found in areas that are snowy and rocky, hard to reach or even in holy places. Plants also grow in temperate zones where they grow under good climate conditions, both under the sun and the moon. When it comes to collection methods, this must be done according to the season and also the part(s) of the plant used in medicine. Flowers, leaves, fruit, and roots are collected during the three different seasons of spring, summer, and fall. This can vary quite a bit for species but also according to the particular potency of the plants, in relation to specific illnesses or diseases. For bone problems, for example, tree medicines can be quite effective, and these should be harvested in the autumn, while for trees that are used for vein/channel (rtsa) problems as well as issues in the intestines or problems with the skin, tree medicine should be harvested before leaves begin to fall from the trees. Indeed, leaves are most effective for these problems when they are harvested during flowering season or summer time. In contrast yet again, medicines that are good for the five vital organs as well as headaches, fruit medicine are effective. These are collected during autumn, late winter, and early spring. Several parts of the Four Treatises are devoted to the production of medicines and the classification and preparation of pharmacopeia. Chapter twenty-one of the second treatise is an example. The Buddhist master Nagarjuna once said, “Whether from the tree line, stone, garden, or mountain, if tested and recognized properly, any natural ingredient can be used as essence nectar or have medicinal value. Therefore, the cultivation of some important medicinal plants is crucial.” Our environment is a precious jewel to us. We need to conserve our natural resources to prevent us from death, diseases, and natural disasters. We are not advanced in western scientific technologies but still western scholars, environmentalists, scientists, and pilgrims come to learn about our culture, including what we know about medicine and the natural world. We understand that negative forces can arise from the three gates of our body, speech, and mind, which, in turn, cause attachments, anger and ignorance – the three poisons – which can give rise to illness. But illness can also come from outer environmental and cosmo-physical forces, including local deities or spirits who dwell in particular environments, such as lu, or naga, serpent spirits who tend to live near water sources. If we do not take care of such environments, this can also cause problems. This is also why we must keep all of our monasteries, shrines, stupas, clean. Throwing garbage at these holy sites as well as mining minerals or improperly uprooting medicinal plants, or burning harmful chemical substances brings much negative influences. Sometimes such actions can lead to sickness, causing people to suffer from chronic disorders. Biophysical conditions of imbalance, the karmic conditions of past lives, or the Influence of nefarious spirits on a person’s wellbeing can all cause such problems. For this and other reasons, we do not see the “environment” as something that exists only outside our bodies. In addition to these types of local human actions that can cause disturbances in the cosmo-physical environment and bring about suffering, much broader human actions can also cause suffering and disease. We are living in a time of climate change. We cannot deny this and instead we must actively think about how to adapt to these changes to our ecologies. Although, we may always have the six superlative medicines available, other plants are becoming rare and difficult to obtain. This, in turn, makes it difficult to produce compound medicines effectively. It is like the saying, “what use are meat and butter if you cannot live in an environment where you can collect firewood and cook with these ingredients.” In summary, people, plants, and amchi thus have a strong inter-relationship. They are all part of what is meant by the modern concept of “biodiversity conservation.” 17 1.9 Systems of Qualification for Sowa Rigpa Practitioners There are both lineage-based and institutional systems of qualification available for Sowa Rigpa practitioners in the countries where it is practiced. In Nepal, most amchi have been trained in traditional guru-shisya (master-disciple) system which is still maintained in high Himalayan areas (Table 1.1). However, vocational and university-level training has become the norm in many other countries where Sowa Rigpa is practiced. These modes of learning and qualification are becoming more common in Nepal as well. Table 1.1. Sowa Rigpa schools and colleges in Nepal. Name of School Location Shelkar Tibetan Medical school Boudha (Kathmandu) Muktinath Medical School Jharkot (Mustang) Lo Kunphen Medical School Lo Manthang (Mustang) and Pokhara; affiliated with and recognized by the Centre for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) in 2007 Dolpo Mentseekhang Dho Tarap (Dolpa) Sorig Bum Zhi School (school of four Medical Science of early tradition) founded in 1987 in Dhorpatan (Baglung) and now managed under Triten Norbu Tse Monastery (Kathmandu) Traditional Buddhist Medicine School Kanying Shedrub Ling Monastery (Kathmandu) Sowa Rigpa International College Kathmandu, affiliated with Lumbini University (2015) 1.9.1 The Guru-Shisya System The guru-shisya system involves a student working and studying as an apprentice to a renowned senior amchi for a period of many years, usually more than a decade. Sometimes the master is an elder male relative (a father, grandfather, or uncle). In this method of knowledge transmission, student apprentices do not take formal government or institutional examinations, but they are regularly examined by their teachers for both oral knowledge and memorization of the Four Tantras and in terms of their written knowledge and hands-on practical skills with patients, under circumstances of diagnosis and treatment. These forms of evaluation continue for many years before a novice amchi is considered ready to practice on their own. This method of teaching and qualification can, however, be modified to be included in a national body that recognizes and certifies amchi. This would require the development of a national examination, and overseen by an apex body that should include representatives from the Ministry of Health and Population, the Ministry of Education, and the HAA and/or a (as yet to be developed) Sowa Rigpa Council. 1.9.2 Kangjenpa Community Amchi Assistant (CAA) The duration of this course is two years and three months. The subjects included in this degree are: English, Nepali, Science, Mathematics, and Social Studies – all of which are included in the Technical School Leaving Certificate (T-SLC) which is also granted as part of this degree. In addition, the Kangjenpa curriculum focuses in the first year on Introductory Sowa Rigpa (Amchi) Medicine and Tibetan language, while the second year goes into more specific Sowa Rigpa training in Anatomy and Physiology, Health Education, Health Culture and Community, Medicinal Plants, Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Diagnosis of Disorders, 18 Treatment of Disorders, and Health Management. After the first two years, students participate in a form of apprenticeship through On the Job Training (OJT). Minimum qualification to join this course is a class eight pass within the Nepali school system, or equivalent. The Kangjenpa degree is taught at one of Nepal’s schools of Sowa Rigpa, the Lo Kunphen School based in Pokhara and Mustang. This course is approved and certified by the Centre for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT), under Nepal’s Ministry of Education. It is equivalent to the Community Medical Assistant (CMA) program for biomedical training. Students who have received the Kangjenpa certificate will be eligible to sit in the entrance examination for Durapa diploma. 1.9.3 Durapa Certificate in Amchi Science The duration of this course is three years. The subjects included in this curriculum are English, Nepali, Anatomy and Physiology, Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, and Tibetan Language in the first year; study of three of the four tantras in the Four Treatises as well as Environmental Health, Health Education, Health Management and Social Studies in the second year; and further study of the remaining chapters of the Four Treatises along with comprehensive clinical practice and community field practice studies and examinations in the third year. In order to join this course, one must have earned a minimum of second division in the Nepali SLC (or equivalent) with English, Science and Math as the main subjects or a minimum of first division in the Kangjenpa degree program (or equivalent) and an SLC, or first division in the Kangjenpa degree program with one year of work experience in a related field. Students who complete the Durapa curriculum will be eligible to sit for the entrance examination for the next level of study, the Kachupa (Bachelor degree in Sowa Rigpa). At present, the Durapa course does not exist in Nepal, although a curriculum for this program has been designed by the HAA. An equivalent Durapa program exists in other countries and regions, notably in Ladakh, India, and in Tibetan areas of China. 1.9.4 Kachupa Degree This degree program is roughly equivalent to a Bachelor’s Degree and includes 4-5 years of institutional learning followed by a year of practical clinical apprenticeship. It includes comprehensive study of the Four Treatises and related commentaries, the study of Tibetan language (logic, grammar, and poetics), Bön and Buddhist philosophies as it relates to the practice of medicine, and astrology. The first year usually serves as an introduction to the Four Treatises, combined with ongoing study of Tibetan language, ethics, and astrology. It also includes introductions to anatomy and physiology from both Sowa Rigpa and biomedical perspectives. The second year focuses on pathology, diagnosis, treatment, and preliminary studies in plant identification and pharmacology, as well as a focus on biodiversity conservation. It often includes parallel units on basic biomedical pathology and public health. The third and fourth years are devoted to deeper study of diagnosis and therapies, following their presentation in the Four Treatises, as well as deeper study of pharmacological production and the use of external therapies. It can also include a focus on basic biomedical clinical examinations and the use of some biomedical technologies, as well as further explorations of public health and epidemiology. Year four usually focuses further on clinical practice, as well as on specializations in obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, psychological/psychiatric disorders and 19 toxicology. The fifth year continues in this vein, with a final focus on infectious disease as well as opportunities for students to conduct small research projects on topics of their choosing. A version of this course is offered at several institutes of Sowa Rigpa in India (Dharamshala Mentseekhang, Dharamshala, Himachal Pradesh; Chagpori Tibetan Medical Institute, Darjeeling; Central University for Tibetan Studies, Varanasi; the Medical College of the Sorig Bumzhi, Menriling, Himachal Pradesh; and Buddhist Institute of Sowa Rigpa, Ladakh), the national training program for Sowa Rigpa practitioners in Bhutan and Mongolia, and in several colleges and universities in Tibetan areas of China, including Lhasa’s Tibetan Medical College and Qinghai Tibetan Medical College. Although younger generations of amchi from Nepal have been able to access such advanced training in Indian institutions, the availability of admission “seats” for individuals who are not from the Tibetan community in India are very small and highly competitive. Due to language and political challenges, Nepali amchi have not been able to join institutions in China. Nepal’s first college of Sowa Rigpa was established in 2016. The Sowa Rigpa International College offers a 5.5 year accredited MBBS equivalent degree, in affiliation with Lumbini University, but based in Kathmandu. The curriculum follows, by and large, the model established by accredited Indian Sowa Rigpa institutions. Now in its second year of training students, this program requires that those seeking admission have an SLC + 2 (through class 12) diploma or equivalent and can pass an oral and written Tibetan language examination. 1.9.5 Menrampa Degree This higher level of training is available only in India and China. In China, the Lhasa Medical College began its three years Master’s Degree course in 2000. In India, a candidate who has obtained the BTMS (Bachelors in Tibetan Medicine) or equivalent may apply to be considered for the Menrampa degree program. The Menrampa Degree is usually conferred ten years after completing a Kachupa Degree. Likewise, if a practitioner has ten years of clinical/practical experience, and if they pass a literary examination administered by the Dharamshala Mentseekhang, then they may join this degree program. It requires additional theoretical study and the completion of an independent research project and dissertation on a topic of the candidate’s choice. The Dharamshala Mentseekhang does not distinguish Menrampa Chewa and Chungwa. For many years, the only institute in China to offer a Menrampa degree was the Tibetan Medical College in Lhasa. This course was started in 2004. The Tibetan Medical University in Qinghai Province now also offers this degree. 1.10 Past to Present: The Training and Status of Sowa Rigpa Practitioners in Nepal According to the amchi who we interviewed for this book and who contributed to its authorship, to become fully qualified, amchi must study either the Bön or Buddhist version of the Four Treatises for a minimum of seven to nine years and memorize approximately 40 to 50 important chapters, at the least. They should also spend one month each year working on the proper identification and gathering of medicinal plants. In addition, they should have at least three years of clinical practice during which they are 20 treated as novices or apprentices, being supervised in their diagnosis, treatment, and prescribing of medications to patients. In the final years of this training, amchi must take both oral and written examinations as well as the Medicine Buddha initiation, empowerment, and teachings in order to enhance their power of healing and reinforce their faith. Some amchi learn linguistics, grammar, and poetry as part of their training. Others get additional instruction in specific external therapies. Still others may get more in-depth training in astrology, as this has historically been an essential component of diagnosis and treatment within Tibetan medical tradition especially when it is determined that an illness is not physical in origin but related to nefarious spirits, the karma of past lives, and mental affliction. Historically, the social status of amchi meant that they were to provide medicine to their local communities without bargaining for their services and, in return, patients would offer them whatever they could afford – sometimes money but sometimes other goods or labor, so that both the amchi and the community members could survive and have adequate means for their family livelihood. However, many factors, from broader socio-economic changes in relation to education and migration as well as rising costs of raw ingredients in urban markets and related access challenges has meant that this model of support and economic survival of amchi is becoming much more difficult to maintain – in some places, it is impossible. Another challenge at the present has to do with the Nepali state’s bans and restrictions on the collection of so-called “non-timber forest products” (NTFPs) within their overall forest rules and regulations. This can have a negative impact on amchi in their ability to make medicines and afford to clinically practice. In addition, there are key issues related to the use of ingredients such as heavy metals (mercury, etc.) in some Tibetan formulations. Even though these ingredients go through a strict detoxification process before they are made into ingestible medicines, issues related to the regulations of these materials at the state level also creates challenges for amchi. Amchi should also be considered indigenous ethnobotanists. Over the course of Sowa Rigpa’s history and through the lives and works of specific amchi, a great deal of empirical knowledge have gained about high altitude medicinal plants, from information on their ecologies and growth cycles to issues that pertain to their cultivation, conservation, and use. Even with this knowledge, amchi have not had legal rights that allow them to stop the smuggling of some threatened species across the Himalaya. In northern border regions of Nepal, amchi use only small amounts of plants, when compared with the amounts being used for commercial production of “traditional” formulas elsewhere. Generally speaking, more than half of the plants used by amchi for medicines are grown locally. These are collected, cleaned, dried, and used in formula production. Although all parts of a plant can be used, with the high mountain varieties, mostly amchi use the mature plants and the roots. Less than fifty percent of plants used for medicines come from the lower elevations. These tend to be robust and odorous medicinal plants. Amchi must find and purchase these in urban markets, in relatively small quantities. From these, about 40 to 60 types of medicine are prepared that can be considered “essential medicines” for amchi practice (see Appendix 1 for list of essential medicines). These medicines are used to treat and cure patients primarily in rural clinic. Amchi purchase some ready-made medicines from cottage industry factories that we know and trust in urban Nepal (Table 1.2). This purchase of medicines is becoming more common due to shortages of plants, economic resources, and labor in rural areas. 21 Table 1.2. Sowa Rigpa cottage industry pharmaceutical factories in Nepal. Name of Pharmacy Location Kunphen Tibetan Medical Pharmacy Kathmandu Shelkar Monastery Pharmacy Kathmandu Himalayan Medicine Industry Kathmandu Gangchen Himalayan Pharmacy Kathmandu Thrangku Monastery Pharmacy Kathmandu Sorig Bumzhi School Pharmacy Kathmandu As should be clear, amchi still play crucial roles in community health as well as in the cultivation and conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants in remote locations in Nepal. Although the majority of Nepali citizens who benefit from Sowa Rigpa are villagers in the high mountains, this is also changing over time and as knowledge of Sowa Rigpa and amchi grow among other sectors of Nepali society. Right now, amchi have increasing presences in the mid hills and tarai regions of the country mostly through private urban clinics (Table 1.3). Despite the role that amchi play in maintaining the health of remote northern Himalayan communities, the amchi tradition in Nepal has declined over the centuries for various reasons, including lack of institutional support from the Nepal Government. Today, many of Nepal’s amchi continue to face physical and financial difficulties in their efforts to acquire the necessary medicinal ingredients for making medicines and to access ongoing training opportunities. While amchi with various backgrounds practice in urban areas, in northern regions of the country most of the amchi are lineage-based practitioners who are also religious practitioners – either tantric householder priests (ngags pa) or monks. They are providing medical teaching and traditional healthcare services to local communities and many of these traditional healthcare centers are managed under their own family houses, monasteries, or temples. These local monasteries not only focus on rites and rituals that must be performed for native villagers. They have been and remain centers for the study of Sowa Rigpa and native language and culture. So, they serve many different purposes. It must also be remembered that, in remote mountain regions of Nepal, government support for healthcare or education has not been strong historically and remains limited today. As such, these local social and medical institutions play very important roles. 1.11 The Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA): History, Vision and Development As we have described above, the Bön tradition/religion existed in Tibet prior to the transmission of Tibetan Buddhism across this vast area, and the Bön Zhang Zhung civilization had a strong influence over the territories that we have come, in modern times, to call “northern Nepal” – places like Dolpo and Mustang. As one example of this, we can point to the presence of Dolpo Khyulmo Rutse, a master amchi who participated in the famous 8th century conference on Sowa Rigpa at Samye Monastery in Tibet. He was known for his bloodletting and moxibustion techniques. He, like many after him from these regions of the Himalaya, transmitted what he knew through family lineage. 1 1 22 Table 1.3. Sowa Rigpa clinics in Nepal. Name of Clinic Location Amchi Tshampa Ngawang Clinic Jomsom (Mustang) and Soyambhu (Kathmandu) Dakar Thaso Clinic Boudha (Kathmandu) Dolpo Mentseekhang Dho Tarap (Dolpa) Dr. Chokyi Medical Center Boudha (Kathmandu) Dr. Ngawang Sangey Medical Center Soyambhu (Kathmandu) Drigung Kyabgon Monastery Tibetan Medical Clinic Nayapati (Kathmandu) Gangchen Menkhang Shey Phoksumdo (Dolpa) Kailash Medical and Astro Society Mentseekhang Boudha and Chhetrapati (Kathmandu), Pokhara (Kaski), Junbesi (Solukhumbu) Karma Legsheling Medical Center Soyambhu (Kathmandu) Kopan Monastery Tibetan Medical Clinic Kopan (Kathmandu) Kunga Tashi Tibetan Medical Center Soyambhu (Kathmandu) Kunphen Tibetan Medical Center Chhetrapati and Boudha (Kathmandu) Lo Kunphen Medical Clinics, Lo Manthang (Mustang) and Pokhara (Kaski) Maratika Sorig Clinic - Traditional Tibetan Medicine Boudha (Kathmandu) Namkha Kyungzong Medical Center Yalbang (Humla) Phende Himalayan Medical Centers Soyambhu (Kathmandu), Dharan (Sunsari), Pokhara (Kaski) Pure Vision Sorig: Healing and Research Center Boudha (Kathmandu) Sacred Land Medical Center Lukla (Solukhumbu) Shechen Hospice Boudha (Kathmandu) Shelkar Tibetan Medical Clinic Boudha (Kathmandu) Snow Region Welfare Clinic Boudha (Kathmandu) Sorig Bumzhi Medical Centers Dhorpatan (Baglung), Soyambhu and Jarsingpau (Kathmandu) Sorig Pure Vision Medical Center Boudha and Pharping (Kathmandu) Sorig Tenpe Menkhang/Mentseekhang (Sorig Medical Clinic) Simikot (Humla) Traditional Healthcare Center Samagaon-Nubri, Tsum and Chekampar (Gorkha) Trangku Tara Medical Center Soyambhu and Boudha (Kathmandu) Yuthog Medical Center Boudha (Kathmandu) Yuthog Sogtso Clinic Saldang (Dolpa) 23 In more recent times, many medical and religious experts escaped from Tibet to India and Nepal during the Chinese occupation, and have settled here to teach and practice. Some lived in cities but others moved to rural areas like the Nepal Himalaya where they exchanged knowledge and practices with local lamas and amchi. There are examples of this from throughout the Nepal Himalaya. From the 8th through the 19th century – for more than a thousand years – Sowa Rigpa was practiced and knowledge was transmitted across the region, mostly from father to son and from lineage master to disciple. This included theoretical and practical instruction, and amchi from throughout Nepal became known for their clinical experience and their very deep knowledge of identifying and preparing medicinal plants, and making medicines. Throughout northern Nepal – in eighteen of its seventy-seven districts – amchi medicine has been practiced for centuries. However, the tradition has been in a period of decline for many reasons, to do with socioeconomic, cultural, and political change. Now, we can find practicing amchi in only eleven districts (Appendix 2). Concerns for the future of this practice and for the status of amchi in Nepal led to the founding of the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA), a national body representing the Sowa Rigpa tradition. The HAA has its roots, though, in efforts that were at once local in scope and global in reach. From 1992 to 1997 the Institute for the Himalayan Conservation (IHC) launched programs to help preserve and revitalize amchi medicine in Nepal. This support included the start of an amchi medical clinic, cultivation trials of rare and endangered medicinal plants, and a herbarium. All of these initial activities were located in Mustang District, and done in collaboration with an enthobotanical survey by UNESCO, as part of Mustang Eco-Museum project. In 1997, Amchi Tshampa Ngawang, who was the core staff on the Mustang Eco-Museum, was invited to International Symposium in Thailand supported by the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNESCO. His lecture was titled “A Balance of Elements: Disease, Death and Dharma in the Himalayan Amchi Medical Context.” It served to introduce Sowa Rigpa, as it is practiced in Nepal, to a wider audience. Similarly, through its applied ethnobotany project, People and Plants Initiative (PPI, a joint program of UNESCO, WWF and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) initiated collaboration with the Himalayan amchi in 1997 to document ethnobotanical knowledge and assess sustainability of harvest of high-altitude medicinal plants in Shey-Phoksundo National Park, Dolpa. People and Plants Initiative, in partnership with WWF Nepal, organized meetings in 1997 and 1998 that brought together almost all amchi of Dolpa and some from Mustang to discuss their knowledge and practices, and the major challenges that they encountered during execution of their profession. PPI also supported the building of a Traditional Health Care Center in Phoksundo to provide basic health care facilities and promote the exchange of knowledge between amchi. These early works with IHC, WHO, PPI, and UNESCO, combined with local lobbying efforts and a growing recognition of the changes to and challenges facing amchi medicine in Nepal, gave rise to the founding of the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA) in 1998. The HAA is a Nepali NGO that was founded by a group of amchi from a few of the Nepali districts that line the Nepal-Tibet border, principally amchi practicing in Mustang and Dolpa districts. Today, the HAA comprises more than one hundred members: 62 from Dolpa, 21 from Mustang, 18 from Gorkha, 3 from Humla and Kathmandu, 2 from Mugu and Rasuwa, and 1 each from Baglung, Dhading, Sindhupalchowk and Solukhumbu (see Appendix 2 for full list of HAA members). Although this represents a great number of the practicing amchi in Nepal, the HAA aims to continue its outreach effort and increase membership in the years to come. 24 The leadership of the HAA has changed over the years. Tshampa Ngawang was elected as Chairman in 1998, a position in which he served until 2001. Amchi Gyatso Bista, also from Mustang, was the HAA Chairman from 2001-2013. Other leaders of the HAA between 2013–2016 included Lama Namgyal of Dolpo, Amchi Tenjing Bista of Mustang and Amchi Tshewang Gyurme of Mustang while other core contributions to the Board of the HAA have been made by Amchi Wangchuk of Gorkha, Amchi Tenjing Dharkye of Mustang. The HAA has also taken steps in recent years to be more inclusive to female amchi, and several amchi who are also nuns from northern Gorkha District now serve on the board. Gyatso Bista took up the position of Chairman again in 2017 and Norbu Sangpo Lama of Humla became General Secretary. Over the years, the HAA has hoped to create a forum through which amchi from throughout Nepal can share knowledge and information about their histories, practices, and current socio-economic positions. They endeavor to network with other institutions of Tibetan medicine education and practice in Nepal, as well as in India, China, Mongolia, and Bhutan. The HAA also participated in research and conservation activities aimed at documenting and safeguarding the natural resources on which amchi medicine depends, and to conduct their own research on the socio-economic position of amchi in the Nepal Himalaya and the history and practice of Sowa Rigpa. One of the HAA’s main goals is to create opportunities for ongoing training for novice amchi in Nepal and to address the issue of various knowledge levels as well as divides between lineage-based practitioners and those who have access or recourse to be trained in institutions. In many respects, though, the HAA's primary goal is to seek governmental and non-governmental support for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal, in forms ranging from scholarships and other financial support for workshops, trainings, and research projects to official recognition and acknowledgement of amchi medical practice from the Ministry of Health and Population and other institutions within the Government of Nepal. The HAA aims to ensure access to reliable, culturally appropriate health care in remote mountain communities and to preserve and revitalize Sowa Rigpa practice in Nepal. Individual members of the HAA and the organization itself has collaborated successfully with local, regional, and international organizations, such as the World Wildlife Fund, the UNESCO People and Plants Initiatives, the Japan Foundation Asia Centre, DROKPA Foundation, the Atelier for Development and the Future (ADF), and the Japanese Agricultural In-service Training Institute (JAITI), as well as some of Nepal's most knowledgeable botanists and horticulturalists, associated with institutions such as Pokhara University, the Central Department of Botany at Tribhuvan University, the Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON) and the Godavari Botanical Garden under the Department of Plant Resources of Government of Nepal. In addition, the HAA has collaborated with the Remote Area Development Committee (RADC) and the Monastery Management and Buddhist Philosophy Promotion Committee, both within the Government of Nepal, both of which have supported different aspects of the HAA’s activities. The Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) within the Ministry of Education has also provided support to HAA members and local/regional institutions of Sowa Rigpa education, in part by recognizing their curriculum for the Kangjenpa degree, which is equivalent to a Community Medical Assistant (CMA) degree. The earthquakes that affected parts of Nepal in 2015 also damaged the HAA offices and clinic in Kathmandu, and created difficulties for the organization. In spite of this, many of Nepal’s amchi including current and past leaders of the organization, worked hard to respond to communities in need, through 25 amchi medical camps in affected districts: Rasuwa, Dolakha, Kavre, Sindhupalchowk, and in the Kathmandu Valley. 1.12 HAA Activities and Accomplishments Over the course of its more than twenty-year history, the HAA has held several major conferences, workshops, and training courses as well as various applied research endeavors, all of which aligned with core goals of the organization: namely, to encourage knowledge exchange and novel forms of education and knowledge transmission for amchi from Nepal, and to encourage relationships among amchi across borders. 1.12.1 Conferences and Workshops The Himalayan Amchi Association had organized four national conferences (Table 1.4), and several national workshops and refresher training courses, beginning in 2001. These events have been supported by The Japan Foundation Asia Center, the WWF Nepal Program, the UNESCO People and Plants Initiative, DROKPA Foundation, the Himal-Asia Foundation, the Rubin Foundation, and the International Association for the Study of Traditional Asian Medicine (IASTAM), among other sources. These conferences and workshops not only served as a forum for amchi to exchange knowledge and discuss issues such as the future of Sowa Rigpa education and pressing conservation concerns, but also raised awareness among the Nepali people and the government of the challenges amchi face and the roles they play as health care providers in their communities. Specifically, these gatherings have helped amchi by providing forums to: 26  Discuss common socio-economic problems  Exchange knowledge and skills to help improve practice and solve various problems they are facing in their practice  Help create an atmosphere of collaboration and shared vision in the struggles for social and government recognition  Bring about changes in coordination between amchi and provide opportunities for them to express ideas about the course of amchi experience and develop future action plans  Help to make connections with NGOs and other institutions that are concerned about and interested in the well-being of amchi  Receive knowledge and training, including about the importance of conserving natural plants and the environment on which amchi medicine depends  Create a platform to discuss existing district amchi associations, clinics, and schools throughout Nepal Table 1.4. HAA National Conferences. National Conferences Year Date Number of participating amchi First 2001 January 14-16 64 Second 2002 January 4-6 67 Third 2003 December 22-26 67 Fourth 2004 January 21-23 40 In addition to these national conferences, the HAA has also hosted one international conferences and workshops, the first of which occurred later in January 2004. During this event, more than 40 practitioners of Sowa Rigpa from Mongolia, the Tibet Autonomous Region (People’s Republic of China), Bhutan, Ladakh (India), and throughout Nepal gathered in Kathmandu. This International Conference allowed amchi in Nepal to share experiences with fellow practitioners from Central and South Asia. It contributed toward the goal of state recognition of amchi in Nepal and recognition and support by international bodies. In addition, this event provided amchi from across Asia and with different knowledge to exchange information about the status of Sowa Rigpa materia medica in their areas – conservation, cultivation, and commercialization of Sowa Rigpa formulas and its impact on practice. Finally, this conference contributed toward the development of curricula for both the Kangjenpa and the Durapa certificate programs, in conjunction with four existing schools of Sowa Rigpa in Nepal and the Centre for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT). In January 2011, the HAA once again organized an international event – this time a workshop focused on the theme of “producing efficacious medicines” and on issues related to the rising costs and decreasing supplies of some medicinal ingredients. This event, described briefly in the Introduction, was supported by IASTAM. It again brought 40 amchi from Nepal, Tibetan areas of China, Ladakh, and India together with senior and novice amchi in Nepal. The workshop began with a Medicine Buddha healing ritual and the Yuthog Nyingthig teaching, initiation, and empowerment, which was presided over by His Excellency Rabjam Rinpoche at Shechen Monastery. The event was then structured through engaged, experiential learning: visiting herb markets and sites of medicinal plant cultivation in the Kathmandu Valley, making medicines together, and then discussing the benefits and challenges of artisanal, small-scale production methods at a time of increasing industrialization and commodification of formulas, particularly in India and China. This workshop also included sessions on medicinal plant substitutions, tshab, building on the research that had been undertaken in 2010 by a core group of senior Nepal amchi, and which forms the basis for this book. Nepal amchi were able to take home portions of the three medicines that they made collectively as part of this workshop. The 2011 workshop provided space for both the scholarly generation of knowledge about amchi practice and applied research, aimed at addressing crucial needs among Sowa Rigpa Practitioners (Blaikie et al. 2015). In subsequent years, including most recently in 2019, the HAA used these innovative methods to engage in further educational efforts, wherein senior amchi taught novice practitioners about medicinal plant substitution through the process of collaborative medicine production workshops. 27 1.12.2 Applied Research Between 2007-2010, the (HAA), in consort with the Lo Kunphen School and Mentseekhang in Mustang, Nepal, was awarded a grant for a project focuses on medicinal plant conservation and cultivation, through the United Nations Development Program – Global Environment Facility Small Grants Program. During this three-year period, the organization pursued goals related to: conservation and cultivation of medicinal plants in Mustang District; supporting and developing amchi educational opportunities and curricular materials at a national level; and Pursuing recognition and support for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal, through both governmental and nongovernmental channels. This latter goal included the creation and maintenance of medicinal plant cultivation sites in Upper Mustang, the finalization of the Durapa-level curriculum (including the creation of textbooks) for continued amchi education, sustained support for young amchiin-training to seek ongoing education from expert amchi, and support for rural Sowa Rigpa clinics. In terms of medicinal plant conservation and cultivation, this grant allowed members of the HAA to conduct research and identify 28 key species of medicinal plants in Nepal with a high value in terms of their use in Sowa Rigpa health care and the role they play in the local economy. Over a period of 18 months, five species were cultivated with very high success rates in terms of germination, growth, and yield: 'dzim bu (Allium sp.), pri yang ku (Dracocephalum tanguticum), li ga dur sngon po (Geranium pratense), ma nu (Inula racemosa) and chu rtsa (Rheum australe). Cultivation success of following three species was moderate: sngo ba sha ka (Lagotis kunawurensis), hong len (Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora) and gang ga chung (Gentiana capitata). The remaining species tried during this applied research endeavor led by amchi showed the limits of cultivation. In some cases, poor seed quality hampered success while in other cases or improper soil and climatic conditions contributed to cultivation failures – all useful information. Those which did not germinate include: tig ta or rgya tig (Swertia chirayita), bong dkar (Aconitum naviculare) and ut pal sngon po (Meconopsis grandis). In September 2009, Amchi Gyatso Bista presented these preliminary results of cultivation trials at the International Association for the Study of Asian Medicine (IASTAM) 7th International Congress, held in Thimphu, Bhutan. At this event, Bista displayed a poster of the GEF-SGP project and exchanged information about cultivation and conservation techniques with delegates from Tibetan areas of China, Bhutan, and India. The meeting was a resounding success, and subsequent collaboration between delegates has been useful. From 2009-2010 and again in 2017-18, with funding from Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) – Small Grants Program run through WWF, senior members of the HAA identified appropriate substitutes for rare and endangered materia medica in part as an effort to identify viable alternatives for long-term sustainability of Sowa Rigpa formula production. The CEPF-funded project identified patterns of use and aspects of substitution practices by involving 37 amchi from Nepal and India in fieldwork. This research integrated knowledge and practices of amchi with that of leading Nepali ethnobotanists and conservationists. This work set the stage for this book. Over the subsequent years, the HAA then further investigated, through its own initiatives and in collaboration with plant scientists and medical anthropologists, more information on medicinal substitutes, through reviews of Tibetan literature and consultation with other amchi, generating a huge body of knowledge on medicinal ingredients derived from threatened species and their common substitutes (see Part II and III). 28 1.12.3 Publications and Distribution of Findings During each year that the HAA organized national and international conferences, it published accompanying booklets in Tibetan and English to distribute it to the individual amchi in Nepal and in neighboring countries. Amchi have also collaborated with plant scientists, ethnobotanists, and anthropologists on multiple publications in English, Nepali, and Tibetan, which are listed in the bibliography. 1.12.4 Refresher Training Courses In conjunction with its national conferences, the HAA has organized short (one month) refresher training courses for novice amchi (Table 1.5). These have primarily focused on practitioners trained in the gurushisya system but have also be useful to those students who have studied at institutions of Sowa Rigpa in Nepal or elsewhere. These training courses cover basic topics from the fourth and final text of the Four Treatises. This final text contains the most practical and clinically-oriented instruction. Teaching focuses on pulse diagnosis, urinalysis, moxibustion, and bloodletting techniques and therapies as well as the preparation of medicines and pharmacology. The purpose of these training courses is to improve and standardize the quality of Nepal’s amchi. The HAA organized this form of refresher training in 2001, 2002, and 2003. At the conclusion of this one-month course, students were issued Certificates of Participation and Completion by Nepal’s Ministry of Health and Population, Department of Ayurveda and Alternative Medicines, if their performance on examinations was satisfactory. According to the result of final exam of the training, amchi were classified into first, second and third division, as described in the Table 1.5. A total of 93 amchi participated in this course, with about 30 participating each of these consecutive years. Since these three consecutive years, HAA has given the one-month training course again for another 34 amchi. Therefore, the majority of HAA registered amchi have taken advantage of this course. Such activities have contributed toward the HAA’s goal of improving the quality of amchi medicine and mark a significant achievement in standardization of Sowa Rigpa training in Nepal. The HAA would very much like to continue such training in future, perhaps in conjunction with the Remote Area Development Committee. It continues to seek ongoing support for such activities from governmental and non-governmental sources. Table 1.5. Results of refresher training course 1st Division 2nd Division 3rd Division 2000/01 4 13 10 27 2001/02 5 9 17 31 2002/03 11 5 19 35 Total 20 27 46 93 Total 29 1.13 Urgent Needs and Opportunities for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal About seven million of Nepal’s 30 million people reside in the mountain region of Nepal. In these Himalayan areas, despite the Nepal Government’s stated commitment to health care for all, biomedical health care services are often unavailable for local people. This is, in part, because state health care workers often refuse to stay in high-mountain areas, given remoteness and the harsh climate. While many local people do want access to high quality biomedicine, many also value having access to Sowa Rigpa – a culturally resonant system that they trust and understand. For these reasons, it is very important for the Government of Nepal to support its Sowa Rigpa practitioners. This should include not just the minimal support that the HAA has been granted through relevant agencies serving remote communities and vocational training, but actually integrating Sowa Rigpa into the Nepali national medical and educational system in order to improve and extend health services and to create job opportunities, not only in the high mountain region, but for those trained in amchi medicine to practice throughout the country. Under the guidance of the HAA and/or through a future Sowa Rigpa Council under the Ministry of Health and Population, Nepal’s amchi are open to incorporating basic biomedical training into its model of education and clinical practice, working collaboratively with biomedically trained government health care workers. This would be a particularly valuable in efforts to extend culturally appropriate and high quality health care to all of Nepal’s citizens, particularly those living in high mountain areas, but would also be of benefit to other parts of the country where the success seen among private clinics of Sowa Rigpa attest to the potential reach of this medical practice. State integration and further institutionalization of Sowa Rigpa would also have benefits when it comes to the conservation and cultivation of medicinal plants, particularly given the current challenges in monitoring and controlling both the legal and illegal export of medicinal plants from Nepal to neighboring India and China. Such support for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal would not be without precedent. In addition to biomedicine, the Government of Nepal also supports and officially recognizes Ayurveda, Unani, and Homeopathy. Despite more than 20 years of effort on the part of the HAA, and despite having achieved some government support and recognition for specific activities, Sowa Rigpa still remains officially unrecognized as a Nepali System of Medicine by the Government of Nepal. This is in stark contrast to the situations in all other Asian countries where Sowa Ripga is practiced. Sowa Rigpa has been recognized in China since the founding of the People’s Republic in 1959 and in Mongolia since the end of the communist era, in 1992. Bhutan has claimed Sowa Rigpa as integral to its healthcare system since the creation of a state healthcare system in the 1970s. Sowa Rigpa was officially recognized as an Indian System of Medicine in 2010. It is high time that the Government of Nepal follow the models of all of its neighbors and contemporaries in recognizing and supporting Sowa Rigpa as a Nepali System of Medicine. Such an effort would be directly in line with the Government of Nepal’s stated goals in relation to decentralization and the new federalist system as well as the 2015 Constitution as it relates to poverty alleviation, education, and public health. In order to alleviate poverty, the new federalist system has aimed to open technical and vocational education institutes and programs. Extending such support to Sowa Rigpa training would be of great benefit. At present, most of the efforts in this regard, and with respect to clinical practice, occur in the private sector. And, while private schools and training programs as well as clinics have proven that they are valuable resources for the Nepali population, it would make sense for the Government of Nepal to at once support these efforts and, through that support, have the capacity to more closely control the quality of education, clinical practice, and pharmacy production. It would also 30 provide a clear pathway from education to professional employment and socioeconomic viability for amchi in Nepal, now and into the future. Without such support and development within the framework of the Government of Nepal, Sowa Rigpa and Nepal’s amchi will continue to face a crisis. Without a viable pathway to employment in the long term, outside the traditional model of village-based systems of socioeconomic exchange and obligation, the younger generations will not be able to continue this practice. The number of amchi is said to have decreased by half over the last two decades, and fewer people of the younger generations are studying this tradition in traditional lineage-based and apprenticeship models. At the same time, the enrollment in the one college level course for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal is robust and diverse, attesting to the power and possibility of this form of education and professional training. However, such a future depends on these young amchi having opportunities to earn a living as Sowa Rigpa practitioners, teachers, pharmacists, therapists, etc. in the future. In order to help safeguard both amchi practice and the culture of Sowa Rigpa in Nepal, as well as to continue to provide valuable and needed health services for communities across the country, especially in the high mountain regions, support from Nepal government for the public and social recognition of Sowa Rigpa is necessary. This has always been a primary goal of the HAA. In both India and Nepal, Ayurveda has been fully recognized by the national governments and society. Ayurveda is supported through universities, hospitals, pharmacies, government departments within health and education ministries, and a full certification and registration system. Sowa Rigpa Nepal lacks all of these. We believe this must change, if this rich medical and cultural system is to survive. 1.14 Policy Implications and Next Steps Sowa Rigpa in Nepal has been supported through the work of the HAA and other institutions, including regional amchi associations, non-governmental organizations, and branches of the Government of Nepal, specifically the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Education. Through partnerships with organizations like WWF, other branches of government, including the Ministry of Forests and Environment and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, have come to further appreciate the roles that amchi can play in efforts toward environmental protection and sustainability. In order to ensure that Nepal’s amchi continue to have the capacity to contribute to society, as health care practitioners and as proponents of natural resource stewardship, such governmental and non-governmental efforts at support and collaboration with Nepal’s Sowa Rigpa practitioner should be encouraged. This will help to ensure that Sowa Rigpa practitioners in Nepal can continue to safeguard and develop their own traditions for future generations, and that meaningful conservation goals are reached. We specifically recommend that Sowa Rigpa should be recognized and legitimatize as a medical system under the National Health Policy. By recognizing Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy and Sowa Rigpa, the Government of Nepal will be in line with the health care policies of neighboring nations and will be fully supporting the healthcare of its citizens. This recognition would create the long-term possibilities for producing employment opportunities and human resources in the form of diverse Sowa Rigpa practitioners. These individuals should be recognized as medical practitioners by the Nepal Health Professional Council and the Nepal Medical Council. 31 In order to support and actualize these policies, a separate subdivision within the Department of Ayurveda and Alternative Medicines, and in the Ministry of Health and Population should be devoted to the development and extension of Sowa Rigpa. This could include the creation of a national Sowa Rigpa Council, which would oversee licensure and certification, and concomitant professional support for rural amchi and other Sowa Rigpa practitioners. In terms of pharmacy and medical production policy, the production of Sowa Ripga formulas should be authorized by concerned authorities (principally the Department of Drug Administration). The Department should support cottage, artisanal, and cooperative models of medical production toward long-term sustainability, and should invest with care in the development of this industry over time. To this end, efforts to improve and support high-quality medicinal formula production must be connected to efforts at conservation and cultivation of medicinal plants. This should also include the granting of trainings to local communities for livelihood income generation and identification cards that would allow Nepal’s amchi to safely and within limits transport medicinal plants from rural communities to sites of medical production, primarily in Kathmandu. 32 Part II MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES: RESULTS OF PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH 33 34 Chapter 2 Current Practices, Types of Medicinal Ingredients, and Variation in their Use ______________________________________________________ 2.1 Introduction Sowa Rigpa relies on a vast body of scholarly knowledge as presented in the Four Tantras or Four Treatises (rgyud bzhi) of medicine and is highly dependent on plants and other natural resources, such as minerals, stones and animal-derived products (Arya 1998, Gonpo 2008; Gyatso and Hakim 2010). Despite the benefit that comes from Sowa Rigpa, this system is under threat in Nepal and other parts of the Himalaya mainly due to the limited supply and increased cost of some of the major ingredients which are long utilized for compounding the medications. Over the past two decades, commercial demand of Himalayan medicinal plants has increased rapidly for the industrial production of medicines, cosmeceuticals and other products, and this has led to the overexploitation and depletion of resources (Cuomu 2013; Pyakurel et al. 2019). Many of the species with high value in traditional medicine are now threatened or are in danger of extinction due to the expansion of herbal trade. In Nepal, over 300 species of plants used in traditional medicines are under high pressure of overexploitation, among them about 50 species have been considered to be highly threatened (Shrestha and Joshi 1996, Tandon et al. 2001, Ghimire 2008; Pyakurel et al. 2019). Promotion of appropriate substitutes for such rare and threatened species is one of the viable alternatives for the sustenance of traditional systems of medicine. Without sustainable supplies of materia medica, Himalayan amchi will be unable to afford the rising costs of practicing their medicine. It has been considered that the Himalayan region contributes significant proportions of the species commonly used in Sowa Rigpa and in Traditional Chinese Medicine. About 1000 species of plants and body parts of about 130 species of animals are estimated to be used in Sowa Rigpa practiced in the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China, and 10% of these species are reported to have been sourced from Nepal and India (reviewed in Sung and Yi-Ming 1998) suggesting a greater extent of illegal wildlife trade among the Himalayan countries. In fact, the trade of medicinal plants and animal products among the countries in the Himalayan region and beyond has a long history (Rosengarten 1969; Olsen and Helles 1997a,b; Sung and Yi-Ming 1998; Yi-Ming et al. 2000; Olsen and Larsen 2003). Products such as silk, fur, spices, condiments and herbal medicines originated in the Himalaya have existed in regional and overseas (e.g., Mediterranean countries) trade since the prehistoric times. Studies in the past have shown that musk deer, bear, rhinoceros and tiger were the animals most used in traditional medicinal trade in the Sino-Himalayan region (Sung and Yi-Ming 1998, Yi-Ming et al. 2000). Recenty, Paudel et al. (2019) confirmend the existence of international trade networks in Nepal for a number of rare animal species, including musk deer, bear, elephant and tiger. 35 The illegal wildlife trade is rapidly expanding throughout the world with an estimated annual value of 5–23 billion USD (Nijman 2010; Rosen and Smith 2010; Nellemann 2016). This trade has a direct effect on biodiversity, and also acts as a way for the spread of invasive species and diseases (Rosen and Smith 2010). Many countries, including Nepal, have developed strong legal measures to protect vulnerable and endangered species (e.g., bans on harvesting, transportation and trade), and even the use of animal parts is removed by some countries from the official pharmacopoeia of traditional medicine. However, the use of such species in medicines, cosmaceuticals and other health products is still ongoing and, as a result, illegal harvesting and poaching of wildlife is a major challenge for Nepal (Jnawali et al. 2011), and for other countries (Sharma et al. 2014). The Government of Nepal has set out policies and provisions to regulate the collection and trade of medicinal plants and other forest products under the Forest Act (2019) and Forest Regulation (1995 and its subsequent amendments: 1999–2018). Using the authority provided by the Forest Act, government of Nepal has imposed restrictions for the collection of different forest products, including medicinal plants. Many of these plants (e.g., Abies spectabilis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Juglans regia, Nardostachys jatamansi, Valeriana jatamansi and many species of lichens) are popular in traditional medicines. Wildlife trade at the international level is regulated through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) to which Nepal is a signatory. Nepal has promulgated CITES Act in 2017 and also ratified other international conventions related to conservation of biodiversity. However, studies have claimed increasing instances of violation of these agreements globally, including in Nepal both in the case of plant (Mulliken 2000, Mulliken and Crofton 2008) and animal (Aryal 2004; Dongol and Heinen 2012, Dangol 2015) products. Over the last two decades, there has been growing interest among scientists and among the traditional medicine practitioners in studying and promoting effective alternatives for highly threatened species used in traditional systems of medicine (Cassells et al. 1999; Zschocke and van Staden 2000; Kang and Phipps 2003; Feng et al. 2009; Li et al. 2016). However, in Nepal, very few studies have focused on rare, threatened or endangered medicinal plants and aspects of their substitution (Manandhar 1990, 1996; Ghimire et al. 2001). Traditionally, the practitioners of Sowa Rigpa, amchi, are using substitutes for those ingredients that are not available locally (Ghimire et al. 2001; Czaja 2017). There even exist some handwritten manuscripts in Tibetan (e.g., tshab yig rin chen gdron bu) dealing with the use of substitutes. These facts indicate that there is a need of consolidated effort involving expert amchi in research to document and share such traditional knowledge among amchi themselves and local people, and extend this practice to cover species that are vulnerable from the standpoint of conservation. In this context, Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA) with funding from Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) – Small Grants Program initiated an investigation in 2009/2010 to identify substitutes for threatened species of plants and wild animals used in compounding medicines by integrating knowledge and practices of amchi (Ghimire et al. 2010). The specific objectives of the investigation were to (i) identify and enumerate the major medicinal ingredients currently being used in Sowa Rigpa in different geographical regions within Nepal; (ii) assess the use of rare and threatened species in Sowa Rigpa; (iii) identify potential substitutes for rare and threatened species of flora and fauna, (iv) document traditional knowledge and practices about substitution; and (iii) assess whether the number and composition of medicinal ingredients and substitute types used vary according to the geographical region, years of experience of amchi, their family history, number of patients treated and number of types of medicinal 36 formulations prepared. The project was implemented by HAA in collaboration with plant scientist, and expert amchi from Dolpa, Mustang and Kathmandu. With its own initiatives, HAA further investigated the substitutes for the threatened species in 2017/2018 by involving more amchi from Dolpa, Mustang and Kathmandu, generating huge body of knowledge on medicinal ingredients derived from threatened species and their common substitutes. This and subsequent chapters of the book aim to consolidate these findings in order to help promote the exchange of knowledge among amchi as well as support conservation of threatened species in the Himalayan region. 2.2 Approaches and Methods Medicinal knowledge is mostly gained by amchi from the study of Tibetan medicine literature, empirical practices, oral instruction and secret oral transmission. The empirical knowledge is gained through a process of innovative experimentation by amchi with the properties of medicinal ingredients. However, this type of knowledge is restricted to the learned amchi and they often remain much resistant in terms of sharing such knowledge (Aumeeruddy-Thomas and Lama 2008). Recently, concerns have been raised by practitioners of Tibetan Medicine that ‘authentic interpretation of the original Tibetan medical knowledge is made available to the people over-crossing the narrow attitude of self-confining, to serve a greater purpose of healing all beings’ (Gonpo 2008). During a series of workshops and meetings held by HAA with amchi in different parts of Nepal, it was clearly stated that given the declining trend of their profession, it is crucial now that Himalayan amchi should have more opportunity to meet and exchange their knowledge and that this knowledge should be recorded, catalogued and shared. Participatory discussions through workshops, individual interview using structured questionnaire, visit of amchi clinics and identification of samples of medicinal ingredients, and transect walks and voucher collections were the main methods adopted during information collection. Quantitative information on medicinal ingredients used in Sowa Rigpa and practice of substitution was collected through individual interview by involving 37 amchi from Dolpa (n = 17), Mustang (12) and Kathmandu (8) districts of Nepal. Such interviews were conducted, using structured questionnaire, by expert amchi from HAA and botanists from Tribhuvan University. In addition, five senior amchi in Kathmandu and four in India (Sikkim and Darjeeling) were consulted to verify the names of the medicinal ingredients cited during questionnaire survey and to see how do the types of medicinal ingredients use and practice of substitution vary among the amchi in the Himalayan region. In Mustang, amchi from Thingkhar, Marang, Lo Manthang, Dhakmar, Tsarang, Nyamdrok, Culing and Jomsom villages were interviewed. In Dolpa, amchi from Phoksundo, Tsaga, Saldang, Barong, Vijer, Do-Tarap and Mukot were interviewed. The interviews covered existing practices, the source and supply of medicinal ingredients, major substitutes, their efficacy, and the challenges faced by the amchi due to recent trend of excessive commercial harvesting of medicinal resources. We firstly prepared a list of medicinal species/ingredients needed for compounding medicine through free listing exercise (such list was prepared separately for each amchi), and later we asked each amchi to prioritize the most commonly used species/ingredients along with the annual amount needed and the sources from where they obtained each ingredient. Amchi were then asked to list all those species which they perceive as locally rare or threatened, the reason behind the rarity, and the major substitutes for each rare ingredient. In addition, amchi’s education system, mechanism of knowledge transmission, and the status of medical treatment were also discussed. The questionnaire also covered socio-economic 37 aspects of amchi. In order to verify the cited plant or animal species, amchi were shown, during discussion sessions and interviews, herbarium specimens, plant photographs, pictorial texts/manuals of Tibetan Medicine (Gawa Dorje 1995; Lama et al. 2001; Norbu 2015), and field guides/manuals of flora (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Stainton 1988) and fauna (Inskipp & Inskipp 1991; Baral and Shah 2008; Jnawali et al. 2011). The identification of unknown plant materials was accomplished with the use of keys and plant descriptions (e.g., Grierson et al. 1983–2002; Wu et al. 1994–2013; Ohba et al. 2008; Watson et al. 2011), and comparison with specimens at Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium (TUCH). Interview data were verified consulting Tibetan literature (both hand written and printed) on general medicinal ingredients and substitutes, and organizing a sharing workshop with amchi. Seminars and interaction workshops with amchi from Nepal were conducted to enhance the exchange of knowledge about the use of different ingredients in medicinal substitution practices. About 17 senior amchi participated and shared Sowa Rigpa practitioners’ perspectives on substitution. A national-level meeting was organized to share major findings to different stakeholders. Field data were analyzed to assess the pattern of use of different ingredients in Dolpa, Mustang and Kathmandu. Most important medicinal ingredients (plant-, animal- or mineral-based) were evaluated by calculating the relative frequency of citation (RFC) for each district. RFC was obtained by dividing the number of amchi who mentioned the use of the species/ingredient by the total number of amchi participating in the survey. This index theoretically varies from 0, when nobody refers to the species as useful, to 1, when all the informants mention the use of the species (Tardío and Pardo-De-Santayana 2008). Non-parametric Kruskal Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to assess the differences in the number of generations and years of medicinal practice, number of students trained, types of medicine prepared, and number of different ingredients cited per amchi in three districts. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMS) ordination was performed to assess the degree of distinctiveness of the medicinal plant taxa prescribed by amchi in three districts. NMS ordination was run using ‘autopilot’ mode in PC-ORD version 7 (McCune and Mefford 2018) selecting Sorensen distance measure, with 250 number of runs, and maximum number of iterations being 500; no data transformation was used. Global threat status of plants (including fungi and lichens) and animal species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa was based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (iucnredlist.org/). National status was based on Shrestha and Joshi (1996) and Tandon et al. (2001) for plants, and Jnawali et al. (2011), Inskipp et al. (2016) and Amin et al. (2018) for animals. In addition, legal status of species was based on checklist of CITES species (checklist.cites.org/#/en), and National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) and Forest Act (1919) of the Government of Nepal. Amchi evaluated each substitute by comparing it with the original ingredient in terms of three medicinal properties: taste, potency and use. Ideal substitutes are those which exactly match with the original ingredients in terms of all these three properties (Czaja 2017). To assess the factors related to the use of substitutes, Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were calculated between the number of medicinal ingredients used/cited per amchi and their age, years of experience, family history (number of generations of amchi practice), number of patients attended and number of types of medicinal formulations prepared. This chapter addresses the current practices of Sowa Rigpa in Dolpa, Mustang and Kathmandu from socio-cultural and economic perspectives, and includes an account of medicinal ingredients prescribed, including ingredients derived from rare and threatened species, and finally we discuss the geographical variation in the medicinal ingredients prescribed. Practice of substitution is presened in Chapter 3. 38 2.3 Current Practices 2.3.1 Education System and Knowledge Transmission Altogether, 37 amchi were interviewed with age ranging from 23 to 87 years (mean 51 years) and an experience of 2–62 years (mean 26 years) (Table 2.1). Amchi interviewed in the three study districts did not differ much in terms of their age (2 = 4.23, p = 0.12) and experience (2 = 1.75, p = 0.416). However, amchi from Dolpa had significantly longer family history of medical practice (mean: 7, range: 1–15 generations) than those interviewed from other regions (2 = 7.62, p = 0.022). Over 88% of amchi interviewed in Dolpa said that their medical practice is based on family lineage; in other regions the proportions of amchi with family history of medical practice was 75% (Mustang) and 58% (Kathmandu) (Table 2.1). Most (88%) of the amchi from Dolpa were trained informally in local (private and public) monastery, but majority of the amchi from Mustang (66.7%) and Kathmandu (83.3%) received formal training in Tibetan medical school in Nepal, India or Tibetan Autonomous Region of China (Table 2.2). Table 2.1. Age and experience of interviewed amchi and their family history of medical practice. Study site Age (years) No of years of practice Range Mean ± SD Range Mean ± SD Mustang 23–68 42.8 ± 17.6 2–47 21.5 ± 17.5 Dolpa 25–76 53.1 ± 15.6 4–48 Kathmandu 33–87 55.8 ± 18.2 3–62 Overall 23–87 50.9 ± 17.4 2–62 Familybased practice (% of amchi) No. of generation(s) of practice Range Mean ± SD 75.0 1–13 4.7 ± 3.9 27.1 ± 14.8 88.2 1–15 7.0 ± 3.9 28.8 ± 18.9 58.3 1–12 3.3 ± 3.3 26.0 ± 16.7 75.6 1–15 5.2 ± 4.0 Table 2.2. Institutions where the amchi were trained (% of amchi interviewed). Study site Mustang Sowa Rigpa Medical schools in Local monastery India Tibet Nepal Overall 16.7 16.7 33.3 66.7 33.3 Dolpa 5.9 5.9 0.0 11.8 88.2 Kathmandu 33.3 33.3 16.7 83.3 16.7 Overall 17.1 17.1 14.6 48.8 51.2 Amchi hold a high social status in their village and are often not only medical doctors, but strong community leaders and teachers as well, often having a role in village-level religious practices and transmission of traditional medical knowledge. System of knowledge transmission existed in all the three regions, whereby learned amchi teach Sowa Rigpa to the younger generations in formal medical school or informally in their monastery. Among the amchi interviewed, 82, 67 and 50% respectively from Dolpa, Kathmandu and Mustang were involved in Sowa Rigpa teaching. In the three districts, there were altogether 374 students trained or receiving training about Sowa rigpa. The mean number of students per amchi receiving Sowa Rigpa training ranged 5.2 (in Dolpa) to 13.6 (in Mustang) (Table 2.3). Majority of the 39 interviewed amchi from Mustang and only 11% amchi from Dolpa said that the number young people interested in receiving Sowa Rigpa training are increasing over the past few years. On the other hand, majority of amchi from Dolpa admitted decreasing trend because of poor economic conditions. The greater interest towards Sowa Rigpa shown by younger generation in Mustang is mainly due to the existence of formal amchi training school (e.g., Lo Kunphen Mentseekhang) in Lo-Manthang; there is no such institute in Dolpa. Table 2.3. Proportions of amchi involved in knowledge transmission through teaching/training and the number of student/apprentice amchi trained. Study site % of amchi involved in knowledge transmission (through teaching) Number of students trained or receiving training Number of students per amchi Male Female Total Range Mean ± SD Mustang 50.0 88 75 163 0–113 13.6 ± 32.6 Dolpa 82.3 77 12 89 0–18 5.2 ± 5.1 Kathmandu 66.7 84 38 122 0–33 10.2 ± 12.6 Overall 68.3 249 125 374 0–113 9.1 ± 18.9 Table 2.4. Types of benefit that amchi are receiving from their patients. Study site Benefit types (% of amchi interviewed) Annual income (NRs.) Nothing Cash Grain Commodities Other Range Mean Mustang 0.0 83.3 50.0 8.3 0.0 2500–37700 7400 Dolpa 29.4 41.2 47.1 23.5 17.6 600–18000 6620 Kathmandu 16.7 75.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50000– 1000000 512500 Overall 17.1 63.4 34.1 12.2 7.3 600–1000000 126018 2.3.2 Livelihood Options: Economic Aspect of Amchi Practice Generally, the amchi from rural areas (such as Dolpa and Mustang) do not directly charge to the patients for their medical service. Amchi in these areas accept whatever patient would like to pay. They may accept cash, grains or other commodities depending upon the economic status of their patients. Most of the amchi living in Kathmandu, on the other hand, receive cash for their medical service. The economic benefit to the amchi from medical practice greatly varied among the three study districts (Table 2.4). Amchi practicing in Kathmandu are in better economic status with earning ranging from NRs. 50000 to 1000000 per amchi per year (mean NRs. 512500). Amchi from Dolpa and Mustang have an average annual income, from medical practice, of only NRs. 6620 and 7400, respectively (Table 2.4). They, therefore, supplement their income through agriculture, animal husbandry or other businesses. Over 70% of amchi interviewed in Dolpa and Mustang are engaged in agriculture. Similarly, 58.8% of amchi interviewed in Dolpa and 25.0% 40 in Mustang have livestock to supplement their income, and 8.3% of amchi from Mustang and 5.9% from Dolpa are also involved in the hotel or tourism business. 2.3.3 Health Care: Patients Visited, Disease/Disorders Treated and Medicines Prepared Amchi listed 39 types of diseases/disorders, grouped into 16 categories (Figure 2.1), that they have commonly encountered during the past few years. Most of the patients (87.5%) are suffering from muscular-skeletal system disorder, followed by infection/infestations (75%), respiratory (43.7%) and digestive (34.4%) system disorders (Figure 2.1). Some of the patients they had visited had usually reached advanced stages of the disease since they were not able to seek prompt medical attention. The majority of diseases were related to the imbalance of phlegm or bad kan (68.8%), followed by bile or mkhris pa (56.3%) and wind or rlung (6.3%) and some with a combination of these. Phlegm, bile and wind are the three nyes pa, often called “humors” but more accurately thought of as dynamics of psycho-physical processes of the human body which must remain in equilibrium to maintain good health. Disease is caused when this state of equilibrium is upset by wrong actions (diet, climate or behavioral patterns). Other Endocrine system disorder Mental disorders Lymph disorders Nervous system disorder Dental disorders Wounds & Injuries Gynaecological disorders Circulatory system disorders ENT Nutritional disorder Genitourinary system disorder Digestive system disorder Repiratory system disorder Infections/infestations Muscular-Skeletal system 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % of amchi citing the disease/disorder Figure 2.1. Categories of disease/disorders treated by amchi in Nepal. 41 The number of patients attended by an amchi was significantly high in urban area of Kathmandu than in Dolpa and Mustang (2 = 23.21, p<0.0001; Table 2.5). In Kathmandu, average number of patients attended by an amchi in a year was 4024 (range 1000–11000). In Dolpa and Mustang, an amchi treats annually an average of 404 and 704 patients, respectively. Although Dolpa amchi attended comparatively less number of patients per year, they utilized diverse types of medications than did by amchi from other regions (2 = 11.08, p = 0.004). The number of types of medicines utilized for various ailments by Dolpa amchi range 6–300 (mean 103.3 ± 90.3), but amchi from other regions used 6–200 types of medicinal formulations (Table 2.5). List of commonly cited medicines (with overall RFC >0.20) is given in Appendix 1. Of them, a gar 8 (a gar brgyad pa) and tig ta 8 (tig ta brgyad pa) were cited by almost all of the amchi interviewed (each with overall RFC of 0.95). Similarly, skyu ru 25 (overall RFC = 0.76), a gar 35 (0.67), se ‘bru 5 (0.67), a ru 7 (0.57), a ru 10 (0.57), tshan dan 18 (0.57), zhi byed 6 (0.57) and a gar 15 (0.52) were also most commonly cited by majority of the amchi interviewed (see Appendix 1). The majority of the amchi from Dolpa (82.4%), and a quarter from Mustang use only raw products and prepare their medicines themselves, whereas 58% of them from Kathmandu use commercial products manufactured in Tibetan pharmaceutical industries (Table 2.5). Amchi from Dolpa and Mustang said that they mostly obtain ingredients (mainly those growing at high altitudes) in situ from natural habitat for medicine preparation. However, about 72% amchi also obtain ingredients from other places (mainly tropical-subtropical species), 37.5% purchase some ingredients from local traders and 34% exchange essential ingredients with others amchi (Table 2.6). Table 2.5. Number of patients attended per year, types of medicine used and practice of medicine preparation. Study site Number of patients attended by an amchi per year Number of types of medicine used by an amchi Practice of medicine preparation (% of amchi) Range Mean ± SD Range Mean Selfprepared Use commercial product Both* Mustang 120–1980 704 ± 529 6–100 22.8 ± 30.9 25.0 33.3 41.7 Dolpa 30–2000 404 ± 514 6–300 103.3 ± 90.3 82.4 5.9 11.8 1000–11000 4024 ± 3623 10–200 82.8 ± 84.6 16.7 58.3 25.0 30–11000 1551 ± 2530 6–300 71.9 ± 80.9 46.3 29.3 24.4 Kathmandu Overall *self-prepared and use commercial product. Table 2.6. Processes of obtaining medicinal ingredients (% of amchi) in Dolpa and Mustang. Study site Collection from natural habitat locally Purchase from local traders Brought from other places Exchange with other amchi Mustang 100.0 50.0 64.3 50.0 Dolpa 100.0 27.8 77.8 22.2 Overall 100.0 37.5 71.9 34.4 42 2.4 Medicinal Ingredients Medicinal ingredients (Tib., sman) are classified according to explicit qualities related to their morphological, biological and ecological features, and also according to implicit qualities such as taste (ro), post digestive taste (zhu rjed), potency (nus pa) and disease (nad) cured (Lama et al. 2001; Boesi 2005– 2006). The potency of a medicine has been described under two categories, the potency derived from the taste and the potency derived from its natural quality (Gonpo 2008). Therefore, medicines are grouped in relation to similar actions and compounding of medicine is based on similar taste and natural quality (Gonpo 2008). According to the ‘Explanatory Tantras’ of Sowa Rigpa, there are eight categories of medicinal substances: rin po che sman (gem or precious metal medicines), sa sman (soil or earth medicines), rdo sman (stone medicines), rtsi sman (essence extracted medicines), shing sman (wood medicines), thang sman (medicines of the plains), sngo sman (herbaceous medicines), and srog chags sman (medicine derived from animal products) (Gonpo 2008). In addition, lo thog gi sman (crop medicines) is another category described in some literature (reviewed in Boesi 2005–2006). There are six roots or fundamental tastes (ro) of medicinal ingredients: sweet (mngar), sour (skyur), salty (lan tsha), bitter (kha), acrid (tsha) and astringent (bska). Similarly, medicines have eight potencies: heavy (lci ba), oily (snum pa), cool (bsil pa), neutral (snyoms pa), light (yang ba), coarse (rtsub ba), warm (drod or tsha ba) and sharp (rno ba). The post digestive tastes emerge after the digestion of food with the help of three digestive heat of the stomach: sweet (mngar), sour (skyur) and bitter (kha) (Drungtso and Drungtso 2005; Gonpo 2008). In the following sections, medicinal ingredients under eight classical categories are discussed under three headings: plant-based, animal-based and mineral-based (including precious metals, gems, stones, soils and other minerals) ingredients. We considered an ingredient, either plant, mineral or animal, as medicinal only when it was cited by at least two amchi interviewed, and was later verified by senior amchi. A total of 570 species and infraspecific taxa of plants (including fungi and lichens) and 54 types of minerals have been cited by amchi as being used in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal. In addition, body parts of 46 species of extant animals and a type of fossilized mammal bone were also cited. Although the wild animals listed here are mentioned in the pharmacopoeia of Tibetan Medicine, almost all of the rare ingredients from animal source are currently not used in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal due to legal restriction, unavailability and rising cost. Instead, amchi practice plant or mineral-based substitutes or alternatives derived from domestic animals. The wild animals were cited by amchi in response to our questions related to the use of animal parts in Sowa Rigpa. 2.5 Plant-Based Ingredients (Including Fungi and Lichens) Plant-based ingredients are described in six (rin po che sman, rdo sman, sa sman, rtsi sman, shing sman, thang sman, sngo sman) out of eight classical categories of medicinal ingredients. Of the six categories that incorporate plant-based ingredients, three (shing sman, thang sman and sngo sman) include the majority of species. Ingredients, such as amber or fossilized tree resin (sbur len, spos shel) described in Sowa Rigpa under rin po che sman (precious metal medicines), and nodal silica of Bambusa spp. (cu gang) described under rtsi sman (essence extracted medicines) are treated here as mineral medicines. But, crustose lichens (rdo dreg), described in classical texts either under rdo sman (stone medicines) or sa sman (earth medicines) 43 and some ingredients derived from aromatic plant species [such as ga bur (Cinnamomum camphora), dza ti (Myristica fragrans), sug smel (Elettaria cardamomum), gur gum (Crocus sativus) and ka ko la (Amomum subulatum)] described under rtsi sman are treated here as plant-based ingredients. 2.5.1 Diversity of Species Used In Part III of this book, we present a concise account of 570 species and infraspecific taxa, including fungi (2 species), lichens (3 species), pteridophytes (6 species and 1 subspecies), gymnosperms (10 species and 1 variety) and angiosperms (531 species, 5 subspecies, 11 varieties) prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Nepal representing over 30% of the 1850 taxa of Tibetan medicinal plants identified from the Himalayan region and Tibetan Plateau (see Part III). The plant taxa are described with their scientific name and family, as well as vernacular names, growth habit, habitat and distribution, parts use, and detailed description of use in Sowa Rigpa formulas. The medicinal plants, fungi and lichens cited by amchi in Nepal belonged to 103 families, 312 genera, 552 species, 6 subspecies and 12 varieties. Asteraceae was the largest family, followed by Ranunculaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Gentianaceae, Rosaceae and Apiaceae with >20 taxa at the specific and infraspecific levels (for detail see Part III). The plant-based ingredients (including those from fungi and lichens) are derived from 509 native, 25 cultivated and 10 naturalized taxa; whereas ingredients of 26 species, mostly trees of tropical and subtropical distribution and few from temperate region, are imported in Nepal. Among the native taxa prescribed by amchi, majority (>60%) showed temperate–alpine distribution, about 10–30% showed tropical-subtropical distribution, and about 15% were from nival zone (Figure 2.2). The high altitude medicinal plant taxa represent affinity to the flora of Central, North and East Asia; and the tropical and subtropical taxa exhibit similarity with the flora of south and south-east Asia. In Mustang and Dolpa, most of the temperate-nival herbs are sourced in situ from the natural habitat, but herbs like ut pal dmar po (Meconopsis punicea) are sourced from Tibet. In addition, bong dkar (Aconitum naviculare), stag sha (Oxytropis spp.) and ug chos dmar po (Incarvillea mairei) are sometimes sourced from Tibet. Inula racemosa (ma nu) and Dracocephalum tanguticum (pri yang ku) are generally obtained from planted source. Ingredients from tropical/subtropical species are brought from southern Nepal and India, and some even from Tibet. Out of 570 plant taxa prescribed by amchi, 145 have been categorized as most commonly preferred in term of citation frequency (RFC >0.19; i.e., those cited by at least 7 amchi interviewed and verified by at least two learned amchi), and 159 taxa as commonly preferred (with RFC >0.14–<0.19; i.e., those cited by at least 5 amchi and verified by two learned amchi). Similarly, 133 taxa were cited by four amchi (RFC = 0.11), 80 by three (RFC = 0.08), and 53 by only two amchi (RFC = 0.05). Our analysis did not include plant taxa cited by only one amchi. Table 2.7 and 2.8 list most commonly preferred plant-based ingredients derived from native/naturalized taxa growing at mid- to high-altitude (temperate to nival zone) and at low-altitude (tropical/subtropical zone), respectively (full account of species is given in Part III). Similarly, most commonly preferred ingredients from cultivated and/or imported sources are given in Table 2.9. Although a large number of plant species were cited, not all of them were found to be absolutely necessary in Sowa Rigpa. A number of species have similar properties, and among them only those perceived as having high medicinal efficacy are preferred. Plants having low efficacy may be used as a substitute, if the former type is scarce. This character of medicinal ingredients is used for their classification as ‘superior’ and ‘inferior’ types and this character is even expressed in plant names (see below). 44 0.9 0.8 0.7 Proportion 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Tropical (<1000 m) Subtropical Lower temperate Upper temperate (>1000–2000 m) (>2000–3000 m) & subalpine (>3000–4000 m) Alpine (>4000– 5000 m) Nival (>5000 m) Figure 2.2. Elevation distribution of native medicinal plants (including lichens and fungi) cited by amchi for Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal. 2.5.2 Amchi Plant Names Plant names used by Himalayan amchi are complex. They mostly use Tibetan naming system, which is closely associated to textual Sowa Rigpa traditions. The medicinal plants are usually assigned to a particular type, known as rigs (literally kinds, types, family, clan, species or variety), which represent a small grouping of several distinct groups of plants that are considered to be similar in gross morphology, habitat specificity, or sometimes properties and uses (Ghimire and Aumeeruddy-Thomas 2009). The basic term used in naming plants at the level of rigs or subordinate taxa indicates a collective concept that includes a set of plants with a common character. A determinant or qualifier may be used to distinguish plants in a basic group or type. The determinant refers to a specific property of the plant or designates some obvious morphological character (Ghimire and Aumeeruddy-Thomas 2009). For many plants, the basic term (at the rigs level or subordinate taxa within a particular type) refers to the similarity in flower characters with animal parts. For example, the basic terms lug ru (literally sheep’s horn) and glang sna (literally elephant’s trunk) refer to the shape of the flower spur in Pedicularis spp., and lug mig (literally sheep’s eye) refers to Aster spp. in relation to their flowers resembling sheep’s eye. In some cases, the basic term relates to morphological similarity with human organ, and in others the name has symbolic meanings. For example, the basic term dbang lag (abbreviated form of dbang po lag pa), which literally means ‘Indra’s arm’, refers to the hand-like division of tubers in some terrestrial orchids. The basic term may also be given on the basis of other floral characters (such as 'jib rtsi referring to the bilabiate flowers of many species belonging to the family Lamiaceae); structure/shape of inflorescence (such as lcags kyu referring to the drooping inflorescence of Thalictrum spp.; srub ka referring to the branched inflorescence in Anemonastrum spp. and Eriocapitella spp.; and shang dril referring to the inflorescence of Primula spp. which resembles ‘religious bell’); presence of spines/thorns (such as in spyang tsher which 45 refers to spiny plants corresponding to the species of Carduus, Cirsium, Morina and Shangwua; mdzo mo shing referring to the woody and thorny Astragalus, Caragana spp.) or hairs (such as in 'bri mog referring to the hairy Arnebia benthamii and Onosma spp.); and plant properties (presence of poison, aroma, taste, etc.). Medicinal quality is most commonly associated with the distinction of plants in a basic group (at specific or varietal level). Amchi use determinants, such as mchog and dman in naming plants referring to superior and inferior quality, respectively. The term mchog or mchog pa indicates that the given plant has high medicinal efficacy and the term dman or dman pa indicates weak efficacy. The medicinal plant a bi sha (basic term) is known to be of two types: the superior, a bi sha mchog, and the inferior, a bi sha dman pa. Amchi in Nepal considered Fritillaria cirrhosa as the superior type (a bi sha mchog), and Lilium nanum has been regarded as inferior (a bi sha dman pa). There are at least two plant species cited as source of rtsa a krong: Eremogone kansuensis and E. festucoides. Of these, the former species is considered as superior and the latter as inferior type. Amchi in Nepal use ug chos, referring to the botanical genus Incarvillea of the family Bignoniaceae. Three species of Incarvillea have been cited in Nepal as the source of ug chos: I. diffusa, I. mairei and I. younghusbandii. The three species are grouped into superior (mchog) and inferior (dman) types in terms of their medicinal efficacy. Incarvillea diffusa has been considered as the inferior type, and is also known as ug chos dman pa; and I. mairei and I. younghusbandii as the superior type, known as ug chos mchog. Similarly, the basic name dbang lag referring to terrestrial orchids with hand-like divisions of tubers is modified into superior and inferior types. Dactylorhiza hatagirea, which bears tubers with five or more divisions is regarded as superior type (dbang lag mchog), and further six species of terrestrial orchids having tubers with fewer divisions are regarded as inferior (known in Sowa Rigpa as dbang lag dman pa or dbang ril). Amchi also distinguish plants within a basic group having similar taste, medicinal utility and efficacy in relation to flower color, size of plant or parts, habitat or geographical origin. The determinants (specific terms) used to distinguish medicinal plants based on color of the plant parts, mostly flowers, are dkar po (white), dmar po (red), sngon po (blue), gser po (yellow or golden), nag po (black or dark), smug po (dark bay, cherry-brown or purple-brown) and khra bo (multicolored, mottled or variegated). For example, the name dbyi mong refers to the botanical genus Clematis. Different types within the basic group are distinguished on the basis of flower color, such as dbyi mong khra bo referring to plants with mottled flowers (e.g., Clematis barbellata), dbyi mong dkar po referring to white-flowered type (C. montana), and dbyi mong nag po referring to dark-yellow-flowered type (C. tibetana and C. tibetana var. vernayi). The specific term chung (meaning small) is used for a plant with shorter in stature or bearing parts which are smaller in size. The larger or bigger plants or a plant bearing larger or bigger parts are generally defined by the term chen or che ba. The term chen or che ba is also used to denote greatness in relation to bigger size or very superior in quality or strong in action or having strong potency. The medicinal plants termed as lug mig (literally sheep’s eye), which mostly refers to the plants belonging to the botanical genus Aster, include both smaller and large types. Smaller type (e.g., Aster himalaicus, Aster stracheyi) are referred to as lug mig chung ba and the bigger ones are known as lug mig che ba (e.g., Aster diplostephioides). The terms rgod pa and g.yung ba are used to refer native plants growing in the wild habitat and in agriculture/domestic area, respectively. The bigger-sized, ‘whipcord cobra lily’ (Arisaema tortuosum) is identified as wild type and is named as dwa rgod (the term dwa denotes the basic name for the cobra lily and rgod denotes the determinant, meaning wild), whereas the yellow cobra lily (Arisaema flavum) and Jacquemont's cobra-lily (Arisaema jacquemontii) are identified as domestic type and named as dwa g.yung. 46 The latter two species of Arisaema grow in the wild and also occurs along the edges of agriculture and in cultivated fields. Of the three species of Arisaema, A. flavum is mostly favored by amchi as having high medicinal efficacy. In relation to habitat, the most common determinants (specific terms) used to qualify a basic term are ri (mountain), klung (plain), spang (meadow), brag (rock), nags (forest) and rgya (high altitude or snowy mountain). For example, the basic name sgog or sgog pa refers to wild garlic. Different types of wild garlics are distinguished relating to the habitats, such as rgya sgog referring to the species that grow in high mountains (e.g., Allium carolinianum), klung sgog referring to the species that grow on plains or valley bottoms (e.g., A. fasciculatum), and ri sgog referring to the plant that grow in mountains among woody vegetation in forested zone (e.g., A. tuberosum). 2.5.3 Frequency of Citation Among the mid- to high-altitude plants (from temperate to nival zone), Delphinium brunonianum (Tib., bya rgod spos), Aconitum naviculare (bong dkar)1, Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora (hong len), Meconopsis grandis (ut pal sngon po), Gentiana nubigena (spang rgyan sngon po)2 and Veronica spp. (ldum nag dom mkhris)3 are the top six mostly cited taxa with overall RFC ≥0.65–0.89. Similarly, Dracocephalum tanguticum (pri yang ku), Bassecoia hookeri (spang rtsi do bo), Lagotis kunawurensis (sngo ba sha ka), and Myricaria spp. ('om bu)4 were also cited by majority of the amchi (overall RFC >0.50–<0.55; Table 2.7; see Part III for detail account). The most important native species of low altitude in terms of highest citation (RFC ≥0.9) are Phyllanthus emblica (skyu ru), Terminalia bellirica (ba ru) and Terminalia chebula (a ru). In the second category is Amomum subulatum (ka ko la; RFC 0.68), which is cultivated at subtropical to lower temperate zone in Nepal. Acorus calamus (shu dag nag po), Tinospora sinensis (sle tres), Asparagus racemosus (nye shing tser me) and Cannabis sativa (sro ma nag po), with RFC >24–35 (Table 2.8), fall in the third category of important ingredients of lower elevation, all of which are found both in the wild and under cultivation. Acorus calamus grows in subtropical to lower temperate zone. Tinospora sinensis is a tropical–subtropical species. Asparagus racemosus and Cannabis sativa have distribution range from tropical to temperate zone. Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal is also based on ingredients from 26 exotic plant species, mostly of tropical and subtropical distribution (see Part III). These ingredients are imported in Nepal, mostly from India, and some from Tibet. The most important exotic species, in terms of citation frequency, are Elettaria cardamomum (sug smel, overall RFC = 0.62), Carthamus tinctorius (gur gum, 0.54), Myristica fragrans (dza ti, 0.54), and Syzygium aromaticum (li shi, 0.54) (Table 2.9). The second category of imported ingredients are obtained from Aquilaria sinensis (a ga ru dkar po, RFC = 0.38), Aucklandia costus (sha pho ru rta, 0.38), Pterocarpus santalinus (tsan dan dmar po, 0.38) and Santalum album (tsan dan dkar po, 0.38). Aucklandia 1 Amchi have cited whitish and yellowish forms of aconite as bong dkar; these corresponded to at least four botanical species: Aconitum heterophyllum, A. heterophylloides var. leucanthum, A. naviculare and A. orochryseum. But, A. naviculare was the highly preferred one, which scored highest citation compared to others. 2 Blue flowered gentians are generally regarded as spang rgyan sngon po. In Nepal, four plant species were cited as spang rgyan sngon po: Gentiana depressa, G. nubigena, G. ornata and G. phyllocalyx. Among these, G. nubigena obtained the highest citation than others. 3 At least three plant taxa, Veronica ciliata subsp. ciliata, V. ciliata subsp. cephaloides and V. himalensis were cited as the source of ldum nag dom mkhris; of these, the former two taxa received highest preference and thus higher citation than the latter. 4 'om bu is represented by at least three botanical species, Myricaria rosea, M. squamosa and M. wardii. Myricaria rosea and M. squamosa were preferred most and given higher citation than the latter . 47 costus and Carthamus tinctorius are also cultivated in Nepal, but in smaller scale; most of the amount used in medicine is therefore imported. Punica granatum (se 'bru), with a citation frequency of 0.35, is a native species of Nepal, but most of the amount used in medicine is imported, and only some amchi sourced it from wild or cultivation within Nepal. It is native to north-eastern Turkey, Afghanistan to western Nepal. Mainly amchi from lower Dolpa use fruits of Punica granatum from wild source as it is native to this area. The other important ingredients derived from cultivated sources are sga skya (Zingiber officinale), rgun 'brum (Vitis vinifera), kha che gur gum (Crocus sativus) and pi pi ling (Piper longum) with overall RFC >0.20– 0.30 (Table 2.9). Table 2.7. Mid- to high-altitude plants (including one fungal species) frequently cited (overall RFC ≥0.19) for Sowa Rigpa practiced in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu. Data shown are relative frequency of citation (RFC) and amount prescribed (which refers to the average quantity of ingredients needed per amchi per year for only those who cited the plant). Plants are sorted according to their overall citation score and quantity prescribed. Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration in 1 bold type) Scientific name (family name in the 1 parenthesis) jagöpö bya rgod spos Delphinium brunonianum Royle [Ranunculaceae] bongkar bong dkar 2 RFC Quantity (kg) Mustang (n = 12) Dolpa (n = 17) Kathmandu (n = 8) Overall (n = 37) Dolpa & Mustang Kathmandu 1 1 0.5 0.89 1.3 3.3 Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf; A. heterophyllum Wall ex. Royle; A. orochryseum Stapf [Ranunculaceae] 0.92 0.59 0.75 0.73 4 4.2 honglen hong len Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell [Plantaginaceae] 0.92 0.59 0.63 0.70 7.6 13.5 utpel ngönpo ut pal sngon po Meconopsis grandis Prain [Papaveraceae] 0.83 0.76 0.38 0.70 1.8 4.7 pangyen ngönpo spang rgyan Gentiana nubigena Edgew.; G. depressa D. Don; G. ornata (Wall. ex G. Don) Griseb.; G. phyllocalyx C.B. Clarke Edgew. [Gentianaceae] 0.75 0.71 0.38 0.65 1.7 20 dumnak domtri ldum nag dom mkhris Veronica ciliata Fisch.; V. ciliata subsp. cephaloides (Pennell) D.Y. Hong; V. ‡ himalensis D. Don [Plantaginaceae] 0.83 0.71 0.25 0.65 2.5 1.3 triyangku pri yang ku Dracocephalum tanguticum Maxim.; Nepeta staintonii Hedge [Lamiaceae] 1.00 0.24 0.50 0.54 3.0 17.4 pangtsi dobo spang rtsi do bo Bassecoia hookeri (C.B. Clarke) V. Mayer & Ehrend. [Caprifoliaceae] 0.42 0.47 0.75 0.51 3.0 5.8 ombu 'om bu Myricaria rosea W.W. Sm.; M. squamosa Desv.; M. wardii C. Marquand ‡‡ [Tamaricaceae] 0.50 0.71 0.13 0.51 3.5 5.0 ngo bashaka sngo ba sha ka Lagotis kunawurensis Rupr. [Plantaginaceae] 0.75 0.59 0.00 0.51 3.7 - balu karpo ba lu dkar po Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don; R. ‡ hypenanthum Balf. f. [Ericaceae] 0.50 0.47 0.50 0.49 2.5 17.0 kyerpa karpo skyer pa dkar po Berberis aristata DC. [Berberidaceae] 0.42 0.47 0.50 0.46 3.5 19.5 sngon po 48 Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration in 1 bold type) Scientific name (family name in the 1 parenthesis) wangpo lakpa dbang po lag pa 2 RFC Quantity (kg) Mustang (n = 12) Dolpa (n = 17) Kathmandu (n = 8) Overall (n = 37) Dolpa & Mustang Kathmandu Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó and ¥ other terrestrial orchids [Orchidaceae] 0.58 0.47 0.25 0.46 0.3 3.1 chutsa chu rtsa Rheum australe D. Don; R. acuminatum Hook. f. & Thomson [Polygonaceae] 0.50 0.47 0.25 0.43 3.5 23.5 ligadur li ga dur Geranium donianum Sweet; G. polyanthes Edgew. & Hook. f. [Geraniaceae] 0.67 0.24 0.50 0.43 2.3 4.8 ranyé ra mnye Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle; P. verticillatum (L.) All. [Asparagaceae] 0.42 0.35 0.50 0.41 1.1 11.3 séba se ba Rosa sericea Lindl. [Rosaceae] 0.50 0.41 0.25 0.41 0.6 10.5 drimok 'bri mog Onosma hookeri C.B. Clarke var. longiflorum (Duthie) Duthie ex Stapf; Arnebia benthamii (Wall ex G. Don) I.M. Johnst.; Onosma ‡ bracteatum Wall. [Boraginaceae] 0.50 0.29 0.50 0.41 1.5 9.3 sergyi métok gser gyi me tog Herpetospermum pedunculosum (Ser.) C.B. Clarke [Cucurbitaceae] 0.17 0.41 0.63 0.38 1.2 12.8 taksha stag sha Oxytropis microphylla (Pall.) DC. [Fabaceae] 0.42 0.35 0.38 0.38 2.8 6.8 chaktik nakpo lcags tig nag po Gentianopsis paludosa (Munro ex Hook. f.) Ma; Swertia cuneata Wall. ex D. Don; S. multicaulis D. Don [Gentianaceae] 0.50 0.47 0 0.38 5 - chaktik karpo lcags tig dkar po Swertia speciosa D. Don; S. kingii Hook. f.; S. petiolata D. Don [Gentianaceae] 0.50 0.47 0 0.38 0.5 - manu ma nu Inula racemosa Hook f. [Asteraceae] 0.42 0.35 0.25 0.35 2.4 28 dri ta sa zin 'bri ta sa 'dzin Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex. Lacaita [Rosaceae] 0.25 0.29 0.63 0.35 2.7 14.8 solo karpo sro lo dkar po Eutrema scapiflorum (Hook. f. & Thomson) Al-Shehbaz, G.Q. Hao & J. Quan Liu [Brassicaceae] 0.42 0.24 0.50 0.35 1.2 6.3 lukru serpo lug ru ser po Pedicularis longiflora var. tubiformis (Klotzsch) Tsoong [Orobanchaceae] 0.17 0.41 0.50 0.35 2.5 4 parpata par pa ta Hypecoum leptocarpum Hook f. & Thomson [Papaveraceae] 0.25 0.41 0.38 0.35 1.3 3.7 métok lukmik me tog lug mig Aster himalaicus C.B. Clarke; A. flaccidus ‡ Bunge [Asteraceae] 0.25 0.35 0.38 0.32 1.5 9 rékön re skon Corydalis hendersonii Hemsl.; C. megacalyx Ludlow & Stearn [Papaveraceae] 0.50 0.24 0.25 0.32 1.5 6 dzin pa 'dzin pa Aconitum gammiei Stapf [Ranunculaceae] 0.42 0.12 0.63 0.32 1.5 4 yartsa günbu dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora [Ophiocordycipitaceae] 0.33 0.29 0.38 0.32 0.1 0.1 49 Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration in 1 bold type) Scientific name (family name in the 1 parenthesis) sölgong serpo srol gong ser po 2 RFC Quantity (kg) Mustang (n = 12) Dolpa (n = 17) Kathmandu (n = 8) Overall (n = 37) Dolpa & Mustang Kathmandu Soroseris hookeriana (C.B. Clarke) Stebbins; ‡ S. pumila Stebbins [Asteraceae] 0.33 0.41 0 0.30 0.3 - ludü dorjé nakpo klu bdud rdo rje nag po Codonopsis thalictrifolia Wall. [Campanulaceae] 0.17 0.35 0.25 0.27 1.5 4.3 ajak tserngön a byag tsher sngon Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. & Thomson [Papaveraceae] 0.17 0.29 0.38 0.27 1.2 4.3 yakyima g.ya' kyi ma Chrysosplenium carnosum Hook. f. & Thomson; C. nudicaule Bunge ‡ [Saxifragaceae] 0.33 0.24 0.25 0.27 0.3 5 ukchö marpo ug chos dmar po Incarvillea mairei (H. Lév.) Grierson; I. diffusa Royle; I. younghusbandii Sprague [Bignoniaceae] 0.33 0.29 0.13 0.27 0.75 4.5 trönbu khron bu Euphorbia stracheyi Boiss [Euphorbiaceae] 0.33 0.35 0 0.27 2 - kyiché karpo kyi lce dkar po Gentiana robusta King ex Hook. f.; G. straminea Maxim. [Gentianaceae] 0.17 0.29 0.25 0.24 2.3 7.8 ngo dukmonyung sngo dug mo nyung Vincetoxicum canescens (Willd.) Decne.; Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight [Apocynaceae] 0.17 0.29 0.25 0.24 5 3.7 chumtsa lcum rtsa Rheum webbianum Royle; R. palmatum L. [Polygonaceae] 0.15 0.35 0.13 0.24 2 5.5 pangpö spang spos Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. [Caprifoliaceae] 0.25 0.18 0.38 0.24 3 4 tangtrom nakpo thang phrom nag po Anisodus tanguticus (Maxim) Pascher; A. ‡ luridus Link [Solanaceae] 0.33 0.18 0.25 0.24 1.4 4 khurmang khur mang Taraxacum tibetanum Hand-Mazz; T. eriopodum (D. Don) DC.; T. sikkimense ‡ Hand.-Mazz. [Asteraceae] 0.25 0.29 0.13 0.24 1.5 3.5 zimnak 'dzim nag Allium przewalskianum Regel; A. wallichii Kunth [Amaryllidaceae] 0.42 0.18 0.13 0.24 1.5 1.5 lukru karpo lug ru dkar po Pedicularis hoffmeisteri Klotzsch; P. ‡ scullyana Prain ex Maxim. [Orobanchaceae] 0.17 0.41 0 0.24 2.7 - batru ba spru Mirabilis himalaica (Edgew.) Heimerl [Nyctaginaceae] 0.42 0.24 0 0.24 2 - sokkapa sog ka pa Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. [Brassicaceae] 0.33 0.29 0 0.24 1.2 - lha shuk lha shug Juniperus indica Bertol [Cupressaceae] 0.17 0.29 0.13 0.22 2.7 8.5 50 Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration in 1 bold type) Scientific name (family name in the 1 parenthesis) tsédum mtshe ldum 2 RFC Quantity (kg) Mustang (n = 12) Dolpa (n = 17) Kathmandu (n = 8) Overall (n = 37) Dolpa & Mustang Kathmandu Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex. Stapf; E. pachyclada Boiss. [Ephedraceae] 0.25 0.24 0.13 0.22 2.3 6 tangkün tang kun Cortia depressa (D. Don) Norman; Hymenidium brunonis (DC.) Lindl.; H. hookeri (C.B. Clarke) Pimenov & Kljuykov ‡ [Apiaceae] 0.17 0.24 0.25 0.22 1.3 7 Gonyö go snyod Carum carvi L. [Apiaceae] 0.17 0.29 0.13 0.22 2 6 tarbu satar star bu sa star Hippophae tibetana D. Don [Elaeagnaceae] 0.33 0.24 0 0.22 6.8 - dzomoshing mdzo mo shing Caragana gerardiana Benth.; C. jubata ‡ (Pall.) Poir. [Fabaceae] 0.17 0.29 0.13 0.22 2.2 3.5 busuhang 'bu su hang Medicago lupulina L.; M. falcata L. ‡ [Fabaceae] 0.17 0.29 0.13 0.22 1.5 4 payak tsawa spa yag rtsa ba Lancea tibetica Hook. f. & Thomson [Mazaceae] 0.33 0.12 0.25 0.22 1.2 4.3 jagö sukpa bya rgod sug pa Saussurea gossipiphora D. Don; S. simpsoniana (Field. & Gardn.) Lipsch.; S. tridactyla Sch. Bip. ex Hook. f. [Asteraceae] 0.17 0.29 0.13 0.22 1.3 2 jiruk serpo byi rug ser po Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth) Benth [Lamiaceae] 0.17 0.35 0 0.22 2 - taram tha ram Plantago depressa Willd.; P. asiatica L. subsp. erosa (Wallich) Z.Y. Li; P. himalaica ‡‡ Pilg. [Plantaginaceae] 0.17 0.35 0 0.22 1.5 - shangdril serpo shang dril ser po Primula sikkimensis Hook. f. [Primulaceae] 0.17 0.35 0 0.22 0.8 - gyatik rgya tig Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Karst. [Gentianaceae] 0.33 0 0.38 0.19 3.7 20 kendakari kan da ka ri Rubus niveus Thunb.; R. pedunculosus D. ‡ Don [Rosaceae] 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.19 2.5 15.5 tsa awa rtsa a wa Gagea serotina (L.) Ker Gawl.; Lloydia longiscapa Hook. [Liliaceae]; Carex sp. ‡‡, ψ (Cyperaceae) 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.19 1.3 13.5 imong trawo dbyi mong khra bo Clematis barbellata Edgew. and others with mottled flower [Ranunculaceae] 0.08 0.18 0.38 0.19 6.5 6.0 réchakpa re lcag pa Stellera chamaejasme L. [Thymelaeaceae] 0.08 0.29 0.13 0.19 2.8 7.5 luk ru mar po lug ru dmar po Pedicularis siphonantha D. Don and other red-flowerd species of Pedicularis [Orobanchaceae] 0.08 0.24 0.25 0.19 1.5 7 drakkya habo brag skya ha bo Corallodiscus lanuginosus (Wall. ex R. Brown) B.L. Burtt [Gesneriaceae] 0.17 0.18 0.25 0.19 1.5 6.5 51 Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration in 1 bold type) Scientific name (family name in the 1 parenthesis) bongmar bong dmar 2 RFC Quantity (kg) Mustang (n = 12) Dolpa (n = 17) Kathmandu (n = 8) Overall (n = 37) Dolpa & Mustang Kathmandu Aconitum palmatum D. Don; A. novoluridum Munz; Delphinium densiflorum Duthie ex Huth [Ranunculaceae] 0.25 0.06 0.38 0.19 2.5 5.3 yumo deujin yu mo mde'u 'byin Paraquilegia microphylla (Royle) J.R. Drumm. & Hutch. [Ranunculaceae] 0.17 0.24 0.13 0.19 0.8 6 Ölmosé 'ol mo se Podophyllum hexandrum Royle [Berberidaceae] 0 0.24 0.38 0.19 1.5 2.7 jakang bya rkang Delphinium caeruleum Jacquem. ex Cambess; D. grandiflorum L.; D. himalayae Munz; D.kamaonense Huth [Ranunculaceae] 0.25 0.24 0 0.19 2.5 - yimong karpo dbyi mong dkar po Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC. [Ranunculaceae] 0.25 0.24 0 0.19 2.5 - gatik mukpo ga tigs smug po Bergenia purpurascens (Hook. f. et Thomson) Engl.; B. ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.; B. pacumbis (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) C.Y. Wu & J.T. Pan [Saxifragaceae] 0.33 0.18 0 0.19 2.5 - khenchung sergo khan chung ser mgo Ajania khartensis (Dunn) Shih [Asteraceae] 0.25 0.24 0 0.19 2 - khenkya mkhan skya Artemisia roxburghiana Bess.; A. sieversiana ‡ Ehrh. ex Willd. [Asteraceae] 0.33 0.18 0 0.19 2 - pang ram spang ram Bistorta macrophylla (D. Don) Soják [Polygonaceae] 0.17 0.29 0 0.19 1.7 - naram na ram Triglochin maritima L. [Juncaginaceae] 0.17 0.29 0 0.19 1.2 - tsa atrong rtsa a krong Eremogone kansuensis (Maxim.) Dillenb. & Kadereit; E. festucoides (Benth.) Rabeler & ‡ W.L. Wagner [Caryophyllaceae] 0.25 0.24 0 0.19 0.8 - gabur zilnön ga bur zil gnon Corydalis cashmeriana Royle [Papaveraceae] 0.08 0.24 0.25 0.19 0.2 0.5 churuk bellak chu rug sbal lag Halerpestes tricuspis (Maxim.) Hand.-Mazz. [Ranunculaceae] 0.25 0.24 0 0.19 0.3 - gyagok rgya sgog Allium carolinianum Redouté [Amaryllidaceae] 0.17 0.29 0 0.19 0.25 - 1 In a number of cases, a Sowa Rigpa plant name refers to more than one botanical species. Thus, we have included all such botanical diversity that we found per Sowa Rigpa term. In the case where multiple botanical species are mentioned per Sowa Rigpa plant name, the overall RFC value in the sixth column refers to the taxon that appears first in the second column, and for all latter species, which are alphabetically arranged, RFC value ranged 0.05–0.16 (except otherwise stated, see below); taxa with RFC <0.05 have been excluded. 2 The annual quantity needed per amchi was determined for plants classified according to Sowa Rigpa naming system. The quantity is determined combining all botanical taxa (if any) under each Sowa Rigpa plant name. ‡ All taxa scored equal citation or ‡‡first two taxa scored equal citation (as given in the sixth column). ¥ Orchids belonging to the genera Gymnadenia and Hemipilia, used mostly for the same purpose, are combined to calculate the quantity. ψ Amchi in Kathmandu also use Carex sp. and other unidentified ingredients (mostly sedges) as a source of rtsa a wa. 52 Table 2.8. Native or naturalized tropical/subtropical (some may reach up to lower temperate zone) medicinal plants frequently cited (with overall RFC ≥0.19) for Sowa Rigpa practiced in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu. Data shown are relative frequency of citation (RFC) and amount prescribed (which refers to average quantity of ingredient needed per amchi per year for only those who cited the plant). Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration in bold type) Scientific name (family name in the parenthesis) kyuru skyu ru RFC Quantity (kg) Mustang (n = 12) Dolpa (n = 17) Kathmandu (n = 8) Overall (n = 37) Dolpa & Mustang Kathmandu Phyllanthus emblica L. [Phyllanthaceae] 1 1 0.88 0.97 7.7 75 baru ba ru Terminalia bellirica (Gaeitn.) Roxb. [Combretaceae] 1 1 0.88 0.97 7.5 45 aru a ru Terminalia chebula Retz. [Combretaceae] 1 1 0.75 0.95 9.7 85 kakola ka ko la Amomum subulatum Roxb. [Zingiberaceae] 0.50 0.82 0.63 0.68 2.5 10 shudak nakpo shu dag nag po Acorus calamus L. [Acoraceae] 0.25 0.24 0.75 0.35 0.8 na létré sle tres Tinospora sinensis (Lour). Merr ; Stephania rotunda Lour. [Menispermaceae] 0.33 0.24 0.25 0.27 2.7 9 nyéshing tsermé nye shing tser me Asparagus racemosus Willd. [Asparagaceae] 0 0.18 0.75 0.24 na 19 soma nakpo sro ma nag po Cannabis sativa L. [Cannabaceae] 0.33 0.29 0 0.24 0.8 - zéma gze ma Tribulus terrestris L. [Zygophyllaceae] 0.17 0.24 0.13 0.19 1.5 22 naga gésar na ga ge sar Bombax ceiba L. [Malvaceae] 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.19 <0.2 19.8 tsö btsod Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming [Rubiaceae] 0.17 0.18 0.25 0.19 2.5 15 nying zhosha snying zho sha Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Hill [Anacardiaceae] 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.19 1.5 9 bilba bil ba Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa [Rutaceae] 0.33 0.06 0.25 0.19 3 7 dukmonyung dug mo nyung / shing dug mo nyung Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don [Apocynaceae] 0.33 0 0.38 0.19 0.3 4 shingtsa shing tsha Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Nees & Eberm. [Lauraceae] 0.25 0.24 0 0.19 2.5 - pökar spos dkar Shorea robusta Gaertn. [Dipterocarpaceae] 0.17 0.18 0.25 0.19 0.2 1.5 soma radza so ma ra dza Abelmoschus moschatus Medicus [Malvaceae] 0.25 0.06 0.38 0.19 na na yer ma g.yer ma Zanthoxylum armatum DC. [Rutaceae] 0.17 0.18 0.25 0.19 na na 53 Table 2.9. Cultivated and/or imported plants frequently cited (with overall RFC ≥0.19) for Sowa Rigpa practiced in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu. Data shown are relative frequency of citation (RFC) and amount prescribed (which refers to average quantity of ingredient needed per amchi per year for only those who cited the plant). Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration in bold type) Scientific name (family name in the parenthesis) RFC sukmel sug smel Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton 1 [Zingiberaceae] belpo gurgum bal po gur gum Carthamus tinctorius L. [Asteraceae] zati dza ti Quantity (kg) Mustang (n = 12) Dolpa (n = 17) Kathmandu (n = 8) Overall (n = 37) Dolpa & Mustang Kathmandu 0.58 0.71 0.5 0.62 1.5 15 0.50 0.71 0.25 0.54 2.2 16 Myristica fragrans Houtt. [Myristicaceae] 0.50 0.71 0.25 0.54 2.5 15.5 lishi li shi Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry 1 [Myrtaceae] 0.50 0.71 0.25 0.54 2.5 13 tsenden marpo tsan dan dmar po Pterocarpus santalinus L. f. [Fabaceae] * 1 0.25 0.47 0.38 0.38 na na shapo ruta sha pho ru rta Aucklandia costus Falc. [Asteraceae] * 0.25 0.35 0.63 0.38 na na agaru karpo a ga ru dkar po Aquilaria sinensis (Lour) Spreng. 1 [Thymelaeaceae] * 0.25 0.53 0.25 0.38 na na tsenden karpo tsan dan dkar po Santalum album L. [Santalaceae] * 0.25 0.47 0.38 0.38 na na sédru se 'bru Punica granatum L. [Lythraceae]** 0.42 0.41 0.13 0.35 3.8 35 menga, gakya sman sga, sga skya Zingiber officinale Rosc. [Zingiberaceae] 0.33 0.35 0.13 0.30 3.5 7.5 gündrum rgun 'brum Vitis vinifera L. [Vitaceae] 0.17 0.24 0.38 0.24 2.7 na khaché gurgum kha che gur gum Crocus sativus L. [Iridaceae] 0.25 0.24 0.13 0.22 0.1 0.3 pipiling pi pi ling Piper longum L. [Piperaceae] 0.17 0.29 0.13 0.22 0.8 na ga bur ga bur Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J.S. Presl. 1,2 [Lauraceae] 0.25 0.18 0.13 0.19 0.5 7.7 agaru nakpo a ga ru nag po Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. 1 [Thymelaeaceae] * 0.25 0.24 0 0.19 na - yung ba, ga ser yung ba, sga ser Curcuma longa L. [Zingiberaceae] 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.19 1.5 na zira nakpo zi ra nag po Nigella sativa L. [Ranunculaceae] 1 0.17 0.18 0.25 0.19 0.6 na tilkar, tilnak til dkar, til nag Sesamum indicum L. [Pedaliaceae] 0.17 0.18 0.25 0.19 na na 1,2 1 1,2 1 2 1,2 1,2 1, 2 2 2 1 Imported; 2Cultivation within Nepal; *These are now mostly replaced by substitutes sourced locally [Aucklandia costus is native to Indian Himalaya (Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh); now cultivated in the Himalayan countries and China]. **Punica granatum is a native species in Nepal, but most of the amount used in medicine is imported and some sourced from cultivation. 54 2.5.4 Amount Prescribed Ingredients derived from tropical/subtropical plant species were prescribed in greater qantity than those derived from mid- to high-altitude species (see Table 2.7 to Table 2.9 for the list of frequently cited species with quantity prescribed; see Part III for detail account of all plant species cited by amchi). The quantity of ingredients prescribed in Kathmandu was far greater than that observed in Dolpa and Mustang (Figure 2.3a,b). In Kathmandu, annual quantity of plant-based ingredients prescribed per amchi ranged 0.3–85.0 kg (mean 18.8 kg) for tropical/subtropical species, and 0.1–45 kg (mean 7.9 kg) for mid- to high-altitude species. In Mustang and Dolpa, the annual quantity of plant-based ingredients prescribed per amchi ranged 0.1–9.7 kg (mean 2.0 kg) for tropical/subtropical species, and 0.1–7.6 kg (mean 1.4 kg) for mid- to high-altitude species. The large quantity of ingredients prescribed by amchi in Kathmandu was related to the greater number of patients that they had treated. The quantity of ingredients used by amchi also depended on the nature of plant species, and the number/type of medicines prepared. There was species-specific variation in the quantity of plant-based ingredient prescribed in the rural (Dolpa and Mustang) and urban (Kathmandu) districts (Figure 2.3a,b; Table 2.7 to Table 2.9). In Dolpa and Mustang, among the mid- to high-altitude plants, hong len (Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora) was prescribed in highest quantity (7.6 kg of its rhizomes per amchi per year). This was followed by star bu sa star (fruits of Hippophae tibetana) and dbyi mong khra bo (stems/flowers of Clematis barbellata or other Clematis with mottled flower), each of which was prescribed at the rate of about 7 kg per amchi per year. Similarly, lcags tig nag po (aerial parts of Gentianopsis paludosa, Swertia cuneata or S. multicaulis), sngo dug mo nyung (whole plant of Cynanchum auriculatum or Vincetoxicum canescens), and bong dkar (tubers of any whiteform of aconite: Aconitum naviculare, A. heterophyllum or A. orochryseum) ranked third in term of quantity prescribed (>4–5 kg per amchi per year); and sngo ba sha ka (rhizomes of Lagotis kunawurensis), rgya tig (aerial parts of Swertia chirayita), chu rtsa (rhizomes/petioles of Rheum australe or R. acuminatum), 'om bu (flowers/leaves of Myricaria rosea, M. squamosa or M. wardii), and skyer pa dkar po (bark/fruits of Berberis aristata) ranked fourth with prescribed annual quantity of 3.5–3.7 kg per amchi (Table 2.7). For all other ingredients derived from mid- to high-altitude species, the annual quantity prescribed in Dolpa and Mustang ranged 0.1–<3.5 kg per amchi. In Kathmandu, among the mid- to high-altitude plants, star bu gnam star (Hippophae salicifolia) was prescribed in highest quantity (45 kg of its fruits per amchi per year), but it received lower citation (overall RFC =0.14). The other important mid- to high-altitude plants, in terms of annual amount prescribed per amchi in Kathmandu, were phur nag (aerial parts of Artemisia gmelinii or A. vestita: 36.7 kg), ma nu (roots of Inula racemosa: 28 kg), chu rtsa (rhizomes/petioles of Rheum australe or R. acuminatum: 23.5 kg), rgya tig (aerial parts of Swertia chirayita: 20 kg), and spang rgyan sngon po (leaves/flowers of Gentiana depressa, G. nubigena, G. ornata or G. phyllocalyx: 20 kg). Similarly, skyer pa (bark/fruits of Berberis aristata), pri yang ku (aerial parts of Dracocephalum tanguticum), ba lu dkar po (leaves/flowers of Rhododendron anthopogon or R. hypenanthum), kan da ka ri (stems of Rubus niveus or R. pedunculosus), and 'bri ta sa 'dzin (whole plant of Fragaria nubicola) were prescribed at the rate of 15–<20 kg per amchi per year; and hong len (rhizomes of Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora), rtsa a wa (roots/aerial parts Gagea serotina, Carex sp. or other sedges), gser gyi me tog (fruits/seeds of Herpetospermum pedunculosum), lcam pa (aerial parts of Malva verticillata), ra mnye (rhizomes/fruits of Polygonatum cirrhifolium or P. verticillatum), and se ba (bark/flowers/fruits of Rosa sericea) were prescribed at the rate of ≥10.5–13.5 kg per amchi per year. For all other ingredients, derived from midto high-altitude species, the annual quantity prescribed in Kathmandu ranged 0.1–9 kg per amchi. 55 Among tropical and subtropical plants, fruits of a ru (Terminalia chebula), skyu ru (Phyllanthus emblica) and ba ru (Terminalia bellirica) were cited with higher annual quantity per amchi in all the three districts (Table 2.8). However, the amount prescribed in Mustang and Dolpa for these ingredients (9.7, 7.7 and 7.5 kg per amchi per year, respectively) was much less than the amount prescribed in Kathmandu (85.0, 75.0 and 45.0 kg per amchi per year, respectively) (Table 2.8; Figure 2.3). ba lu dkar po bong dkar bri rta sa 'dzin chu rtsa dbyi mong khra bo hong len kan da ka ri lcags tig nag po ma nu 'om bu phur nag pri yang ku rgya tig skyer pa sngo ba sha ka sngo dug mo nyung spang rgyan star bu Dolpa and Mustang Kathmandu -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 a 'bras a ru a sho gan dah ba ru bal po gur gum btsod dza ti gze ma na ga ge sar nye shing tser me sa 'bras se 'bru shing ba sha ka skyu ru sug smel upal marpo 50 60 70 80 90 Dolpa and Mustang Kathmandu -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Figure 2.3. Comparison of the plant-based ingredients prescribed in kilogram (x-axis, mean per amchi per year) in three study districts: (a) quantity of ingredients from native mid- to high-altitude (temperate to nival) plants, and (b) quantity of ingredients from low-altitude (tropical/subtropical), including exotic plants. In each elevation category, only plants, which parts in high demand, in terms of amount prescribed per amchi per year ≥4.0 kg in Dolpa and Mustang, and ≥15 kg in Kathmandu, were used to prepare the graphs. Sowa Rigpa plant names are given in y-axis, their botanical equivalents are given in Tables 2.7 to 2.9 and in the text in this chapter and in Part III. 56 In terms of quantity, ba sha ka or shing ba sha ka (Justicia adhatoda) served as the fourth important tropical medicinal plant in Kathmandu, the aerial parts of which were prescribed at the rate of 38.8 kg per amchi per year. Among other ingredients, based on indigenous species, flowers of Bombax ceiba (na ga ge sar) and root tubers of Asparagus racemosus (nye shing tser me) were mentioned at an average annual rate of ca. 19–20 kg; and roots and stems of Rubia manjith (btsod), and bark and fruits of Syzygium cumini (sa 'bras) were prescribed at 15 kg per amchi per year in Kathmandu. For these five ingredients, the annual amount prescribed per amchi in Dolpa and Mustang was 0.2–2.5 kg (Figure 2.3). Some other ingredients derived from native species of tropical and subtropical zone and popular among amchi in Kathmandu were zhu mkhan (leaves of Symplocos paniculata or Skimmia laureola: 9 kg per amchi per year), sle tres (roots/stems of Stephania rotunda, Tinospora cordifolia or T. sinensis: 9 kg), bil ba (dried fruit pulp of Aegle marmelos: 7 kg), be ljang re ral (rhizomes of Aglaomorpha propinqua: 6.5 kg), dug mo nyung or shing dug mo nyung (seeds of Holarrhena pubescens: 4 kg), and spos dkar (resin of Shorea robusta: 1.5 kg). These ingredients are much less used in Dolpa and Mustang, the amount of which ranged <0.3 kg (Aglaomorpha propinqua, Holarrhena pubescens and Shorea robusta) to ≤3 kg (Aegle marmelos, Symplocos paniculata and Tinospora sinensis) per amchi per year. Among the naturalized taxa, Tribulus terrestris (gze ma) has been regarded as one of the important species by amchi in Kathmandu, fruits of which were prescribed at an annual rate of 22 kg per amchi. But average quantity of its fruits prescribed in Dolpa and Mustang was 1.5 kg per amchi. T. terrestris is native to Mediterranean region, now widespread throughout the world. Heartwood of some highly threatened species, such as Aquilaria malaccensis (a ga ru nag po), A. sinensis (a ga ru dkar po), Cinnamomum parthenoxylon (a ga ru dmar po), Pterocarpus santalinus (tsan dan dmar po), and Santalum album (tsan dan dkar po); and rhizomes of a critically endangered herb Aucklandia costus (sha pho ru rta) are much popular in Sowa Rigpa. In the past, annual quantity use of these ingredients was also high in Kathmandu (20–35 kg per amchi), and in Dolpa and Mustang (4–7 kg per amchi). But, due to legal restrictions and rising cost, amchi in Nepal are now facing difficulties in finding and purchasing these ingredients. These herbs, used to be imported mostly from India and some from China, are now largely replaced in Nepal by substitutes derived from native species, belonging to the genera Artemisia, Caragana, Dolomiaea, Gentiana, Inula, Juniperus and Primula (see Chapter 3). Fruits of Punica granatum (se 'bru) were prescribed at an annual rate of 35 kg per amchi in Kathmandu and about 4 kg per amchi in Dolpa and Mustang. Fruits of P. granatum are obtained either from imported sourse (mostly from India) or from cultivation. However, Dolpa amchi, mainly those living in Phoksundo, are also based on wild source of P. granatum found along Bheri River. Among other ingredients from exotic plants imported in Nepal, flowers of Meconopsis punicea (at the rate of 22 kg per amchi per year), fruits of Myristica fragrans (15.5 kg) and Elettaria cardamomum (15 kg), and floral buds of Syzygium aromaticum (13 kg) were prescribed in significant amount by amchi in Kathmandu. These ingredients were much less used in Dolpa and Mustang, the prescribed amount of which ranged <0.2 kg (Meconopsis punicea) to <2.5 kg (Elettaria cardamomum, Myristica fragrans and Syzygium aromaticum) per amchi per year. In Kathmandu, amchi were also based on plant-based ingredients derived from cultivated source, such as roots of Withania somnifera (average amount = 18 kg per amchi per year), flowers of Carthamus tinctorius (16 kg), seeds of Mangifera indica (15 kg), fruits of Amomum subulatum (10 kg), fruits of Choerospondias axillaris (9 kg), fruit or extracts of Cinnamomum camphora (7.7 kg), and dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale (7.5 kg). Some of these herbs (e.g., Withania somnifera, Carthamus tinctorius and 57 Cinnamomum camphora) are also imported in Nepal. Other ingredients, used in smaller amount by amchi in Kathmandu, included fruits/seeds of Foeniculum vulgare (4.5 kg), Coriandrum sativum (3.5 kg), Canavalia ensiformis (1.5 kg), and Trigonella foenum-graecum (1.5 kg). We did not record the use of Withania somnifera in Dolpa and Mustang, instead amchi from these areas use Mirabilis himalaica or Boerhavia diffusa for the same purpose. The quantity of ingredients from cultivated source used by amchi in Dolpa and Mustang was much smaller, which ranged <0.5 kg (Canavalia ensiformis, Cinnamomum camphora, Coriandrum sativum and Trigonella foenum-graecum), 0.8–1.5 kg (Foeniculum vulgare, Choerospondias axillaris and Mangifera indica), and 2–3.5 kg (Amomum subulatum, Carthamus tinctorius and Zingiber officinale). 2.6 Animal-Based Ingredients Out of 46 species of extant animals cited by amchi, as important ingredients for Sowa Rigpa, 6 were domestic and the rest were wild species [see Appendix 3 for detail information about their medicinal use, relative frequency of citation (RFC), and origin]. In addition, a type of fossilized mammal bone known as longgu or dragon bone (druk in Sowa Rigpa) was also cited as an essential ingredient. Recent study revealed that the longgu specimens consisted mainly of fossil fragments from ungulates, including artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and proboscideans; and a few fossils of the orders Carnivora and Rodentia (Oguri et al. 2017). Some ingredients, such as hard skeleton of corals (Corallium spp.), and pearls formed inside the shell of certain oceanic mollusks, such as oysters (Pteria spp.) are classified in Sowa Rigpa as rin po che sman (gem or precious metal medicines), and are here treated accordingly (see section 2.7). However, ingredients, such as gi wang (elephant bezoars), gla rtsi (musk pod) and dom mkhris (bear bile) described in classical texts under rtsi sman (essence extracted medicines) are treated here as animalderived ingredients. The animals cited by amchi were the source of 93 products (78 products from wild species only) belonging to 24 part-/organ-use categories (Appendix 3). Majority of the animal species comprised of vertebrates (39 species) and a few (7 species) belonged to invertebrates. According to zoological classification system, the species cited by amchi belonged to 3 phyla, 8 classes, 17 orders and 25 families. Mammalia was the largest class comprising 30 medicinally important species (including 24 wild and 6 domestic animals); followed by Aves (6 species); Reptilia, Gastropoda, Insecta and Malacostraca (each with 2 species); and Amphibia and Arachnida (each with 1 species) (Figure 2.4). We recorded 24 categories of animal parts prescribed for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal (Figure 2.5). The categories consisted of a diverse array of internal and external animal tissues/organs and excretory/ secretory products, including heart, bone, lung, liver, brain, blood, flesh, tongue, throat, stomach/intestine, horn, skin/scale, shell, gland, fat, butter, bile and urine. Majority of the animals, including both domesticated and wild were prescribed in medicine for their horn (14 species), followed by flesh (12 species) and blood (8 species). Stomach/intestine and excreta, each from 6 animal species, ranked fourth in terms of number of species cited. The category also included the whole organism. Five species (Buthus sp. of the class Arachnida, Charybdis sp. and Himalayapotamon atkinsonianum of Malacostraca, and Eupolyphaga sinensis and Mylabris sp. of Insecta) of the phylum Arthropoda, and Bungarus multicinctus belonging to the class Reptilia and phylum Chordata were prescribed as a complete organism. Similarly, bile/gall bladder of four species; bone, fur, heart and bezoar of three species; and liver and shell of two species were prescribed. Brain, musk pod, lung, scale, tail, tongue and urine ranked lowest each with one animal citation. 58 35 30 30 20 15 10 2 1 2 Amphibia Reptilia 2 Gastropoda 2 Insecta 1 Malacostraca 5 6 Arthropoda Mollusca Mammalia Aves Arachnida 0 Chordata Taxonomic categories Figure 2.4. Number of animal species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Nepal. The animals are categorized into 3 phyla and 8 classes. Whole animal Urine Tongue Throat Tail Stomach/intestine Shell Scale Musk pod Lung Liver Horn Heart Fur Flesh Fat Excreta Butter Brain Bone (fossil) Bone Blood Bile/Galbladder Bezoar 6 1 1 4 1 6 2 1 1 Animal parts/organs Number of species 25 2 2 14 4 3 12 2 6 2 1 1 5 3 0 2 8 5 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Number of animal species prescribed Figure 2.5. Parts/organs of animals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Nepal. 59 However, in terms of relative frequency of citation (RFC), the most important animal products were musk pod (gla rtsi) of musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster s.l., gla ba in Sowa Rigpa), bezoar (gi wang) of elephant (Elephas maximus, glang chen in Sowa Rigpa), and bile (mkhris) of bear (Ursus thibetanus, dom in Sowa Rigpa) with overall RFC 1.0, 0.94 and 0.91, respectively. Blood (thag) of wild yak (Bos mutus, ‘brong in Sowa Rigpa) and horn (ra) of deer (Cervus elaphus/or Rucervus duvaucelii, sha ba/or sa ru in Sowa Rigpa), with overall RFC 0.66 and 0.54, ranked fourth and fifth, respectively in terms of citation frequency (Figure 2.6). Bezoar is a small stony concretion obtained from liver, bile or gastrointestinal system of animals. Overall (n = 35) Kath. (n = 6) Dolpa (n = 17) Mustang (n = 12) Red fox lung/bile Grey wolf tongue Tibetan snowcock flesh Freshwater crab (whole animal) Animal products Fossilized Dragon bone Wooly hare heart Rhinoceros horn Deer horn Wild yak blood Bear's bile Elephant bezoar Musk pod 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Relative frequency of citation (RFC) 1.2 Figure 2.6. Top 12 animal products of wild origin most frequently cited (with overall relative frequency of citation ≥0.23) by amchi in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu (for full list of species see Appendix 3). Bars represent relative frequency of citation (RFC). The animal products are arranged according to their overall RFC value. Note: the wild animals are prescribed in Sowa Rigpa and listed here just for information purpose, which does not mean that these are currently being used. At present, almost all of the wild animals listed are not used by amchi due to their unavailability, rising cost and legal restriction. 60 The quantities of animal-based ingredients prescribed in Sowa Rigpa was small (overall mean 0.93 kg per amchi per year, range 0.005–7 kg) compared to plant-based ingredients, and that also depended upon the nature of medicine and the value of the product (Figure 2.7). The highest amount (range 3–7 kg) was prescribed for blood of domestic yak (Bos grunniens) and pig (Sus scrofa domesticus), which was followed by white conch shell of murex snails (Rapana bezoar; range 3–6 kg), whole part of freshwater crab (Himalayapotamon atkinsonianum; range 3–5 kg), cow urine (Bos taurus; range 2–5 kg), and scale of Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla; range 2–4 kg). Among the top 12 wild animal products ranked according to relative frequently of citation (Figure 2.6), the highest amount was prescribed for whole part of freshwater crab (see above), followed by deer (Cervus elaphus/or Rucervus duvaucelii) horn (range 0.5–3 kg), wild yak (Bos mutus) blood (1–2 kg), and for the rest of the products the quantity prescribed was less than one kilogram. For the three high ranked products, viz. musk pod, elephant bezoar and bear bile, the quantity prescribed ranged 0.176–0.257, 0.023–0.035 and 0.176–0.351 kg, respectively (Figure 2.7). At present, almost all of the wild animals or their parts mentioned here are not used by amchi due to legal protection and unavailability. However, the animal names are still retained in the pharmacopeia. Amchi instead use substitutes for the rare and endangered species. The elephant bezoar and blood of wild yak, for example, are mostly substituted with the bezoar and blood of domestic animals (such as domestic yak), respectively or with plants and minerals. Similarly, musk pod, bear bile and various other animal products are substituted with ingredients of plant or mineral origin (see Chapter 3). In the past, when the uses of animal-based ingredients were common in amchi practice, these had been sourced mainly from Tibet/China (58.5% of total wild animals with mean RFC of 0.467), Nepal (51.2% with RFC 0.323), India (41.5% with RFC 0.255) and Bhutan (12.2% with RFC 0.003). Mean Maximum Minimum Red fox lung/bile Grey wolf tongue Tibetan snowcock flesh Animal products Freshwater crab (whole animal) Fossilized Dragon bone Wooly hare heart Rhinoceros horn Deer horn Wild yak blood Bear's bile Elephant bezoar Musk pod 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Prescribed amount (kg) Figure 2.7. Top 12 animal products of wild origin with quantity prescribed per amchi. The animal products are arranged according to their overall RFC value (see Figure 2.6). 61 2.7 Mineral-Based Ingredients We documented a total of 54 types of minerals prescribed for Sowa Rigpa in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu (see Appendix 4 for the list of all minerals cited and their detail use). The mineral-based medicines included 27 types of rdo sman (stone medicines), 13 types of rin po che sman (from gems or precious metals), 9 types of sa sman (soil/earth medicines) and 3 types of rtsi sman (essence extracted medicines). Two ingredients, including smoke carbon remained unspecified. Coral (with overall RFC = 0.78), turquoise (0.78), pearl (0.58), gold (0.58) and silver (0.52) were the most frequently cited gem medicines (Figure 2.8, Appendix 4). Calcite (0.70), chrysotile (0.56), hematite (0.54) and crocidolite (0.44) were the mostly cited stone medicines. Vermiculite (0.33), limonite (0.31), sulphur (0.30) and trona (0.30) were the major soil/earth medicines cited by amchi. Among the essence extracted medicines, calciosinter/bamboo cilica (0.37) and drak zhun (silajit or rock exudate, with overall RFC = 0.31) were most frequently cited. The rock essence (drak zhun) is the mineral pitch, a dark bituminous substance derived from rock clefts. Beside this, amchi have identified five different types of zhun depending on the basic source of individual exudate of gold, silver, copper, iron and lead (these are not included here as these were cited by very few amchi). Only few mineral-based ingredients are locally derived, but the majority of them are either sourced from other districts or imported from India and Tibet. Overall (n = 26) Kath. (n = 4) Dolpa (n = 12) Mustang (n = 10) Limonite Sulphur nativum Rock exudate/ silajit Mineral-based ingredients Trona Vermiculite Bamboo cilica Crocidolite Silver Gold Hematite Chrysotile Pearl Calcite Coral Turquoise 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Relative frequency of citation (RFC) 1 1.2 Figure 2.8. Mineral-based ingredients most frequently cited (with overall relative frequency of citation ≥0.30) for Sowa Rigpa practiced in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu (for full list of mineral-based items see Appendix 4). Bar shows relative frequency of citation (RFC). The ingredients are arranged according to their overall RFC value. 62 2.8 Ingredients from Rare and Threatened Species The organisms from which medicinal ingredients are derived for Sowa Rigpa are reviewed for their threat and protection status. A species is regarded as threatened if it is listed as vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN) or critically endangered (CR) according to the IUCN Red List system. A total of 32 species of plants (including 11 species in the global, and 24 in the national Red List), 1 species of fungus (in global Red List), and 17 species of animals (including 10 species in the global, and 15 in the national Red List), prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Nepal are threatened. In addition, 23 animal and 21 plant species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Nepal are included in CITES appendices, and 10 animal, 9 plant, and 3 lichen species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Nepal are included in the government protection list (Figure 2.9, Table 2.10 and 2.11). Among the globally threatened plants prescribed in Sowa Rigpa, four species – Aquilaria malaccensis, Aucklandia costus, Commiphora wightii and Nardostachys jatamansi – are critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List. Further four plant species (Aconitum heterophyllum, Cypripedium himalaicum, Taxus contorta and T. wallichiana) are listed as endangered, and three (Aquilaria sinensis, Santalum album and Ulmus wallichiana) as vulnerable (Figure 2.10). Recently in 2020, the caterpillar fungus, Ophiocordyceps sinensis has been listed as vulnerable species in the IUCN Red List. Among these globally threatened species, Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Nardostachys jatamansi are the only native species for Nepal, which scored higher citation (RFC = 0.32 and 0.24, respectively). Aconitum heterophyllum, Taxus contorta, T. wallichiana, and Ulmus wallichiana are also native to Nepal, but these scored lowest citation (RFC = 0.05). Aucklandia costus also scored higher citation (0.38), but it is native to the north-western Himalaya, and does not naturally occur in Nepal. It is, however, extensively cultivated within and beyond its native range. Similarly, among the threatened species of tropical origin, Aquilaria malaccensis, Commiphora wightii and Santalum album are native to South and South-East Asia, and Aquilaria sinensis is endemic to South China. Although most of these exotic tropical species obtained higher citation scores (0.19–0.38, see Table 2.9), their use in Sowa Rigpa has been largely declined. Nowadays, amchi are facing great difficulties in finding ingredients derived from these species due to their unavailability, increased cost, and legal restrictions. Amchi are therefore practicing substitutes derived mostly from native species for such exotic ingredients of tropical origin (see Chapter 3). Twenty-four plant species cited by amchi are threatened at the national level, with 5 species listed as endangered and 19 as vulnerable (Figure 2.9, Table 2.10). In addition, two plant species are listed as near threatened. The notable nationally threatened plant species with higher citation (RFC) for their use in Sowa Rigpa are Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora (threat status: VU, RFC: 0.70), Dactylorhiza hatagirea (EN, 0.46), Rheum australe (VU, 0.43), Tinospora sinensis (VU, 0.27), Nardostachys jatamansi (VU, 0.24), Arnebia benthamii (VU, 0.19), Swertia chirayita (VU, 0.19), Podophyllum hexandrum (VU, 0.19) and Rubia manjith (VU, 0.19). The globally threatened animals, which body parts are prescribed in Sowa Rigpa, fall under critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable categories comprising 1, 3 and 6 species, respectively (Figure 2.10, Table 2.11). Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is listed as critically endangered. Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster s.l.) and Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) fall under endangered category, and Chinese mountain salamander (Batrachuperus pinchonii), wild yak (Bos mutus), common leopard (Panthera pardus), greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) are in the vulnerable category. In addition, 10 species of animals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa fall under ‘near threatened’ and additional 10 species under 'least concern’ category in the IUCN Red List (Figure 2.10, Table 2.11). 63 Among the nationally threatened animals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa, two species are critically endangered, eight are endangered and five are vulnerable (Figure 2.10, Table 2.11). The notable nationally threatened animals with high relative frequency of citation (RFC) are musk deer (threat status: EN, RFC: 1), elephant (EN, 0.94), black bear (EN, 0.91), barasingha (EN, 0.54), rhinoceros (EN, 0.43), grey wolf (CR, 0.29), and cinereous vulture (EN, 0.14). In addition, Tibetan snowcock (0.34) and red fox (0.23), which fall under ‘least concern’ and ‘data deficient’ category respectively, also scored higher citation. 30 Plant, fungal and lichen species Animal species 20 0 Global Red List (IUCN) Nationally threatened 9 plant and 3 lichen species 5 All plants 10 All plants 15 11 plant and 1 fungus species Number of species 25 CITES listed GoN protected Conservation and protection status Figure 2.9. Conservation and protection status of plant/fungal/lichen and animal species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu (see Table 2.10 and 2.11 for detail). 20 18 Number of species 16 Plant and fungal species Animal species 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 CR EN VU Global NT LC CR Threat status EN VU NT LC Regional/National Figure 2.10. Global and national threat categories of plant/fungal and animal species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu (see Table 2.10 and 2.11 for detail). 64 Table 2.10. Threat and protection status, and endemicity of plant and fungal species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Dolpa, Mustang and Kathmandu. Botanical name1 Sowa rigpa name Family Habit2 Elevation (m) within Nepal3 Threat category4 Global Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb.* thang nag Pinaceae TR 1520–4400 Protection (legal) status and priority5 National CITES NT EN GoN Prot. Endemicity6 GoN Prio. + PH 2 VU + H-My + H-Tb Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex. Royle* bong dkar Ranunculaceae PH 2700–3900 Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf bong nag Ranunculaceae PH 1800–4700 VU2 Allium przewalskianum Regel 'dzim nag Amaryllidaceae PH 2500–4250 VU1 Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. a ga ru nag po Thymelaeaceae TR Impr CR Ap II SA-SEA Aquilaria sinensis (Lour) Cuilg a ga ru dkar po Thymelaeaceae TR Impr VU Ap II ChE Arnebia benthamii (Wall ex G. Don) I.M. Johnst 'bri mog Boraginaceae PH 2800–4300 VU2 Asparagus racemosus Wild. nye shing tser me Asparagaceae PH 100–2200 VU2 Aucklandia costus Falc. sha pho ru rta Asteraceae PH Cultv/Impr CR PH HEnar + Ap I 2 VU WIDE HEnar Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze ma ru rtse Fabaceae TR 100–1200 Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch dbang ril Orchidaceae PH 1200–3300 Ap II WIDE Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl. pu shel rtse Orchidaceae PH 1500–2900 Ap II PH Coelogyne cristata Lindl. pu shel rtse Orchidaceae PH 1000–2600 Ap II PH Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari gu gul Burseraceae SH Impr Corydalis megacalyx Ludlow re skon Papaveraceae PH 3600–5500 Cypripedium himalaicum Rolfe khu byug pa Orchidaceae PH 2800–4800 WIDE CR SWA-In EN2 EN NE Ap II H-Tb 65 Botanical name1 Sowa rigpa name Family Habit2 Elevation (m) within Nepal3 Threat category4 Global Protection (legal) status and priority5 National CITES GoN Prot. GoN Prio. Ap II + + Endemicity6 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó dbang po lag pa Orchidaceae PH 2800–4600 EN2 Delphinium himalayae Munz* bya rkang Ranunculaceae PH 2000–4550 VU2 Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl.* pu shel rtse Orchidaceae PH 600–2900 Ap II H-My Dendrobium densiflorum Lindl. pu shel rtse Orchidaceae PH 600–2900 Ap II PH-SEA Dendrobium longicornu Wall. ex Lindl.* pu shel rtse Orchidaceae PH 1200–3000 Ap II PH-SEA Dolichousnea longissima (Ach.) Articus gser skud Parmeliaceae LC 2600–3900 Dolomiaea macrocephala Royle khams kyi ru rta Asteraceae PH 3200–4400 Epipactis royleana Lindl. * dbang ril Orchidaceae PH 1200–3700 PH HEnar + WIDE NT2 H-Tb Ap II PH 2 Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don a bi sha Liliaceae PH 3000–4765 VU Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. dbang lag karpo Orchidaceae PH 1850–4700 Ap II PH Hemipilia calcicola (W.W. Sm.) Y. Tang & H. Peng* dbang lag dman pa Orchidaceae PH 3140–5000 Ap II H-Ch Hemipilia chusua (D. Don) Y. Tang & H.Peng * dbang lag dman pa Orchidaceae PH 2400–4900 Ap II PH Herminium monorchis (L.) R. Br. bye lce lag pa Orchidaceae PH 3400–4600 Ap II WIDE Juglans regia L. star ga Juglandaceae TR 1200–3000 LC Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. spang spos Caprifoliaceae PH 3200–5000 CR Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel- dbyar rtswa dgun Ophiocordycipitaceae CF 3500–5200 VU 66 PH 1,2 VU Ap II + + WIDE + + PH + H-Ch Botanical name1 Sowa rigpa name Family Habit2 Elevation (m) within Nepal3 Threat category4 Global Jones & Spatafora 'bu Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz tsam pa ka Bignoniaceae TR Protection (legal) status and priority5 National lo ma bdun can dwa ba Melanthiaceae PH 1300–3560 Parmotrema tinctorum (Despr. ex Nyl.) Hale* rdo dreg Parmeliaceae LC 240–2250 Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell hong len Plantaginaceae PH 3500–5300 VU1,2 Piper longum L. pi pi ling Piperaceae HC Cultv VU2 Berberidaceae PH 2300–4600 Pterocarpus santalinus L. f. tsan dan dmar po Fabaceae TR Impr GoN Prio. SA-SEA 1,2 Paris polyphylla Sm.* 'ol mo se GoN Prot. EN2 300–1400 Podophyllum hexandrum Royle CITES VU PH-SEA + 1,2 VU NT + Ap II WIDE + PH + SA-SEA + PH Ap II 2 Endemicity6 IE Rheum australe D. Don chu rtsa Polygonaceae PH 2770–4400 VU + PH Rheum moorcroftianum Royle* lcum rtsa chung ba Polygonaceae PH 3600–4800 NT2 + PH Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Thomson lcum dkar Polygonaceae PH 3600–5000 VU2 Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming btsod Rubiaceae PH 1100–3000 VU2 Santalum album L. tsan dan dkar po Santalaceae TR Impr VU Shorea robusta C.F Gaertn. spos dkar Dipterocarpaceae TR 100–1500 LC Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten. rgya tig Gentianaceae BH/ S-PH 1200–3000 H-Tb + H-Ch SA-SEA + 1,2 VU SA-Tb + H-My 67 Botanical name1 Sowa rigpa name Family Habit2 Elevation (m) within Nepal3 Threat category4 Global Taxus contorta Griff. * sang shing Taxaceae TR 1700–3500 EN Taxus wallichiana Zucc.* sang shing Taxaceae TR 1900–3500 EN Tetrataenium lallii (C. Norman) Cauwet, Carb. & M. Farille * spru dkar Apiaceae PH 3000–4200 Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. ex Schaer. dngul skud Icmadophilaceae LC 3850–5450 Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. sle tres Menispermaceae WC 200–1540 Ulmus wallichiana Planch.* yo 'bog Ulmaceae TR 1000–3000 Valeriana jatamansi Jones ex Roxb.* nags spos Caprifoliaceae PH 1500–3600 Protection (legal) status and priority5 National EN2 EN CITES GoN Prot. Ap II + Ap II + Endemicity6 GoN Prio. PH + 2 PH-SEA NE + VU2 WIDE + VU SA-SEA H-Af VU2 + + PH-SEA 1 Species with asterisk (*) marks are not considered as absolutely necessary in the study area, only very few amchi (2-4) are using these herbs. 2 Habit-wise medicinal plants are categorized as BH – biennial herb, CF – caterpillar fungus, HC – herbaceous climber, LC – lichen, PH – perennial herb, S-PH – short-lived perennial herb, SH – shrub, TR – tree, WC – woody climber or liana. 3 Elevation range for native species is given; cultivated (Cultv) or imported (Impr) taxa are mentioned without elevation range. 4 Threat category: CR – Critically Endangered, EN – Endangered, VU – Vulnerable, NT – Near Threatened, LC – Least Concern, DD – Data Deficient. Global threat categories are based on IUCN Red List (accessed via www.iucnredlist.org), and the national threat categories are based on: 1 – Rare, Endemic and Endangered Plants of Nepal (Shrestha and Joshi 1996), and 2 – National CAMP Report (Tandon et al. 2001). 5 Protection (legal) status and priority relate to plant taxa included in CITES Appendices, in protected list of Government of Nepal (according to Forest Act 2019), and taxa prioritized for economic development by the Government of Nepal. 6 Endemicity: Refers to the taxon having wide geographical distribution covering different biogeographic provinces (considered here as WIDE) or covering large stretches of S and SE Asia, including southernmost parts of the Himalaya and China (SA-SEA); or taxon restricted to SW Asia and India (SWA-In), Himalaya and Afghanistan (H-Af), S Asia (SA), S Asia and Tibetan Plateau (SA-Tb), panHimalaya and SE Asia (PH-SEA), pan-Himalaya (PH), Himalaya and China (H-Ch), Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau (H-Tb), Himalaya and Myanmar (H-My); or taxon recorded as Himalayan endemic (HE, distribution limited within the Himalaya), narrow Himalayan endemic (HEnar, taxon occurring within Nepal and one of the neighboring states of India or Tibet), endemic to Nepal (NE, distribution of taxon restricted within the political boundary of Nepal), endemic to China (ChE, distribution of taxon restricted within the political boundary of China) or endemic to India (IE, distribution of taxon restricted within the political boundary of India). 68 Table 2.11. Threat and protection status of animal species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in Dolpa, Mustang and Kathmandu. Zoological name Sowa rigpa name Common name Threat category1 Protection (legal) status2 Global National CITES II GoN Protection Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus, 1766) bya rgod Cinereous vulture, Black vulture NT EN Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) kha sha Spotted deer LC VU Batrachuperus pinchonii (David, 1872) da byid smug po, gang sbal Chinese mountain salamander VU - Bos mutus (Przewalski, 1883) ‘brong Wild yak VU DD/?RE I + Canis lupus (Linnaeus, 1758) spyang ki Grey wolf LC CR I + Capricornis thar (Hodgson, 1831) rgya ra Himalayan serow, Thar ?NT DD I Cervus elaphus (Linnaeus, 1758) sha ba, sha ru Elk, Red deer LC - I/II/III/NC Elephas maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) glang chen, glang po Asian elephant EN EN I Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758) bya rgod Bearded vulture, Lammergeier NT VU II Gyps himalayensis (Hume, 1869) bya rgod Himalayan griffon vulture NT VU II Hemitragus jemlahicus (C.H. Smith, 1826) ra rgod Himalayan tahr, Jharal NT NT Himalayapotamon atkinsonianum (WoodMason, 1871) sdig srin, sdig srin dkar po Freshwater crab LC LC Lepus oiostolus (Hodgson, 1840) ri bong Wooly hare LC LC Lutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758) sram Eurasian otter NT NT I Manis pentadactyla (Linnaeus, 1758) chu srin sder mo, na gi Chinese pangolin CR EN I Marmota himalayana (Hodgson, 1841) 'phyi ba Himalayan marmot LC LC III Moschus chrysogaster (Hodgson, 1839) gla ba Alpine musk deer EN EN I Muntiacus muntjak subsp. vaginalis (Boddaert, 1785) kha sha Barking deer LC VU Naemorhedus goral (Hardwicke, 1825) ra rgod Himalayan ghoral NT NT + + + I 69 Zoological name Sowa rigpa name Common name Threat category1 Protection (legal) status2 Global National CITES GoN Protection Ovis ammon (Linnaeus, 1758) gnyan Argali NT DD I/II + Panthera pardus (Linnaeus, 1758) gzig Common leopard VU VU I Panthera tigris subsp. tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) stag Bengal tiger EN EN I + Pantholops hodgsonii (Abel, 1826) gtsod Tibetan antelope, Chiru NT DD/?RE I + Procapra picticaudata (Hodgson, 1846) dgo ba Tibetan gazelle NT CR Pseudois nayaur (Hodgson, 1833) gna' ba Blue sheep, Bharal LC LC III Rhinoceros unicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) bse ru Greater one-horned rhinoceros VU EN I + Rucervus duvaucelii (G. Cuvier, 1823) sha ba Barasingha VU EN I + Tetraogallus himalayensis (G.R. Gray, 1843) gong mo Himalayan snowcock LC NT Tetraogallus tibetanus (Gould, 1854) gong mo Tibetan snowcock LC LC I Ursus thibetanus (G.[Baron] Cuvier, 1823) dom Himalayan black bear, Asian black bear VU EN I Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) wa mo Red fox LC DD III/NC 1 Threat category: RE – Regionally Extinct, CR – Critically Endangered, EN – Endangered, VU – Vulnerable, NT – Near Threatened, LC – Least Concern, DD – Data Deficient. Global threat categories are based on IUCN Red List (www.iucnredlist.org), and the national threat categories are based on Jnawali et al. (2011), Inskipp et al. (2016) and Amin et al. (2018). 2 Protection (legal) status: in this category are animal taxa included in CITES Appendices and in the protected list of Government of Nepal according to National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973. 70 2.9 Geographical Variation in the Plant and Animal Taxa, and Minerals Prescribed Variation in plants prescribed in Sowa Rigpa in three districts was assessed in relation to the total 304 taxa (297 species, 3 subspecies and 4 varieties) for which at least 5 amchi (from any of the districts) had given their consensus on taste, potency and use, which were later verified with learned amchi. Among the three study districts, amchi from Dolpa cited highest number of plant taxa (total 278) than did by amchi from Mustang (253 taxa) and Kathmandu (157 taxa) (Table 2.12). As the majority of the amchi interviewed in Kathmandu were using industrial products without making medicines themselves, they cited fewer number of plant species. Comparison of the mean number of plant taxa cited per amchi also showed higher values for Dolpa (mean 78 ± 74 taxa per amchi), followed by Mustang (65 ± 69), and Kathmandu (48 ± 45), although the difference was statistically insignificant (Table 2.13). The total number of animal species and mineral types cited by amchi did not vary much among the three districts (Table 2.12); but per amchi citation of these tended to be higher for Mustang and Kathmandu compared to that of Dolpa (Table 2.13). Table 2.12. Total number of plant and animal taxa and mineral types commonly cited in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu. In the case of plants, the analysis was based on 304 taxa (297 species, 3 subspecies and 4 varieties) for which at least 5 amchi had given their consensus on taste, potency and use. Region Plant taxa (species and infraspecific level) Mid- to high-altitude taxa (native and naturalized) Tropical/subtropical (including exotic) taxa Animal species Mineral types Total Mustang 183 70 253 37 38 Dolpa 215 63 278 39 41 Kathmandu 94 63 157 38 43 230 74 304 47 54 Total Table 2.13. Comparison of per amchi citation of plant and animal taxa, and minerals in Mustang, Dolpa, Kathmandu. Data shown are number (mean ± SD) of plant and animal taxa, and types of minerals cited per amchi (values in parentheses represent range). For plants, the analysis was based on 304 taxa (see Table 2.12). Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total 2* P* 65.0 ± 69.3 (13–213) 78.1 ± 73.9 (5–238) 48.1 ± 46.0 (4–108) 67.4 ± 66.7 (4–238) 1.335 0.513 Animal taxa 8.8 ± 3.6 (3–14) 7.4 ± 4.6 (3–15) 8.5 ± 6.8 (0–18) 8.1 ± 4.7 (0–18) 0.974 0.615 Minerals 10.8 ± 7.2 (0–20) 7.9 ± 8.1 (0–23) 8.1 ± 11.2 (0–34) 8.9 ± 8.5 (0–34) 1.593 0.451 Ingredient types Plant taxa *Based on Kruskal Wallis one-way ANOVA (for all cases df = 2). NMS results showed a strong distinction between Dolpa and Kathmandu amchi in relation to plant taxa prescribed by them (Figure 2.11). But there was a considerable overlap between Mustang and Kathmandu amchi indicating a weak discrimination of plant taxa prescribed between these two districts (Figure 2.11). We found an even greater similarity in plant taxa prescribed by amchi between Dolpa and 71 Mustang (Figure 2.11). The overall similarity (i.e., percentage of overlap) between taxa cited by amchi in Dolpa and Kathmandu was only 43.09% (34.35% for mid- to high-altitude, and 70.27% for tropical and subtropical taxa), whereas the similarity between taxa cited by amchi in Mustang and Kathmandu was 56.87% (47.87% for mid- to high-altitude, and 79.73% for tropical and subtropical taxa). On the other hand, the similarity between taxa cited by amchi in Dolpa and Mustang was 75.25% (73.04% for mid- to highaltitude, and 82.19% for tropical and subtropical taxa). In addition, Dolpa amchi were also quite distinct in the sense that they cited 42 plant taxa (representing about 14% of total 304 taxa analyzed here), which were unique to them, i.e. these were not cited by amchi either from Mustang or Kathmandu. We did not find any taxon, among the 304 taxa analyzed here, unique (i.e., plant cited by amchi in one district only) to the amchi either in Mustang or Kathmandu. The number of unique taxa was even higher (total 60) for Dolpa when we included all plant taxa (total 570) reported in this study (see Part III for the list of taxa cited by amchi in the study districts). The regional variation in the composition of plant taxa prescribed in amchi pharmacopoeia is related to the differential distribution and availability of medicinal plants due to differences in the local ecology and climate. Dolpa district is botanically very rich as it is influenced by diverse climatic conditions creating various bioclimates (sensu Dobremez 1976; Joshi 1999): such as mesaxeric in the southern valleys, meso-bioxeric (Mediterranean type) in the inner valleys, axeric to cryomeric at subalpine to nival zone, and hemi-eremic (sub-desertic) to eremic (desertic) in the trans-Himalaya in upper Dolpa. Districts Figure 2.11. NMS ordination diagram of respondents (amchi) from three districts: scores of respondents (based on presence/absence of 304 plant taxa in amchi pharmacopeia) are shown in 2-axis ordination space. Typ_med = number of types of medicines prepared or used, Gen-pra = number of generations of amchi practice; and Patients = number of patients treated. NMS was performed using ‘autopilot’ mode option in PC-ORD v.7; distance measure = Sorensen; number of runs: 250; maximum number of iterations = 500; stress value = 0.004; no data transformation used. As a result, amchi living in Dolpa district have greater opportunities in finding diverse array of medicinal plants that grow in diverse habitats and vegetation types. However, upper Dolpa and Mustang possess almost similar climate and vegetation. Therefore, the composition of preferred plants in the pharmacopoeia of amchi in upper Dolpa and Mustang did not differ much. Mustang amchi were also comparable with those from Kathmandu in terms of nature of medicinal plants use. This is probably due to higher mobility of Mustang amchi and their frequent contact with amchi in Kathmandu leading to a greater share of knowledge and exchange of ingredients between them. NMS results further showed that among the subsidiary (socio-cultural and economic) data collected on amchi practice, total number of patient treated, number of generations of amchi practice, and number of types of medicine prepared are greatly related to the choice of species used in Sowa Rigpa in different geographical regions (Figure 2.11). 72 Chapter 3 Use of Substitutes: Knowledge and Practices ______________________________________________________ Amchi practicing Sowa Rigpa in the northern mountainous region of Nepal often find difficulties in obtaining needed ingredients of lowland species, which they have to purchase from markets in the south. Traditionally, the amchi in the Himalaya are using substitutes for those ingredients that are not available for the making of medicine. The plant-based medicinal ingredients available in the Himalayas can be substituted for ingredients from low land species of plants and animals, which have similar taste, potency and efficacy. This has been described in the medical texts of Sowa Rigpa and the practice has been followed since several generations. In addition, several of the ingredients traditionally prescribed in Sowa Rigpa belonged to plants or animals that are now rare or threatened as a result of their overexploitation and are no longer available. In recent decades, concerns have been raised about the use of such species in traditional medicines. Amchi in Nepal have experimented substitution of such rare ingredients by those derived from common high mountain species. In Dolpa, for example, Ghimire et al. (2001) documented parts of over 20 species of plants being used by amchi as substitutes for ingredients based on rare and threatened plants and animals. In addition, mineral-based ingredients have also been used as substitutes for rare ingredients of biological origin. Amchi said that minerals represent best substitutes as quality and efficacy of these can be maintained for long period (10–40 years) when stored properly, but plant- or animal-based ingredients cannot be stored for more than a few years. Medicinal substitution is one of the important aspects of amchi practice that should be viewed not only from healthcare perspective in the remote areas but also from the stand point of threatened species conservation. Contemporary amchi consider the substitutes as a viable alternative particularly for the rare and threatened species of plants and animals. Czaja (2017) reviewed the substitution of materia medica in Tibetan medicine and identified some specific criteria, including taste and other properties, to determine appropriate substitutes for rare or expensive ingredients. According to amchi, medicinal substitution has no limitation. Ingredients from several common plant species grown in the same region can be substituted for those derived from rare and threatened ones, if they have similar taste, potency and efficacy. This chapter covers the practices of substitution for ingredients derived from rare and threatened species, some of which have become highly endangered. We first present an account of the Tibetan literature dealing with medicinal substitutes, and subsequently describe current practices and modes of substitution, with substitutes derived from plant and animal sources and based on minerals. Finally, we discuss the pattern of variation in diversity of substitute ingredients prescribed. Methods of data collection have been presented in Chapter 2. 73 3.1 Tibetan Literature on Medicinal Substitutes There exist Tibetan literature dealing with practices of substitution. Some of the notable literature in this regard are: i. Tshab yig rin chen gdron bu or rTsi smen rnams ki tshab yig dpal gyi dum bu’i phreng ba zhe bya wa sugs so “Medicines from odorous plants and animal parts and their medicinal substitution” is an historical hand-written manuscript dealing with the use of substitutes in Tibetan Medicine compiled by Odhiyan Shasana Dara (or Tib. Urgen Tenzing). Odhiyan Shasana Dara, the renowned hidden treasurer revealer of Dolpo region, was the final compiler of this manuscript, in which the results contain source dating back to the beginning of 17th century or even further. This ancient text describes >300 ingredients as substitute for 127 original medicinal ingredients. In the texts, there has been explained about the medicinal substitution in Tibetan pharmacology, natural habitat, methods of harvesting, season of harvesting and storage of different plant, animal and minerals. There is a detail description of practice and method of substitution and description of some medicinal plants, animals, birds and minerals. ii. Rgyud bzhi (The Four Tantras or Four Treatises), the foundational Tibetan medical text rooted in the ‘bum bzhi, and with points of connection to Ayurveda and traditional Chinese Medicine, is the classical work of Sowa Rigpa which developed during the advent of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet during 7th century. Rgyud bzhi has 156 chapters dealing with Tibetan Medicine. The four medical tantras include: root tantra, explanatory tantra, secret essential tantra, and the last tantra. Rgyud bzhi is the major source of substitution followed by different practitioners of Tibetan Medicine. The rgyud bzhi devotes entire chapter on crude drugs derived from natural resources as well as on qualities and activities of physicians. iii. The hand written work of Deumar Tenzin Phuntsok (1673~1743 AD) dri med shel gong shel ‘phreng known as the 'Crystal Garland', written in 17th or early 18th century, is considered to be one of the oldest documents on substitution and Tibetan Medicine. Geshe Deumar Tenzin Phuntsok was the foremost Tibetan medical practitioner and renowned scholar. This text provides the most comprehensive information on the uses and classification of Tibetan Medicine ingredients. Based on the sources of medicinal ingredients and their derivatives, eight classes of medicines have been distinguished and the issues of substitution has been described in the chapters rtsi sman (medicine from odorous plants and animal parts and their products), sngo sman (herbal medicine), and srog chag las byung ba'i sman (medicine from animal parts and animal products): 74  rin po che'i sman (precious stone and metals, e.g. gold, silver, iron, etc.)  sa'i sman (soil medicine)  thal sman (ash therapy)  rdo'i sman (stone medicine)  sngo sman (herbal medicine)  shing sman (tree/barks, and flowers and fruits medicine)  rtsi sman (medicine from odorous plants and animal parts and their products, such as musk, bear bile, camphor, cardamom, cloves and saffron)  srog chag las byung ba'i sman (medicine from animal parts and animal products) His work was later (in 1993) published with explanations and comments by Tibet People’s Publication House as sorig gches btus rinchen phreng ba shugs so. iv. Deumar Tenzin Phuntsok later produced hand written text tshab yig yongs ki bchud bdus smen dbul sel wai norbu (substitution literature on all essence medicine ingredients which are rare conservation gems) dealing particularly on medicinal substitutes. v. The rare hand written work of Ten Druk known as ngo la bzang drug rtsi sman gyi tshab stang tshab bzho nus pa yon ten den pa'i ner kho bzhugs so (medicinal substitutes for animal, plant and mineral resources used to cure cold and hot diseases and their effectiveness and efficacy). The text was written probably in later part of the 16th century. vi. The work of Gawa Dorje (published in 1995) – ‘khrungs dpe dri med shel gyi me long (Clear and Pure Mirror) provides chapters on identification of plants, animals and mineral ingredients used in Tibetan Medicine, and it also describes major substitutes. vii. Work of Thuten Phuntsok (date doubtful) – gso byjed thabs ki rnam bshad (Methods of Pharmacopoeia). viii. The work of Urgen Thricho (date doubtful) chiwa gabi tenjoe describes 175 substitutes. 3.2 Current Practices and Modes of Substitution Amchi possessed immense knowledge on substitution, identifying 200 different products derived from plants (total 92 species and infraspecific taxa), animals (4 domestic species and 1 wild species) and minerals (9 different types) as substitutes for rare and threatened species and for species not available locally (Table 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3). Precious stones, gold, silver, pearl, ruby, etc. used in Sowa Rigpa are costly and not available easily. Only some relatively wealthy amchi are using such precious ingredients and these are either outsourced from other districts or imported from China (Tibet) and India. Even in the case of most expensive rare minerals, which amchi cannot afford purchasing them locally, there are some plant-based substitutes. The practice of substitution described in Sowa Rigpa can be summarized under five major modes: 'plant to plant’, 'animal to plant’, 'plant/animal to mineral’, 'animal to animal’ and ‘mineral to animal/plant’. However, in the present work, we have not explored the mineral substitutes for plants, and animal/plant substitutes for minerals. Thus, only four modes of substitution currently practiced by amchi that we interviewed are discussed here (Figure 3.1). In total, 'animal to plant’ substitution is practiced by majority of the amchi (i.e., 85.4%) interviewed, followed by 'animal to mineral’ (36.6%), 'plant to plant’ (34.15%) and ‘animal to animal’ (19.51%). Almost 100% amchi in Dolpa and Mustang, and 62.5% in Kathmandu cited 'animal to plant’ substitutes. Some regional trends were also evident on other modes of substitution. For example, in Dolpa, the second important mode after 'animal to plant’ was 'plant to plant’ substitution (70.6%), but in Mustang the second important mode was ‘animal to mineral’ (66.7%), and in Kathmandu it was 'animal to animal’ (37.5%) substitution (Figure 3.1). 75 120 Plant-Plant % of respondents 100 Animal-Plant Animal-Animal Animal-Mineral 80 60 40 20 0 Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total Figure 3.1. Modes of substitution practiced by amchi in Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu. Plant to plant – substitution of rare plant products with common plant products; animal to plant – substitution of rare and threatened animal products with common plant products; animal to animal – substitution of rare and threatened animal products with common (mostly domestic) animal products; and animal to mineral – substitution of rare and threatened animal products with minerals. 3.2.1 Substitution of Rare Plant Products with Common Plant Products In this category, we have explored the substitution practice of amchi related to the ingredients derived from rare and threatened or protected plant species, including tropical/subtropical plants not available in the high Himalaya (where amchi actually practice Sowa Rigpa). A total of 141 ingredients (locally available or common ingredients of plant origin) derived from 70 species/infraspecific taxa of medicinal plants have been cited by amchi as substitutes for 79 products derived from 58 plant species (including 25 species, which are listed as rare, threatened and/or protected; and 33 species not included in any such category). We sub-categorized the species for which substitutes are mentioned under five groups based on their nativity, local availability, and/or conservation/protection status (Table 3.1, Table 3.2). Substitution of native mid- to high-altitude species: locally rare and/or nationally/globally threatened and/or protected Under this sub-category are eight native mid- to high-altitude plant species, identified as locally rare (three species), and included in national (four species) and global (one species) red lists. Of these, two species are included in the CITES list and three in the government protection list (Table 3.1, Table 3.2). These can be substituted with ingredients derived from 13 locally available plant taxa (12 species and 1 variety). Among the threatened mid- to high-altitude species, the endangered (according to national Red List) terrestrial orchid, Dactylorhiza hatagirea is highly used in traditional medicine in Nepal. The Sowa Rigpa name for this tuberous species, dbang lag (abbreviated form of dbang po lag pa), is also given to some other terrestrial orchids with tuberous roots. The name refers to hand-like divisions of tubers connoting Indra's (dbang po) hand (lag pa). Different 'types' have been recognized based on the number of lobes in the tuber. Tubers with five or more lobes are regarded as superior than those with fewer divisions. In Nepal, Dactylorhiza hatagirea is regarded as superior type (dbang lag mchog), and six other species of terrestrial orchids are regarded as inferior. The inferior species are commonly known as dbang lag dman pa or dbang 76 ril, and these included Cephalanthera longifolia, Epipactis royleana, Gymnadenia orchidis, Hemipilia calcicola, H. chusua and Herminium monorchis. All these inferior taxa can be substituted for Dactylorhiza hatagirea. However, amchi mostly preferred Gymnadenia orchidis and Hemipilia chusua as the best substitutes, which share taste (sweet), potency (warming) and medicinal efficacy (as a tonic for loss of regenerative fluid, general debility and weakness and for treating wounds, cuts and burns) in common with Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Table 3.2). The above finding indicates that some of the high altitude terrestrial orchids can be substituted for one another. However, for Cypripedium himalaicum (khu byug pa), a globally threatened terrestrial orchid with endangered status according to the IUCN Red List, a different substitute has been mentioned. It is substituted with the whole plant of common horsetail, Equisetum arvense. The two species (Equisetum arvense and Cypripedium himalaicum) share similar taste (sweet and bitter), potency (cooling) and use (for treating urinary disorders and swellings). Nationally vulnerable Arnebia benthamii ('bri mog ri skyes), which rhizomes are used in medicine, is commonly substituted with the rhizomes of Onosma bracteatum ('bri mog che ba) or with rootstocks of Rhodiola crenulata (sro lo dmar po), both the later species are relatively common. Although these substitutes are phylogenetically different (Arnebia benthamii and Onosma bracteatum belong to the family Boraginaceae, whereas Rhodiola crenulata belongs to the family Crassulaceae), they share common property in terms of taste (sweet and bitter) and potency (cooling). Arnebia benthamii and Onosma bracteatum also share common therapeutic uses for treating blood disorder, hypertension and lung disease, whereas Rhodiola crenulata share common therapeutic uses with Arnebia benthamii in treating fever and lung diseases. Amchi mentioned substitutes for ingredients derived from following five high altitude species, which are locally rare or included in the national Red List or are under government protection: rhizomes of Bergenia purpurascens (substituted with rhizomes of Bistorta macrophylla); aerial parts of Dracocephalum tanguticum (with aerial parts of Salvia hians and Nepeta staintonii); bulbs, flowers and fruits of Fritillaria cirrhosa (with respective parts of Lilium nanum); rhizomes of Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora (with rhizomes of Lagotis kunawurensis); and whole thallus of Dolichousnea longissima (with roots and seeds of Hymenidium hookeri) (for detail of these substitutes see Table 3.2; for threat and protection status see Table 2.10). Substitution of non-native (exotic for Nepal) mid- to high-altitude species: locally unavailable, and globally threatened and protected Under this sub-category is Aucklandia costus (sha pho ru rta), a non-native (exotic for Nepal) mid- to highaltitude species. It was included in CITES Appendix I in 1985, and was also listed as Critically Endangered in IUCN Red List in 2015. It is a West Himalaya species native to Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh of India, between 3200–3800 m (Saha et al. 2015). It is cultivated in the Himalayan countries and China. In Nepal, it is cultivated in smaller extent, most of the amount is thus imported. Himalayan amchi often find difficulty in purchasing its roots used in Sowa Rigpa formulations. Amchi mentioned two substitutes belonging to the same family (Asteraceae) for Aucklandia costus: Inula racemosa (ma nu) and Dolomiaea macrocephala (khams kyi ru rta). Roots of all these three species share similar taste (acrid and bitter), potency (warming) and therapeutic use (in treating wind, blood, lung and gastro-intestinal disorders). However, Inula racemosa obtained higher citation score and rating from amchi than did by Dolomiaea macrocephala in relation to its use as a substitute for Aucklandia costus (Table 3.2). 77 Substitution of native low altitude species: locally unavailable and nationally threatened and/or protected Amchi mentioned substitutes for ingredients derived from nine native plant species of lower altitudes (mostly tropical/subtropical and a few from lower temperate zone). These included five species listed in CITES appendix II, three listed as vulnerable in national Red List, and one species protected by the Government of Nepal. These can be substituted with ingredients derived from 12 plant species. The CITES-listed species prescribed in Sowa Rigpa are commercially threatened epiphytic orchids, belonging to the genera Coelogyne and Dendrobium (total five species recorded in this study, all known in Sowa Rigpa as pu shel rtse). For these orchids, amchi cited parts of four locally available herbs as substitutes, these are sog ka pa, sngo ba sha ka, ut pal ser po, and hong len. Among these substitutes, sog ka pa (Capsella bursa-pastoris) is a common weed widespread throughout the temperate regions, which seeds are used in medicine. The properties of sog ka pa and pu shel rtse match in relation to their use as antiemetic medicine, and also for treating gastritis, indigestion, and lung and urinary disorders. They are, however, quite distinct in terms of taste (pu shel rtse is sweet and astringent, whereas sog ka pa is sweet and acrid) and potency (pu shel rtse is cooling and light, whereas sog ka pa is neutral). The plant named by amchi in Nepal as ut pal ser po referred to Meconopsis paniculata, a common poppy of the Himalaya and Tibet, which flowers are used in medicine. Taste (sweet and astringent) and potency (cooling) of ut pal ser po (Meconopsis paniculata) greatly match with that of pu shel rtse and they also share some therapeutic use in common (such as treating lung/phlegm disorders and indigestion). According to amchi, rhizomes of two Himalayan medicinal herbs, sngo ba sha ka (Lagotis kunawurensis) and hong len (Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora) can also be substituted for pu shel rtse, but they obtained lower citation and rating than Meconopsis paniculata (Table 3.2). The lower citation and rating may be due the fact that sngo ba sha ka and hong len did not match pu shel rtse in terms of taste (bitter vs. sweet and astringent), but they share potency (cooling) and some therapeutic use (in treating disorders of the lung and intestine, and fever due to phlegm disorder) in common. In addition, Chrysopogon zizanioides, a tropical species of grass, known by the name rtswa pu shel rtse in Sowa Rigpa, has been regarded as the best substitute for pu shel rtse (Coelogyne spp. and Dendrobium spp.). Both rtswa pu shel rtse (roots of Chrysopogon zizanioides) and pu shel rtse (pseudobulbs or stems of Coelogyne spp. and Dendrobium spp.) share some medicinal qualities in common, such as sweet taste (but rtswa pu shel rtse also has bitter and acrid taste), cooling and light potency, and therapeutic use as anti-emetic agent and treating phlegm disorder and fever. However, in literature, rtswa pu shel rtse (Chrysopogon zizanioides) has been regarded as superior and pu shel rtse (Coelogyne spp./Dendrobium spp.) as inferior (Arya 1998). The government protected species, in this category, is Shorea robusta (spos dkar), wood resin of which is used in medicine. Substitutes cited for this species included parts of three plant species, viz., resin of shug pa/lha shug (Juniperus indica), resin and leaves of sro ma nag po (Cannabis sativa) and seeds of thal ka rdo rje (Senna tora). All these substitutes share only taste (sweet to astringent) and therapeutic use (in treating wind and lymphatic disorders) in common. In terms of potency, spos dkar is warming, whereas resin of shug pa, and resin and leaves of sro ma nag po are neutral. Therefore, these two substitutes scored lower citation (0.14 and 0.07 respectively) and ratings. Seeds of thal ka rdo rje (Senna tora) seemed to be even weaker substitute for spos dkar as it shared just one therapeutic use, i.e. treating lymph (chu ser) disorder, common to both species. 78 Table 3.1. Number of substitute plant species (and infraspecific taxa) prescribed in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal for rare, threatened, protected or locally unavailable species categorized under five groups based on their nativity, local availability, and/or conservation/protection status. 1 Rare/threatened or locally unavailable and/or protected species Category of species Conservation 2 Status 1. EN (Global) Native mid- to high-altitude species: locally rare and/or nationally/globally threatened and/or protected 2. Non-native (exotic for Nepal) mid- to high-altitude species: locally unavailable, and globally threatened and protected 3. Native low altitude species: locally unavailable and nationally threatened and/or protected 4. 5. Total 3 Total species 1 Legal status . Species included in: Number of substitute taxa CITES Appendix II 1 EN (National) 1 CITES Appendix II & GoN protection 4 VU (National) 3 1 species in GoN protection list 4 Locally rare 3 1 species in GoN protection list 4 CR (Global) 1 CITES Appendix I 2 4 VU (National) 3 - Others 1 5 All in CITES Appendix II 5 Others 2 1 GoN protection list 3 Non-native (exotic for Nepal) low altitude species: locally unavailable, and globally threatened and/or protected CR (Global) 2 1 species in CITES Appendix II 3 VU (Global) 2 1 species in CITES Appendix II 5 NT (Global) 1 CITES Appendix II 2 Other native and non-native mostly low altitude species: locally unavailable - 35 - 40 58 70 1 Locally unavailable species are those (tropical/subtropical or exotic) not found in the Himalaya where amchi actually practice Sowa Rigpa 2 Conservation status of plant species has been presented at local, national and global levels. At local level, a plant species is regarded as rare if it exhibits narrow geographical range, high habitat specificity and/or low local abundance or if the species is over harvested and thus not frequently found (based on interviews, literature and field observation). The national status is based on National CAMP report (Tandon et al. 2001), which distinguished a species as near threatened (NT), vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN) or critically endangered (CR). The global status relates to a species included in IUCN Red List as near threatened (NT), vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN) or critically endangered (CR). For complete list of threatened species, see Table 2.10. 3 Legal status refers to the protection of species through CITES regulation (species included in CITES appendices) and Forest Act of Government of Nepal (GoN). The three vulnerable species (according to Tandon et al. 2001) for which amchi mentioned substitutes are Butea monosperma (ma ru rtse), Rubia manjith (btsod) and Tinospora sinensis (sle tres). Amchi cited phur nag (leaves of Artemisia vestita) as a substitute for ma ru rtse (roots of Butea monosperma). However, comparison of its qualities, such as taste, potency and disease cured revealed that phur nag is a weak substitute for ma ru rtse (see Table 3.2). It was found that phur nag and ma ru rtse shared only few properties in common, like taste (both bitter; but phur nag is also acrid and ma ru rtse also possesses sweet taste), and therapeutic use in treating infectious diseases and phlegm disorder. In terms of potency, phur nag is cooling, whereas ma ru rtse is warming. For btsod (Rubia manjith), re skon rtsi dmar (Corydalis hendersonii) is cited as a substitute. We found that re skon rtsi dmar and btsod shared three properties in common, i.e. taste (both bitter in taste, but btsod is also acrid), potency (both cooling) and therapeutic use for treating blood disorders. The substitute re skon rtsi dmar had a citation frequency of 0.14 and obtained high rating in relation to its effectiveness as substitute for btsod (Table 3.2). 79 Amchi cited two plant substitutes for sle tres (stems of Tinospora sinensis): bra ma (roots of Caragana versicolor) and kan da ka ri (stems of Rubus niveus). We found that bra ma was a better substitute as it scored higher citation (0.21) and obtained highest substitute-rating in relation to its similarity with sle tres in taste (both sweet, astringent and bitter), potency (both cooling) and therapeutic use for treating fever and rheumatic fever. On the other hand, kan da ka ri had citation frequency of 0.14 and obtained relatively high rating from amchi. But, kan da ka ri as a substitute for sle tres shared only two properties in common, i.e., taste (both sweet and astringent; but kan da ka ri is also acrid, and sle tres also possesses bitter taste) and therapeutic use in treating fevers associated with wind disorder, rheumatism, and rheumatic fever. In terms of potency, kan da ka ri is regarded as neutral, whereas sle tres is cooling. Substitution of non-native (exotic for Nepal) low altitude species: locally unavailable, and globally threatened and/or protected Under this sub-category are five non-native (exotic for Nepal), mostly tropical plant species listed in IUCN Red List as critically endangered (2 species), vulnerable (2 species) and near threatened (1 species); and of these, three are included in CITES Appendix II (Table 3.1, Table 3.2). These can be substituted with ingredients derived from 10 locally available Himalayan plant species. Aquilaria malaccensis (a ga ru nag po) and Commiphora wightii (gu gul) are the critically endangered species, for which amchi mentioned substitutes. The former species has a native range from south Bhutan through north-east India to Malaysia, whereas the latter is found in Oman, Pakistan to Central India. Ingredients from both these species are imported in Nepal. Heartwood of lha shug (Juniperus indica) was mentioned by amchi as a substitute for a ga ru nag po (heartwood of Aquilaria malaccensis). Both share some basic properties in common, such as taste (both bitter and acrid in taste), potency (warming) and therapeutic use in treating fever due to wind disorders, and nerve disorder. This substitute had a citation frequency of 0.36 and obtained fairly high rating. Amchi use two different substitutes for gu gul (resin of Commiphora wightii): whole plant of par pa ta (Hypecoum leptocarpum) and stag sha (Oxytropis microphylla), the latter substitute scored high citation (0.29 vs. 0.14) and obtained highest rating from amchi than the former. Whole plant of par pa ta and stag sha, and gu gul (resin of Commiphora wightii) share taste (bitter), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for treating wounds and infections) in common. In addition, par pa ta is also used for treating liver and heart disorders, which is also common with gu gul. Aquilaria sinensis (a ga ru dkar po) and Santalum album (tsan dan dkar po) are the vulnerable species, for which amchi mentioned substitutes. Aquilaria sinensis is endemic to South China, whereas Santalum album is native to South India and South-East Asia. For both the species, heartwood is used in medicine. Among the vulnerable species, a ga ru dkar po (Aquilaria sinensis) has been replaced by some amchi with phur nag (Artemisia vestita), and for tsan dan dkar po (Santalum album) four substitutes have been cited. Roots of phur nag (Artemisia vestita) and heartwood of a ga ru dkar po (Aquilaria sinensis) share few properties in common, like taste (both bitter and acrid) and therapeutic use (for treating fever). But these two medicinal substances differ in potency, phur nag is cooling and a ga ru dkar po is warming and heavy. Even in the case of therapeutic use, a ga ru dkar po is prescribed for the treatment of heart fever and nerve disorders, whereas phur nag has property in treating infectious diseases, including fever, and wind disorders. Therefore, the high rating, with a citation frequency of 0.14, given by amchi for phur nag as a substitute for a ga ru dkar po is questionable. The four substitutes cited for tsan dan dkar po (Santalum album) are kyi lce dkar po (leaves and flowers of Gentiana robusta and G. straminea), spang rgyan dkar po 80 (flowers of G. stipitata), and shang dril ser po (flowers of Primula sikkimensis). It was found that kyi lce dkar po and spang rgyan dkar po share taste (bitter), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for treating fevers, mainly fever of the lung) in common with tsan dan dkar po. Similarly, shang dril ser po also share taste (bitter), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for treating fevers, mainly fever of the lung and heart) in common with tsan dan dkar po. Among these four ingredients, shang dril ser po is considered as a better substitute for tsan dan dkar po with relatively high rating given by amchi with a citation frequency of 0.29. Pterocarpus santalinus (tsan dan dmar po) is listed as near threatened species in IUCN Red List. It is endemic to South India. Its heartwood is used in medicine. Two substitutes have been cited by amchi for tsan dan dmar po (Pterocarpus santalinus): mdzo mo shing (Caragana gerardiana) and mdzo mo shing chung ba (Caragana jubata). Both of these substitutes were given highest rating by amchi, but with relatively high citation for mdzo mo shing (0.43) than for mdzo mo shing chung ba (0.21). Both of these substitutes and tsan dan dkar po share all the three properties in common: taste (astringent), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for treating heart and blood disorders, hypertension and gynaecological disorders). Substitution of other native and non-native, mostly low altitude species: locally unavailable Under this sub-category are 35 plant species (both native and non-native), mostly of low altitude, which are locally unavailable and are also not listed in conservation (national and IUCN Red Lists) or protection category. For these 35 species, amchi cited ingredients from 40 species of medicinal plants, mostly of Himalayan distribution, as substitutes (Table 3.1, Table 3.2). The most notable substitutes, in terms of high citation frequency (≥0.29; i.e., those cited as substitutes by at least 4 or more amchi out of 14 who practice plant-plant substitution), are presented below. The highest citation (0.71) was for Myricaria rosea ('om bu chung ba), which aerial parts (leaves, flowers and fruits) are substituted for fruits of Terminalia chebula (a ru). In addition, M. squamosa and M. wardii, known as 'om bu che ba, are also prescribed in Sowa Rigpa medicine, but these herbs scored lower citation (0.21 and 0.14 respectively) in relation to their use as substitute for Terminalia chebula. T. chebula is a tropical species native to South Asia including tropical Himalaya, south-central China and South-East Asia. It is highly valued in Sowa Rigpa, but amchi often find difficulty in obtaining this herb, therefore they may use locally available Myricaria spp. as a substitute. Aerial parts of Myricaria spp. (all three 'om bu) and fruits of Terminalia chebula (a ru) share a number of properties in common, like taste (sweet and astringent; but a ru also possesses slightly sour taste), potency (cooling, but a ru has a wide potency from neutral to cooling and light), and therapeutic use. Both 'om bu and a ru are used in treating digestive disorders, diarrhoea, blood disorders, and poisoning. In addition, fruits of aru or leaves, flowers and fruits of 'om bu are also used as detoxifying agents during processing/purification of a number of poisonous medicinal ingredients (such as aconite roots) before their use in medicine. The method for detoxification varies depending on the type and nature of poisonous ingredients. Normally, the process of detoxification of plant-based poisonous ingredients (such as root tubers of Aconitum spp.) involves continued boiling in water with the extract of a ru (Terminalia chebula) or 'om bu (Myricaria spp.). Sometimes, the poisonous ingredients can also be treated (boiled) with female-yak milk. The boiling periods may vary with species depending upon the level of toxicity. Plants with high levels of toxicity are boiled for prolonged periods. Vincetoxicum canescens (sngo dug mo nyung) that grow at mid- to high-altitude also scored highest citation (0.71) as a substitute for Holarrhena pubescens (shing dug mo nyung), a tropical/subtropical species. 81 Both, H. pubescens and V. canescens, belong to the same botanical family (Apocynaceae). In addition, Cynanchum auriculatum, of the same family, is also used as a substitute for Holarrhena pubescens, but it obtained lower citation (0.21). Whole plant of Cynanchum auriculatum and Vincetoxicum canescens (both known as sngo dug mo nyung in Sowa Rigpa), and seeds of Holarrhena pubescens (shing dug mo nyung) share taste (bitter), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for treating bile disorders, diarrhoea and dysentery) in common. The second highest citation (0.43) was for Berberis aristata as a substitute for Phyllanthus emblica. Flowers (known as skyer pa’i me tog) and fruits (skyer pa’i drebu) of Berberis aristata (skyer pa dkar po) and fruits of Phyllanthus emblica (skyu ru) share taste (sour and sweet; but skyu ru also possesses astringent taste and skyer pa’i drebu also possesses bitter taste), potency (cooling and coarse; but skyer pa’i drebu is cooling to warming in potency) and therapeutic use (for treating phlegm, bile and blood disorders) in common. Flowers and fruits of Berberis aristata were also cited by amchi as a substitute for fruits of Punica granatum (se 'bru). Berberis aristata as a substitute for Punica granatum obtained a citation score of 0.30. The plant parts of both of these species share some properties in common, like taste (both are sour and sweet in taste; but skyer pa’i drebu also possesses bitter taste, and se 'bru also possesses astringent taste), potency (se 'bru is warming in potency; but skyer pa’i me tog is cooling and skyer pa’i drebu is cooling to warming in potency) and therapeutic use (for treating stomach disorders). Rosa sericea (se ba) was third in rank in terms of citation frequency (0.36) for its use as a substitute. It is an important Himalayan medicinal plant, prescribed as a substitute by amchi for Terminalia bellirica (ba ru), a tropical and subtropical species. Ripe fruits or seeds (known as se ba ’bras bu) of Rosa sericea (se ba) and fruits of Terminalia bellirica (ba ru) share taste (astringent and slightly sour; but se ba ’bras bu also possesses sweet taste), potency (ba ru is cooling in potency; but se ba ’bras bu is cooling to neutral in potency) and therapeutic use (for treating wind, phlegm and bile disorders, and accumulation of lymph fluid) in common. Carthamus tinctorius and Crocus sativus are highly valued in Sowa Rigpa. The former species is endemic to SW Asia (C & E Turkey to Iran), and the latter is a cultigen, originated in E Mediterranean region (Greece); both are now widely cultivated. In Nepal, both species are cultivated to a small extent, and major volume for use in medicine is mostly imported. Both Carthamus tinctorius and Crocus sativus are termed in Sowa Rigpa as gur gum. However, more specifically, the former species is also known by the term bal po gur gum, and the latter by the term kha che gur gum. Some amchi usually replaced these exotic and expensive herbs by local substitutes of Himalayan distribution. One of such substitutes is Dracocephalum tanguticum (pri yang ku) with a citation frequency of 0.36 for its use as a substitute. In addition, there are two other local substitutes, viz., Nepeta staintonii (pri yang ku dman pa) and Salvia hians (‘jib rtsi nag po) for Carthamus tinctorius and Crocus sativus. However, Nepeta staintonii and Salvia hians obtained lower citation (RFC being 0.07 and 0.14, respectively) for their use as substitutes (for detail see Table 3.2). All the three substitutes and the two original ingredients share taste (sweet to bitter), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for treating liver disorders and fever) in common (for detail see Table 3.2). Amchi cited leaves and flowers of Himalayan Rhododendron anthopogon (with a citation frequency of 0.29) as a substitute for dried floral buds of Syzygium aromaticum. The latter species is native to Maluku Islands in Indonesia, dried flower buds of which are imported in Nepal. Floral buds of S. aromaticum (li shi in Sowa Rigpa) and leaves and flowers of Rhododendron anthopogon (ba lu dkar po in Sowa Rigpa) share some features in common, like taste (astringent and acrid; but ba lu dkar po is also sweet and bitter in 82 taste), potency (both warming and coarse; but li shi is also oily in potency) and therapeutic use (for treating cold disorders, indigestion and loss of appetite). This category also includes Bombax ceiba (na ga ge sar) and Senegalia catechu (seng ldeng), both were previously (February 12, 2001) banned by the Government of Nepal for felling and transport for commercial purpose and overseas export, but the ban was lifted on November 5, 2007. According to amchi, na ga ge sar (which literally means horse-tail-like stamen of red flower of Bombax ceiba) can be substituted with ut pal sngon po (flowers Meconopsis grandis). They share some basic properties in common, such as taste (both astringent in taste; but M. grandis flowers also possess sweet taste), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use in treating hot disorders of the lung and liver, and kidney disorders. For seng ldeng (wood of Senegalia catechu), skyer pa ker shun, i.e., bark of skyer pa dkar po (Berberis aristata) has been cited as a substitute. They share taste (both bitter, but seng ldeng is also astringent), potency (cooling), and therapeutic use (in treating chronic fever, and lymph (chu ser) and blood disorders) in common. Both of these substitutes had a citation frequency of 0.14 (among the informants who practice plant-plant substitution, n = 14) and obtained intermediate rating (Table 3.2). Table 3.2. List of substitutes used in Sowa Rigpa for rare or threatened plants and for plants not available locally: name, parts use, properties and relative frequency of citation (RCF). Total RFC for each species/infraspecific taxon was calculated by combining all informants who practice plant-plant substitution in three districts (n = 14). Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute 1. Native mid- to high-altitude species: locally rare and/or nationally/globally threatened and/or protected Arnebia benthamii ['bri mog ri skyes] ǂψN Rh ngar,kha/ sil ǂN Onosma bracteatum ['bri mog che ba] Rh ngar,kha/ sil Blood disorder, hypertension, lung disease 0.21 **** Rhodiola crenulata [sro lo dmar po] Rh ngar,kha, ka/sil Fever, lung diseases 0.14 * Bergenia purpurascens [ga tigs smug po, sngo ga tigs smug po] Rh tsa,ka/sil Bistorta macrophylla [spang ram] Rh ngar,ka/ nyom Stomach disorders 0.07 * Cypripedium himalaicum Wp ngar,kha/ sil,tsub Equisetum arvense [chu mtshe] Wp ngar, kha, ka/sil Urinary disorders, swellings 0.14 *** [2] Tb ngar/drö, num Gymnadenia orchidis [dbang lag dkar po] Tb ngar/drö, num Aphrodisiac, tonic, joint pain, wounds, cuts and burns 0.36 **** Hemipilia calcicola [dbang lag dman pa] Tb ngar/drö Tonic, wounds, cuts and burns 0.07 ** Hemipilia chusua [dbang lag dman pa] Tb ngar/drö Aphrodisiac, tonic, wounds, cuts and burns 0.14 *** ǂ¥φN [khu byug pa] Dactylorhiza hatagirea [dbang lag] ψφN 83 Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Herminium monorchis [bye lce lag pa] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency ǂN Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute Tb ngar/drö Aphrodisiac, tonic, cuts and burns 0.07 ** Dolichousnea longissima [gser skud] Wl ka,kha/sil Hymenidium hookeri [tang kun dkar po] Rt, Sd ngar,kha, tsa/sil– drö Poisoning 0.07 * Dracocephalum ǂN[C] tanguticum [pri yang ku] Ap ngar,kha/ sil Nepeta staintonii [pri yang ku dman pa] Ap ngar,kha, tsa/ sil Hot disorders of the stomach and liver, accumulation of lymph fluid, lung disorders and brown phlegm. 0.07 **** Salvia hians [‘jib rtsi nag po] Rt, Lf, Fl ngar,kha/ sil,chi Hot disorders of liver 0.14 *** [4] Bl, Lf, Fr ngar,kha/ sil Lilium nanum [a bi sha dman pa] Bl, Lf, Fr ngar,kha/ sil Poisoning, head injuries, head bone fracture, tonic 0.14 **** Rh Lagotis kunawurensis [ngo ba sha ka] Wp kha/sil Hot disorders of liver, bile, blood & intestine, disturbed fever, hypertension 0.43 **** Fritillaria cirrhosa [a bi sha] ǂψN Picrorhiza ψN scrophulariiflora [hong len] kha/sil 2: Non-native (exotic for Nepal) mid- to high-altitude species: locally unavailable, and globally threatened and protected Aucklandia costus [sha pho ru rta] ¥φE[C/I] Rt tsa,kha/ drö,num Inula racemosa [ma nu] Rt tsa,kha/ drö Wind and blood disorders, lung disorders, gastrointestinal disorders 0.43 **** [1] Dolomiaea macrocephala [khams kyi ru rta] Rt tsa,kha/ drö, tsub, num Wind and blood disorders, lung disorders, gastrointestinal disorders 0.21 *** [1] 3: Native low altitude species: locally unavailable and nationally threatened and/or protected Butea monosperma [ma ru rtse] ψN φN Coelogyne corymbosa φN C. cristata φN Dendrobium amoenum φN D. densiflorum φN D. longicornu [pu shel rtse] 84 Rt kha,ngar/ drö Artemisia vestita [phur nag] Lf kha,tsa/sil Infectious diseases, phlegm disorder. 0.07 * [1] Rh/St/Psb ngar,ka/ sil,yang Capsella bursapastoris [sog ka pa] Sd ngar,tsa/ nyom Anti-emetic, gastritis, indigestion, lung and urinary disorders 0.21 ** Chrysopogon zizanioides [rtswa pu shel rtse] Rt ngar,kha, tsa/sil,yang Anti-emetic, phlegm disorder, fever 0.14 **** [3] Lagotis kunawurensis [sngo ba sha ka] Rh kha/sil Disorders of the lung and intestine, and fever 0.07 * Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Meconopsis paniculata [ut pal ser po] Rubia manjith [btsod] Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute Fl ngar,ka/sil Lung/phlegm disorders, indigestion 0.29 **** [1] Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora [hong len] Rh kha/sil Disorders of the lung and intestine, and fever 0.07 * [1] Rt, St kha,tsa/sil Corydalis hendersonii [re skon rtsi dmar] Lf, St, Fl kha/sil Blood disorders 0.14 *** [1] Rn ngar–ka/ drö Juniperus indica [shug pa] Rn ngar–ka/ nyom Wind (rlung) disorder, lymph fluid (chu ser) 0.14 ** [1] Cannabis sativa (sro ma nag po, sro ma ras rgyu) Rn, Lf ngar–ka/ nyom Wind (rlung) disorder, lymph fluid (chu ser) 0.07 ** Senna tora [thal ka rdo rje] Sd kha,ka/ nyom Lymph fluid (chu ser) disorder 0.07 * Caragana versicolor [bra ma] Rt ngar,kha, ka/sil Fever, rheumatic fever 0.21 **** Rubus niveus [kan da ka ri] St ngar,ka, tsa/nyom Fevers associated with wind, rheumatism, rheumatic fever 0.14 *** [1] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency ψN N Shorea robusta Ø [spos dkar] Tinospora sinensis [sle tres] Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute ψN St ngar,ka, kha/sil 4: Non-native (exotic for Nepal) low altitude species: locally unavailable, and globally threatened and/or protected Aquilaria malaccensis [a ga ru nag po] Aquilaria sinensis [a ga ru dkar po] ¥φE[I] ¥φE[I] Commiphora wightii [gu gul] ¥E[I] Pterocarpus santalinus ¥φE[I] [tsan dan dmar po] Wd kha,tsa/ drö,num, tsub Juniperus indica [lha shug] Wd kha,ka, tsa/drö Fever due to wind disorders, nerve disorder 0.36 *** [1] Wd kha,tsa/ drö,chi Artemisia vestita [phur nag] Rt kha,tsa/sil Fever 0.14 *** [1] Rn kha/sil,chi Hypecoum leptocarpum [par pa ta] Wp kha/sil Infections, liver and heart disorders 0.14 * Oxytropis microphylla [stag sha] Wp kha/sil Wounds and infections 0.29 **** Caragana gerardiana (mdzo mo shing) Wd (red) ka/sil Heart, blood and gynaecological disorders, hypertension 0.43 **** [1] Caragana jubata [mdzo mo shing chung ba] Wd (red) ka,kha/sil Heart, blood and gynaecological disorders, hypertension 0.21 **** [1,3,5] Wd ka/sil 85 Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Wd ka–kha, tsa/sil Gentiana robusta [kyi lce dkar po] ¥E[I] Santalum album [tsan dan dkar po] Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute Lf, Fl kha/sil Hot disorders of the lung 0.14 ** Gentiana stipitata [spang rgyan dkar po] Fl kha/sil Hot disorders of the lung 0.14 ** [1] Gentiana straminea [kyi lce dkar po] Lf, Fl kha/sil Hot disorders of the lung 0.07 ** Primula sikkimensis [shang dril ser po] Fl ngar,kha/ sil Hot disorders of the lung and heart 0.29 *** [1] 5: Other native and non-native mostly low altitude species: locally unavailable Abrus precatorius [mda' rgyus] N Amomum subulatum [ka ko la] Areca catechu [go yu] Podophyllum hexandrum ['ol mo se] Rh, Fr ngar,kha, ka/nyom Abnormal menstrual bleeding, other gynaecological diseases 0.07 * [1] Sd kha,tsa, ka/drö Carum carvi [go snyod] Sd kha,tsa, ka/drö Cold disorders of stomach 0.21 *** [1] Sd kha,tsa, ka/drö, nyom Thlaspi arvense [bre ga] Sd kha,tsa/ drö Kidney disorder 0.21 *** [1] St kha/sil, tsub Geranium donianum [li ga dur] Rt ka,ngar/sil Hot disorder of the lungs 0.07 ** [1] Fl ka/sil,tsub Meconopsis grandis [ut pal sngon po] Fl ngar,ka/sil Hot disorders of the lung and liver, kidney problems 0.14 ** [1] E[C] Sd ngar/nyo m Oxytropis williamsii [srad nag] Sd ngar/sil Kidney disorder 0.07 ** [1] E[C/I] Fl ngar,kha/ sil Dracocephalum tanguticum [pri yang ku] Wp Liver, bile and lung disorders, fever 0.36 **** (immature) Ap Liver disorders and fever 0.07 ** Hot disorders of liver 0.14 * N[C] E[C/I] Aristolochia griffithii [ba le ka] Bombax ceiba [na ga ge sar] Sd ngar,kha/ drö N N, 6 Canavalia ensiformis [mkhal ma zho sha] 5 Carthamus tinctorius [gur gum, bal po gur gum] Nepeta staintonii [pri yang ku dman pa] Salvia hians [‘jib rtsi nag po] 86 ngar,kha /sil (immature) ngar,kha, tsa/sil Rt, Lf, Fl ngar,kha/ sil,chi Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Fr kyur,ngar/ sil Rheum australe [chu rtsa] Sd kha/sil Chaenomeles speciosa [bse yab] E[I] Choerospondias axillaris N[C] Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute Rh kyur,kha, ka/sil, nyom Phlegm disorders, stomach disorders 0.14 ** [1] Lancea tibetica [spa yag rtsa ba] Sd kha/sil Heart disorders, fever 0.21 *** [1] Lonicera hypoleuca [phang ma dkar po] Sd kha/sil Heart disorders, fever 0.07 ** [1] Rn kha,tsa, ka/sil Corydalis cashmeriana [ga bur zil gnon] Lf, Fl kha/sil Fever 0.21 *** [1] Fl ngar/sil Dracocephalum tanguticum [pri yang ku] Wp Liver, bile and lung disorders, fever 0.36 **** Nepeta staintonii [pri yang ku dman pa] Ap Liver disorders and fever 0.07 ** Salvia hians [‘jib rtsi nag po] Rt, Lf, Fl ngar,kha/ sil,chi Hot disorders of liver 0.14 * Bupleurum gracillimum [sngo zi ra ser po] Lf, Fl, Sd tsa,ngar/ drö,nyom Stomach disorders, phlegm disorders 0.14 *** [1] Bupleurum marginatum [sngo zi ra ser po] Lf, Fl, Sd tsa,ngar/ drö,nyom Stomach disorders, phlegm disorders 0.14 *** [1] Fr kha,tsa, ka/ high drö,no little sil Thlaspi arvense [bre ga] Sd ka,tsa/ drö,num Kidney disorder, urinary retention 0.14 *** [1] Fr tsa,ngar, kyur/drö Elsholtzia ciliata [byi rug nag po] Fl, Sd tsa,ka/drö Phlegm disorders, infectious diseases, parasite infestation, indigestion 0.07 ** [1] Clematis montana [dbyi mong dkar po] Fl, Sd tsa,ngar/ drö Phlegm disorders, infectious diseases, indigestion 0.07 ** [1] Hippuris vulgaris ['dam bu ka ra] Lf, St ngar/silnyom Hot disorder associated with the lung and nerve 0.21 *** [1] [snying zho sha] Cinnamomum camphora E[C/I] [ga bur] Crocus sativus [gur gum, kha che gur gum] Cuminum cyminum [zi ra dkar po] E[I] Elettaria cardamomum [sug smel] Fr tsa,ngar/ drö,nyom E[I] Embelia tsjeriam-cottam N [byi tang ga] Glycyrrhiza glabra [shing mngar] E[C/I] Rt ngar/silnyom (immature) ngar,kha /sil (immature) ngar,kha, tsa/sil 87 Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Medicago lupulina ['bu su hang] Holarrhena pubescens [shing dug mo nyung] N N[C] E[C/I] Mucuna monosperma [gla gor zho sha] Myristica fragrans [dza ti] Nigella sativa [zi ra nag po] Piper longum [pi pi ling] 88 E[I] E[I] E[I] Phyllanthus emblica [skyu ru] E[C/I] Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute Wp ngar,kha, ka/sil Hot disorder of the lung 0.07 * Vincetoxicum canescens [sngo dug mo nyung] Wp kha/sil Bile disorder, diarrhoea, dysentery 0.71 **** Cynanchum auriculatum [sngo dug mo nyung] Wp kha/sil Bile disorder, diarrhoea, dysentery 0.21 **** Corydalis hookeri [skra bzang zil pa, ldum ba sha ka] Wp kha/sil Hot disorders of the liver, bile and blood 0.14 *** Lagotis kunawurensis [sngo ba sha ka] Wp kha/sil Hot disorders of the liver, bile and blood 0.14 **** [1] Sd ngar,kyur, ka/drö Mirabilis himalaica [ba spru] Rt ngar,ka, tsa/drö, yang Wind disorders, kidney diseases 0.14 ** [1] Sd ngar/sil, yang Ephedra gerardiana [mtshe ldum] Rn, Fr ngar/sil Hot disorders of the spleen (mcher tshad) 0.14 *** [1] Fr kha,tsa, ka/drö, num,chi Hymenidium hookeri [tang kun dkar po] Rt, Sd ngar,kha, tsa/sil– drö Wind (lung) disorder, fever, heart disorder 0.14 ** [1] Fr ngar,tsa/ drö Bupleurum candollei [bod skyes zi ra nag po] Lf, Fl, Sd ngar,tsa/ drö–nyom Cold disorders of liver and stomach 0.14 **** [1] Bupleurum longicaule [sngo zi ra nag po] Lf, Fl, Sd ngar,tsa/ drö–nyom Cold disorders of liver and stomach 0.14 **** [1] Berberis aristata [skyer pa dkar po] Fl, Fr ngar,kyur, kha/sil, tsub Phlegm, bile and blood disorders 0.43 ** [1] Lagotis kunawurensis [ngo ba sha ka] Wp kha/sil Liver and blood disorders 0.07 ** [1] Ranunculus brotherusii [lce tsha] Ap tsa/drö Cold disorders, indigestion, 0.07 * [1] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Justicia adhatoda [bas ha ka, shing ba sha ka] Mangifera indica [a 'bras] Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute N[C] Sd kha/sil Lf kha/sil, yang Fr kyur,ngar, ka/sil,no, tsub Fr tsa,ngar/ drö, tsub, no Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency N[C/I] Fr kyur,ngar, ka/drö Berberis aristata [skyer pa dkar po] Fr ngar,kyur/ sil–nyom Punica granatum [se 'bru] ?N Rhus chinensis N Brucea javanica [da trig] Senegalia catechu [seng ldeng] N Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute Fl, Fr ngar,kyur, kha/sil– drö, tsub Stomach disorders 0.21 ** [1] Triglochin maritima [na ram] Fr kha,ka/sil Diarrhoea, lung disorder 0.07 * [1] Wd ka,kha/sil Berberis aristata [skyer pa dkar po] Br kha/sil– tsub,drö Lymphatic (chu ser) disorder, chronic fever and blood disorders 0.14 ** [1] Strychnos nux-vomica [ko byi la] E[C/I] Sd kha/sil Corallodiscus lanuginosus [brag skya ha bo] Wp kha,ka/sil Poisoning, stomach disorders 0.07 *** [1] Symplocos paniculata [zhu mkhan] N Lf ka,kha/sil Berberis aristata [skyer pa dkar po] Br kha/sil– tsub,drö Fever 0.07 * [1] Flb tsa,ka/ drö,tsub, num Rhododendron anthopogon [ba lu dkar po] Lf, Fl ngar,kha, ka,tsa/ drö,tsub Cold disorders, indigestion, loss of appetite 0.29 *** [1] Fr ka,kyur/ nyom Polygonatum cirrhifolium [ra mnye] Fr ngar,kha, ka/nyom– drö Kidney and stomach disorders 0.07 ** [1] Fr ka,kyur/ nyom Rosa sericea [se ba] Fr, Sd ka,kyur, ngar/sil– nyom Wind, phlegm and bile disorders, lymph fluid disorder 0.36 ** [1] Syringa emodi [srin shing, se rgod] Lf, Sd ka,ngar/ drö–nyom Wind and phlegm disorders and accumulation of lymph fluid 0.07 * Myricaria rosea ['om bu chung ba] Lf, Fl, Fr ngar,ka/sil Digestive and blood disorder, poisoning; detoxification of poisonous ingredients. 0.71 **** [1, 3] Myricaria squamosa ['om bu che ba] Lf, Fl, Fr ngar,ka/sil Same as above 0.21 *** [1, 3] Myricaria wardii ['om bu che ba] Lf, Fl, Fr ngar,ka/sil Same as above 0.14 *** [1, 3] Euphorbia wallichii [thar nu] Rt tsa,ngar/ sil,tsub,chi Laxative/purgative 0.14 *** [1] Syzygium aromaticum [li shi] Syzygium cumini [sa 'bras] N Terminalia bellirica [ba ru] Terminalia chebula [a ru] Toxicodendron E[I] vernicifluum / N T. succedaneum [shri khan da] N N E[I] Fr ka,ngar, kyur/ nyom– sil,yang Rn ka,kha– tsa/sil,no 89 Rare/threatened or locally unavailable plant species Substitute plants (species and infraspecific taxa) Scientific name [Sowa 1 Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Scientific name [Sowa Rigpa name] Parts 2 used and 3 Taste / 4 potency Rt ngar,tsa/ drö Mirabilis himalaica [ba spru] Rt ngar,ka, tsa/drö, yang Withania somnifera [a sho gan dha] E[C/I] Use properties that signify the similarity between original one and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substi5 tute Wind disorders, kidney diseases, lymphatic disorder, tonic and aphrodisiac 0.14 **** 1 The plant species listed under five groups are based on nativity, their local availability, and conservation/protection status. The superscript symbols refer to (i) rarity of species [ǂ], i.e. the species is locally rare due to intrinsic or extrinsic factors related to demographic, environmental (e.g., high habitat specificity) and antropogenic (e.g., species over harvested) causes and thus are not frequently found (based on interviews, literature and field observation); (ii) species listed as threatened in national Red List [ψ], i.e. the species is included in CAMP report as ‘near threatened’, ‘vulnerable’, ‘endangered’ or ‘critically endangered’; (iii) species listed as threatened globally [¥], i.e., the species is included in IUCN Red List as ‘near threatened’, ‘vulnerable’, ‘endangered’ or ‘critically endangered’; (iv) species in global protection [φ], i.e., the species is included in CITES appendix; (v) species in national protection [Ø], i.e., the species is protected by the Government of Nepal under Forest Act (2019). In addition, the native species are marked by the superscript letter ‘N’ and the exotics by the letter ‘E’. The native species are further distinguished as whether they are cultivated [C] or not and the exotics are distinguished as cultivated [C] and imported [I] or both [C/I]. For complete list of threatened species see Table 2.10. Locally unavailable species are either exotic, which are imported in Nepal or native with tropical/subtropical distributiom and are thus not found in the Himalaya where amchi actually practice Sowa Rigpa. 2 Parts used: aerial part (Ap), bulb (Bl), flower (Fl), flowering bud (Flb), fruit (Fr), leaf (Lf), pseudobulb (Psb), rhizome (Rh), resin or latex or plant sap (Rn), Root (Rt), seed (Sd), stem or branches (St), tuber (Tb), wood (Wd), whole lichen thallus (Wl), whole plant (Wp). 3 Taste: ka (Tib. bska’ = astringent), kha (kha = bitter), kyur (skyur = sour), len tsa (lan tsha = salty), ngar (mngar = sweet), tsa (tsha = hot/acrid). 4 Potency: chi (Tib. lci ba = heavy), drö (drod or tsha ba = warm), no (rno ba = sharp), num (snum pa = oily), nyom (snyoms pa = neutral), sil (bsil pa = cool), tsub (rtsub ba = coarse), yang (yang ba = light). 5 Rating of the substitutes by amchi: ****excellent, ***very good, **good, *satisfactory. Also given are reference for similar type of substitution mentioned in [1] Medicines from odorous plants and animal parts and their medicinal substitution by Urgen Tenzing; [2] Drungtso and Drungtso (2005); [3] Arya (1998); [4] Norbu (2015); [5] Norbu (2016). 6 The term na ga ge sar literally means horse-tail-like stamen of red flower of Bombax ceiba [amchi have mentioned that pus pa ge sar (calyx) and pad ma ge sar (petal) can also be used for the same purpose]. 90 3.2.2 Substitution of Rare Animal Products with Plant- and Animal-derived Products and Minerals Amchi are practicing substitution of animal-based rare substances with minerals, and with ingredients derived from locally available plants, fungi, and domestic animals. We identified a total of 73 ingredients derived from 31 plant taxa (29 species, 1 subspecies and 1 variety) and 1 species of fungus, 10 ingredients from 5 animal species (4 domestic and 1 wild), and 9 types of minerals as substitutes for a total of 49 products derived from 30 species of wild animals (Table 3.3). Individually, the plant-based ingredients are substituted for products derived from the largest number (23 species) of wild animals, and fungal-based ingredients are substituted for 2 species of wild animals. Similarly, domestic animal- and mineral-based substances are substituted for ingredients derived from 14 and 5 species of wild animals, respectively (Table 3.3). There is only one wild animal (Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis), which part (horn) is used as a substitute for rhino horn. Highest number of substitute types (fungal, plant and animal taxa, and mineral types) was cited for Elephas maximus (total 12, including 6 plant taxa and 6 types of minerals), followed by Ursus thibetanus (total 8, including 7 plant taxa and 1 species of domestic animal), Moschus chrysogaster s.l. (total 4, all plant species), Rhinoceros unicornis (total 4, including 1 each of plant, domestic animal and wild animal taxa, and 1 mineral type) and Vulpes vulpes (total 4, including 3 plant species and 1 mineral type) (Figure 3.2; Table 3.3). Two plant species and one mineral type were cited as substitutes for each of the three animal species, viz., Aegypius monachus, Bos mutus, and Gypaetus barbatus. Among the remaining 22 out of 30 species of wild animals, 2 substitute types were mentioned each for 11 species, and 1 substitute type each for rest of the 11 species (Table 3.3). Substitute types Rucervus duvaucelii Plant species and infraspecific taxa Panthera tigris tigris Fungal species Wild animal species Rare and threatened taxa Batrachuperus pinchonii Domestic animal species Mineral types Gypaetus barbatus Bos mutus Aegypius monachus Rhinoceros unicornis Moschus chrysogaster Ursus thibetanus Elephas maximus 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Number of substitute types 10 11 12 13 Figure 3.2. Number of substitutes (fungal, plant and animal species, and mineral types) prescribed in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal for major threatened animals. 91 In the following paragraphs, substitutes prescribed for organs or parts obtained from some of the highly threatened and medicinally popular wild animals are described (for others see Table 3.3): Aegypius monachus (cinereous vulture): It is listed as near threatened in the IUCN Red List, but is regarded as endangered in Nepal. The bird is known by the term bya rgod in Sowa Rigpa. Different parts of the bird are prescribed in Sowa Rigpa for the treatment of goiter, indigestion, stomachache, gastritis, gynaecological diseases, heart diseases, general debility, urinary obstructions and swellings. Amchi cited blood and heart of Bos grunniens (domestic yak; gyag in Sowa Rigpa), fruits of Choerospondias axillaris (snying zho sha), and rhizome, fruits and seeds of Podophyllum hexandrum ('ol mo se) as common substitutes for cinereous vulture (bya rgod). Among these substitutes, P. hexandrum and Bos grunniens scored relatively higher value of relative frequency of citation (RFC = 0.14 and 0.11, respectively) than Choerospondias axillaris (RFC was 0.08). However, Podophyllum hexandrum was given moderately high rating than two other species in relation to its effectiveness as substitute for cinereous vulture (for detail see Table 3.3). Rhizome, fruits and seeds of P. hexandrum and body parts (flesh, stomach/intestine) of cinereous vulture share some properties in common, especially in relation to their use in treating gynaecological disorders, urinary obstructions and swellings. Similarly, heart of domestic yak and fruits of Choerospondias axillaris are prescribed as substitutes particularly for treating heart disorder (Table 3.3). Batrachuperus pinchonii (Chinese mountain salamander or stream salamander): It is globally threatened with vulnerable status in the IUCN Red List. It is known by the terms gang sbal, da byid smug po, gang da byid or go ta in Sowa Rigpa. Flesh of Chinese mountain salamander is regarded as the most powerful aphrodisiac. It is also prescribed as a general tonic to revitalize physical vigor and as a tonic to kidneys. It is also used to treat cold disorders of kidneys. Amchi cited whole organism of Ophiocordyceps sinensis (dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu in Sowa Rigpa, also known as rtswa da byid) and rhizomes of Polygonatum cirrhifolium (ra mnye) as common substitutes for Chinese mountain salamander. Of these substitutes, Ophiocordyceps sinensis scored a higher value of relative citation frequency (RFC = 0.34) compared to Polygonatum cirrhifolium (0.26). But, both of these herbs were given highest ratings by amchi in relation to their effectiveness as substitutes for Chinese mountain salamander (for detail see Table 3.3). Both of these substitutes and Chinese mountain salamander share following properties in common: taste (sweet; but Ophiocordyceps sinensis is also slightly salty in taste, and Polygonatum cirrhifolium rhizomes also possess bitter to astringent taste), potency (warming; but P. cirrhifolium is neutral to warming) and therapeutic use (to revitalize physical vigor, tonic to kidney, aphrodisiac and disorders of kidneys) (Table 3.3). Bos mutus (wild yak): It is listed as vulnerable species in the IUCN Red List. It is known by the term ‘brong in Sowa Rigpa. Blood and heart of wild yak is used to treat heart diseases, loss of memory, depression, general debility, and wounds. Amchi cited respective organs of domestic yak (Bos grunniens) as a best medicinal substitutes for wild yak organs. The value of relative frequency of citation for Bos grunniens as a substitute was 0.23, and it received highest rating from amchi in relation to its effectiveness as substitute for wild yak. Blood and heart of domestic and wild yak share taste (sweet), potency (warming) and therapeutic use (to treat heart diseases, loss of memory and general debility) in common (Table 3.3). In addition, plant parts of Cortia depressa (tang kun nag po) and Hymenidium hookeri (tang kun dkar po) were cited by few amchi (RFC = 0.09) with lower ratings in relation to their effectiveness as substitutes for wild yak (for detail see Table 3.3). Canis lupus (grey wolf): It is regarded as critically endangered species in Nepal. It is known by the term spyang ki in Sowa Rigpa. Tongue and stomach of grey wolf is mainly prescribed in Sowa Rigpa for the 92 treatment of indigestion, mouth and throat disorders, tongue swelling, and goiter. For this animal, flowers and fruits of Berberis aristata (skyer pa) were cited by some amchi (RFC = 0.09) as a substitute. However, B. aristata appears to be the weakest substitute as it shares properties with the original ingredient only in terms of potency (cooling) and therapeutic use for treating indigestion and mouth and throat disorders. Elephas maximus (Asian elephant): It is listed as a globally endangered species in the IUCN Red List. It is known by the term glang chen in Sowa Rigpa. Elephant bezoar (gi wang) is mainly prescribed in Sowa Rigpa for treating liver disorders and fever of the channels and poisoning. Bezoar is a small stony concretion mainly derived from animal's liver and bile, but is also found trapped in the gastrointestinal system. In literature, ox bezoar has also been prescribed for the same purpose (Gyatso and Hakim 2010). Animal bezoar is hard to find; therefore, amchi in Nepal mostly use plant and mineral-based substitutes. Out of 12 substitutes prescribed for bezoar, 6 each are based on plants and minerals. The most frequently cited plant substitutes for elephant bezoar are Pedicularis longiflora var. tubiformis (lug ru ser po) and P. hoffmeisteri (lug ru dkar po) with RFC 0.37 and 0.19, respectively. However, P. longiflora var. tubiformis was rated high by amchi in relation to its efficacy as a substitute for elephant bezoar. Among minerals, cu gang (bamboo cilica), brag zhun (rock-essence/silajit), chu gi wang (a rock mineral extracted from water bodies), rdo gi wang (a rock mineral) and sa gi wang (a rock mineral) have been most frequently cited (with RFC = 0.29, 0.23, 0.17, 0.11 and 0.11, respectively) by amchi as substitutes for elephant bezoar. Of these mineral substitutes, sa gi wang, cu gang and brag zhun were rated in term of higher efficacy. But, in practice, sa gi wang is considered as superior substitute for elephant bezoar. However, when lug ru ser po, brag zhun, gur gum, sa gi wang and ker khan da are mixed and grinded together then a complete substitute mixture can be produced. All these substitutes and elephant bezoar share taste (sweet and astringent; but Pedicularis spp. also possess bitter taste), potency (cooling), and therapeutic use (for treating fever of the channels, liver disorders and poisoning) in common (Table 3.3, Appendix 3 and 4). Gypaetus barbatus (bearded vulture): It is regarded as vulnerable in Nepal. It is known by the term go bo in Sowa Rigpa. In Mustang, it is also known as gol tog. Different parts of the bird are prescribed in Sowa Rigpa for the treatment of indigestion, stomachache, gynaecological disease, heart diseases, general debility, loss of concentration, urinary obstructions and swelling, and for strengthening vocal cords. Like Aegypius monachus (cinereous vulture), amchi cited the same three substitutes for bearded vulture. Blood and heart of domestic yak (gyag) are prescribed as a substitute to treat heart diseases, heart pain and general debility. Fruits of Choerospondias axillaris (snying zho sha) are prescribed as a substitute to treat heart disorder; and rhizome, fruits and seeds of Podophyllum hexandrum ('ol mo se) are prescribed for gynaecological disorders, urinary obstructions and swellings. P. hexandrum scored relatively higher RFC value (0.14), with moderately high rating in relation to its effectiveness as a substitute for bearded vulture (for detail see Table 3.3). Gyps himalayensis (Himalayan griffon): It is listed as near threatened in the IUCN Red List, but is regarded as vulnerable in Nepal. The bird is known by the term bya rgod in Sowa Rigpa. For this bird, amchi cited aerial parts of Clematis montana (dbyi mong dkar po) as a good substitute. The internal organs of the bird and the aerial parts of C. montana shared taste (mostly acrid), potency (both warming) and therapeutic use (for treating indigestion, stomachache, and loss of appetite) in common (Table 3.3). Manis pentadactyla (Chinese pangolin): It is listed as critically endangered species in the global Red List of IUCN, and is regarded as endangered in Nepal. In Sowa Rigpa, it is known by the term chu srin sder mo. However, this animal is not commonly used in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal. Instead, a plant source 93 of chu srin sder mo, known as sngo chu srin sder mo is prescribed, which in botanical term refers to the species of spike mosses. In Nepal, Selaginella pulvinata has been identified as the source of sngo chu srin sder mo, the medicinal qualities of which correspond to that of Chinese pangolin for treating bone disorder, hot disorders, bone fracture and urinary disorders (Table 3.3). Moschus chrysogaster s.l. (musk deer): It is listed as globally endangered species in IUCN Red List. The animal is known by the term gla ba in Sowa Rigpa. Musk pod (gla rtsi in Sowa Rigpa) is highly valued in traditional medicines practiced in the Himalaya and China. It is prescribed in Sowa Rigpa to treat poisoning, wind disorders and disorders of liver and kidneys, infectious diseases, urinary retention, swelling, wounds, inflammation, and gastritis. Amchi cited four plant substitutes for musk pod: decotion of aerial parts of Artemisia hedinii (zangs rtsi nag po) and Artemisia vestita (phur nag), leaves and flowers of Delphinium brunonianum (bya rgod spos), and roots and stems of Oxytropis microphylla (stag sha). The highest value of relative frequency of citation as a substitute was for Delphinium brunonianum (0.94), followed by Oxytropis microphylla (0.37), Artemisia vestita (0.14) and Artemisia hedinii (0.08). Among these substitutes, Delphinium brunonianum and Oxytropis microphylla were rated high by amchi in relation to their effectiveness as substitutes for musk pod. According to amchi, Delphinium brunonianum is poisonous, but has a musky smell similar to that of musk deer. Most of these substitutes and musk pod share taste (bitter, astringent and acrid), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for infectious diseases, fever, poisoning, wounds, and urinary disorders) in common (Table 3.3, Appendix 3). Panthera tigris tigris (Royal Bengal tiger): It is globally threatened with endangered status in the IUCN Red List; and is also regarded as endangered in Nepal. The animal is known by the term stag in Sowa Rigpa. Body parts of tiger are not used in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal. Amchi have proposed that bones of Felis catus (domestic cat; byi la in Sowa Rigpa) could serve as good substitute for tiger bone. Most amchi even do not use domestic cat for medicine. Only few learned amchi revealed that domestic cat bones share medicinal qualities in common with tiger bone, especially for treating bone disorder, bone fracture and arthritis. Similarly, flowers of Carthamus tinctorius (gur gum or bal po gur gum) are considered as appropriate substitute for tiger fur in treating bleedings and wounds (Table 3.3). Rhinoceros unicornis (greater one-horned rhinoceros): It is globally threatened with vulnerable status in the IUCN Red List; and is regarded as endangered in Nepal. The animal is known by the term bse ru in Sowa Rigpa. Rhinoceros horn (bse ru ra) is prescribed in Sowa Rigpa to treat poisoning fever, lung infection, fever of the lungs and heart, tuberculosis, wounds and allergy, accumulation of abdominal lymph fluid and pus formation in the lungs. Amchi cited four substitutes, derived one each from plant, domestic and wild animals, and mineral source for the substitution of rhinoceros horn. The plant species cited for this purpose is Fragaria nubicola ('bri ta sa 'dzin in Sowa Rigpa), leaves and flowers of which are prescribed as a substitute. Horns of Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis (barking deer, kha sha in Sowa Rigpa) and Ovis aries (domestic sheep, lug or lug thug po in Sowa Rigpa) are the animal source; and limonite (sin dhu ra in Sowa Rigpa), an amorphous brownish secondary mineral is the mineral source prescribed as substitutes for rhinoceros horn. Among these substitutes, Fragaria nubicola (RFC = 0.23) obtained higher citation in relation to its use as substitute, followed by limonite (0.20), Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis (0.09) and Ovis aries (0.09). However, amchi gave highest rating to the horns of Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis and to limonite, fairy high rating to Fragaria nubicola and lowest rating to Ovis aries in relation to their effectiveness as substitutes for rhinoceros horn. Most of these substitutes and rhinoceros horn share only some of the properties in common, like taste (rhinoceros horns are reported to possess sweet, bitter and 94 acrid taste; but majority of the rated substitutes possess sweet and/or bitter taste and some are even astringent in taste), potency (all cooling) and therapeutic use (for lung infection, accumulation of lymph fluid and pus formation in the lung) (Table 3.3, Appendix 3 and 4). Rucervus duvaucelii (barasingha or swamp deer): It is globally threatened with vulnerable status in the IUCN Red List; and is regarded as endangered in Nepal. The animal is known by the term sha ba in Sowa Rigpa and its horn is prescribed in medicine. Young horn is prescribed as a tonic, whereas mature horn is considered useful in treating lung infection, pus accumulation in the lung, accumulation of lymph fluid, wounds and menstrual disorder. Amchi cited rhizome, fruits and seeds of Podophyllum hexandrum ('ol mo se) sharing medicinal qualities in common with the swamp deer horn for treating gynaecological disorders, irregular menstruation, and lymph fluid disorders. Similarly, leaves and flowers of Fragaria nubicola ('bri ta sa 'dzin) have been cited sharing medicinal qualities in common with the swamp deer horn for treating lung infections and accumulation of lymph fluid and pus formation in the lung (Table 3.3). Ursus thibetanus (Himalayan black bear): It is globally threatened with vulnerable status in the IUCN Red List; and is regarded as endangered in Nepal. The animal is known by the term dom in Sowa Rigpa. Bear bile (dom mkhris in Sowa Rigpa) is valued in traditional medicines practiced in the Himalaya and China. It is prescribed in Sowa Rigpa to treat bile disorder, headache, fever, menstrual bleeding, pre- and postnatal bleedings, cuts, wound, eye disorder, neurological disorders and tissue necrosis, and for boosting tissue growth and repair. There are eight substances currently used by amchi as substitutes for bear bile, including plant parts of seven species and bile or gallbladder of domestic yak (gyag in Sowa Rigpa). The most frequency cited plants as substitutes for bear bile (dom mkhris) are Veronica ciliata, V. ciliata subsp. cephaloides and V. himalensis (with RFC = 0.54, 0.54 and 0.49, respectively), all known by the term ldum nag dom mkhris in Sowa Rigpa. The other important species, but with lower citation frequency, are Swertia chirayita (rgya tig; RFC = 0.14), Crocus sativus (kha che gur gum; 0.11), Parnassia nubicola (dngul tig; 0.11) and Ixeridium gracile (rtsa mkhris; 0.09). However, Veronica ciliata, V. ciliata subsp. cephaloides and Crocus sativus were rared high by amchi in relation to their effectiveness as substitutes for bear bile. Bile/gallbladder of domestic yak had a relative citation frequency value of 0.19, but was rared high by amchi in relation to its effectiveness as substitute. Most of these substitutes share taste (bitter), potency (cooling) and therapeutic use (for treating bile disorders, bleeding, and wounds) in common with bear bile (Table 3.3, Appendix 3). Comparison of substitutes for animal products In terms of relative frequency of citation (RFC), the most commonly cited plant-based substitute for wild animal is Delphinium brunonianum (bya rgod spos) with RFC 0.94; leaves and flowers of which are used as a substitute for musk pod (gla rtsi). Veronica ciliata subsp. ciliata, V. ciliata subsp. cephaloides (for both species RFC = 0.54) and V. himalensis (RFC = 0.49), all known as ldum nag dom mkhris in Sowa Rigpa, were also commonly cited plants as a substitute. Leaves and flowers of all these three taxa are substituted for bear bile (dom mkhris). Similarly, Oxytropis microphylla and Pedicularis longiflora var. tubiformis (for both species RFC = 0.37) were the fourth most commonly cited substitute plant species. Oxytropis microphylla (stag sha) is used as a substitute for musk pod (gla rtsi). Pedicularis longiflora var. tubiformis, known as lug ru ser po is used as a substitute for elephant bezoar (gi wang). Ophiocordyceps sinensis (dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu), with relative citation frequency of 0.34, is the fifth most commonly cited substitute used in place of Chinese mountain salamander (Batrachuperus pinchonii), known in Sowa Rigpa as gang sbal. 95 Among the medicinal plants (including fungi), nine species were cited by amchi as substitutes for multiple wildlife species. Podophyllum hexandrum ('ol mo se) was cited as a substitute for ingredients derived from six wild animals, viz., Aegypius monachus (cinereous vulture, bya rgod), Cervus elaphus (red deer, sha ru), Gypaetus barbatus (bearded vulture, go bo), Rucervus duvaucelii (swamp deer or barasingha, sha ba), Tetraogallus himalayensis (Himalayan snowcock, gong mo), and T. tibetanus (Tibetan snowcock, gong mo). Three plant species, viz., Choerospondias axillaris (snying zho sha), Clematis montana (dbyi mong dkar po) and Fragaria nubicola ('bri ta sa 'dzin) were cited as substitutes for ingredients derived from three wild animals. Similarly, Berberis aristata (skyer pa), Carthamus tinctorius (gur gum), Crocus sativus (kha che gur gum), Ophiocordyceps sinensis (dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu) and Paraquilegia microphylla (yu mo mde'u 'byin) were cited as substitutes for ingredients derived from two wild animals (Table 3.3). Recently, Ophiocordyceps sinensis has entered the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable species (Yang 2020). Therefore, caution should be taken when using it as a substitute for any organism, and now the time has come to find out alternative(s) to this herb as well. Based on our research with amchi, it appears that Ophiocordyceps sinensis and medicinal herbs, like Maianthemum purpureum, Polygonatum cirrhifolium and P. verticillatum share a number of properties in common (see Part III). Therefore, these later herbs should be considered for evaluating their effectiveness as alternative to Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Among the domestic animals, different body parts (mainly blood and horn) of Capra hircus (domestic goat, ra) have been cited as a substitute for ingredients derived from five wild animals, viz., Capricornis thar (Himalayan serow, rgya ra), Hemitragus jemlahicus (Himalayan tahr, ra rgod), Naemorhedus goral (Himalayan ghoral, ra rgod), Ovis ammon (argali, gnyan) and Sus scrofa (wild boar, ri phag or phag rgod). The higher citation was for the substitution of blood and horn of Himalayan tahr (RFC = 0.11) and blood of wild boar (0.11) with the respective parts of the domestic goat. Different parts (mainly blood, heart and gallbladder) of Bos grunniens (domestic yak, gyag) have been cited as a substitute for rare ingredients derived from four wild animals, viz., Aegypius monachus (cinereous vulture, bya rgod), Gypaetus barbatus (bearded vulture, go bo), Bos mutus (wild yak, ‘brong) and Ursus thibetanus (Himalayan black bear, dom). However, the highest citation was for the substitution of blood and heart of wild yak (RFC = 0.23), followed by the substitution of bear bile (0.19) and heart of cinereous vulture with the respective parts of domestic yak. Similarly, different parts (mainly blood and horn) of Ovis aries (domestic sheep, lug or lug thug po) have been cited as a substitute for ingredients derived from four wild animals, viz., Axis axis (spotted deer, kha sha), Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis (barking deer, kha sha), Pseudois nayaur (blue sheep, gna' ba) and Rhinoceros unicornis (greater one-horned rhinoceros, bse ru). The citation frequency remained the same (0.09) for all these cases (Table 3.3; for detail use of animals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa see Appendix 3). Out of nine different types of minerals used as substitutes for products derived from wild animals, cu gang (bamboo cilica) was most commonly cited (with RFC 0.29) as a substitute for elephant bezoar (gi wang). It is also prescribed as a substitute (with RFC 0.11) for Vulpes vulpes (red fox, wa mo in Sowa Rigpa), lung of which is prescribed for treating lung tuberculosis, cough, asthma, urinary problems and gall stone (for comparison of medicinal qualities see Table 3.3). The other commonly cited mineral substitutes for wildlife parts are rock-essence or silajit (brag zhun) for elephant bezoar (gi wang), with RFC 0.23; limonite (sin dhu ra) for rhinoceros horn (bse ru ra), with RFC 0.20; and rock mineral extracted from water bodies (chu gi wang) for elephant bezoar (gi wang), with RFC 0.17 (Table 3.3; for detail use of minerals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa see Appendix 4). 96 Table 3.3. List of substitutes used in Sowa Rigpa for rare or threatened animals: name, parts use, properties, types of substitute (animal-, mineral- and plantbased) and relative frequency of citation (RCF). Total RFC for each substitute was calculated by combining all informants in the three districts (n = 35), who practiced substitution of animal-based ingredients. Rare or threatened animals Substitutes Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Parts used Taste / 2 potency Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Type Parts used Taste / 2 potency 1 Use properties that signify the similarity between original ingredient and its substitute Aegypius monachus Cinereous vulture [bya rgod] Heart, flesh ngar,tsa/ drö Bos grunniens Domestic yak [gyag] An. Blood, heart ngar,ka/sil– drö Heart diseases, heart pain, general debility 0.11 ** Heart ngar,tsa/ drö Choerospondias axillaris [snying zho sha] Pl. Fruit ngar,kyur/ sil, little drö Heart disorder 0.09 ** Flesh, stomach/ intestine ngar,tsa/ drö Podophyllum hexandrum ['ol mo se] Pl. Rhizome, fruit, seed ka,kha,tsa, ngar/nyom Gynaecological disorders, urinary obstructions, swellings 0.14 *** Axis axis Spotted deer [kha sha] Horn ngar/sil Ovis aries Domestic sheep [lug] An. Horn (noncastrated male) ngar,ka/sil Infections, lung diseases 0.09 **** Batrachuperus pinchonii Chinese mountain salamander [gang sbal, da byid smug po, gang da byid, go ta] Flesh ngar /drö Ophiocordyceps sinensis [dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu, rtswa da byid] Fun. Whole organism ngar,len tsa /drö Tonic to revitalize physical vigor, tonic to kidney, aphrodisiac and disorders of kidneys 0.34 **** Polygonatum cirrhifolium [ra mnye, ra mo shag] Pl. Rhizome ngar, kha– ka/nyom– drö Tonic for restoring physical strength, aphrodisiac, kidney diseases 0.26 **** [1] Bos mutus Wild yak [‘brong] Blood, heart Bos grunniens Domestic yak [gyag] An. Blood, heart ngar/drö Heart diseases, heart pain, loss of memory, general debility 0.23 **** Cortia depressa [tang kun nag po] Pl. Root, seed ngar,kha– tsa/sil–drö Heart diseases 0.09 ** Hymenidium hookeri [tang kun dkar po] Pl. Root, seed ngar,kha– tsa/sil–drö Heart diseases 0.09 ** 1 ngar/drö 3 Total RFC Rating of the substitute 4 and ref 97 Rare or threatened animals Substitutes 1 3 1 Use properties that signify the similarity between original ingredient and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substitute 4 and ref Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Parts used Taste / 2 potency Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Type Parts used Taste / 2 potency Bungarus multicinctus Chinese krait, Manybanded krait [lcags sbrul] Whole animal ngar/sil Gagea serotina [rtsa a wa] Pl. Bulb, leaf ngar, little kha/sil Eye disorders, poor eye sight 0.17 **** [1] Lloydia longiscapa [rtsa a wa rgod pa] Pl. Bulb, leaf ngar, little kha/sil Eye disorders, poor eye sight 0.11 **** [1] Canis lupus Grey wolf [spyang ki] Tongue, stomach ngar/sil Berberis aristata [skyer pa] Pl. Flower, fruits ngar, kyur, kha/sil, tsub Mouth and throat disorders, indigestion 0.09 ** Capricornis thar Himalayan serow [rgya ra] Horn kha/sil Capra hircus Domestic goat [ra] An. Horn ngar, len tsa/sil Gynaecological disorders, poisoning 0.09 ** Paraquilegia microphylla [yu mo mde'u 'byin] Pl. Leaf, stem, flower kha,ka/sil Gynaecological diseases, difficult delivery, expulsion of placenta, poisoning 0.14 **** Elephas maximus Asian elephant [glang chen] Bezoar Bamboo cilica [cu gang] Min. - ngar,ka/sil Fever, infections 0.29 **** Rock-essence/silajit (black) [brag zhun] Min. - ngar,kha– ka/sil,no Fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs 0.23 **** [1] Rock-essence/silajit (golden) [gser zhun] Min. - ngar,ka/sil Fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs 0.06 *** Rock mineral [rdo gi wang] Min. - ngar,ka/sil Fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs 0.11 *** Rock mineral [sa gi wang] Min. - ngar,ka/sil Fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs 0.11 **** [1] Rock mineral extracted from water bodies [chu gi wang] Min. - ngar,ka/sil Fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs 0.17 ** [1] Berberis aristata [skyer pa dkar po] Pl. Bark decoction (khenda) ka,kha/sil Fever, poisoning 0.09 ** [1] 98 ngar,ka/ sil Rare or threatened animals Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Substitutes Parts used 1 Taste / 2 potency Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Type Parts used Taste / 2 potency Use properties that signify the similarity between original ingredient and its substitute Carthamus tinctorius [gur gum, bal po gur gum] Pl. Flower ngar/sil Liver disorders 0.09 ** Crocus sativus [kha che gur gum] Pl. Flower ngar,kha/sil Liver and bile disorders, fever 0.09 ** [1] Myricaria rosea ['om bu] Pl. Flower ngar,ka/sil Poisoning, fever 0.09 ** Pedicularis hoffmeisteri [lug ru dkar po] Pl. Leaf, flower ngar,kha– ka/sil Fever, bile and liver disorder, infections and poisoning 0.19 *** Pedicularis longiflora var. tubiformis [lug ru ser po] Pl. Whole plant ngar,kha– ka/sil Fever, liver disorder, infections, poisoning 0.37 **** [1] 3 1 Total RFC Rating of the substitute 4 and ref Heart, flesh ngar,tsa/ drö Bos grunniens Domestic yak [gyag] An. Blood, heart Ngar,ka/sil – drö Heart diseases, heart pain, general debility 0.09 ** Heart ngar,tsa/ drö Choerospondias axillaris [snying zho sha] Pl. Fruit, seed ngar,kyur/ sil, little drö Heart disorder 0.09 ** Flesh, stomach/ intestine ngar,tsa/ drö Podophyllum hexandrum ['ol mo se] Pl. Rhizome, fruit, seed ka,kha,tsa, ngar/nyom Gynaecological disorders, urinary obstructions, swellings 0.14 *** Gyps himalayensis Himalayan griffon vulture [bya rgod] Flesh, stomach/ intestine, excreta ngar,tsa/ drö Clematis montana [dbyi mong dkar po] Pl. Aerial parts tsa little ngar/drö, tsub,no Indigestion, stomachache, and loss of appetite 0.14 *** Hemitragus jemlahicus Himalayan tahr, Jharal [ra rgod] Blood, horn ngar,len tsa/sil Capra hircus Domestic goat [ra] An. Blood, horn ngar,len tsa/sil Headache due to sinusitis, gynaecological disorders 0.11 *** Himalayapotamon atkinsonianum Freshwater crab [sdig srin] Whole animal ngar, len tsa/drö Ophiocordyceps sinensis [dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu] Fun. Whole organism ngar, len tsa/drö Kidney disorder, urinary retention 0.14 **** Vermiculite [gser bye] Min. - ngar/drö Kidney disorder, urinary retention 0.14 **** Gypaetus barbatus Bearded vulture [go bo] 99 Rare or threatened animals Substitutes 1 3 1 Use properties that signify the similarity between original ingredient and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substitute 4 and ref Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Parts used Taste / 2 potency Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Type Parts used Taste / 2 potency Lepus oiostolus Wooly hare [ri bong] Heart ngar/ nyom Choerospondias axillaris [snying zho sha] Pl. Fruit, seed ngar,kyur/ sil, little drö Heart disorder 0.11 **** Lutra lutra Eurasian otter [sram] Flesh, liver, tail ngar/drö Artificially prepared gi wang, known as gim jo, using flowers of lug ru ser po (Pedicularis longiflora), and minerals, such as sa gi wang and chu gi wang Pl., Min. Flowers ngar/drö Disorders of liver, kidney and other vessel organs 0.14 **** Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin [chu srin sder mo] Scale ngar, kha/sil Selaginella pulvinata [sngo chu srin sder mo] Pl. Whole plant kha,ngar– tsa/sil Bone disorder, hot disorders, bone fracture, urinary disorder 0.14 *** Moschus chrysogaster 5 Musk deer [gla ba] Musk pod ka,kha, tsa/sil Artemisia hedinii [zangs rtsi nag po, phur nag] Pl. Aerial parts decoction (khan da) kha,tsa/sil Wind disorders, infectious diseases, sinusitis, swellings, wounds 0.08 *** Artemisia vestita [phur nag] Pl. Aerial parts decoction (khan da) kha,tsa/sil Wind disorders, infectious diseases, sinusitis, swellings, wounds 0.14 *** [1] Delphinium brunonianum [bya rgod spos] Pl. Leaf, flower kha,tsa/sil Infectious diseases, fever, kidney problems, wounds 0.94 **** [1] Oxytropis microphylla [stag sha] Pl. Root, stem kha/sil Infectious disease, fever, poisoning, wounds, inflammation, serous fluid disorder and swelling 0.37 **** Muntiacus muntjak subsp. vaginalis Barking deer [kha sha] Horn ngar, ka/sil Ovis aries Domestic sheep [lug, lug thug po] An. Horn ngar,ka/sil Lung disorders, infection 0.09 * Mylabris sp. Blister beetle [byan pa] Whole animal len tsa, ka/sil Tibetia himalaica [srad smug] Pl. Whole plant ka,kha/ nyom Urinary obstructions and swellings 0.09 ** Naemorhedus goral Himalayan ghoral [ra rgod] Horn kha, ngar/sil Capra hircus Domestic goat [ra] An. Horn ngar,len tsa/sil Gynaecological disorders 0.09 ** 100 Rare or threatened animals Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Substitutes Parts used 1 Taste / 2 potency Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Type Parts used Taste / 2 potency Use properties that signify the similarity between original ingredient and its substitute Paraquilegia microphylla [yu mo mde'u 'byin] Pl. Leaf, stem, flower kha,ka/sil Gynaecological disorders 0.14 **** 3 1 Total RFC Rating of the substitute 4 and ref Ovis ammon Argali [gnyan] Old bone, horn ngar, len tsa/sil Capra hircus Domestic goat [ra] An. Horn, bone ngar, len tsa/sil Gynaecological disorders, sinusitis 0.09 *** Panthera tigris subsp. tigris Bengal tiger [stag] Bone ngar,ka/ sil Felis catus Domestic cat [byi la] An. Bone ngar,ka/sil Bone disorder, bone fracture, arthritis 0.06 ** Fur ka/sil Carthamus tinctorius [gur gum, bal po gur gum] Pl. Flower ngar,kha/sil Bleeding, wounds 0.09 *** Pseudois nayaur Blue sheep [gna' ba] Horn ngar,ka/ sil Ovis aries Domestic sheep [lug, lug thug po] An. Horn ngar,ka/sil Infection, lung disorders 0.09 *** Blood ngar/ nyom Ovis aries Domestic sheep [lug, lug thug po] An. Brain ngar/drö General debility 0.09 *** Horn ngar,kha, tsa/sil Muntiacus muntjak subsp. vaginalis Barking deer [kha sha] An. Horn ngar/sil Lung infection, accumulation of pus in the lung, and lymph fluid disorder 0.09 **** [1] Ovis aries Domestic sheep [lug, lug thug po] An. Horn ngar, ka/sil Lung disorders, infection 0.09 * Limonite [sin dhu ra] Min. - ngar,ka/sil Wounds, accumulation of pus and blood in the lung 0.20 **** Fragaria nubicola ['bri ta sa 'dzin] Pl. Leaf, flower ngar,kha/sil Lung infections, lymph fluid and pus formation in the lung 0.23 *** Rhinoceros unicornis Greater one-horned rhinoceros [bse ru] 101 Rare or threatened animals Substitutes 1 3 1 Use properties that signify the similarity between original ingredient and its substitute Total RFC Rating of the substitute 4 and ref Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Parts used Taste / 2 potency Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Type Parts used Taste / 2 potency Rucervus duvaucelii/ Cervus elaphus Barasingha/Red deer [sha ba or sha ru] Horn ka, ngar/ sil Podophyllum hexandrum ['ol mo se] Pl. Rhizome, fruit, seed ka,kha,tsa, ngar/nyom Gynaecological disorders, irregular menstruation and lymph fluid disorders 0.09 ** Fragaria nubicola ['bri ta sa 'dzin] Pl. Leaf, flower ngar,kha/sil Lung infections, lymph fluid and pus formation in the lung 0.09 *** Sus scrofa Wild boar [ri phag, phag rgod] Blood ngar, len tsa/sil Capra hircus Domestic goat [ra] An. Blood ngar, len tsa/sil Accumulation of toxins in the body 0.11 **** Tetraogallus himalayensis, T. tibetanus Himalayan/Tibetan snowcock [gong mo] Stomach/ intestine tsa/drö Clematis montana [dbyi mong dkar po] Pl. Aerial parts tsa little ngar/drö, tsub,no Indigestion, stomachache 0.14 *** Flesh, stomach/ intestine tsa/drö Podophyllum hexandrum ['ol mo se] Pl. Rhizome, fruit, seed ka,kha,tsa, ngar/nyom Gynaecological disorders, lymph fluid disorders, swellings 0.14 ** Ursus thibetanus Himalayan black bear [dom] Gallbladder/ bile kha/sil Bos grunniens Domestic yak [gyag] An. Gallbladder kha/sil Bile disorders, bleedings, fever and dark phlegm 0.19 *** Crocus sativus [kha che gur gum] Pl. Flower ngar, kha/sil Bile disorder, fever, bleeding 0.11 **** Ixeridium gracile [rtsa mkhris] Pl. Leaf, flower kha/sil Bile disorder, fever, wounds 0.09 * Parnassia nubicola [dngul tig] Pl. Whole plant kha/sil,tsub Bile disorder, headache, fever, bleeding, cuts, wound, neurological disorders, tissue growth 0.11 *** Swertia chirayita [rgya tig] Pl. Aerial parts kha/sil Bile disorder, headache, fever, wounds 0.14 ** Veronica ciliata [ldum nag dom mkhris] Pl. Leaf, flower kha, little ngar/sil Bile disorder, wounds, infection, fever, bleeding 0.54 **** 102 Rare or threatened animals Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Vulpes vulpes Red fox [wa mo] Substitutes Parts used Lung 1 Taste / 2 potency ngar/sil Scientific/English/ Sowa rigpa name Type Parts used Taste / 2 potency Use properties that signify the similarity between original ingredient and its substitute Veronica ciliata subsp. cephaloides [ldum nag dom mkhris] Pl. Leaf, flower kha, little ngar/sil Bile disorder, wounds, infection, fever, bleeding 0.54 **** Veronica himalensis [ldum nag dom mkhris] Pl. Leaf, flower kha, little ngar/sil Bile disorder, bleeding 0.49 ** Eutrema scapiflorum [sro lo dkar po] Pl. Whole plant kha/sil Lung diseases 0.09 * Rhodiola crenulata [sro lo dmar po] Pl. Rhizome ka,kha– ngar/sil Lung diseases, tuberculosis 0.09 ** Rhodiola himalensis [sro lo smug po] Pl. Rhizome ka,kha, little ngar/sil Lung diseases, tuberculosis, urinary disorders 0.14 *** Bamboo cilica [cu gang] Min. - ngar,ka/sil Lung diseases 0.11 *** 3 1 Total RFC Rating of the substitute 4 and ref 1 Taste: ka (Tib. bska’ = astringent), kha (kha = bitter), kyur (skyur = sour), len tsa (lan tsha = salty), ngar (mngar = sweet), tsa (tsha = hot/acrid). 2 Potency: chi (lci ba = heavy), drö (Tib. drod or tsha ba = warm), no (Tib. rno ba = sharp), num (snum pa = oily), nyom (snyoms pa = neutral), sil (bsil pa = cool), tsub (rtsub ba = coarse), yang (yang ba = light). 3 Substitute type based on: An. – animal, Fun. – fungi, Min. – mineral, and Pl. – plant. 4 Rating of the substitutes by amchi: ****excellent, ***very good, **good, *satisfactory. Also given are reference for particular substitute with similar properties, use and/or Sowa Rigpa name citation as in footnote of Table 3.2. 5 Here, we have considered Moschus chrysogaster in broad sense. Previously, only Moschus chrysogaster was thought to be present in Nepal; but latter publications have reported at least three species from Nepal: Moschus chrysogaster (alpine musk deer), M. fuscus (black musk deer) and M. leucogaster (Himalayan musk deer) (Jnawali et al. 2011; Katuwal et al. 2013; Amin et al. 2018). Recently, Singh et al. (2019), based on molecular method, identified M. cupreus (Kashmir musk deer) as a new species for Nepal. Among these, alpine musk deer and Himalayan musk deer are reported to be relatively widely distributed in the Himalaya covering parts of India, Nepal, Bhutan and China with an elevation range of 2000–5000 m and 2500–4200 m, respectively (Timmins et al. 2015; Harris 2016); and are therefore most likely to be cited commonly and used in traditional medicine in the Himalaya. 103 3.3 Evaluation of Substitutes According to amchi, medicinal ingredients (plant products, minerals and wildlife organs) may be substituted for one another if their taste, potency and post-digestive qualities are similar. Taste (ro), postdigestive taste (zhu rjed) and potency (nus pa) are the three basic properties that are considered while compounding medicine. The ‘six basic tastes’ (ro drug) are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, hot and astringent. Sweet, sour, salty and hot tastes pacify rlung (wind) disorders; bitter, sweet and astringent tastes relieve bile (mkhris pa) disorders; and hot, sour and salty tastes cure bad kan disorders. The eight potencies (nus pa brgyad) are heavy, oily, cool, blunt, light, coarse/rough, hot and sharp. The first four nus pa cure wind (rlung) and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, whereas the last four cure phlegm (bad kan) disorders. In addition, there are 17 qualities/attributes (yon tan) of medicinal substance (smooth, heavy, warm, oily, stable, cold, blunt, cool, flexible, fluid, dry, parched, hot, light, sharp, rough and mobile) which overcome 20 characteristics of the disorders. The different nus pa and yon tan of medicinal substances are mostly derived from their corresponding taste (ro). The action of a medicinal substance is most powerful if the ro, nus pa and zhu rjed remain unaffected in their natural states. If these three properties do not agree with each other, than the action of the succeeding factor will overpower the preceding one. Therefore, medicinal substances with similar ro, zhu rjed and nus pa are combined together for compounding medicines. Evaluation of substitutes by analyzing their similarity with original ingredients (based on interviews and secondary information) revealed that in average 29.3% substitutes almost matched the original ingredients in terms of tastes, potencies, secondary qualities and medicinal uses (Figure 3.3). Such substitutes are categorized here as ‘excellent’. Most of the mineral-based ingredients (60%) and some ingredients derived from plants (29.2%) and domestic animals (25%) used as substitutes for rare/threatened animals fall under ‘excellent’ category (Figure 3.3). In average 28.2% and 26.5% cases, the similarities have been considered to be ‘good’ and ‘very good’ respectively. Such substitutes showed similarity with original ingredient in term of taste, potency and some medicinal uses. About 16% substitutes (in average) were considered to be ‘satisfactory’, which showed similarity in term of either taste or potency and some medicinal uses. 70 60 Excellent Very good Good Satisfactory % 50 40 30 20 10 0 Plant-plant Animal-plant Animal-animal Animal-mineral Figure 3.3. Evaluation of substitutes by their similarity with original ingredients in terms of tastes, potencies, secondary qualities and medicinal use. 104 3.4 Patterns of Variation in Diversity of Substitute Species/Ingredients Use Comparison of the mean number of substitutes (species/ingredients, combining all modes together) cited per amchi showed higher value for Dolpa (mean ± SD, 4.8 ± 9.7 per amchi), followed by Mustang (3.4 ± 5.5) and Kathmandu (2.0 ± 3.1). The greater number of species/ingredients used per amchi in Dolpa indicates that the use of substitutes is more common in this district than in Mustang and Kathmandu. However, when we compared individual mode of substitution, significant geographical pattern was evident for all the four modes of substitution (Table 3.4). In the case of ‘plant-plant’ and ‘animal-plant’ substitutions, amchi from Dolpa cited greater number local substitutes than did by amchi from Mustang and Kathmandu. In average, about nine types of plant-based substitutes per amchi were cited in Dolpa each for rare and threatened plant and animal species (Table 3.4). In Kathmandu and Mustang, mean citations per amchi of locally available plant-based substitutes were about 1 and 3 for rare and threatened species of plants, and 3 and 7 for animals, respectively (Table 3.4). In contrast, greater number of mineral-based substitutes for rare and threatened animals was cited in Mustang (about three mineral types per amchi) as compared to Dolpa and Kathmandu (about one mineral type per amchi in both cases). Similarly, greater number of ‘animal-animal’ substitutes, i.e. domestic animal-based substitutes for rare and threatened animals, was cited by amchi from Kathmandu (about three substitutes per amchi), followed by amchi from Mustang (about one substitute per amchi). Use of ‘animal-animal’ substitutes was rather negligible in the case of Dolpa amchi; instead they practice more plant-based substitutes for such animals. Table 3.4. Comparison of medicinal substitutes cited in three districts. Data shown are mean (± SD) number of species/ingredient type cited per amchi (values in parentheses represent the range). Substitutionψ Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total 2* P* Number of 'plant to plant’ substitutes cited 2.8 ± 9.5 (0–33) 8.9 ± 16.4 (0–58) 1.1 ± 3.2 (0–9) 5.2 ± 12.7 (0–58) 11.30 0.004 Number of 'animal to plant’ substitutes cited2 6.8 ± 3.3 (3–13) 9.5 ± 6.4 (3–21) 3.0 ± 3.3 (0–8) 7.2 ± 5.5 (0–21) 7.13 0.028 Number of 'animal to animal’ substitutes cited3 1.4 ± 2.2 (0–6) 0.1 ± 0.2 (0–1) 2.9 ± 3.6 (0–9) 1.1 ± 2.3 (0–9) 8.07 0.018 Number of 'animal to mineral’ substitutes cited4 2.6 ± 2.3 (0–7) 0.8 ± 0.8 (0–2) 0.9 ± 1.7 (0–5) 1.4 ± 1.8 (0–7) 7.44 0.024 1 ψ Substitution: 1plant-based substitutes used per amchi for rare or threatened plant species or for plants not available locally 2 plant-based substitutes (including fungi) used per amchi for ingredients derived from rare or threatened wild animals 3 animal substitutes used per amchi for ingredients derived from rare or threatened wild animals 4 mineral-based substitutes used per amchi for ingredients derived from rare or threatened wild animals *Chi square (2) and p-values based on Kruskal Wallis Tests. Spearman's rank correlation analysis showed that the number of plant-based substitutes (species/ingredients) cited per amchi is related to the family history of medical practice (i.e., the number of generations of amchi practice), the number of types of medical formulations prepared and the total number of medicinal plants cited (Table 3.5). However, strongest positive correlation was evident between the family history of medical practice and the use of plant-based substitutes for rare and threatened 105 animals (r = 0.658, p<0.01), and for rare and threatened plants or for plants not available locally (r = 0.606, p<0.01). This indicates that the longer the family history of medical practice the greater is the number of plant-based substitute prescribed per amchi. Amchi from Dolpa and Mustang had longer family history of medical practice than those interviewed from Kathmandu (see Table 2.1). Particularly, the greater number of plant-based substitutes used by Dolpa amchi is related to the longer family history of medical practice as well as to the greater diversity of medicinal plant species with which amchi are most familiar (Table 2.12), and to the greater number medical formulations they prepared (Table 2.5). The family history of medical practice probably facilitated transfer of medicinal substitution knowledge and innovation. Table 3.5. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients showing the relationships between the number of types of substitute cited per amchi and predictor variables related to the age, years of experience, family history of medical practice, number of patients attended, students trained, number of types of ingredients cited, and number of types of medical formulations prepared. Response variables: number/types of substitute1 cited per amchi Predictor variables ‘Plant-plant' substitutes ‘Animal-plant' substitutes ‘Animal-animal' substitutes ‘Animal-mineral' substitutes Age of amchi 0.024 -0.064 -0.054 -0.177 Number of years of medical practice 0.091 0.060 -0.041 -0.060 0.606** 0.658** -0.082 0.275 Number of patients attended per year Number of generations of medical practice -0.075 -0.179 0.323 -0.019 Number of types of medicine prepared 0.352* 0.307 -0.147 -0.095 Number of plant-based ingredients cited 0.478** 0.295 0.219 0.057 Number of animal-based ingredients cited 0.077 -0.036 0.315 0.014 Number of minerals-based ingredients cited 0.150 -0.055 0.090 0.124 1 Description of substitute type as in footnote of Table 3.4 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 106 Chapter 4 Medicinal Substitutes and Conservation of Threatened Species: Integration and Exchange of Amchi’s Knowledge and Practices ______________________________________________________ In the last two decades, there has been a growing interest in researching and promoting effective and sustainable alternatives for threatened species used in traditional medicines. As a result, a number of substitutes (including plant parts, animal organs, and pharmaceutical products from related common taxa) for rare and threatened taxa have been proposed (Cassells et al. 1999; Zschocke and van Staden 2000; Luo 2011). Plant part substitution is another area of research; for example, substituting leaves for bark or root has been proposed as a strategy for the conservation of medicinal trees in southern Africa (Zschocke et al. 2000) and India (Jena et al. 2017). Some reviews have been carried out on ingredients used in Traditional Chinese Medicine in order to find suitable alternatives to tiger bone, bear bile and rhino horn (Bell and Simmond 2006; Feng et al. 2009; Li et al. 2016; Appiah et al. 2017). Similarly, reviews of Traditional East Asian Medicine have focused on medicine alternatives to musk and other endangered species (Mills 1998; Homes 1999). These works have highlighted the alternatives ranging from products from domestic animals, medicinal plants, synthetic compounds, and artificial products to replace the endangered species for the similar therapeutic purpose. However, only in few cases substitutes are officially promoted. For example, China has promoted the bone of a common type of mole rat, known as sailong as a substitute for tiger bone (Hemley and Mills 1999). Other alternatives suggested for tiger body parts included coptis root, achyranthus root, alangium root, jujube seed, evening primrose, and Chinese star jasmine. Similarly, bile from domesticated animals, such as cattle, chicken, and pig has been used in China as a substitute for bear bile (Appiah et al. 2017). Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is the active component of bear bile, which is also made synthetically for its use as a substitute for bear’s bile to dissolve gallstones. In the Himalaya, several medicinally important species of plants and animals are threatened and some are in danger of extinction due to increased exploitation for international trade, habitat degradation and loss, and climate change. Despite growing interest in conserving rare and threatened species in the Himalaya, little is known about the ways these are used in traditional medicine and aspects of their substitution, focusing on indigenous knowledge. Based on field research with amchi, and reviews of Tibetan literature, we have presented a huge body of knowledge on medicinal ingredients derived from rare and threatened taxa and their common substitutes (Chapter 2 and 3, also in Part III). This form of research illustrates the possibilities inherent in 107 collaborations between knowledge systems and forms of expertise, toward the goal of conservation, sustainable development, and support of culturally grounded, high quality healthcare throughout the Himalaya. This chapter discusses the importance of integration and exchange of amchi knowledge and practices particularly in relation to medicinal substitutes, and presents the ways to improve the quality of medicines and enhance conservation and sustainable use of rare and threatened species based on amchi’s perspectives. Finally, we present conclusions based on our research with amchi. 4.1 Regional Exchange and Sharing of Knowledge Historical manuscripts and other texts (both hand written and printed) are the major source of amchi’s knowledge and practices, which also state about the substitute medicines. Substitution knowledge and practices had been also gained by amchi from various forms of oral transmission, including knowledge that is held secretly or guarded by senior practitioners. Several cultural criteria related to Sowa Rigpa are applied by amchi throughout the Himalaya in selecting plants for medicine and as substitute (Gurung et al. 1996; Lama et al. 2001; Czaja 2017). These criteria are linked to their overall perceptions of diseases and ways of healing, grounded in the Sowa Rigpa medical system (Shrestha and Baker 1997; Lama et al. 2001). The knowledge and practices gained by amchi in various parts of the Himalaya are diverse as these are also influenced by place- and lineage-based knowledge. Plants and animals used in medication are also different in different geographical regions. Hence, an integrated approach is needed for documenting and sharing of knowledge and practices gained by amchi covering the whole Himalaya. This can be achieved by bringing together all the practitioners of Tibetan Medicine in the Himalaya through extensive networks in a range of exchange of medicinal knowledge and ingredients. The ancient literature and contemporary texts should be further documented and consolidated to enhance the practice and knowledge among amchi. Amchi in the Himalaya mostly obtain the key ingredients locally. They collect medicinal plants by themselves or sometime they ask the villagers or herders to collect certain ingredients. They purchase ingredients especially those originated in the southern plains of Nepal or India and Tibet. However, amchi from urban area barely use raw ingredients; they have easy access to the ‘prepared medicines’ as the number of pharmaceutical factories producing Tibetan medicine has been increasing. Amchi in the Himalaya also exchange medicinal ingredients and knowledge among themselves through the extensive networks. Local and national amchi associations have played important role as networks in disseminating information and popularizing amchi knowledge and practices in Nepal. Local traditional healthcare centers (men tsee khang) established in different parts of Nepal (Table 1.3) are also found to be crucial not only for the health care service but also empowering the traditional cultural practice. However, the viability of some of these health care centers (such as those in Dolpa) is greatly challenged due to financial and managerial constraints. Existing amchi associations and traditional healthcare centers need strong support to enhance sharing of knowledge and practices among themselves. 4.2 Improvement of the Quality of Medicines and Opting Substitutes The source of medicines are depleting day by day due to excessive and non-professional harvesting, as a consequence once common medicinal plants and animals are now becoming rare and endangered. The amchi are now compelled to buy these medicines from outside the districts or country in cash or kind or 108 exchange with other amchi. Hence amchi agreed on using substitute medicines in the place of rare and highly threatened species. The amchi have also come to an understanding that opting substitute medicine is the only way out for to protect and conserve endangered species in the Himalaya. But there is also a question about the quality of the medicine and its efficacy. To improve the effectiveness and the quality of the medicines, all the amchi stressed to follow the ancient medical manuscripts and prescription therein. The ancient manuscripts which describe the effectiveness of medicines being used by amchi are ‘tshab sbyor ma dpe’, ‘shel phreng’, ‘smen tshab ma dpe’, ‘so rig snying bdus skya rengs gsar pa’ and ‘sngo sbyor kyi sde tshan nang sel’. Expert amchi believe that the substitute medicine is not effective if proper attention is not given on their quality, locality of collection, and methods of processing. Medicinal ingredients may be substituted for one another if their taste, post digestive taste, and potency are similar to the original ingredient. However, the use of substitutes should be limited to those ingredients which are known to be safe and have a good level of activity. Refresher trainings are needed for learner amchi to incorporate substitute ingredients in their pharmacopoeia, assure proper use of substitute medicines, and upgrade their knowledge. Amchi also suggested further research on the efficacy of substitute medicines. Amchi prepare medicines according to the rgyud bzhi, which remains the fundamental medical text. This and other texts explain the basic norms for the collection and use of medicinal ingredients. The whole process of medicine collection, use and preparation should be processed through high standard to increase the quality and effectiveness. According to amchi, some of the common norms are: (i) medicinal ingredients should be grown on the right place, (ii) the raw material itself should be fresh and healthy during collection time, (iii) the harvesting of medicines should be done at the right time (season) and through a proper way, (iv) all the ingredients should be dried and stored properly, (v) poisonous ingredients should be detoxified, (vi) the study of the rgyud bzhi is important and every amchi should pursue it theoretically and practically before opting any substitutes. 4.3 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Threatened Species The amchi of the study area are found to be very keen on the issue of preservation and continuation of traditional practices and conservation of natural resources. They stressed the importance of using substitute medicines to protect the rare and threatened species. Substitution knowledge is crucial not only for the conservation of rare and threatened species but also for the benefit of rural community where amchi face difficulties in accessing raw ingredients. Some of the species are excessively used and traded illegally in the Himalayas bringing implications for their future regeneration. Therefore, the amchi suggested promoting cultivation of rare and threatened medicinal herbs and establishing communitybased management system for wild resources, which address the issues of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and enhancement and diversification of local livelihoods. In this regard, community rights to manage wild resources should be legally secured so that communities take an increased responsibility for management of such resources. They admitted that the local amchi associations and village-based traditional health care centers not only play important roles in disseminating knowledge and enhancing the amchi practice but can also help in strengthening local capacity for achieving conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. However, such local institutions need strong support from the government. In addition, knowledge and practices of amchi should be recognized and acknowledged in the process of resource assessment, monitoring and conservation planning. 109 4.4 Conclusion and Way Forward Amchi in Nepal have immense knowledge on the use of locally available ingredients as substitutes for rare and threatened taxa in compounding the medications. As there is limited supply and increased cost of products derived from rare and threatened taxa, the use of substitutes has become a necessity for amchi. The plant species found in temperate and alpine Himalaya are some of the most commonly used substitutes in Sowa Rigpa. In addition, many tropical species are also used. It is the perfect combination of tropical herbs and other ingredients used along with high mountain plants that gives Sowa Rigpa medicines their uniqueness and efficacy. This study has identified new perspectives of potential substitutes for the conservation of rare and threatened species of flora and fauna and demonstrated that the ingredients used in traditional system of medicine are of considerable conservation significance, besides ethnobiological, pharmacological and phytochemical interests. The use of common plants or minerals as substitutes for rare and threatened species is an area that the amchi can further investigate and promote, given that their knowledge and practices are duly recognized and acknowledged at the national level, which will have significant impact in conserving endangered species and sustaining cultural practices. The knowledge gained by amchi and their practice in various parts of the Himalaya are diverse. Plants, animals and minerals used are different. Hence, their knowledge and practices should be integrated covering the whole Himalaya and shared widely by enhancing communication at local, national and regional levels. At the national and local levels, the government should support the existing amchi associations and traditional healthcare centers, which can serve as important institutions not only for sharing of knowledge and practices, and enhancing public health awareness, but can also help to improve the quality of medicines and promote substitutes. The promotion of substitutes will have significant impact in conserving endangered species and their habitats; sustaining cultural relationships between local people and amchi; encouraging the use of locally available resources without expending high price; opening up new perspectives in therapeutic and phytochemical research; and promoting innovative therapeutic dimension of medical pluralism. Although the field of substitution is important to both conservation and health care, this is an area that requires further research, particularly to verify similarity between substitutes and original ingredients in terms of taste, post-digestive taste, potency and use. Phytochemical and pharmacological researches are needed to assess the properties, level of activity and efficacy of the ingredients, which will not only help to authenticate the substitutes but also contribute towards the discovery of new therapeutic agents. Similarly, status of substitutes in the wild should also be carefully assessed to ensure that the extraction and use would not endanger the species and their habitats. Some of the high-altitude species, which parts are prescribed as substitutes are becoming rare (e.g., Meconopsis grandis, Nepeta staintonii, Polygonatum cirrhifolium) due to natural and trade-driven factors, and one (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) has already entered the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable species in 2020. Therefore, there is a need to protect such herbs in the wild, and find their alternative(s). In addition, management of high-altitude medicinal plants should be brought under community-based system, which integrates the knowledge and practices of key knowledge holders (such as amchi and other local people) and addresses the issues of biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood through proper utilization and cultivation of medicinal plants. Refresher trainings are needed for novice amchi to incorporate substitutes in their pharmacopoeia, identify rare, threatened and protected species, and assure proper harvesting and use of ingredients. Legal awareness is needed to empower local people and amchi regarding the existing rules and regulations related to harvesting and trade of threatened and legally protected species and products. 110 Part III COMPENDIUM OF MEDICINAL FUNGI, LICHENS AND PLANTS PRESCRIBED FOR SOWA RIGPA IN NEPAL 111 112 Introduction This compendium comprises a brief description of 570 taxa (552 species, 6 subspecies and 12 varieties, which belong to 312 genera and 103 families), including fungi, lichens and vascular plants [ingredients of which were prescribed for Sowa Rigpa by at least two amchi interviewed]. These represent over 30% of about 1850 species (including fungi, lichens and vascular plants) known to be used in Tibetan Medicine practiced in the Himalayan region, including Tibetan Plateau (based on the results of this study and an extensive review of literature, see ‘information source’ below and reference section for ‘Tibetan literature consulted’ for this purpose). The vascular plants included in this compendium are broadly categorized as pteridophytes (6 species and 1 subspecies), gymnosperms (10 species and 1 variety) and angiosperms (531 species, 5 subspecies and 11 varieties). In addition, ingredients of two fungal and three lichen species prescribed for Sowa Rigpa in Nepal are also presented here. Asteraceae (with 29 genera, 68 species, 1 subspecies and 2 varieties) was the largest family in terms of composition of highest number of medicinally important taxa, followed by Ranunculaceae (12 genera, 33 species and 1 variety), Fabaceae (21 genera, 30 species and 1 subspecies), Lamiaceae (13 genera and 27 species), Gentianaceae (6 genera and 25 species), Rosaceae (13 genera, 23 species and 1 variety), Apiaceae (14 genera and 22 species) and Polygonaceae (5 genera and 19 species). The other families consisting of 10 or more taxa (species and infraspecific taxa) are Papaveraceae (14), Brassicaceae (13), Orchidaceae (13), Saxifragaceae (12), Orobanchaceae (11), Primulaceae (11), Boraginaceae (10), Caprifoliaceae (10) and Plantaginaceae (10). Format Fungi, lichens, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms are treated separately. Within each of these categories, accepted family name is given first, and species or infraspecific taxa under each family are arranged alphabetically. Description of each species or infraspecific taxon begins with its accepted scientific name, followed by author citation. For each accepted name, basionym and/or synonym (if any) are then given. In the case of multiple synonyms, only the most common ones are presented, which are arranged in alphabetical order. These are then followed by vernacular names (Sowa Rigpa name, both local dialects and textual nomenclature; Nepali and Sanskrit, where known), growth characters (habit, growth pattern and other key characters), native range, habitat, elevation and geographical range within Nepal, parts use, detailed description of use in Sowa Rigpa formulas (including taste, potency, toxicity, and mode of use, including information on substitution), and threat and legal status (global, national). Sowa Rigpa plant names are given in the Wylie transliteration as well as written in Tibetan script. Nepali, Sanskrit and other vernacular names are written in phonetic terms, followed by Devanagari script. Vernacular names other than standard Sowa Rigpa name, Nepali, English and Sanskrit are restricted to the language spoken in the area where amchi practice their profession. If multiple vernacular names are used for each species or infraspecific taxon in each source language, the most commonly agreed one is treated first. Sowa Rigpa names given only in Dolpa and Mustang, but not supported by literature are denoted by superscripts ‘Sr-Dl’ and Sr-Ms’, respectively. Distribution of species and infraspecific taxa within Nepal is restricted to native and naturalized ones; for exotics, we report the ingredient sourced either from cultivation or through import from other countries. Native and naturalized taxa within Nepal are provided with horizontal (west, central and east) and vertical (elevation) distribution following Hara et al. (1978). Parts use and detailed description of use 113 are based on the interviews with amchi (we present the information provided by at least two amchi interviewed, which was later verified with two learned amchi). For each species or infraspecific taxon, Sowa Rigpa literature with respect to similar properties, use and/or Sowa Rigpa name citation are provided (these are numbered in the text, which correspond to references given in the section below). Information Sources Valid names of families, species, and infraspecific taxa are based on two online global databases, ‘Catalogue of Life’ (catalogueoflife.org/) and the ‘Plants of the World Online’ (plantsoftheworldonline.org/). Specifically, following references will apply for the current nomenclature of fungi and lichens (Kirk 2020; Rambold 2020), pteridophytes (Fraser-Jenkins et al. 2015; Fraser-Jenkins and Kandel 2019; Hassler 2020a), gymnosperms (Govaerts 2020; Farjon et al. 2020), and angiosperms (Press et al. 2000; Watson et al. 2011; Hassler 2020b). In addition, we consulted Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994–2013), Flora of Bhutan (Grierson et al. 1983–2002), and recent checklists of the flowering plants of Nepal (Rajbhandari and Rai 2017, 2019; Shrestha et al. 2018) to resolve the nomenclature of certain taxa. The native range of each species or infraspecific taxon is based on two online global databases mentioned above, and Wu et al. (1994–2013). For the geographical distribution and elevation range within Nepal, we followed Press et al. (2001), Watson et al. (2011), Rajbhandari and Rai (2017, 2019) and Shrestha et al. (2018). Distribution range of plant species within Nepal is also based on the 'Flora of Nepal Database' for seed plants and ferns and its allies maintained at the University Museum, the University of Tokyo (umdb.um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/DShokubu/), and the ‘specimen database’ maintained at the Royle Botanic Garden, Edinburgh (floraofnepal.org/data/specimens). Global threat status of fungi, lichens and vascular plants is based on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (accessed online at iucnredlist.org/). National threat status is based on Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP, Tandon et al. 2001). Legal (protection) status of species is based on the Checklist of CITES Species (accessed online at checklist.cites.org/#/en), and Forest Act of the Government of Nepal. References consulted for similar properties, use and/or Sowa Rigpa name citation are numbered in the text as follows: 1-Gawa Dorje (1995), 2-Drungtso and Drungtso (2005), 3-Arya (1998), 4-Ghimire et al. (2001), 5-Lama et al. (2001), 6-Angmo et al. (2012), 7-Norbu (2015), 8-MoIvray (1988), 9-Kletter and Kriechbaum (2001), 10-Gonpo (2008), 11-Wangchuk et al. (2008), 12-Wangchuk et al. (2009), 13-Gyatso and Hakim (2010), 14–Gurung et al. (1996), 15a-Norbu (2016), 15b-Mikage et al. (1988), 16-Wangchuk and Samten (2009), 17-Gammermann and Semichov (1963), 18-Dash (1970), 19-Wangchuk et al. (2016), 20Pandey (2006), 21-Cuomu (2013), 22-Karma Chos'Phel (1993), 23-Wangchuk et al. (2011), 24-Ghimire et al. (2008), 25-Meyer (2007), 26-Yeshi et al. (2019), and 27-Ghimire (2002). Sanskrit plant names are based on Devkota (1968), Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994), Warrier et al. (1994–1996), and GoN (2012–2016); and for Nepali names, we consulted Shrestha (1998), Ghimire et al. (2001, 2008), Manandhar (2002), and GoN (2012–2016). English names are also based on the references cited above, and particularly two online global databases mentioned above (Catalogue of Life and Plants of the World Online), Flowers of India database (http://www.flowersofindia.net), and Mabberley (2008). 114 Abbreviations Used Abbreviations used only in this part of the book are presented below. Other abbreviations, common with previous chapters, are given at the beginning after Table of Content. Plant distribution C E N NE NW S SC SE SW W central east, eastern north, northern northeast, northeastern northwest, northwestern south, southern south-central southeast, southeastern southwest, southwestern west, western Vernacular/common names En Np Np-Dl Sn Sr-Dl Sr-Ms English Nepali Nepali (spoken in Dolpa) Sanskrit Sowa Rigpa name used in Dolpa Sowa Rigpa name used in Mustang Others ca. cm f. m mm nom. illeg. nom. inval. nom. nud. nom. superfl. Pl. subsp./ssp. var. circa – approximately centimeter forma (infraspecific taxon; a taxonomic ranks, below that of variety) meter millimeter nomen illegitimum (illegitimate name) nomen invalidum (invalid name) nomen nudum (naked name) nomen superfluum (superfluous name) plate (referring to the photo plate at the end of Part III) subspecies (infraspecific taxon) variety (infraspecific taxon) 115 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL FUNGI Part(s) use: Wf. AGARICACEAE Taste/potency: Sweet and salty/warm and oily. Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. Part(s) use: Sp, Wm. Uses: Fungus stroma and insect larva with fungal hyphae are used as a tonic and aphrodisiac. It rejuvenates and boosts immune system, and treats weak physical strength, depletion of seminal fluid, wind (rlung) disorders, kidney and heart disorders, and chronic lung diseases. It is substituted for da byid smug po (Chinese mountain salamander: Batrachuperus pinchonii) in revitalizing physical vigor, and treating impotency and disorders of kidneys. It can also be substituted for sdig srin (freshwater crab: Himalayapotamon atkinsonianum) in treating kidney disorders. Taste/potency: Bitter/neutral. Reference: 1, 2, 4, 5, 12, 14, 15a. pha wang sgo ti (ཕ་ཝང་ ོ་ཏི་). pha ba dgo dgo (ཕ་བ་དགོ་དགོ་). Common puffball (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Round to pear-shaped fungus usually with an elongate, stalk-like base. Native range: Northern Hemisphere. Habitat: Open places on soil or on decaying wood in grassy areas and woods. Pl. 1. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Spores are prescribed for stopping bleeding, healing wounds, and curing burnt skin and infections. After mixing with other ingredients it is also beneficial for snakebite. Young mushroom is consumed as tonic, and is also used in eye infection. Reference: 4, 5. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Vulnerable [A2bcd, 3bcd, 4bcd] (Yang 2020). LI CHENS ICMADOPHILACEAE OPHIOCORDYCIPITACEAE Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. ex Schaer. Lichen vermicularis Sw. dngul skud (ད sha ru spos (ཤ་ ལ་ ད་). ་ སོ ་)Sr-Ms. Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc., Hirsutella sinensis X. J. Liu, Y. L. Guo, Y. X. Yu & W. Zeng, Sphaeria sinensis Berk. spang a krong dkar po ( dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu (ད Vermicular whiteworm lichen, Whiteworm lichen (En). rtswa da byid ( ར་ ་དགུན་འ ་). ་ད་ ིད་). Jīvanbutī, Yārsāgunbu (Np). जीवनबुटी, यासार्गन्ु बु. Caterpillar fungus, Chinese caterpillar fungus (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Parasitic fungus, endophytic on Swift moth (Hepialus spp.); fruiting bodies club-shaped, 5–8 cm long. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Damp ground, alpine meadows and open slopes (3500–5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 1. 116 ང་ཨ་ཀྲོང་དཀར་པོ་)Sr-Dl. Sinkedhūp (Np). िसन्के धूप. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect or decumbent, white or cream-white terricolous lichen, ± forming tufts. Native range: Circumpolar, arctic-alpine regions of both hemispheres. Habitat: Bare, open gravels to rich moist, mossy thickets (3850–5450 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 1. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wl. Taste/potency: Astringent/cool. Uses: The whole lichen body is used in treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders, cough, indigestion, nosebleed, and poisoning. The lichen is also used as incense. Reference: 4, 7. LEGAL STATUS National: Government protection. Banned for collection, use, sale, distribution, transportation, and overseas export. Parmotrema tinctorum (Despr. ex Nyl.) Hale Parmelia tinctorum Despr. ex Nyl. rdo dreg ( ་ོ ེག་). Jhyāu (Np). झ्याउ. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Foliose lichen; thallus lobate, loosely adnate, membranaceous to coriaceous, 3–30 cm in diameter. Native range: Pantropical and adjacent temperate regions. Habitat: On trees and rocks in open and moist areas (240–2250 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 1. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PARMELIACEAE Part(s) use: Wl. Dolichousnea longissima (Ach.) Articus Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Usnea barbata var. longissima (Ach.) Schaer, U. longissima Ach. gser skud (གསེར་ ད་). shing bal (ཤིང་བལ་). Jhyāu (Np). झ्याउ. Methuselah’s beard lichen, Old man’s beard lichen (Np). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Fruticose lichen, pale greenish or silvery-yellowishgreen, pendulous; main branches cylindric, up to 3 m or more in length. Native range: Nearly circumboreal. Habitat: On trees in open or shaded forests in temperate and subalpine zone (2600–3900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 1. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: The whole lichen is used to treat hot disorders of the lung, liver and nerves. It is also used to treat fever due to poisoning, and in wounds. Reference: 4. LEGAL STATUS National: Government protection. Banned for collection, use, sale, distribution, transportation, and overseas export. Uses: The whole lichen thallus is used to treat poisoning, chronic fever and skin diseases. Reference: 2, 3. LEGAL STATUS National: Government protection. Banned for collection, use, sale, distribution, transportation, and overseas export. PTERI DOPHYTES ATHYRIACEAE Athyrium wallichianum Ching g.yu 'brug 'khyil ba (ག Unyū (Np). उन्यू. ་འ ག་འཁྱིལ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Terrestrial fern, to 50 cm tall, with creeping, branched rhizome. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, bases of rocks and cliffs, and forest edges (3000–4800 m; W– E Nepal). Pl. 2. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cool. 117 Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of poisoning, swellings and uterine bleeding. Reference: 1, 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/cool. DRYOPTERIDACEAE Polystichum squarrosum (D. Don) Fée Aspidium squarrosum D. Don g.yu 'brug 'khyil ba (ག fields (2500–4100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 2. ་འ ག་འཁྱིལ་བ་). Bhyāgute unyū (Np). भ्यागुते उन्यू. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large terrestrial fern; rhizome erect, thick, woody, densely scaly; fronds 50–80 cm. Native range: Himalaya to SC China, C & S India, and N Myanmar. Habitat: Shady and rocky places in forest and forest margins (1300–2800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: The plant is used in treating nosebleed, excessive menstrual flow, fever, liver and urinary disorders, infection and inflammation of urinary tract, swellings, tumors, cold, cough and chest complaints. Whole plant of Equisetum arvense is substituted for khu byug pa (whole plant of the orchid species, Cypripedium himalaicum) in treating urinary disorders and swellings. Reference: 2, 4, 6. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Maiz-Tome 2017). Part(s) use: Rh. Equisetum arvense subsp. diffusum (D. Don) Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool and coarse. Fraser-Jenkins Equisetum diffusum D. Don, E. wallichianum C. Page Uses: The plant is used in treating all kinds of poisoning. chu mtshe ( Reference: 1, 4, 7. Himalayan horsetail, Spreading horsetail (En). ་མཚ་). Ãnkhle-jhār, Kurkure-ghāns (Np). आँख्ले-झार, कु रकु रे -घाँस. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT EQUISETACEAE Equisetum arvense L. Equisetum alpestre (Wahlenb.) Landolt, E. boreale Bong. chu mtshe ( ་མཚ་). khu byug rtsa ljang dman pa (ཁུ་ Kurkure-ghāns (Np). कु रकु रे -घाँस. ག་ ་ ང་དམན་པ་). Common horsetail, Field horsetail (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small- to medium-sized perennial; rhizome ascending, erect or creeping; aerial stem annual, dimorphic. Native range: Subarctic and temperate Northern Hemisphere. Habitat: Swampy places in forests, forest margins, under bushes, meadows, along sandy banks of streams and rivers, and open 1 118 Small- to medium-sized perennial; rhizome creeping or ascending; aerial stem annual, monomorphic. Native range: Himalaya to China, Japan and Vietnam. Habitat: Swampy places, marshes, along sandy banks of streams and rivers, and moist rock crevices (700–3800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 2. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in treating excessive menstrual flow, fever, liver and urinary disorders, chest complaints, cold and cough. It is also used to stop bleeding. Reference: 1–4. POLYPODIACEAE Aglaomorpha propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Hovenkamp & S. Linds. Drynaria prolifera P.C. Pande & H. C. Pande, D. propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) J. Sm. ex Bedd., D. propinqua var. mesosora H. Christ, Phymatodes propinqua Wall. ex Mett.) C. Presl, Polypodium propinquum Wall. ex Mett. be ljang re ral (བེ་ ldum bu re ral ( ང་རེ་རལ་). མ་ ་རེ་རལ་). Hātpahāro, Hātpusāro, Kammari (Np-Dl, Np). हातपहारो, हातपुसारो, कम्मरी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Epiphytic or terrestrial fern; rhizome long, creeping, with brown scales; fronds glabrous, dimorphic. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and SE Asia. Habitat: On tree trunk and branches or on mossy rocks in forests, moist and shady places, and near streams (800–2800[–3500] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 2. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent/cool, coarse and light. Uses: Rhizomes are used as antidote in all kinds of poisonings, such as meat poisoning, mineral (precious metals and gem) poisoning, herb poisoning and poison mixed in food. Rhizomes treats fever due to poisoning. Reference: 1, 2, 4, 5, 16. and Japan. Habitat: Open slopes, forests, stony riverbanks (1700–4300 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used as antidote against meat poisoning, compounded poisoning, and to treat hot disorders of the lung and kidneys. The plant also heals wounds and burns; and dries up pus, blood and lymph fluid. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 10–12. SELAGINELLACEAE Selaginella pulvinata (Hook. & Grev.) Maxim. Lycopodioides pulvinata (Hook. & Grev.) H.S. Kung, Lycopodium pulvinatum Hook. & Grev., Selaginella tamariscina var. pulvinata (Hook. & Grev.) Alston sngo chu srin sder mo ( ོ་ ་ ནི ་ རེ ་མོ་). chu srin sder mo ( ་ ིན་ ར ེ ་མོ་). sbal pa lag pa ( ལ་པ་ལག་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rosette-forming perennial spikemoss, terrestrial or epilithic, xerophytic; leaves whorled, microphyllous, uninervate. Native range: W & C Himalaya, China to Siberia, Japan and Vietnam. Habitat: Rock crevices, dry rock-ridges and grassy slopes in drier areas (1700–4400 m; W Nepal). Pl. 2. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Lepisorus clathratus (C. B. Clarke) Ching Lepisorus nepalensis K. Iwats., L. pseudoclathratus Ching & S.K. Wu, L. soulieanus (Christ) Ching & S.K. Wu, Pleopeltis clathrata (C.B. Clarke) Bedd., Polypodium clathratum C.B. Clarke brag spos ( ག་ སོ ་). ནོ ་པོ་རེ་རལ་). bre gu gser thig ( ་ེ གུ་གསེར་ཐིག་). blon po re ral ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Epiphytic or epilithic fern; rhizomes long and creeping, densely brown scaly. Native range: Afghanistan to SW Siberia, Himalaya, SC & SE China, Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet to acrid/cooling. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of urinary retention, swellings, stomach and liver disorders, dysentery, skin diseases, arthritis and bone disorders. It heals broken bones, and cures disorders caused by naga spirit. It is also burnt as incense. The whole plant of Selaginella pulvinata is substituted for scales of chu srin sder mo (Chinese pangolin: Manis pentadactyla) in compounding 119 medications to treat bone disorders, bone fracture, urinary disorders. Reference: 1–4. GYMNOSPERMS GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely procumbent or erect shrub to 70 cm tall; dioecious; leaves needle like in whorls of 3, ascending. Native range: Subarctic to subalpine Eurasia to USA. Habitat: Dry areas on rocky slopes (2700–3600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 3. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL CUPRESSACEAE Part(s) use: Lf, Fr, Sd. Cupressus torulosa D. Don Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/cool. Cupressus austrotibetica Silba, C. karnaliensis Silba, C. karnaliensis var. mustangensis Silba, C. pakistanensis Silba, C. torulosa subsp. karnaliensis (Silba) Silba rgya shug ( ་ ག་). Rāj sallo, Rāi sallā (Np). राज सल्लो, राइ सल्ला. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of hot disorders of the kidneys, wind disorders, accumulation of serous fluids in the joints, and swellings. Reference: 6, 15a. Himalayan cypress (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large tree; branches spreading with pendulous ultimate branchlets; leaves scale like, closely appressed. Native range: W & C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau; also planted. Habitat: Sparse forests on Sfacing slopes in dry inner valleys and semi-arid high mountains (1200–3300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 2. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fr. Juniperus indica Bertol Juniperus wallichiana Hook. f. & Thomas. ex Brandis, Sabina wallichiana (E. Brandis) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu, S. indica (Bertol.) L.K. Fu & Y.F. Yu. lha shug ( dre shug ( ་ ག་). ་ེ ག་). shug pa ( ག་པ་). spa ma ( ་མ་). Dhūpī, Pāmādhūp (Np). धूपी, पामाधूप. Black juniper (En). Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/cool. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Young fruits and leaves are used in treating skin disease, wounds, menstrual disorders and kidney disorders. Leaves are occasionally used as incense. Shrub or small tree, dioecious; ultimate branchlets dense; leaves both needle- and scale-like. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Coniferous forests, thickets, alpine meadows, bare moraines and scree slopes (2100–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 3. Reference: 4, 15b. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Zhang & Christian 2013). Juniperus communis L. var. saxatilis Pall. Juniperus alpina S.F. Gray, J. nana Willd., J. pygmaea K. Koch shug pa tsher can ( shug tsher ( ག་པ་ཚར་ཅན་). ག་ཚར་). Kānde dhūpī (Np). काँडे धूपी. Alpine juniper, Rocky juniper (En). 120 Part(s) use: Wd, Rn, Lf, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Rn - sweet to astringent/neutral; Lf - bitter to astringent/warm, sharp and coarse; Fr sweet and astringent/cool to dry; Wd – bitter to astringent and acrid/warm. Uses: Heartwood is used to treat wind (rlung) disorders, fever due wind disorder, and nerve disorder. Resin, leaves and seeds are used in treating wind disorders, kidney and spleen disorders, skin diseases, serum (chu ser) accumulation, joint pain, constipation, fever, cough and cold, wounds, and paralysis of limbs. Fruits and seeds are also used to treat liver disorder, ear infection, hearing loss, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, and for strengthening heart. Leaves and branches are used for incense. Resin obtained from its stems and branches is prescribed as a substitute for spos dkar (resin of Shorea robusta) in compounding medication to treat wind (rlung) disorder, and accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser). Juniper heartwood is also used as a substitute for a ga ru nag po (heartwood of Aquilaria malaccensis) in medicine to treat wind disorders, fever and nerve disorder. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 12, 15a, 15b. Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Juniperus densa (Carrière) Gordon., J. recurva var. squamata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Parl., Sabina squamata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Antoine shug tsher ( ག་ཚར་). ག་པ་ཚར་ཅན་). spa ma shug tsher ( ་མ་ ག་ཚར་). shug pa tsher can ( Bhuin dhūpī, Kānde dhūpī (Np). भुई ँ धूपी, काँडे धूपी. Flaky juniper, Nepalese juniper (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Dwarf, semiprostrate or spreading shrub; dioecious or monoecious; leaves needle like, decurrent, incurved, not adpressed. Native range: N Afghanistan, Himalaya to C & SE China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Open forests, mixed woodland, thickets (3000–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 3. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Farjon 2013a). Juniperus recurva Buch.‐Ham ex. D. Don Sabina recurva (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Antoine, Sabinella recurva (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Nakai shug pa ( ག་པ་). Dhūpī, Bhairung-dhūpī (Np). धूपी, भैरुङ-धूपी. Drooping juniper (Eg). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Low spreading shrub or small tree; ultimate branchlets tail-like, pendulous, curved; leaves awlshaped, loosely adpressed in whorls of 3. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open drier stony areas, mostly on south-facing slopes (2600–4600 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Same as Juniperus indica. Part(s) use: Lf, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/cool. Uses: Young leaves are used for the treatment of hot disorders of the kidneys, wind disorders and accumulation of serous fluids in the joints, swellings, paralysis, and skin diseases. Fruits and seeds are useful as a tonic, and for treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders and for strengthening heart. The plant parts are also used in treating piles. Leaves and branches are used as incense. Reference: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10–12, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Farjon 2013b). EPHEDRACEAE Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex. Klotzsch & Garcke mtshe ldum (མཚ་ མ་). Uses: Same as Juniperus indica. lug mtshe ( ག་མཚ་). brag mtshe ( ག་མཚ་). Reference: 4, 6. spang mtshe ( CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Li et al. 2013). ང་མཚ་). Somlatā (Np, Sn). सोमलता. Kāgchāro, Sallejarī (Np-Dl). कागचारो, सल्लेजरी. 121 Somā, Somavallī (Sn). सोमा, सोमवल्ली. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small tufted undershrub or shrub with rigid, green, joined branches bearing scales at joints. Native range: East-Central Asia, Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China and SW Siberia. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, on rock, cliff, grassy slopes, meadows, thickets (1060–5400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 2. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PINACEAE Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb. Pinus spectabilis D. Don thang nag (ཐང་ནག་). thang shing (ཐང་ཤིང་). Gobre sallā, Tālisapatra, Thingre sallā (Np). गोबर्े सल्ला, तािलशपतर्, िठङ्गर्े सल्ला. Tālisha, Tālisapatra (Sn). तािलश, तािलशपतर्. Himalayan silver fir (En). Part(s) use: Rn, Rt, St, Fr. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent/cool. Large evergreen tree, up to 50 m or more in height. Native range: N Afghanistan to C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests on cool moist conditions ([1520–]2100–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 3. Uses: Roots, stems, fruits and the plant resin are prescribed for the treatment of hot disorders of the liver, gall bladder, spleen and kidneys. The plant parts are beneficial for intestinal fever, chronic fever, lung disorders, bleeding, rheumatism, blood pressure, eye disease, and nasal congestion. Aerial parts are also used for treating cuts, wounds and injury. Resin and fruits of Ephedra gerardiana are substituted for gla gor zho sha (seeds of Mucuna monosperma) in medicine to treat hot disorders of the spleen (mcher tshad). Reference: 1, 3–6, 11–13, 15a, 15b. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rn. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/neutral and mild. Uses: A medicinal paste prepared from the plant resin is used as a treatment of slow poisoning and diarrhoea. The plant resin is also beneficial for treating blood and liver disorders, swellings, and lymph disorder. Reference: 24. Ephedra pachyclada Boiss. mtshe ldum (མཚ་ brag mtshe ( མ་). ག་མཚ་). Kāgchāro, Lek-ānkhle (Np-Dl). कागचारो, लेक-आँख्ले. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small tufted undershrub or shrub with rigid, scabrid, whitish and transversely rugose branchlets bearing scales at joints. Native range: SW Asia to W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, cliff, gravelly ridges, thickets ([1120–]2500–4700[–5000] m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rn, Rt, St, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: Same as Ephedra gerardiana. 122 CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Near Threatened (Zhang et al. 2011). LEGAL STATUS National: Government protection. Crude plant parts or products has been banned for export; only plant extracts or products obtained after processing within Nepal are allowed for export. Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. Pinus excelsa Wall. ex D. Don, P. nepalensis Chambray, P. wallichiana var. manangensis H. Ohba & M. Suzuki sgron shing ( ོན་ཤིང་), sgron ma shing ( ོན་མ་ཤིང་). thang shing (ཐང་ཤིང་). Gobre sallā (Np). गोबर्े सल्ला. Himalayan blue pine, Himalayan white pine (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Pyramidal tree up to 50 m tall. Native range: NE Afghanistan to E Himalaya, SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Occurs in forests forming pure or mixed stands (1500–4300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 3. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rn. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/warm and dry. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (13/09/2007). National: Government protection. Crude plant parts or products has been banned for export; only plant extracts or products obtained after processing within Nepal are allowed for export. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxus baccata L. subsp. wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilg. Uses: Plant oleoresin is used in treating phlegm (bad kan) and wind (rlung) disorders, infection of lung, gastritis, edema, rheumatism, swelling, weakness, backache, bone disease and wounds. Lauth sallā, Barme sallā, Dhengre sallā (Np). लौठ सल्ला, बम सल्ला, ढेङ्गर्े सल्ला. Reference: 4, 15b. East Himalayan yew, Himalayan yew (En). CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Farjon 2013c). TAXACEAE Taxus contorta Griff. Taxus fauna Nan Li & R.R. Mill, T. wallichiana Zucc. subsp. contorta (Griff.) Silba. sang shing (སང་ཤིང་). thang shing (ཐང་ཤིང་). Lauth sallā, Luinth, Kānde lotī (Np, Np-Dl). लौठ सल्ला, लुइँठ, काँडे लोटी. West Himalayan yew (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large evergreen shrubs or trees, dioecious; leafy branchlets V-shaped in cross section. Native range: N Afghanistan to C Nepal and SW Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Mixed coniferous forests, along streams (1700–3500 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Rn. sang shing (སང་ཤིང་). thang shing (ཐང་ཤིང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large evergreen shrub or tree, dioecious; leafy branchlets ± flat in living state. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SW China, Myanmar and SE Asia. Habitat: Mixed forests, along streams (1900–3500 m; C & E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Rn. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter and acrid/warm. Uses: Bark and plant resin are used for the treatment of muscular pain and fever. Bark decoction (khen da) is applied to treat muscular pain, pain due to heavy work, swellings and knee pain due to cold. Reference: 4. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Endangered [A2acd] (Thomas & Farjon 2011). National: Endangered (Tandon et al. 2001). LEGAL STATUS Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter and acrid/warm. Global: CITES Appendix II (13/09/2007). Uses: Bark and plant resin are useful to treat muscular pain, knee pain and fever. National: Government protection. Crude plant parts or products has been banned for export; only plant extracts or products obtained after processing within Nepal are allowed for export. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Endangered [A2acd] (Thomas 2011). 123 ANGI OSPERMS Reference: 1–3, 13. CONSERVATION STATUS ACANTHACEAE Global: Least Concern (Lansdown 2014). Justicia adhatoda L. Adhatoda vasica Nees, A. zeylanica Medic. ADOXACEAE ba sha ka (བ་ཤ་ཀ་), shing ba sha ka (ཤིང་བ་ཤ་ཀ་). Sambucus adnata Wall. ex DC. Asuro (Np). असुरो. Vāshā, Vāshaka (Sn). वाशा, वाशक. Malabar nut (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tall shrub. Native range: Tropical S Asia, Subtropical Himalaya. Habitat: Open places, road-sides, often cultivated (150–2000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 3. Sambucus gautschii Wettst., S. schweriniana Rehder yu gu shing nag po ( ་གུ་ཤིང་ནག་པོ་). Motīphūl (Np). मोतीफू ल. Asian dwarf elder, East Himalayan elderberry (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Tw, Lf, Br, Fl. Perennial woody herb or low shrub, 1–2 m tall. Native range: Nepal to Bhutan and C China. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, grasslands, streamside, shady slopes (1950–3700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 5. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool and light. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Plant parts are useful for the treatment of blood fever, blood pressure, hot disorder of the liver, infectious fever, and bile (mkhris pa) disorders. Reference: 2, 3, 8, 10, 15a, 16. ACORACEAE Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter to slightly sweet/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of skin disorders, wounds, swellings, and fracture. The plant is toxic, used after detoxification. Reference: 2, 13, 19. Acorus calamus L. shu dag nag po ( Bojho (Np). बोझो. ་དག་ནག་པོ་). Vachā, Ugragandhā (Sn). वचा, उगर्गन्धा. Calamus root, Sweet flag (En). AMARANTHACEAE Chenopodium album L. sne'u ( ེ ་). bod sne (བོད་ ེ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT sne rgod ( Aromatic perennial herb, with thick, creeping rootstock. Native range: Asia and N America. Habitat: marshy places, often cultivated in garden (1100–2300 m; W–E Nepal). Bethe, Bethu (Np). बेथे, बेथु. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter, acrid/warm, sharp. Uses: Rhizomes are used in hot disorders, mental disorder, indigestion, and to improve memory. 124 ེ་ ོད་). Vāstuka (Sn). वास्तुक. Common lamb's quarters, Goosefoot (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, woody at base. Native range: Eurasia and N Africa, a cosmopolitan weed. Habitat: Fields, waste places (1700–4000 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to slightly acrid/neutral to warm. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorder, constipation, appetite loss, excessive sweating, internal injuries and wounds. Reference: 1–4, 7–10, 14, 17. Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Ambrina botrys (L.) Moq., Botrydium botrys (L.) Small, Chenopodium botrydium St. Lag., C. botrys L. sne'u ( ེ ་). sne dmar ( ེ་དམར་). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Acrid to sweet/warm and heavy. Uses: The plant is useful for treating wind disorders, infectious diseases, and cold disorders of stomach, liver and kidneys. It treats indigestion, flatulence, toothache, earache and headache, and also serves as a tonic. Reference: 1–7, 14, 15a. Allium fasciculatum Rendle Feather geranium, Jerusalem oak goosefoot, Sticky goosefoot, Turn-pike goosefoot (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial aromatic herb. Native range: Europe to Mongolia and W & C Himalaya. Habitat Fields, open slopes, waste places, riverbeds (2300– 4000 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL klung sgog ( ང་ གོ ་). Phāran, Jangalī lasun (Np). फारन, जङ्गली लसुन. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial aromatic herb. Native range: Himalaya and China. Habitat: Open stony slopes, scree and morainic deposits (2800–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm and heavy. Taste/potency: Sweet to slightly acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts are effective for healing wounds, swellings and toothache. It is also beneficial for treating inflammation of the throat and tonsillitis. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorder, gastrointestinal disorder, constipation and intestinal parasites. The plant is slightly toxic. Reference: 6, 9, 15b. Allium prattii C.H. Wright Allium carolinianum Redouté ་ ོག་). ོག་རི་ ེས་). གོ ་). ri skyes sgog pa (རི་ Allium prattii var. ellipticum F.T. Wang & Tang rug sgog ( ག་ ོག་). གོ ་པ་ ག་པ་). sgog pa rug pa ( btsong sgog ri skyes (བཙང་ ri sgog (རི་ CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Thacker 2013). AMARYLLIDACEAE rgya sgog ( Reference: 1–4. ེས་ གོ ་པ་). Phāran, Jangalī lasun (Np). फारन, जङ्गली लसुन. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial bulbous herb. Native range: C Asia to Himalaya. Habitat: Gravelly or stony slopes (2300– 5100 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 4. Ban lasun, Lasune-sāg (Np). वन लसुन, लसुन-े साग. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial bulbous herb. Native range: C & E Himalaya and China. Habitat: Forests, thickets, meadows (2400–4550 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. 125 Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm and heavy. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of diarrhoea, cold, and loss of digestive heat. Reference: 1, 2. Allium przewalskianum Regel 'dzim nag (འཛིམ་ནག་). rug sgog ( ག་ ོག་). Danu, Jimbu, Lasun (Np). दनु, िजम्बु, लसुन. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial bulbous herb. Native range: N Asia, Himalaya and China. Habitat: Outcrops, dry stony slopes, grassy slopes (2500–4250 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts treat wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, cold, cough, infectious diseases, lymphatic disorders and indigestion. Note: Allium hypsistum Stearn (endemic to W Nepal at 4500–5635 m) is also used for the same purpose. Reference: 1–3, 7. Allium sativum L. sgog skya ( ོག་ ་). Lasun (Np). लसुन. Lashuna, Rasona (Sn). लशुन, रसोन. Garlic (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aromatic bulbous herb. Native range: C Asia and NE Iran; widely cultivated. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Bl. Allium sikkimense Baker byi'u sgog ( ི ་ གོ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial bulbous herb. Native range: C & E Himalaya and China. Habitat: Forest margins, open grassy slopes, alpine meadows, sandy and rocky areas, shrubland (3000–4800 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm. Uses: Treats infectious diseases, eye infection, indigestion and loss of appetite. Reference: 1, 3, 15b. Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng. ri sgog (རི་ གོ ་). Dundu, Linde (Np, Np-Dl). डु न्डु , िलन्डे. Chinese chives (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; bulbs clustered, cylindric. Native range: Himalaya to China (SW Shanxi); also widely cultivated as a vegetable. Habitat: Among shrubs, dry rocky slopes (2000–2750 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating wind (rlung) disorders. It particularly cures stomach disorders, including indigestion. Reference: 4, 15b. Allium wallichii Kunth 'dzim nag (འཛིམ་ནག་). Taste/potency: Acrid/warm, heavy and oily. Ban lasun, Jimbu-ghāns (Np). वन लसुन, िजम्बु-घाँस. Uses: Bulbs treat wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, infectious diseases, indigestion, hypertension, poisoning, hepatitis, menstrual disorder, leprosy, and diseases caused by evil spirit. Himalayan wild garlic (En). Reference: 1–4, 7, 10, 13, 16. 126 GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb. Native range: Himalaya to S China, Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, meadows, open slopes (2100–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm and heavy. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat wind disorders, infectious (srin) diseases, tuberculosis, indigestion, flatulence, general debility, and impotency. Reference: 4, 7. ANACARDIACEAE Mangifera indica L. a 'bras (ཨ་འ ས་). Ãmra (Sn). आमर्. Indian mango, Mango (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large evergreen tree. Native range: S & SE Asia, cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. It is cultivated in Nepal (100–1200 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, sour and astringent/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat weakness, wind disorders, kidney disorders, constipation, and sinusitis. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Hill Spondias axillaris Roxb. Lapsī (Np). लप्सी. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of heart disease. It cures heart pain and heart fever. Its fruits and seeds are substituted for hearts of go bo (bearded vulture: Gypaetus barbatus), bya rgod (cinereous vulture: Aegypius monachus) and ri bong (wooly hare: Lepus oiostolus) in treating heart disorders. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 16. Rhus chinensis Mill. Rhus javanica Mill. var. chinensis (Mill.) T. Yamaz., R. japonica Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, R. semialata Murray Ãnp (Np). आँप. snying zho sha ( Taste/potency: sweet to sour/cool to slightly warm (fruit pulp); bitter and sweet/cool (seeds). ངི ་ཞོ་ཤ་). Nepal hug plum (Eg). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large deciduous tree, to 30 m high. Native range: Himalaya to E & SE Asia. Habitat: Hill forests, often planted (800–1900 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 5. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. da trig (ད་ ིག་). Chinese gall, Chinese sumac, Nutgall tree (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small to medium-sized tree. Native range: Himalaya, China to Japan. Habitat: Moist forests, forests along streams (800–2600 m; ?W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and sour/cool and neutral. Uses: It balances cold and hot disorders. Fruits are used to treat lung diseases (e.g., asthma) due to phlegm (bad kan) imbalance, diarrhoea of both hot and cold nature, vomiting and loss of appetite. Note: Fruits of Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. (syn.: Rhus javanica L.; family: Simaroubaceae) are also used for the same purpose. Reference: 1–3, 16. Semecarpus anacardium L. f. bse shing (བསེ་ཤིང་). bse shing dkar po (བསེ་ཤིང་དཀར་པོ་). go bye (གོ་ ེ་). Kāg bhalāyo (Np). काग भलायो. Bhallātaka, Arushkara (Sn). भल्लातक, अरुष्कर. Marking nut tree, Oriental cashew (En). 127 GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small to medium-sized deciduous tree, up to 13 m tall. Native range: Tropical Asia. Habitat: Forests (150–1200 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rn. Taste/potency: Same as T. succedaneum. Uses: Resin is used as laxative for the treatment of constipation. The plant is toxic. Reference: 1–3, 10, 15a. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm and dry. Uses: Fruits (known as go bye) are used for the treatment of infectious (srin) diseases, stomach disorders, accumulation of lymph fluid, and wounds. Fruits are toxic; detoxified before use. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10. Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) Kuntze Rhus succedanea L. shri khan da ( ི་ཱ ཁ ྜ་). Rānī bhalāyo (Np). रानी भलायो. Kalinga, Karkatshringī (Sn). किलङ्ग, ककर् टिशर्ङ्गी. Wax-tree, Japanese wax-tree (En). APIACEAE (= UMBELLIFERAE) Angelica cyclocarpa (C. Norman) M. Hiroe Archangelica cyclocarpa C. Norman lca ba ( ་བ་). ba glang lca ba (བ་གླང་ ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust aromatic perennial herb, 2–3 m tall. Native range: C Himalaya to SE Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forest margins (2800–3500 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 5. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fr. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/warm. Small to medium-sized tree. Native range: Subtropical Himalaya to Japan and Vietnam. Habitat: Forests (1300–2400 m; W–E Nepal). Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of wind disorders, urinary diseases and swellings. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rn. Taste/potency: Astringent, bitter to acrid/cool and sharp. Uses: Plant resin is used to treat constipation. The plant is toxic. Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F.A. Barkley Rhus vernicifera DC., R. verniciflua Stokes, Toxicodendron verniciferum (DC.) E.A. Barkley & F.A. Barkley shri khan da ( ི་ཱ ཁ ྜ་). Chinese lacquer tree, Japanese sumac (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree to 20 m tall. Native range: E Himalaya through C China to Japan. In Nepal, plant resin is imported for its use in Sowa Rigpa. 128 Bupleurum candollei Wall. ex DC. bod skyes zi ra nag po (བོད་ སེ ་ཟི་ར་ནག་པོ་). Himalayan thorowax (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stem erect, ca. 1 m. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, among shrubs, open slopes, meadows (2400–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 5. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm to neutral. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat cold associated disorders of the liver and stomach, indigestion. The plant parts are substituted for zi ra nag po (black seeds of Nigella sativa) in medicine to treat cold disorders of the liver and stomach. Bupleurum gracillimum Klotzsch & Garcke Bupleurum falcatum L. var. gracillimum (Klotzsch & Garcke) H. Wolff, B. falcatum var. nigrocarpa Jacquem. ex C.B. Clarke ri skyes zi ra ser po (རི་ ས ེ ་ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་). sngo zi ra ser po ( ་ོ ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་). zi ra ser po (ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་). Bupleurum marginatum Wall. ex DC. Bupleurum falcatum L. var. marginatum (Wall. ex DC.) C.B. Clarke; B. falcatum subsp. marginatum (Wall.) C.B. Clarke ex H. Wolff sngo zi ra ser po ( ོ་ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་). zi ra ser po (ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb. Native range: NE Afghanistan to E Himalaya and Myanmar. Habitat: Moist meadows, streamside (1800–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 5. Perennial herb. Native range: SW Asia, Himalaya and China. Habitat: Forests, grassy places, mountain slopes (1500–3800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm to neutral. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm to neutral. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, lung diseases, indigestion and gastritis. Plant parts are used as a substitute for zi ra dkar po (seeds of Cuminum cyminum) in treating phlegm imbalance and stomach disorders. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorders, lung disorders, lung fever, disease associated with indigestion and gastritis. Leaves, flowers and seeds of Bupleurum marginatum are used as a substitute for zi ra dkar po (fruits/seeds of Cuminum cyminum) in medicine to treat stomach disorders and phlegm disorders. Bupleurum longicaule Wall. ex DC. sngo zi ra nag po ( ་ོ ཟི་ར་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb. Native range: Himalaya and China. Habitat: Forests, grassy places (2500–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 5. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Reference: 15b. Carum carvi L. go snyod (གོ་ ོད་). Ban jīrā, Ban mugrelo, Bhot jīrā (Np). वन जीरा, वन मुगरे लो, भोट जीरा. Sushavi, Upakunchikā (Sn). सुशिभ, उपकु ि का. Caraway, Meridian fennel, Persian cumin (En). Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm to neutral. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of liver and stomach disorders associated with cold, indigestion, wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, and lung fever. Leaves, flowers and seeds of Bupleurum longicaule are substituted for zi ra nag po (black seeds of Nigella sativa) in compounding medication that treats cold disorders of the liver and stomach. Biennial or short-lived perennial glabrous herb. Native range: temperate Eurasia. Habitat: Open dry slopes, open fields, meadows, rocky slopes, scree, river banks (2500–5100 m; W–E Nepal). Reference: 4, 6, 15b. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and acrid/ neutral to warm. Uses: Seeds are used for the treatment of fever associated with wind (rlung), heart fever, 129 depression, anxiety, poisoning, and eye disorders. Seeds also cure phlegm (bad kan) disorders, restores digestive heat and treats indigestion, flatulence and loss of appetite. Seeds of Carum carvi are used as a substitute for ka ko la (seeds of Amomum subulatum) in medicine to treat cold disorders of the stomach. Reference: 1–14. Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. ex DC. Anthriscus boissieui H. Lév. lca ba ( ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb. Native range: E Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forests, open grassy places (1900–3500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 5. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorders and swellings. Cortia depressa (D. Don) C. Norman Athamanta depressa D. Don, Cortia lindleyi Wall. ex DC., C. nepalensis C. Norman. tang kun nag po (ཏང་ཀུན་ནག་པོ་). spru nag g.yung ba ( ་ནག་ག ང་བ་). Bajāriphūl, Nigāle-sāg (Np). बजारीफू ल, िनगाले-साग. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rosette-forming perennial herb. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes and meadows (2900–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 6. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter, acrid/cool to warm. Uses: Root and seeds are used for the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) and wind (rlung) disorders, urinary disorders, heart disorders, heart fever, poisoning, constipation, throat pain and gout. Roots and seeds are substituted for blood and heart of ‘brong (wild yak: Bos mutus] in medicine to treat heart disorders. Reference: 4, 15b. Cuminum cyminum L. Coriandrum sativum L. 'u su ( ་ ་). zi ra dkar po (ཟི་ར་དཀར་པོ་). Jīrā (Np). जीरा. Dhaniyā (Np). धिनया. Jīrakā (Sn). जीरका. Dhānyaka, Dhānaka (Sn). धान्यक, धानक. Cumin (En). Coriander (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Glabrous annual herb. Native range: Mediterranean region; cultivated throughout the world, including Nepal. It is also imported in Nepal. Glabrous annual herb. Native range: originating in E Mediterranean region and SW Asia; widely cultivated in favorable climates outside its native range. Seeds are imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fr/Sd. Part(s) use: Fr/Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. Taste/potency: Acrid and sweet/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat indigestion and fever. The plant improves digestive heat, stimulates appetite and cures stomach ulcer. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, lung fever, indigestion and loss of appetite. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 16. Reference: 1, 2, 13. 130 Ferula assa-foetida L. Hymenidium benthamii (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov shing kun (ཤིང་ཀུན་). Hymenolaena benthamii DC., Pleurospermum benthamii (DC.) C.B. Clarke Hingu (Sn). िहङ्गु. rtsad rgod ( Hing (Np). िहङ् . ད་ ོད་). Ganāino, Gānan (Np-Dl). गनाइनो, गानन्. Asafoetida (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb. Native range: SW Asia; cultivated in favorable climates outside its native range. It is imported in Nepal. Robust perennial herb, 50–150 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to N Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, forest margins, thickets, grassland (2700– 4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 6. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rn. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: Dried resin is used to treat wind (rlung) disorders, cold disorders, infectious diseases and skin diseases. It benefits heart, improves appetite, restores digestive heat and cures flatulence. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 16. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Foeniculum capillaceum Gilib., F. officinale All. la la phud (ལ་ལ་ ད་). la la phud dkar po (ལ་ལ་ ँ . Saunf (Np). सौफ ད་དཀར་པོ་). Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: Roots and seeds are used for the treatment of hot disorders, poisoning and indigestion. Note: Hymenidium dentatum (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov (Pl. 6) is also used for the same purpose. Hymenidium brunonis (DC.) Lindl. Hymenolaena brunonis DC., Pleurospermum brunonis (DC.) C.B. Clarke tang kun dkar po chung ba (ཏང་ཀུན་དཀར་པོ་ rtsad g.yung ( ང་བ). ད་ག ང་). Mishreyā, Madhurikā (Sn). िमशर्ेया, मधुिरका. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Fennel, Sweet fennel (En). Perennial herb, to 30 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Open slopes, dry scree slopes, rock crevices (3600–4800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 7. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb. Native range: Macaronesia, Mediterranean region, N & NE Africa, SW Asia and W Himalaya; cultivated outside its native range, including Nepal. It is cultivated and/or imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: Same as Hymenidium hookeri (see below). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm. Uses: Fruits are used for the treatment of cold disorders and infectious diseases. Fruit also heals fractured bone and improves digestive heat in stomach. Plant sap and oil is slightly toxic. Reference: 1–3, 13, 16. Hymenidium hookeri (C.B. Clarke) Pimenov & Kljuykov Pleurospermum hookeri C.B. Clarke tang kun dkar po (ཏང་ཀུན་དཀར་པོ་). rtsad ( ད་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 10–50 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Open moist places, 131 grassy slopes, stream sides (3400–5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 7. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter, acrid/cool to warm. Uses: Root and seeds are used for the treatment of poisoning, heart disorders, fever and fever due to poisoning, combined disorders of phlegm (bad kan) and wind (rlung), inflammation and stomach disorders. Roots and seeds are substituted for gser skud (Dolichousnea longissima) in medicine to treat poisoning. These are also substituted for fruits of dza ti (Myristica fragrans) to treat wind (rlung) disorder, fever, and heart disorder; and for blood and heart of ‘brong (wild yak: Bos mutus) in treating heart diseases. (rlung) disorders, stomach disorders (stomach cramps), infectious diseases, bleeding, cuts and wounds, and tumors. The plant also treats disease/disorders caused by harmful evil spirits. Reference: 2–5, 11, 12, 14, 15a. Pterocyclus angelicoides (Wall. ex DC.) Klotzsch. Hymenolaena angelicoides Wall. ex DC., Pleurospermum angelicoides (Wall. ex DC.) Benth. ex C.B. Clarke spru nag ( ་ནག་) Ganāino, Rāto chhetāro (Np-Dl). गनाइनो, रातो छेतारो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 1–2 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, meadows (2500–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 6. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Reference: 2, 11, 14. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fr. Note: Hymenidium apiolens (C.B.Clarke) Pimenov & Kljuykov (Pl. 7) is also used for the same purpose. Taste/potency: Acrid, bitter to sweet/warm. Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov Peucedanum wallichianum DC., Selinum tenuifolium Wall. ex DC., S. wallichianum (DC.) Raizada & Saxena lca rgod ( ་ ོད་). lca ba ( ་བ་). ba glang lca ba (བ་གླང་ spru nag ( Tetrataenium candicans (Wall. ex DC.) I.P. Manden. ་བ་). ་ནག་). Bhūtkesh, Kālo chhetāro (Np-Dl). भूतके श, कालो छेतारो. Wallich milk parsley (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 0.5–2 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, grassy slopes (3000–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 7. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet and acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of a combination of phlegm (bad kan) and wind 132 Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of combined phlegm (bad kan) and wind (rlung) disorders, cough, headache, lymphatic disorder, arthritis, cold disorders of kidneys, and indigestion. Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. spru dkar ( ་དཀར་). Seto chhetāro (Np-Dl). सेतो छेतारो. Himalayan hogweed, White-leaved hogweed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, to 2 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forest margins, scrub, meadows, grassy slopes, streamside (2200– 4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 6. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/neutral to cool. Uses: Plant parts treat wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, infectious (srin) diseases, intestinal parasites, sinusitis, bleeding, swellings, inflammation, tumors, skin disease and leprosy. Reference: 1–5, 7, 10, 11. Tetrataenium lallii (Norman) Cauwet, Carb. & Farille Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Carum ajawain (Roxb.) Waring, C. ammi (L.) Sprague, Ligusticum ajouan Roxb., Selinum copticum (L.) E. H. L. Krause, Sison ammi L., Trachyspermum copticum (L.) Link. la la phud (ལ་ལ་ ད་). Heracleum lallii Norman Jwānū (Np). ज्वानू. spru dkar ( Yavānī, Yavānikā, Dīpyaka (Sn). यवानी, यवािनका, दीप्यक. ་དཀར་). Seto chhetāro (Np-Dl). सेतो छेतारो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems 0.5–1 m tall, pubescent. Native range: Endemic to Nepal. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, among rocks and screes on steep slopes, thickets (3000–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 6. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Ajwain, Ajowan caraway, Bishop's weed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb to 50 cm or more tall. Native range: India; cultivated outside its native range, including Nepal but in smaller extent. Ajwain fruits/seeds are imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Fr. Part(s) use: Fr/Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/neutral to cool. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts treat pain, wind disorder, blood pressure, bleeding, fever, wound and sinusitis. Uses: Fruits/seeds improve digestive heat, and treat stomach problems and cold disorders associated with phlegm (bad kan). Reference: 4, 5. Reference: 10. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Endangered (Tandon et al. 2001). Tetrataenium nepalense (D. Don) I.P. Manden. Heracleum nepalense D. Don zi ra rgod pa (ཟི་ར་ ོད་པ་). Chimphing, Nāfo (Np, Np-Dl). िचिम्फङ् , नाफो. Nepal hogweed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 0.6–1.6 m tall, sparingly hairy. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, shrubland, and open slopes (1800–3700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 5. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid to bitter/warm. Uses: Fruits are used to restore digestive heat and treat loss of appetite and indigestion. Vicatia coniifolia Wall. ex DC. Chaerophyllum gracillimum Klotzsch, Conium nepalense D. Dietr., Vicatia millefolia (Klotzsch) C.B. Clarke. go snyod dman pa (གོ་ ོད་དམན་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb. Native range: Tajikistan through Himalaya to China. Habitat: Scrub, meadows, grassy slopes, and stream banks (1800–3700 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and acrid/ neutral to warm. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorder, indigestion, flatulence and loss of appetite. Reference: 15b. Reference: 4. 133 APOCYNACEAE Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don Holarrhena antidysenterica (L.) Wall. ex A. DC. Ceropegia wallichii Wight Ceropegia erecta Wall. ex Wight dug mo nyung ( sngo dug mo nyung chung ( shing dug mo nyung (ཤིང་ ་ོ ག་མོ་ ང་ ང་)Sr-Dl. Wallich ceropegia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb with stout stem, 15–30 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya (NW India to Nepal). Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, and open slopes (2100–2900 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 7. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) disorder, diarrhoea and dysentery. The plant is toxic. It is used after detoxification. Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight Vincetoxicum auriculatum (Royle ex Wight) Kuntze. sngo dug mo nyung ( ་ོ ག་མོ་ ང་). Lātīkoselī (Np). लाटीकोशेली. Heart-leaved swallow-wort (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial, twining herb. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, river banks (2000–3700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 7. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) disorder, diarrhoea, dysentery and intestinal parasites. The plant is toxic. It is used after detoxification. The whole plant of Cynanchum auriculatum is substituted for seeds of shing dug mo nyung (Holarrhena pubescens) in compounding medication that treats bile disorder, diarrhoea and dysentery. Reference: 4, 5. 134 ག་མོ་ ང་). ག་མོ་ ང་). Ban khirro, Indrajau (Np). वन िखर , इन्दर्जौ. Indrayava, Indravachā, Kalinga, Kutaja (Sn). इन्दर्यव, इन्दर्वचा, किलङ्ग, कु टज. Conessi, Fever pod (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous shrub or tree. Native range: S Africa, Indian subcontinent, SC China, through Myanmar to Indo-China. Habitat: Dry forests, forest margins (100–1500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Seeds are used to treat hot disorders of bile (mkhris pa), diarrhoea, dysentery and sinusitis. The plant is toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 1–3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 18. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Hilton-Taylor 2003). Marsdenia roylei Wight Pergularia roylei (Wight) D. Dietr. dug mo nyung ( ག་མོ་ ང་). Dudhe-laharā (Np). दुध-े लहरा. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Twining shrub, with hairy stem. Native range: W Himalaya to Myanmar. Habitat: Shady places, forests, forest margins (1400–2400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 8. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used to treat bile (mkhris pa) disorder and intestinal parasites. It is toxic; used after detoxification. Reference: 4. Vincetoxicum canescens (Willd.) Decne. Asclepias canescens Willd., Cynanchum canescens (Willd.) K. Schum., C. glaucum Wall. ex Wight, Vincetoxicum glaucum (Wall. ex Wight) K.H. Rechinger, V. hirundinaria Medik. subsp. glaucum (Wall. ex Wight) H. Hara. sngo dug mo nyung ( ་ོ ག་མོ་ ང་). Dudhe-jhār, Lātīkoselī (Np). दुध-े झार, लाटीकोशेली. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb. Native range: Europe through SW Asia to Himalaya, Tibet and SC China. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, open woodlands, thickets (1500–3600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 7. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Corms treat infectious diseases, intestinal parasites, scabies, abdominal pains and swelling. Flowers and fruits treat menstrual disorders, and diseases of the womb and uterus. Plant is toxic; used after detoxification. Reference: 1–5, 9, 15b. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Arisaema cornutum Schott, A. exile Schott., A. wightii Schott dwa g.yung ( dwa ba ( ་བ). ་ག ང་). Bānko, Chari bānko (Np). बाँको, चरी बाँको. Jacquemont's cobra-lily (En). Part(s) use: Wp. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Dioecious or paradioecious perennial herb. Native range: Afghanistan to E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, grassy and rocky slopes (2200–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 8. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat bile (mkhris pa) disorders, diarrhoea, dysentery, constipation, intestinal parasites, fever, and sinusitis. The plant is toxic. It is used after detoxification. The plant is substituted for seeds of shing dug mo nyung (Holarrhena pubescens). Reference: 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15b. ARACEAE Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Arum flavum Forssk. dwa g.yung ( dwa ba ( ་ག ང་). ་བ་). Kālo bānko, Tinchu (Np, Np-Dl). कालो बाँको, ितन्चु. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Cr, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. Uses: Corms treat throat infection, intestinal parasites, stomach pain, skin disease, toothache and swelling. Flowers and fruits cure menstrual disorders and disease of the womb and uterus. The plant is toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 4, 5, 7, 9, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Crook & Bachman 2013). Yellow cobra lily (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, monoecious perennial herb. Native range: NE Tropical Africa, SW Asia to E Himalaya, SC China and India. Habitat: Rocky and open slopes, thickets, croplands, trail side (1900–4300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 8. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Cr, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott in Schott & Endl. Arum tortuosum Wall. dwa rgod ( dwa ba ( ་ ོད་). ་བ་). Bīr bānko, Gau bānko, Sarpako makai (Np, Np-Dl). वीर बाँको, गौ बाँको, सपर्को मकै . Whipcord cobra lily (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, monoecious or male. Native range: Pakistan to E Himalaya, SC China and India. 135 Habitat: Shady forest, forest margins, rocky slopes, and streamside (800–3200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 8. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Cr, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. Uses: Corms are used to treat parasite infestation, stomach pain, toothache and rheumatism. Flowers and fruits cure menstrual disorders. Reference: 4, 5, 7. Sauromatum diversifolium (Wall. ex Schott) Cusimano & Hett. Heterostalis diversifolia (Wall. ex Schott) Schott, Typhonium alpinum C.Y. Wu ex H. Li, Y. Shiao & S.L. Tseng, T. diversifolium Wall. ex Schott, dwa ba chung ( ་བ་ ང་). Bānko, Talu (Np). बाँको, तलु. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb with a cormose tuber; leaves entire or sagittate-hastate or 3-lobed. Native range: Himalaya to SC China, Myanmar and Cambodia. Habitat: Meadows, damp slopes, forests, and fallow fields (1200–4300 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Cr. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. Uses: Corms are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, intestinal parasites and stomach pain. The plant is toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 4, 9. ARECACEAE Areca catechu L. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen single-stemmed palm tree, up to 30 m tall, slightly swollen near the base. Native range: Probably native to SE Asia (Philippines); widely cultivated throughout wetter parts of tropical Asia, Pacific and Caribbean region. It is cultivated in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter, astringent to acrid/warm to neutral. Uses: Betel nuts are used for the treatment of kidney disorders, frequent urination, menstrual disorders and wind (rlung) disorders. It is also beneficial for semen discharge. Betel nuts are toxic. Reference: 2, 3, 7, 13, 16. Phoenix dactylifera L. 'bra go (འ kha sur (ཁ་ ་གོ་). ར་). ma nu rta skam (མ་ ་ ་ མ་). Chhohorā (Np). छोहोरा. Kharjura (Sn). खजुर्र. Date palm (Np). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Single-stemmed, evergreen palm tree, 15–40 m tall. Native range: Arabian Peninsula to S Pakistan; widely cultivated and naturalized in many tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Date fruits are imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet/warm. Guvāk, Pūga, Pūgaphal (Sn). गुवाक, पूग, पूगफल. Uses: Fruits are used to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorders, constipation and loss of appetite. Fruits are beneficial for weakness, weak bones and sexual debility. Areca palm, Betel palm (En). Reference: 1–3, 10, 15a. go yu (གོ་ ་). Supāri (Np). सुपारी. 136 ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Aristolochia griffithii Hook. f. & Thomson ex Duch. Isotrema griffithii (Hook. f. & Thomson ex Duchartre) C.E.C. Fischer ba le ka (བ་ལེ་ཀ་). ँ ी-लहरा. Bhainsī-laharā (Np). भैस Uses: Tubers are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorder, cold-related lymph (chu ser) disorder, weakness and general debility. Tubers restore physical strength and enhance longevity. Reference: 1, 3–5, 8. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Data Deficient (Rhodes & Maxted 2016). Iswarī (Sn). ई री. Birthwort (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Climbing shrub. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Mixed forests (1800– 2900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 8. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool and coarse. Uses: Stems are used for the treatment of hot disorders of the lungs, bile (mkhris pa), liver and intestines; and also in blood disorders and fever. The plant is toxic. Stems are used after detoxification. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13. ASPARAGACEAE Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don nye shing (ཉེ་ཤིང་). Ban kurilo (Np). वन कु िरलो. Fern asparagus (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Straggling, perennial dioecious herb. Native range: W Himalaya to C China and SE Asia. Habitat: Shady moist places in forests, and forest margins (1350– 3450 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 8. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Asparagus racemosus Willd. nye shing tser me (ཉེ་ཤིང་ཙར་མེ་). Ban kurilo, Shatāvarī (Np). वन कु िरलो, शतावरी. Shatāvarī (Sn). शतावरी. Wild asparagus (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Climbing or straggling perennial herb to subshrub. Native range: Tropical Africa to N Australia. Habitat: Shady moist places in forests, and forest margins (100–2200 m W–E Nepal). Pl. 8. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter, astringent to acrid/ warm. Uses: Tubers are used for the treatment of wind disorders, accumulation of lymph fluid, cold disorders and urinary disorders. Tubers restore physical vigor and enhance longevity. Reference: 2–5, 7, 13, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Maianthemum purpureum (Wall.) LaFrankie Smilacina purpurea Wall., S. pallida Royle, Tovaria purpurea (Wall.) Baker lug mnye dmar po ( ག་མཉེ་དམར་པོ་). ँ ो. Khiraunlo (Np). िखरौल Part(s) use: Tb. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter and astringent/ warm. Perennial herb, 20–60 cm tall; rhizome are shaped somewhat like a string of beads. Native range: 137 Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forests, thickets, open slopes (2500–4300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 9. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent/ warm. Uses: Rhizomes are used to cure impotency and restore physical strength. Rhizomes are also used in treating phlegm (bad kan) and lymphatic (chu ser) disorders. Reference: 4. Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle Convallaria cirrhifolia Wall. ra mnye (ར་མཉེ་). ra mo shag (ར་མོ་ཤག་). ँ ा, िखरौल ँ ो. Khiraunlā, Khiraunlo (Np). िखरौल Medā, Mahā-medā (Sn). मेदा, महामेदा. Coiled-leaf Solomon seal (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect or scandent perennial herb, to 150 cm tall; rhizome tuber-like. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, thickets, grassy slopes (1200–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 9. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/neutral to warm. Uses: Rhizomes are used as a tonic in weakness, restoring physical strength, and as aphrodisiac and anti-aging to enhance longevity. Rhizomes and fruits are used in the treatment of wind (rlung), bile (mkhris pa) and bone disorders, accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser) and pus, and kidney diseases. Rhizomes are also beneficial for restoring digestive heat, and in treating indigestion and loss of appetite. Fruits of Polygonatum cirrhifolium are substituted for sa 'bras (fruits of Syzygium cumini) 138 in medicine to treat disorders of kidneys and stomach. Its roots are substituted for flesh of da byid smug po or gang da byid (Chinese mountain salamander: Batrachuperus pinchonii) in medicine used for revitalizing physical vigor, strengthening kidneys, and treating impotency and disorders of kidneys. Reference: 1, 3–5, 13, 15a, 15b. Polygonatum hookeri Baker Polygonatum pumilum Hua spang gi ra mnye ( ང་གི་ར་མཉེ་)Sr-Dl. ँ ा. Sāno khiraunlā (Np). सानो िखरौल Dwarf Solomon seal (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Dwarf perennial herb; stem erect, up to 10 cm. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Alpine meadows, among shrubs, and conifer forests (2900–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 9. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/warm. Uses: Rhizomes are used as tonic to restore vitality and increase bodily fluids. Reference: 4, 5. Polygonatum oppositifolium (Wall.) Royle Convallaria oppositifolia Wall. lug mnye rgod pa ( lug mo shag ( ག་མཉེ་ ོད་པ་). ག་མོ་ཤག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stem arching, 40–60 cm; rhizome tuber-like. Native range: C & E Himalaya to S Tibet and Assam. Habitat: Moist forests, shady places, and grassy slopes (1500–2400 m; C & E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent/ warm. Uses: Rhizomes are used to cure impotency, restore physical strength and enhance longevity. They are also beneficial in phlegm (bad kan), kidney and lymphatic (chu ser) disorders. Reference: 2, 15a. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cooling. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Convallaria verticillata L. ra mnye (ར་མཉེ་), ra mnye rgod pa (ར་མཉེ་ Himalaya to C China and Inner Mongolia. Habitat: Open slope, scree (4000–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 9. ོད་པ་). ra mo shag (ར་མོ་ཤག་)Sr-Dl, Sr-Ms. ँ ा, िखरौल ँ ो. Khiraunlā, Khiraunlo (Np). िखरौल Medā, Mahā-medā (Sn). मेदा, महामेदा. Whorled-leaf Solomon’s seal (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb, 40–200 cm tall; rhizome tuber-like. Native range: Europe, temperate Asia and Himalaya. Habitat: Moist forests, grassy slopes, rocky slopes (2100–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 9. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/warm. Uses: Rhizome cures wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, lymph (chu ser) disorder, restores physical strength, and promotes longevity; other uses are same as Polygonatum cirrhifolium. Reference: 4, 5, 10–12. ASTERACEAE (= COMPOSITAE) Ajania khartensis (Dunn) Shih Dendranthema mutellinum (Hand.-Mazz.) S. Kitam., Tanacetum khartense Dunn, T. mutellinum Hand.-Mazz., khan chung ser mgo (ཁན་ ང་སེར་མགོ་). mkhan pa a krong (མཁན་པ་ཨ་ཀྲོང་). mkhan dkar (མཁན་དཀར་). Gandhe (Np). गन्धे. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 10–20 cm tall, white pubescent, with many, semi-prostrate stems. Native range: Uses: Stems and leaves are used for the treatment of lung diseases, swellings, body aches and nasal catarrh. The plant is also used as incense. Reference: 1, 3, 4. Ajania nubigena (Wall. ex DC.) A.A. Muldashev Dendranthema nubigenum (Wall. ex DC.) Kitam, Tanacetum nubigenum Wall. ex DC. mkhan pa dkar po (མཁན་པ་དཀར་པོ་). mkhan a krong (མཁན་ཨ་ཀྲོང་). mkhan dkar (མཁན་དཀར་). Gandhe (Np). गन्धे. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect to decumbent perennial herb, to 30 cm tall, white pubescent. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Stony slopes, scree, sandy ground, and moraines (2500–4450 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 9. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/mild. Uses: Stems and leaves are used for the treatment of swellings, kidney infection, nosebleed, liver disorders, skin diseases, cough and fever. The plant is also used as incense. Reference: 4, 11, 12, 15b. Allardia glabra Decne. Waldheimia glabra (Decne.) Regel ངས་ སོ ་)Sr-Dl. tshang pa lha'i me tog (ཚང་པ་ འི་མེ་ཏོག་). sgangs spos ( Lek-dhūp (Np). लेक-धूप. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, mat-forming perennial herb. Native range: C Asia to Afghanistan, Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. 139 Habitat: Rocky slopes, screes and rocky meadows (4100–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 10. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of eye diseases, gum infection, and infections in other parts of oral cavity. Plant parts also cure lung disorders, headache and contagious fever. The plant is also used as incense. Reference: 4, 6, 15a. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes, rocky meadows, rocks and screes (1200– 4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 10. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of fever, chest pain, cough and indigestion. It is also used in a moxa therapy and in healing wounds. Reference: 9, 15b, 19. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Gnaphalium busua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don spra g'yung ( spra ba ( ་ག ང་). ་བ་). Bukīphūl, Pātī (Np). बुकीफू ल, पाती. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Short lived perennial herb; stem erect, 25–120 cm tall with ascending or expanding branches. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Shady areas, grassy places, forest margins, and trailside (1100–3900 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/warm. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of fever, cough and cold. Reference: 2, 6. Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f. Anaphalis falconeri C.B. Clarke, A. tenella DC., Antennaria contorta D. Don, Gnaphalium contortum (D. Don) Buch.Ham. spra ba ( ་བ་). Bukīphūl, Jhulo (Np). बुकीफू ल, झुलो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted to clump-forming perennial herb, with erect or ascending stems woody at base, 8–60 cm tall. 140 Anaphalis nepalensis (Spreng.) Hand.-Mazz. Anaphalis cuneifolia (DC.) Hook. f., A. intermedia (DC.) Duthie, Anaphalis mairei H. Lév., A. triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke var. intermedia (DC.) Airy Shaw, Helichrysum nepalense Spreng. spra ba ( ་བ་). gandha bha dra (གནདྷ་བྷ་ ་). spra dkar po ( spra thog ( ་དཀར་པོ་). ་ཐོག་). Jhulo (Np). झुलो. Nepal pearly everlasting (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, stems erect or ascending, 5–30 cm tall; capitula few or numerous. Native range: Pakistan to E Himalaya and C China. Habitat: Open rocky slopes, meadows, grasslands, forest margins, thickets, and edges of agriculture fields (2500–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 10. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of fever, chest pain, indigestion, inner bleeding, and cold-related disorders. It is popularly used in moxa therapy, and also in treating cuts and healing wounds. Reference: 4, 15b. Jhulo, Jhule bhugo (Np). झुलो, झुले भुगो. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of communicable diseases, chest infection, and fever, poisoning and bleeding. It also treats liver disorders, indigestion and glandular diseases. It is used in moxa therapy, which is beneficial for wind (rlung) and cold-related diseases, lymphatic disorder, swelling, joint pain and paralysis of limbs. One-flowered pearly everlasting (En). Reference: 2, 4, 6, 9, 15b. Anaphalis nepalensis var. monocephala (DC.) Hand.-Mazz. Anaphalis monocephala DC., A. mucronata DC., A. nubigena DC., A. nubigena var. monocephala (DC.) C.B. Clarke, A. triplinervis var. monocephala (DC.) Airy Shaw. spra g'yung ( ་ག ང་). ངས་ཙམ་པ་ཀ་). spang tsam pa ka ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, acaulescent, or stems low, 5–15 cm, leaves densely clustered; capitulum solitary. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open slopes, rock crevices, stony screes, along streams (3300–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 10. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of communicable diseases, chest infection, fever, bleeding and swellings. It is popularly used in moxa therapy, which is beneficial for wind (rlung) and cold disorders. Anaphalis xylorhiza Sch. Bip. ex Hook. f. spra g'yung ( ་ག ང་). Jhulo (Np). झुलो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Caespitose perennial herb, stems woody at base, 2– 15 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya and S Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Gravelly slopes, scree slopes, and alpine meadows (3400–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/neutral. Uses: Same as Anaphalis nepalensis var. monocephala Reference: 4, 5. Arctium lappa L. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke Antennaria triplinervis Sims spra rgod ( ་ ོད་). ་ཐོག་པ་). Arctium majus Bernh., A. vulgare (Hill) Druce, Lappa vulgaris Hill byi bzung ( ི་བ ང་). spra thog pa ( Kurro, Tine, Tine kurro (Np). कु र , ितने, ितने कु र . Bhuko, Bukīphūl (Np). भुको, बुकीफू ल. Common burdock, Greater burdock (En). Triple-veined pearly everlasting (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, caespitose, 40–60 cm tall, with woody rhizome. Native range: Himalaya, S Tibetan plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Moist and shady places, fields, grassy slopes, and along trail (1800–3500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 10. Biennial herb, 1–2 m tall; stem purplish, erect, apically branched with ascending branches. Native range: Temperate Eurasia. Habitat: Village areas, roadsides, wet and waste places, forest margins, open shrubland, and thickets (2000–3700 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 10. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl, Fr. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/neutral. Taste/potency: Bitter, acrid and astringent/warm. 141 Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of channel disorders, poisoning, wind fever, neurological disorders, and skin affections, such as blisters, burns, ulcers and pimples. Seeds are digestive and used for treating stone formation in gallbladder and kidney. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorder. The plant is beneficial for lung and urinary disorders, kidney infection, cold tumor, inflammation of the throat, wound healing, and swellings of lymph nodes caused by wind disorders. Reference: 1–6, 12, 15a, 15b. Reference: 2–4. Artemisia capillaris Thunb. tshar bong smug po (ཚར་བོང་ yog chung (ཡོག་ ག་པོ་). ང་). Pātī (Np). पाती. Capillary artemisia, Capillary wormwood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Biennial or perennial glabrous herb. Native range: Eurasia. Habitat: Moist slopes and riverbanks (2550– 4300 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool to neutral. Uses: Aerial parts of the plant are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, chronic wounds, lung disorder and swellings. Reference: 8, 15a. Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess. mkhan pa nag po (མཁན་པ་ནག་པོ་). mkhan nag (མཁན་ནག་). Artemisia gmelinii Weber ex Stechm. Artemisia gmelinii var. intermedia (Ledeb.) Krasch., A. sacrorum Ledeb., A. sacrorum var. intermedia Ledeb. phur nag ( ར་ནག་). Pātī, Tītepātī (Np). पाती, तीतेपाती. Gmelin's wormwood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Subshrub, up to 1.5 m tall, greyish pubescent; stem caespitose. Native range: C Asia to Russian Far East, Himalaya, China and Japan. Habitat: shrubland, dry stony slopes, steppes, and meadows (2000–4300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/neutral to warm. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of lung and urinary disorders and cold tumor. Leaves are beneficial for cuts and wound healing. Leaves are occasionally used as incense. Reference: 15b. Pātī, Tītepātī (Np). पाती, तीतेपाती. Damanaka (Sn). दमनक. Mugwort (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb or subshrub, to 1.5 m tall. Native range: Subtropical and Temperate Asia, Indo-China. Habitat: Agriculture borderland, trailside, dry slopes, steppes, and forest margins (1200–3700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/neutral to warm. 142 Artemisia hedinii Ostenf. zangs rtsi nag po (ཟངས་ phur nag ( ི་ནག་པོ་). ར་ནག་). phur mong nag po ( Pātī (Np). पाती. ར་མོང་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, to 60 cm tall. Native range: C Asia, W & C Himalaya to China. Habitat: Forest margins, rocky slopes (3900–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for healing cuts and wounds, and treating infectious (srin) diseases, sinusitis, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, and swellings due to wind (rlung) disorder. A concentrated decoction (khan da) of aerial parts of the plant is used as a substitute for musk pod (gla ba) of alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) in medicine, which treats wind disorders, infectious diseases, sinusitis, swellings and wounds. Reference: 1–3, 15a. Artemisia japonica Thunb. Artemisia cuneifolia DC., A. japonica var. lanata Pamp. tshar bong smug po (ཚར་བོང་ ག་པོ་). Pātī, Timurepātī (Np-Dl). पाती, िटमुरेपाती. Japanese mugwort, Japanese wormwood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, to 1 m tall, with thick, woody rootstock. Native range: Afghanistan, Himalaya to Russian Far East, Japan and Vietnam. Habitat: Open slopes, grasslands, waste places, forest margins, and roadsides (1500–2900 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Artemisia indica Willd. Artemisia asiatica Nakai ex Pamp., A. dubia Wall. ex Besser var. grata (Wall. ex Besser) Pamp., A. indica var. nepalensis Bess., A. indica var. orientalis (Pamp.) H. Hara, A. leptophylla D. Don, A. vulgaris L. var. indica (Willd.) Maxim., A. wallichiana Besser mkhan pa nag po (མཁན་པ་ནག་པོ་). mkhan nag (མཁན་ནག་). mkhan pa (མཁན་པ་). Tītepātī (Np). तीतेपाती. Part(s) use: Rt, St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of cuts and wounds, infectious diseases, respiratory problems, lung infection, and cold and cough. Reference: 4. Artemisia roxburghiana Bess. Damanaka (Sn). दमनक. mkhan skya (མཁན་ ་). Mugwort, Indian mugwort (En). mkhan pa dkar po (མཁན་པ་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb or subshrub, to 1.5 m tall. Native range: Indian Subcontinent to Japan, Myanmar and Thailand. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, field margins, open slopes, and shrubland (180–3100[– 4100] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/neutral to warm. Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of wind disorders, lung and urinary disorders, kidney infection, nosebleed, and cold tumor. Aerial parts of the plant is also used to treat cuts and wounds. Leaves are occasionally used as incense. Reference: 4, 15b. Pātī (Np). पाती. Roxburgh's wormwood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb or subshrub, to 1.2 m tall, with horizontally creeping rootstock. Native range: Afghanistan, Himalaya to C China and Indo-China. Habitat: Roadsides, open slopes, grasslands, and waste areas (2000–4600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of lung disorder, urinary retention, body aches, red and itchy skin, wounds infection, tumour and swellings caused by wind disorder. Reference: 4, 15b. 143 Artemisia rutifolia Steph. ex Spreng. Artemisia falconeri C.B. Clarke, A. salsoloides var. wellbyi (Hemsl. & Pearson) Ostenf. & Paulsen, A. turczaninoviana Besser, A. wellbyi Hemsl. & H. Pearson tshar bong dkar po (ཚར་བོང་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small puberulent shrub or subshrub, caespitose; stems woody, erect, 10–60 cm tall. Native range: Afghanistan to C & N Asia, Himalaya, and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky slopes, alpine steppes, and meadows (3700–4500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St, Lf, Fl. Artemisia stricta Edgew. Artemisia edgeworthii N.P. Balakr. tshar bong smug po (ཚར་བོང་ ག་པོ་). yog chen (ཡོག་ཆེན་). yog mo (ཡོག་མོ་). Pātī, Timurepātī (Np-Dl). पाती, िटमुरेपाती. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial herb; stems several, divaricate from base, 8–100 cm tall, purplish, pubescent. Native range: Central Asia to Himalaya and China. Habitat: Forest margins, shrubland, scree, and dry open slopes (2100–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool or neutral. Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Uses: The plant parts are used for treating infectious diseases, lung infection, other lung disorders, fever, chronic wounds, worm infestation, and swellings. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool to neutral. Artemisia sieversiana Ehrh. ex Willd. Uses: Aerial parts of the plant are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, chronic wounds, lung disorder, lung infection and swellings. Artemisia vestita Wall. ex Bess. mkhan skya (མཁན་ ་). phur nag ( mkhan pa dkar po (མཁན་པ་དཀར་པོ་). phur mong nag po ( Damanā, Pātī (Np). दमना, पाती. Damanaka (Np). दमनक. Sieversian wormwood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial herb, 1–1.5 m tall; sometimes gray pubescent. Native range: Afghanistan to C & N Asia, Himalaya, China and Japan. Habitat: Stony slopes, roadsides, and edges of crop fields ([1000– ]2100–4300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 12. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of wind (rlung) disorders, cough, urinary disorders, chronic wounds, infections, tumors, and body swellings, chiefly swelling of the lymph nodes. Reference: 1–3, 14, 15b. 144 ར་ནག་). Pātī (Np). पाती. ར་མོང་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted perennial herb or subshrub, 0.5-1.2 m tall, with woody rootstock. Native range: Pakistan and W Himalaya to China. Habitat: Rocky slopes, meadows, shrubland, and forest margins (2000– 4450 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 12. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, cold and cough, fever, chest pain, sinusitis, plague, thyroid, and swellings caused by wind disorders. Leaves are beneficial for cuts and wounds. Leaves and aerial parts of Artemisia vestita are used as a substitute for ma ru rtse (root of Butea monosperma) in treating infectious diseases and phlegm disorders. Its roots are used as a substitute for a ga ru dkar po (wood of Aquilaria sinensis) in medicine to treat fever. A concentrated decoction (khan da) of aerial parts of the plant is used as a substitute for musk pod (gla ba) of alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) in treating wind disorders, infectious diseases, sinusitis, swellings and wounds. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of poisoning, communicable diseases, infectious fever, chest pain, cough, wounds, nerve disorder, back pain due to nerve disorder, and paralysis of limbs. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 8, 9. Reference: 1, 9. Aster albescens (DC.) Wall. ex Hand.-Mazz. me tog lug mig (མེ་ཏོག་ Amphirhaphis albescens DC. me tog lug mig g’yung ba (མེ་ཏོག་ yu gu shing nag po ( Aster flaccidus Bunge ག་མིག་ག ང་བ་). ་གུ་ཤིང་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Shrub, 1–2 m tall; stems many, branched. Native range: Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Shrubberies, thickets, forests, forest margins, and streamside (1500–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 12. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL ག་མིག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small perennial herb, 3–25 cm tall, with simple, erect stems, hairy. Native range: Iran to S Russia, Himalaya and China. Habitat: Moist places in alpine grasslands, meadows, thickets and screes (3600– 5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 12. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of infectious fever, poisoning, chest infection, cough, nerve disorder, back pain and paralysis. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of infectious swellings, skin disorder and fever due to poisoning. It is also beneficial for open wounds. Reference: 15a. Heterochaeta diplostephioides DC. lug chen ( Aster himalaicus C.B. Clarke me tog lug mig (མེ་ཏོག་ Aster diplostephioides (DC.) C.B. Clarke lug mig che ba ( Reference: 1, 3, 4, 6, 11, 12. ག་མིག་ཆེ་བ་). ག་ཆེན་). ming can ser po (མིང་ཅན་སེར་པོ་). Ãnkhe-phūl, Kheldār (Np-Dl). आँखेफूल, खेलदार. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb, 15–50 cm tall, hairy. Native range: W Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, alpine meadows, and among shrubs (3200– 4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 12. lug mig chung ba ( ག་མིག་). ག་མིག་ ང་བ་). Ãnkhe-phūl, Suryephūl (Np). आँखेफूल, सुयफू ल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, strong-smelling perennial herb, 6–25 cm tall, with simple and hairy ascending stems. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Rocky meadows, rocky slopes, and screes (3500– 5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 12. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. 145 Uses: The plant parts are used to treat infectious fever, poisoning, headache, chest infection, cough, nerve disorder, liver and stomach disorders. Reference: 1–5, 14. Aster stracheyi Hook. f. lug mig chung ba ( ག་མིག་ ང་བ་). lug chung ( ག་ ང་). me tog lug chung (མེ་ཏོག་ ག་ ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, stoloniferous perennial herb, 3–15 cm tall, with ascending or erect stems, hairy. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rock crevices and sandy banks (2900–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 13. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Roots are used for the treatment of wind and blood disorders, blood pressure, lung disorder, indigestion, flatulence, constipation, diarrhoea, swelling due to cold wind disorder, and abnormal menstrual flow. It is also beneficial for wounds. Reference: 1–3, 10, 12, 13, 15a. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Critically Endangered [A2cd] (Saha et al. 2015). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix I (01/08/1985). Carduus edelbergii Rech. f. Carduus edelbergii subsp. lanatus Kazmi, C. nutans var. lucidus DC., Cnicus lucidus Wall. ex DC. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. spyang tsher nag po rgod pa ( Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Chilletī (Np-Dl). िचल्लेटी. ང་ཚར་ནག་པོ་ ོད་པ་). Uses: Same as Aster himalaicus. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Reference: 2, 4, 5, 10. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch., S. lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip. Perennial herb with erect, spiny stems, 30–120 cm. Native range: Afghanistan to Nepal. Habitat: Grazed meadows and cultivated areas (1500–4000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 13. sha pho ru rta (ཤ་ཕོ་ PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Aucklandia costus Falc. ru rta ( ་ ་). ་ ་). Kuth (Np). कु थ. Kushtha (Sn). कु ः. Costus, Kuth (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 1.5–2 m tall, with simple, erect stems and thick rootstock. Native range: W Himalaya (Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh of India); now cultivated in the Himalayan countries and China. Habitat: Moist slopes of high hill forest or pasture (3200–3800 m). In Nepal, it is cultivated and/or imported. Pl. 13. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/neutral. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorders, urinary disorders, retention of urine, swellings, old fever, blood impurities and indigestion due to phlegm (bad kan) disorders. Reference: 4, 15b. Carthamus tinctorius L. gur gum (གུར་གུམ་). bal po gur gum (བལ་པོ་གུར་གུམ་). Keshar, Kusum (Np). के शर, कु सुम. Part(s) use: Rt. Kusumba (Sn). कु सुम्बः. Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/warm and oily. Safflower, Bastard saffron, False saffron (En). 146 GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Cirsium wallichii DC. var. glabratum (Hook. f.) Annual herb, 0.5–1 m tall, with erect stem. Native range: SW Asia (C & E Turkey to Iran); now widely cultivated. In Nepal, it is cultivated and or imported. Wendelbo PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Cnicus wallichii var. glabrata Hook. f. spyang tsher ( ང་ཚར་). Chilletī, Sungure-kāndā (Np-Dl, NP). िचल्लेटी, सुँगुरे-काँडा. Part(s) use: Fl. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Perennial herb. Native range: Afghanistan to Nepal. Habitat: Open places, open slopes, and forest margins (1400–3500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 13. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of liver disorders, disorder of the blood vessels, and blood fever. It is especially beneficial for blood purification, and strengthening veins and seven body constitutions (nutritional fluid, blood, flesh, fat, bone, bone-marrow and serum). Flowers are used as a substitute for gi wang (bezoar) of glang chen (Asian elephant: Elephas maximus) in medicine, which treats liver disorders and fever. Flowers are also substituted for tiger (stag) fur in treating wounds. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13, 15b, 16. Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng. Cnicus verutus D. Don spyang tsher nag po ( ང་ཚར་ནག་པོ་). Chilletī, Sungure-kāndā (Np-Dl, Np). िचल्लेटी, सुँगुरे-काँडा. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 1–1.5 m tall; stem erect, branched, hairy. Native range: Himalaya to S Tibet, Myanmar and Vietnam. Habitat: Open slopes, forests and forest margins (750–3400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 13. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/neutral to warm. Uses: Roots are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, retention of urine, swellings, wounds, and tumors. Aerial parts of the plant are beneficial for treating urinary disorders, fever, blood impurities, indigestion, and other stomach disorders. Reference: 7, 10. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/neutral to warm. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, coughing up of blood, urinary disorders, swellings and indigestion. Reference: 4, 15b. Cremanthodium arnicoides (DC. ex Royle) R.D. Good Ligularia arnicoides DC. ex Royle, Senecio arnicoides (DC.) Wall. ex C.B. Clarke ming can nag po (མིང་ཅན་ནག་པོ་). rgu drus ser po ( ་ ས་སེར་པོ་)Sr-Dl. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 10–45 cm tall, stem erect, solitary with several nodding flower heads in a terminal cluster. Native range: W & C Himalaya to S Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist slopes, grassy and gravelly areas (3100–4900 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 14. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ap. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Aerial parts are used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and wind (rlung) disorders, liver disorder, infectious diseases, chronic wounds, ulcers and cough. Reference: 4, 6. 147 Cremanthodium decaisnei C.B. Clarke Cremanthodium decaisnei f. clarkei R.D. Good, C. decaisnei f. sinense R.D. Good, Senecio renatus Franch. sha la yu ring (ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་). mo ldum sha la yu ring (མོ་ sngo sga sha la yu ring ( མ་ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་). ་ོ ་ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 10–25 cm tall, with erect solitary stem, densely soft hairy below. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Alpine grasslands, meadows, and gravelly areas (3900–5100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 14. proximally glabrous, distally densely brown pilose PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid and astringent /cool. Uses: The whole plant is beneficial for the treatment of wounds, fever due to wound, bone fracture and inflammations. Reference: 1–3, 7. Cremanthodium nepalense Kitam. sga sho ( sngo sga ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rosulate perennial herb; flowering stem solitary, erect or ascending, 8–30 cm tall. Native range: Nepal and S Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist grassy slopes, meadows, streamsides and moist rocky and gravelly areas (2900–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 14. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: Aerial parts are used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and wind (rlung) disorders, infectious diseases, sinusitis and wounds. Reference: 7. Cremanthodium oblongatum C. B. Clarke Cremanthodium nakaoi Kitam. sga sho ( sngo sga ( Cremanthodium ellisii (Hook. f.) Kitam. Werneria ellisii Hook. f. ming can nag po (མིང་ཅན་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 15–50 cm tall, with erect, solitary stem. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Open moist slopes, gravelly areas, and alpine meadows (3100–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 14. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ap. ་ཤོ་). ོ་ ་). ་ཤོ་). ོ་ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; flowering stem solitary or 2, erect, 8–20 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya and S Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist grassy slopes, moist alpine meadows, and moist rocky and gravelly areas [3000–]4000–5300 m (W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: Same as Cremanthodium nepalense. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Aerial parts are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, wounds, obscuration of throat, swellings, bile (mkhris pa) and wind (rlung) disorders. The plant also improves blood circulation. Reference: 9, 15a. 148 Cremanthodium reniforme (Wall. ex DC.) Benth. Ligularia reniformis Wall. ex DC. sha la yu ring dman pa (ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་དམན་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 30–40 cm tall; stem erect, solitary. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Moist slopes, alpine meadows, mossy alpine slopes, and forest margins (2500–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 14. Dubyaea hispida (D. Don) DC. Part(s) use: Wp. Crepis bhutanica Hutch., C. dubyaea (C.B. Clarke) C. Marquand & Airy Shaw, Dubyaea bhutanica (Hutch.) C. Shih, D. lanceolata C. Shih, Hieracium hispidum D. Don, Lactuca dubyaea C.B. Clarke Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid and astringent /cool. rtsa mkhris dman pa ( Uses: The whole plant is beneficial for the treatment of wounds and bone fracture. rtsa mkhris nag po dman pa ( PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Dolomiaea macrocephala Royle Carduus nepalensis Spreng. ex DC., Dolomiaea baltalensis Dar & Naqshi, Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss., J. dolomiaea var. tibetica (Stewart) H.B. Naithani, J. himalaica R. R. Stewart, J. himalaica var. tibetica Stewart, Jurinella macrocephala (Royle) Aswal & Goel khams kyi ru rta (ཁམས་ཀྱི་ ru rta ( ་ ་). ་ ་). Dhūpjadī (Np). धूपजडी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial herb, with long, stout, aromatic taproot and rossete of lobbed leaves bearing central cluster of purple flower-heads. Native range: Pakistan to Nepal and S Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes (3200–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 13. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/warm, coarse and oily. Uses: Roots are beneficial for the treatment of wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, blood and lung disorders, fever, flatulence, stomachache, diarrhoea, and swelling due to cold wind. Roots are also used as incense. Its roots are substituted for roots of sha pho ru rta (Aucklandia costus) in medicine, which is used to treat wind disorders, blood, lung and gastro-intestinal disorders. Reference: 4, 5, 15a. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Near Threatened (Tandon et al. 2001). ་མཁྲིས་དམན་པ་). ་མཁྲིས་ནག་པོ་དམན་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Hairy perennial herb, 15–50 cm tall; stem erect, branched, leafy, with blackish glandular hairs. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open dry meadows, forest margins, and thickets (2700–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 14. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) disorders, vein/nerve disorders (rtsa), and disorder of the diaphragm. It cures indigestion and heals wounds. Himalaiella auriculata (Wall. ex DC.) Raab-Straube Aplotaxis auriculata Wall. ex DC., Saussurea auriculata (Wall. ex DC.) Sch. Bip. khrog chen dman pa (ཁྲོག་ཆེན་དམན་པ་). ming can nag po (མིང་ཅན་ནག་པོ་)Sr-Dl. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 0.4–1.5 m tall; stem erect, solitary, simple or few branched. Native range: Himalaya to S Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, forests and forest margins (2600–3900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 13. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used in the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and wind (rlung) disorders, infectious diseases, fever, swellings and dysentery. The plant parts are also used in treatment of cuts and wounds. 149 Inula hookeri C.B. Clarke Helenium hookeri (C. B. Clarke) Kuntze ming can ser po (མིང་ཅན་སེར་པོ་). Hooker’s inula (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 30–75 cm tall; stems erect, softly hairy. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, forests, thickets and grassland (2400–3700 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 14. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Flowers treat infectious diseases, fever, wounds, inflammation of muscle, and upper back pain due to wind (rlung) and blood disorders. Ixeridium gracile (Wall. ex DC.) J.H. Pak & Kawano Ixeris gracilis (Wall. ex DC.) Stebbins, Lactuca gracilis Wall. ex DC. rtsa mkhris ( ་མཁྲིས་). rtsa mkhris gser po ( ་མཁྲིས་གསེར་པོ་). gser mkhris (གསེར་མཁྲིས). rtsa mkhris zhing skyes ( ་མཁྲིས་ཞིང་ ེས་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stout perennial herb, 0.7–2 m tall, with tuberous rhizome and rough, grooved stem. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and Vietnam. Habitat: Forests, forest margins and open slopes (1100– 2300 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Inula racemosa Hook f. Helenium racemosum (Hook. f.) Kuntze ma nu (མ་ ་). Pushkaramūl (Np). पुस्करमूल. Pushkaramūl, Padmapatraka (Sn). पुस्करमूल, प पतर्क. Indian elecampane (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stout perennial herb, 0.7–2 m tall; stem rough, grooved. Native range: N Pakistan to Nepal and NW China. Habitat: Cultivated fields, and often planted (2500–3700 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and acrid/neutral. Uses: Roots treat combined disorders of wind (rlung) and blood, and bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan). It cures lung disorder, pain in the ribs, and digestive system disorders. Its roots are used as a substitute for sha pho ru rta (roots of Aucklandia costus) in compoundding medication that treats wind and blood disorders, lung disease, and intestinal disorders. Reference: 1–4, 6, 10, 12, 13, 15a. 150 Uses: The whole plant is used to treat bile (mkhris pa) disorders, bile-associated fever, jaundice, vein/nerve disorder (rtsa), disorder of the diaphragm, wounds, and indigestion. Leaves and flowers are substituted for bear bile (dom mkhris) in compounding medication for bile disorders, bile-associated fever, and wounds. Reference: 2–4, 13, 15a. Leibnitzia nepalensis (Kunze) Kitam. Cleistanthium nepalense Kunze, Gerbera kunzeana A. Br. & Asch., G. nepalensis (Kunze) O. Hoffm. khrog chung (ཁྲོག་ ང་). kon pa gab skyes chung ba (ཀོན་པ་གབ་ spra ba ( Sr-Dl ་བ་) སེ ་ ང་བ་). . Jhulo (Np). झुलो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial, dimorphic herb. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Grassland, open slopes, scrub, and forest margins (2000–4600 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Leaves are used for the treatment of hot disorders associated with blood, poisoning. Leaves are also used to stop bleeding, and heal cuts and wounds. Taste/potency: Astringent to bitter/neutral. Uses: The plant parts treat infectious diseases and wounds. The plant is also used as moxa therapy. Reference: 4, 5. Reference: 3, 9. Leontopodium monocephalum Edgew. Leontopodium himalayanum DC. Leontopodium himalayanum var. pumilum Ling spra ba thog dkar rgod pa ( ་བ་ཐོག་དཀར་ དོ ་པ). spra ba ( ་བ་). spra rgod ( ་ ོད་). spra thog ( ་ཐོག་). ་བ་ཐོག་དཀར་མཆོག་). ་ ོད་). Lek jhulo (Np). लेक झुलो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Jhulo (Np). झुलो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely tufted perennial herb. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Gravelly slopes, moist meadows, and boggy areas (3000–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 15. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Astringent to bitter/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of infectious diseases and wounds. It is also used as moxa therapy. Reference: 6, 12. Leontopodium jacotianum Beauverd spra ba thog dkar g'yung ba ( spra ba thog dkar mchog ( spra rgod ( ་བ་ཐོག་དཀར་ག ང་བ). spra ba ( ་བ་). spra thog ( ་ཐོག་). Jhulo (Np). झुलो. Mat-forming, woolly, stoloniferous perennial herb, 4-10 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Gravelly slopes and rocky meadows (3700–5600 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Astringent to bitter/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of infectious diseases. It is also beneficial for wound healing. It is chiefly used as moxa therapy. Reference: 4, 5. Leontopodium stracheyi (Hook. f.) C.B. Clarke ex Hemsl. Gnaphalium stracheyi (Hook. f.) Franch., Leontopodium alpinum Cass. var. stracheyi Hook. f., L. anaphaloides Duthie ex Beauv., L. sinense Hemsl. var. stracheyi (Hook. f.) Beauv. spra ba thog dkar g'yung ba ( ་བ་ཐོག་དཀར་ག ང་བ). spra ba ( ་བ་). spra thog ( ་ཐོག་). Jhulo (Np). झुलो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stoloniferous perennial herb, 6–28 cm tall, forming tufted mats, greyish woolly. Native range: Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Meadows, screes and moraines (2700–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 15. Rhizomatous perennial herb, 10–60 cm tall, with numerous flowering and sterile stems, woolly. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes, grasslands, thickets and screes (2200–4500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. 151 Taste/potency: Astringent to bitter/neutral. Uses: The plant parts treat infectious diseases and wounds. The plant is also used in moxa therapy. Reference: 4, 15b. Ligularia amplexicaulis DC. Ligularia corymbosa DC., L. yakla (C.B. Clarke) V. Singh & P. Singh, Senecio amplexicaulis Wall. ex C.B. Clarke ri sho (རི་ཤོ་). rgu drus ( ་ ས་). Ãnkhe-phūl (Np). आँखेफूल. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used as emetic. It is beneficial for the treatment of a combined bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan) disorder, chronic contagious diseases, chronic fever, poisoning and indigestion. It is also beneficial for wound healing. In combination with other herbs it treats paralysis of lower body parts. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 15b. Sheathing groundel (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 70–120 cm tall, with erect stem. Native range: Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan). Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes, and alpine meadows (2600–4100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 15. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used as emetic. It is beneficial for the treatment of a combined bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan) disorder, infections, chronic fever and wound, ulcer, lymph (chu ser) disorder, poisoning and indigestion. Reference: 2, 10, 15a, 19. Ligularia virgaurea (Maxim.) Mattf. ex Rehder & Kobuski Senecio virgaureus Maxim., Cremanthodium plantaginifolium (Franch.) R.D. Good, C. virgaurea (Maxim.) Hand.-Mazz., Ligularia plantaginifolia (Franch.) Mattf. ex Rehder & Kobuski ri sho (རི་ཤོ་). rgu drus ( ་ ས་). ming can dkar po (མིང་ཅན་དཀར་པོ་). Ãnkhe-phūl, Ãnkhā-tarī-phūl (Np). आँखेफूल, आँखा-तरी-फू ल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 20–60 cm tall, with erect stem. Native range: C & E Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Disturbed forests, open slopes, alpine meadows, and rocky slopes (3000–4100 m; W Nepal). 152 Melanoseris lessertiana (DC.) Decne. Lactuca lessertiana (DC.) C.B. Clarke, Melanoseris lyrata DC., Mulgedium lessertianum DC. rtsa mkhris ( ་མཁྲིས་). rgya khur sngon po ( ་ཁུར་ ོན་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 5–30 cm tall, stems usually several, weak, sparsely branched. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open slopes and grasslands (3200–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 15. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant treats hot disorders of liver and bile (mkhris pa), vein/nerve disorders, poisoning, and disorders of the diaphragm. Reference: 2, 6, 9. Melanoseris macrorhiza (Royle) N. Kilian Cicerbita macrorhiza (Royle) Beauv., Lactuca macrorhiza (Royle) Hook. f., Mulgedium macrorhizum Royle rtsa mkhris mchog ( rgya khur sngon po ( ་མཁྲིས་མཆོག་). ་ཁུར་ ོན་པོ་)Sr-Dl. Doiluphūl (Np-Dl). डोइलुफूल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted perennial herb, 20–60 cm tall, with woody rootstock; stems ascending to erect, branched. Native range: SW & C Asia to E Himalaya and SC China. Habitat: Forests, thickets, and open grassy and stony slopes (2500–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 15. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts treat hot disorders of liver and bile (mkhris pa), vein/nerve (rtsa) disorder, poisoning, fever due to poisoning, and headache. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 15a, 15b. Oreoseris nivea Wall. ex DC. Arnica nivea Wall., Gerbera nivea (Wall. ex DC.) Sch. Bip., Perdicium niveum (Wall. ex DC.) Skeels spra ba ( ་བ་). Jhulo (Np). झुलो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial rhizomatous herb forming rosettes. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forest margins and meadows (2800–4500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Leaves are used in the treatment of blood disorders, poisoning, bleeding, and cuts and wounds. The plant is also used in moxa therapy. Reference: 4, 15b. Petasites tricholobus Franch. Ligularia petelotii Merr., Nardosmia himalaica (Kitam.) Kuprian., Petasites himalaicus Kitam., P. mairei H. Lév., P. petelotii (Merr.) Kitam. lug sho ( ག་ཤོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial, subdioecious herb, to 30 cm tall, with short rhizomes. Native range: N Pakistan to China and Vietnam. Habitat: Forest margins and riversides (2800–4000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 15. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Astringent and bitter/cool Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of epidemic diseases (e.g., smallpox), wounds, fever due to wounds, headache, swellings, tonsillitis, and pains is throat and joints. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 15b. Picris hieracioides L. subsp. kaimaensis (Kitam.) Kitam. Picris kaimaensis Kitam. rgya khur ( ་ཁུར་)Sr-Ms. Ban dudhe, Dudhe-ghāns (Np). वन दुध,े दुध-े घाँस. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or short-lived perennial herb, to 80 cm tall. Native range: Pakistan to Bhutan and Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, cultivated areas, grasslands, and forest margins (1200–3800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of infectious fever, brown phlegm (bad kan smug po) disorder, bile (mkhris pa) and liver disorders, blood disorder associated with bile, jaundice and poisoning. Reference: 1–3, 7, 15b. Pseudognaphalium affine (D. Don) Anderb. Gnaphalium affine D. Don, G. luteoalbum subsp. affine (D. Don) J. Kost. gandha bha dra ser po (གནདྷ་བྷ་ Bukīphūl (Np). बुकीफू ल. ་སེར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Biennial herb, 15–40 cm tall, densely white lanate tomentose. Native range: Tropical and temperate Asia. Habitat: Wastelands, cultivated fields and forest margins (600–3700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 15. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. 153 Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/neutral to warm. Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, indigestion, common cold, cough, bacterial diseases, gout, poisoning, paralysis, epilepsy, and tumors (skran nad) due to suppressed wind. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 7. Saussurea eriostemon Wall. ex C.B. Clarke Aplotaxis nepalensis (Spreng.) DC., Eriostemon taraxacifolius (D. Don) Less., Saussurea nepalensis Spreng. kon pa gab skyes chung (ཀོན་པ་གབ་ khrog chung (ཁྲོག་ ང་). gab chung (གབ་ ེས་ ང་). ང་). Nepal saw-wort (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 0–25 cm, surrounded by fibrous remains of petioles at base. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Alpine meadows and thickets (3200–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 16. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in the treatment of blood impurity, neurological disorders, epileptic and hysterical seizures, septic disease, and liver disorders. The plant is also beneficial for the treatment of excessive menstrual flow, wounds, and diseases/disorders caused by evil spirits. Reference: 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15b. Saussurea graminifolia Wall. ex DC. srol gong ser po dman pa ( ོལ་གོང་སེར་པོ་དམན་པ་). srol gong dman pa ( ོལ་གོང་དམན་པ་). gangs lha me tog (གངས་ ་མེ་ཏོག་)Sr-Dl. rtsa mkhris ba mo kha ( ་མཁྲིས་བ་མོ་ཁ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 5–20 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist grassland and alpine meadows (3600–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 16. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Clinical uses: The plant treats hot disorders of blood, chronic wounds, vein- and wound-fever, heart disease, gynaecological and stomach disorders, bleeding, and meat poisoning. Reference: 4, 7, 15b. Saussurea gossipiphora D. Don Saussurea gossypina Wall. bya rgod sug pa ( ་ ོད་ gangs lha me tog (གངས་ PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL ག་པ་). ་མེ་ཏོག་)Sr-Dl, Sr-Ms. Bhūtkesh, Kapasephūl, Māikopilā (Np). भूतके श, कपासेफू ल, माईकोिपला. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Clinical uses: The plant treats poisoning, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, and diseases/disorders caused by evil spirits. The plant is also substituted for srol gong ser po (whole plant of Soroseris hookeriana) in compounding medication to treat poisoning. Reference: 4, 7, 15b. Saussurea leontodontoides (DC.) Sch. Bip. Aplotaxis leontodontoides DC., Saussurea kunthiana C.B. Clarke kon pa gab skyes chung (ཀོན་པ་གབ་ GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT khrog chung (ཁྲོག་ Monocarpic perennial herb, 10–40 cm tall, densely covered with white-woolly hairs. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky slopes and scree (4100–5700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 16. gab chung (གབ་ 154 ེས་ ང་). ང་). ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rosette-forming perennial herb, stemless or shortly stemmed, 0–10 cm tall, surrounded by fibrous remains of petioles at base. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Scree slopes, rocky slopes, rock crevices, forest margins and thickets (3200– 5100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 17. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Clinical uses: Same as Saussurea eriostemon. Habitat: Rocky and scree slopes ([3800–]4400–5800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 16. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used for treating blood and neurological disorders, epilepsy, blood impurity, excessive menstrual flow, wounds, and psychological disorders caused by evil spirits. Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Sch. Bip. Saussurea tridactyla Sch. Bip. ex Hook. f. Aplotaxis obvallata DC. gza'a dug nag po (གཟའ་ ག་ནག་པོ་). Brahmakamal (Np). बर् कमल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 15–70 cm tall, with simple, erect, stout stem. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Screes, grasslands and rocky slopes (3500–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 16. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in the treatment of epilepsy, fainting, sores and pains. It is particularly used for treating diseases caused by celestial spirits. Reference: 1–3, 12, 15a. Saussurea simpsoniana (Field. & Gardn.) Lipsch. Aplotaxis gossypina (Wall.) DC. var. minor DC., A. simpsoniana Field. & Gardn., Saussurea sacra Edgew., S. yushuensis S.W. Liu & T. N Ho, Theodorea sacra (Edgew.) Kuntze bya rgod sug pa ( ་ ོད་ ག་པ་). gangs lha me tog chung (གངས་ ་མེ་ཏོག་ ང་)Sr-Dl. Bhūtkesh (Np). भूतके श. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small polycarpic perennial, 5–25 cm tall, caespitose, densely covered with white- or pink-woolly hairs. Native range: Himalaya to NW China (Xinjiang). Theodorea tridactyla (Sch. Bip. ex Hook. f.) Kuntze bya rgod sug pa ( ་ ོད་ ག་པ་). gangs lha me tog chung (གངས་ ་མེ་ཏོག་ ང་). Bhūtkesh, Māikopilā (Np). भूतके श, माईकोिपला. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small polycarpic perennial herb, 5–20 cm tall, densely covered with white- or white-brownish woolly hairs. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky and scree slopes ([4050–]4400–5800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 16. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of neurological disorders, epilepsy, excessive menstrual flow, wounds, and psychological disorders caused by evil spirits. Reference: 15b. Shangwua denticulata (DC.) Raab-Straube & Yu J. Wang Aplotaxis denticulata DC., A. fastuosa DC., Saussurea denticulata (DC.) Wall. ex C.B. Clarke, S. fastuosa (DC.) Sch. Bip. spyang tsher g.yung ba ( ང་ཚར་ག ང་བ་)Sr-Dl. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 30–150 cm tall; stem solitary, erect, simple or apically branched. Native range: Himalaya 155 to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, thickets and open slopes (2130–4100 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/neutral to warm. Uses: Roots are used for the treatment of wind disorders, lymphatic disorders and joint pain. Reference: 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of poisoning, fever due to poisoning, obscuration of throat and blood pressure. It heals fractured bone, especially the head bone injuries, and wounds. Reference: 1–5, 10–12, 15a, 15b. Soroseris pumila Stebbins Soroseris deasyi (S. Moore) Stebbins srol gong ser po ( ོལ་གོང་སེར་པོ་). Lactuca deasyi S. Moore GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT rdza skyes srol gong ( Perennial rosulate herb, 5–10 cm; leaf margins coarsely dentate. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Stony pastures and scree slopes (3800–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 17. srol gong ser po ( ་ ེས་ ོལ་གོང་). ལོ ་གོང་སེར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial rosulate herb; leaves entire or remotely denticulate, glabrous or hirsute; flowers creamwhite or yellow. Native range: W & C Himalaya to NW China. Habitat: Stony pastures and scree slopes (3700–4800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 17. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used to treat poisoning, wind disorder, infectious diseases, lung infection, blood disorder, tumors and bone fracture. Reference: 1, 12, 14. Soroseris hookeriana (C.B. Clarke) Stebbins Crepis hookeriana C.B. Clarke, Soroseris gillii (S. Moore) Stebbins srol gong ser po ( srol gong pa ( ལོ ་གོང་སེར་པོ་). ོལ་གོང་པ་)Sr-Ms. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, acaulescent and rosulate to caulescent with a solitary stem of 3–10 cm; leaves pinnatifid. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Stony pastures, scree slopes and streamsides (3900–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 17. 156 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of poisoning, fever due to poisoning, obscuration of throat, blood pressure and for healing head bone injuries and wounds. Taraxacum eriopodum (D. Don) DC. Leontodon eriopodum D. Don, Taraxacum officinale var. eriopoda (D. Don) Hook. f. khur mang (ཁུར་མང་). Tukīphūl (Np). टु कीफू ल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial herbs, with milky sap. Native range: C & SW Asia through Himalaya to SC China and Mongolia. Habitat: Forest margins, rocky grassland, meadows and trailsides (2600–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 17. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet/cool. Uses: Leaves and flowers treat phlegm (bad kan) disorders, fever, poisoning, and blood and bile (mkhris pa) disorders. and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, and stomach disorders. Reference: 1–5, 8, 14. Reference: 3, 12. Youngia gracilipes (Hook. f.) Babc. & Stebbins Taraxacum sikkimense Hand.-Mazz. khur mang (ཁུར་མང་). khur dkar (ཁུར་དཀར་). Tukīphūl (Np). टु कीफू ल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial herbs, with milky sap. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Moist and shady places in shrubland, and alpine meadows (3600–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 17. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Crepis gracilipes Hook. f., Pseudoyoungia gracilipes (Hook. f.) D. Maity & Maiti rtsa mkhris chung ( ་མཁྲིས་ ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rosulate perennial herb, with long slender rhizome, flowering stems 3–10 cm. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Dry meadows and forest margins (2800–4800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 18. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Bitter and slightly sweet/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and vein/nerve disorder (rtsa). Uses: The plant is used in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, stomach ulcer, and blood and bile disorders. Reference: 1, 3. Taraxacum tibetanum Hand - Mazz khur mang (ཁུར་མང་). khur nag (ཁུར་ནག་). Nigāle-sāg, Tukīphūl (Np). िनगाले-साग, टु कीफू ल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial herb, with milky sap. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and Mongolia. Habitat: Moist places in forests, thickets and grasslands (3250–4300 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter and slightly sweet/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, chiefly the brown phlegm (bad kan smug po), communicable diseases, chronic fever, poisoning from precious stones and metals, eye infection, hiccup, blood BERBERIDACEAE Berberis angulosa Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thomson Berberis angulosa var. fasciculata Ahrendt, B. parisepala Ahrendt skyer pa nag po ( skyer nag ( ེར་པ་ནག་པོ་). ེར་ནག་). Chutro (Np). चुतर्ो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous spiny shrub, 0.3–2.2 m tall; stems brownish, grooved; spines 3-fid. Native range: C & E Himalaya to China. Habitat: Meadows, open slopes, open forests, thickets, rocky hill slopes, and streamsides (3000–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 18. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Fr. Taste/potency: Sour, sweet and bitter/warm. Uses: Fruit treats diarrhoea, dysentery and indigestion. Bark is used to treat eye disorder. Reference: 4. 157 Berberis aristata DC. skyer pa dkar po ( རེ ་པ་དཀར་པོ་). ེར་པ་). skyer dkar ( ེར་དཀར་). skyer pa shing ( ར ེ ་པ་ཤིང་). skyer pa ( Chutro, Chotto (Np, Np-Dl). चुतर्ो, चो ो. Dāruharidra, Rasānjana (Sn). दारुहिरदर्, रसा न. Himalayan barberry, Tree turmeric (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect spiny shrubs, 3–5 m tall, almost deciduous. Native range: W Himalaya to Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, thickets and open slopes (1150–3400[–4000] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 18. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool (Fl), sour, sweet and bitter/cool and coarse (Fr), bitter/cool to coarse and warm (Br). Uses: Flowers and fruits are used to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorders, mouth sores, throat and larynx infections, dysentery, indigestion and bleeding. Concentrated inner bark extract (khan da) is used in treating diarrhoea, indigestion, excessive bleeding, poisoning, lymph (chu ser) and eye disorders, and chronic fever. The plant parts are also used in bile and blood disorders. Flowers and fruits of Berberis aristata are substituted for skyu ru (fruits of Phyllanthus emblica) in treating phlegm, bile and blood disorders; for se 'bru (fruits of Punica granatum) in treating stomach disorders; and for tongue and stomach of spyang ki (grey wolf: Canis lupus) in treating mouth and throat disorders and indigestion. Its bark is substituted for seng ldeng (wood of Senegalia catechu) to treat lymphatic (chu ser) disorder, chronic fever and blood disorders; and for zhu mkhan (Symplocos paniculata) to treat fever. Decoction of Berberis aristata bark is substituted for gi wang (bezoar) of glang chen (Asian elephant: Elephas maximus) in medicine to treat fever and poisoning. 158 Reference: 2, 4, 5, 10–13, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (BGI & IUCN SCC 2019a). Berberis mucrifolia Ahrendt skyer pa nag po ( skyer nag ( ེར་པ་ནག་པོ་). ེར་ནག་). Muse chutro (Np). मुसे चुतर्ो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Dwarf deciduous shrub, up to 70 cm tall. Native range: Endemic to Nepal. Habitat: Rocky slopes and shrubland (2000–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 18. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Fr. Taste/potency: Sour, sweet and bitter/warm. Uses: Fruits are used for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and indigestion. Bark is beneficial for eye disorder. Reference: 4, 15b. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Podophyllum emodi Wall ex Hook. f. & Thomson, Sinopodophyllum emodi (Wall. ex Royle) T.S. Ying; S. hexandrum (Royle) T.S. Ying 'ol mo se (འོལ་མོ་སེ་). Laghupatra, Tītekānkrī (Np). लघुपतर्, तीतेकाँकर्ी. Himalayan may apple (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial rhizomatous herb, with erect, unbranched stem. Native range: SW Asia through Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Shady places in forests, forest margins, meadows, thickets, and grassy slopes among boulders (2300–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 18. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf, Fl, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent, bitter and acrid/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat gynaecological problems (irregular menstrual cycle and menstrual flow, diseases of the uterus), neurological disorders, renal diseases, urinary obstructions, swellings, blood tumors, and to drain out lymph fluid (chu ser). The plant is slightly toxic. Its rhizome and fruits are substituted for mda' rgyus (seeds of Abrus precatorius) in compounding medication for the treatment of menstrual bleeding and other gynaecological disorders. Its rhizome and fruits are also used as a substitute for body parts of gong mo (Himalayan snowcock: Tetraogallus himalayensis; and Tibetan snowcock: T. tibetanus), bya rgod (cinereous vulture: Aegypius monachus), and go bo (bearded vulture: Gypaetus barbatus) in treating accumulation of lymph fluid, gynaecological disorders, urinary obstruction and swelling. The plant parts are also substituted for sha ru (horns of barasingha: Rucervus duvaucelii; and red deer: Cervus elaphus) in treating gynaecological disorders, menstrual bleeding, and lymphatic disorders. Reference: 1-5, 9, 11, 12, 15a. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (13/09/2007). BETULACEAE Betula utilis D. Don Betula bhojpattra Lindl. ex Wall., B. bhojpattra var. latifolia Regel stag pa ( ག་པ་). ག་པ་ཤིང་). stag pa shing ( Bhojpatra, Bhuj (Np). भोजपतर्, भुज. Bhūrjapatra, Bhūrjapatraka (Sn). भूजर्पतर्, भूजर्पतर्क. Himalayan birch, Himalayan silver birch (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, to 35 m tall, with white or brownish bark, peeling off in thin strips. Native range: Afghanistan to E Himalaya and C China. Habitat: Temperate and subalpine forests (2000–4550 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tw, Rn. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cool. Uses: Resinous substance obtained from the trunk or branches is used to treat bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders. Young shoots or twigs are used to treat bleeding. Outer papery bark is used in a poultice to treat wounds and swellings. Reference: 4. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Shaw et al. 2014). BIGNONIACEAE Incarvillea diffusa Royle Amphicome arguta Royle ex G. Don, A. diffusa (Royle) Sprague, Incarvillea arguta Royle, I. arguta var. daochengensis Q. S. Zhao, I. arguta var. longipedicellata Q. S. Zhao ug chos dmar po ( ག་ཆོས་དམར་པོ་). ug chos dman pa ( ག་ཆོས་དམན་པ་). rtsa dug mo nyung ( ་ ག་མོ་ ང་)Sr-Ms. Kanwalphūl (Np-Dl). कँ वलफू ल. Himalayan gloxinia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, up to 1.5 tall, with pendulous stems and branches. Native range: W & C Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Thickets, cliffs, rock ledges and stony slopes (1300–3500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 19. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool and light. Uses: Seeds and roots are used for the treatment of ear disorders, ear pain and deafness. Seeds are also used in lung and liver disorders. Roots and aerial parts are used for stomach disorder, intestinal cold and injuries. Reference: 4, 5, 15a, 15b. 159 Incarvillea mairei (H. Lév.) Grierson Incarvillea grandiflora Bureau & Franch., I. mairei var. multifoliolata (C.Y. Wu & W.C. Yin) C.Y. Wu & W.C. Yin, Tecoma mairei H. Lév. ug chos dmar po ( ག་ཆོས་དམར་པོ་). Kanwalphūl (Np). कँ वलफू ल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, stemless perennial herb. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open stony slopes (3000–4700 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 20. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet/cool and light. Uses: Root are used for the treatment of stomach disorders, flatulence, colic, headache and cough. Root and seeds cure ear infection and deafness. Flowers are used to treat wind disorder, headache, lymph fluid disorder and swelling. Reference: 4, 5. Incarvillea younghusbandii Sprague ug chos dmar po ( ག་ཆོས་དམར་པོ་). ག་ཆོས་དམར་པོ་མཆོག་). ug chos dmar po mchog ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, stemless perennial herb. Native range: Nepal and China (Tibetan Plateau). Habitat: Open stony slopes (4400–5900 m; W Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet/cool and light. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, 6–10 m tall. Native range: Tropical Asia to S China. Habitat: Open forests, roadsides and village areas (300–1400 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Astringent to bitter/cool. Uses: Flowers and seeds are used in the treatment of hot disorders, and malarial fever (rgya tshad). Reference: 1–4, 15a, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Endangered (Tandon et al. 2001). BORAGINACEAE Arnebia benthamii (Wall ex G. Don) I.M. Johnst. Echium benthami Wall. ex G. Don, Lithospermum benthami (Wall. ex G. Don) I.M. Johnst., Macrotomia benthami (Wall. ex G. Don) A. DC. 'bri mog (འ ི་མོག་), 'bri mog ri skyes (འ smug rtsi ( ག་ ི་). ི་མོག་རི་ ེས་). Mahārangī (Np). महारङ्गी. Himalayan arnebia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Hairy monocarpic perennial herb, with stout rootstock covered with bases of old leaves. Native range: W & C Himalaya (N Pakistan to Nepal). Habitat: Stony grassland, dry stony slopes, and shrubberies (2800–4300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 18. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Same as Incarvillea mairei. Part(s) use: Rt. Reference: 14, 15a. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Tatelo (Np). टटेलो. Uses: Rootstock is used for the treatment of blood disorder, hypertension, lung infection, old cough, fever and earache. Rootstock yields red dye which is applied as hair tonic, and to treat dandruff. Shyonāka (Sn). श्योनाक. Reference: 4–6, 14. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurtz Bignonia indica L. tsam pa ka (ཙམ་པ་ཀ་). Broken bone tree, Indian trumpet tree (En). 160 Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Lehm.) Brand, Myosotis zeylanica Lehm., Paracynoglossum furcatum (Wall.) Popov Uses: Leaves and stems are used for the treatment of sores, fresh wounds, swellings, cough, uterus tumors, accumulation of serous fluid, and irregular menstrual cycle. The plant parts are also beneficial for healing fractured bone. nad ma 'byar ma (ནད་མ་འ Reference: 1–3, 4. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. ར་མ་). Bhede kurro, Kanike kurro, Muse kurro (Np). भेडे कु र , किनके कु र , मुसे कु र . Ceylon forget-me-not, Ceylon hound's tongue (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial hairy herb, 40–80 cm tall. Native range: Afghanistan to Japan, S & SE Asia. Habitat: Waste places, forest margins and meadows (800– 4100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 19. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet and astringent/cool to coarse. Uses: Leaves and stems are used for the treatment of sores, wounds, swellings, cough, uterus tumors, accumulation of serous fluid, and irregular menstrual cycle. Reference: 4. Cynoglossum denticulatum DC., C. edgeworthii DC. nad ma 'byar ma (ནད་མ་འ ར་མ་). Bhede kurro, Muse kurro (Np). भेडे कु र , मुसे कु र . Prickly hound's tongue (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Biennial or perennial hairy herb, 10–50 cm tall. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Meadows, edges of crop fields, and forest margins (1400–4000 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet and astringent/cool to coarse. Uses: Same as Cynoglossum glochidiatum. Reference: 6, 9, 19. Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wall. ex Benth. Cynoglossum wallichii G. Don var. glochidiatum (Wall. ex Benth.) Kazmi nad ma 'byar ma (ནད་མ་འ Cynoglossum wallichii G. Don ར་མ་). Bhede kurro, Kanike kurro (Np). भेडे कु र , किनके कु र . GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Biennial hairy herb, ca. 75 cm tall. Native range: Afghanistan to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes, pastures, rocky slopes, rock cliffs, and trailsides (500–4150 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet and astringent/cool to coarse. Eritrichium canum (Benth.) Kitam. Echinospermum canum Benth., E. myosotiflorum A. DC., Eritrichium jacquemontii Decne., E. strictum var. thomsonii C.B. Clarke nad ma g.yu chung (ནད་མ་ག g.yu chung (ག ་ ང་). ་ ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small perennial herb, to 9–15(–25) cm tall, silkywhite-hairy. Native range: Afghanistan through W & C Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open gravelly slopes, grassy slopes, juniper thickets, and sandy river banks (3400–4600 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool and coarse. 161 Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of wounds, bone fracture, swellings and high blood pressure. Uses: Leaves and stems are used for the treatment of wounds, swelling and bone fracture. Reference: 4, 9. Reference: 4. Maharanga emodi (Wall.) A. DC. Hackelia uncinata (Royle ex Benth.) C.E.C. Fisch. Cynoglossum uncinatum Royle ex Benth., Eritrichium uncinatum (Royle ex Benth.) Y.S. Lian & J.Q. Wang nadma snun ma (ནདམ་ ན་མ་). Bhede kurro (Np). भेडे कु र . Onosma emodi Wall., O. vestitum Wall. ex G. Don, O. wallichianum Benth. ex Hook. f., Maharanga wallichiana DC. 'bri mog dkar po (འ ི་མོག་དཀར་པོ་). Mahārangī (Np). महारङ्गी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial pubescent herb, 30–70 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Wet slopes, forest understory, and grazed meadows (2150–4300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 19. Perennial pubescent herb, 15–60 cm tall; stems several, caespitose, ascending. Native range: C & E Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, forest margins, and moist places by streams (1900– 4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 19. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool to coarse. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of sores, fresh wounds, accumulation of serous fluid and swellings. It heals fractured bones and joints ruptured ligaments and tendons. Reference: 2, 9. Anchusopsis longiflora (A. DC.) Bisch., Cynoglossum longiflorum Royle ex Benth., Lindelofia spectabilis Lehm., Omphalodes longiflora A. DC., Paracaryum longiflorum Boiss. nad ma g.yu lo (ནད་མ་ག g.yu lo (ག Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: Rootstock is used for the treatment of blood disorder, cough, fever and earache. Reference: 14, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Lindelofia longiflora (A. DC.) Baill. dewa g.yu chung (དེཝ་ག PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL ་ལོ་). ་ ང་). ་ལོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial pubescent herb, 15–60 cm tall; flowers blue to purple. Native range: W & C Himalaya (Kashmir to Nepal). Habitat: Open slopes (3000– 4600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 19. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL National: Data deficient (Tandon et al. 2001). Onosma bracteatum Wall. Onosma macrocephala D. Don. 'bri mog (འ smug rtsi ( ི་མོག་), 'bri mog che ba (འ ི་མོག་ཆེ་བ་). ག་ ི་). Gāijibre, Mahārangī (Np). गाईिजबर्े, महारङ्गी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial hairy herb, to 40 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Stony grassland, rocks, morainic deposits, screes and river banks (2600–5000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 19. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Part(s) use: Lf, St. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool to coarse. Uses: Rootstock is used for the treatment of blood 162 disorder, high blood pressure, fever, cough, lung infection, earache and as hair tonic. Rootstock yields red dye which is applied as hair tonic and to treat dandruff. Rootstock is used as a substitute for 'bri mog ri skyes (rootstock of Arnebia benthamii) to treat blood disorders, hypertension, and lung disease. Reference: 4, 15b. Onosma hookeri C.B. Clarke var. longiflorum (Duthie) Duthie ex Stapf Onosma longiflorum Duthie 'bri mog (འ ི་མོག་), 'bri mog chung ba (འ ི་མོག་ ང་བ་). Mahārangī (Np). महारङ्गी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, perennial hairy herb, 9–30 cm tall. Native range: Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Scree slopes, rocky slopes, meadows and streamsides (3300–5000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 19. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool. Uses: Rootstock is used for the treatment of blood disorder, high blood pressure, fever, cough, lung infection, earache and as hair tonic. Rootstock yields red dye which is applied as hair tonic and to treat dandruff. margins, fallow fields, waste places, open grasslands, and grazed meadows (1800–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 20. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/neutral. Uses: The plant is used as an antiemetic agent in treating vomiting. The plant cures gastritis, indigestion, and lung, kidney and neurological disorders. Seeds of Capsella bursa-pastoris are substituted for pu shel rtse (rhizomes, pseudobulbs and stems of Coelogyne spp. and Dendrobium spp.) in treating vomiting and nausea, indigestion, gastritis, and lung and urinary disorders. Reference: 1–4, 8–12, 15a, 17, 18. Cardamine macrophylla Willd. Cardamine macrophylla var. foliosa Hook. f. & T. Anderson, C. macrophylla subsp. polyphylla (D. Don) O.E. Schulz, C. macrophylla var. polyphylla (D. Don) T.Y. Cheo & R.C. Fang chu rug pa ( ་ ག་པ་). Thūlo chamsure-ghāns (Np). ठू लो चम्सुरे-घाँस. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT BRASSICACEAE (= CRUCIFERAE) Robust perennial herb; stem 0.40–1.5 m tall. Native range: European Russia to Russian Far East, Himalaya, C & SE China, Mongolia and Myanmar. Habitat: Moist and shady places in forests, forest margins, thickets, meadows and streamsides (2500–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 20. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Reference: 1–3. Thlaspi bursa-pastoris L. Part(s) use: Wp. sog ka pa (སོག་ཀ་པ་). Taste/potency: Sweet to slightly bitter/mild or neutral. Shepherd's-purse (En). Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of inflammations, hot disorders of the veins and ligaments. The plant is also used for the treatment of joint pain. Chālne, Swānle, Torī-ghāns (Np). चाल्ने, स्वाँले, तोरी-घाँस. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, annual or biennial herb, ca. 60 cm tall. Native range: Europe, N Africa and SW Asia; naturalized in tropical and temperate regions. Habitat: Forest Reference: 1, 2, 7. 163 Crucihimalaya himalaica (Edgew.) Al-Shehbaz, O'Kane & R.A. Price Arabidopsis himalaica himalaica Edgew. byi'u la phug ( (Edgew.) O.E. Schulz, Arabis Erysimum pachycarpum Hook. f. & Thomson Erysimum bhutanicum W.W. Sm., E. longisiliquum Hook. f. & Thomson, E. sikkimense Polatschek gser tig (གསེར་ཏིག་), sgong thog pa ( ོང་ཐོག་པ་). ི ་ལ་ ག་). Rām sharshī (Np-Dl). राम शश . Ban chamsur (Np). वन चम्सुर. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual, biennial or rarely perennial, pubescent herbs, ca. 20–50 cm tall, with erect, simple or branched stems. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Rocky slopes, scree slopes, meadows, sandy slopes, and flood plains ([1100–]2600–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 20. Annual or biennial herb; stems erect or ascending, 0.3–1 m tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Meadows, rocky and grassy slopes, and thickets (1900–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 20. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr, Sd. Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool to coarse. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: Aerial parts are used for the treatment of indigestion, loss of appetite and meat poisoning. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of a combination of phlegm and bile disorders, poisoning, gastritis and infectious fever. Reference: 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12. Reference: 1–4, 11, 12. Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl Sisymbrium sophia L., Sophia parviflora (Lam.) Standl. shang tshe (ཤང་ཚ་). sog ka pa rgod pa (སོག་ཀ་པ་ Torī-jhār (Np). तोरी-झार. ོད་པ་). Flixweed, Tansy mustard (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, annual pubescent herb, ca. 40 cm tall. Native range: Europe, N Africa to temperate Asia; introduced elsewhere. Habitat: Open slopes, waste places, and disturbed sites in pastures (2200–4200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 20. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Erysimum robustum D. Don Erysimum dolpoense H. Hara, E. patens J. Gay, E. thomsonii Hook. f. gser tig (གསེར་ཏིག་), sgong thog pa ( ོང་ཐོག་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stem erect or ascending. Native range: Pakistan to C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky and sandy slopes (1200–4600 m; W– E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: Seeds are used for the treatment of pain, muscular inflammation, and inflammation of the throat. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of hot disorders of the bile (mkhris pa) and parasitic disease. Seeds are also used as antidote against meat poisoning, and to treat heart diseases, and fever associated with chronic diseases. Reference: 1–3, 6, 7, 15a. Reference: 4. Taste/potency: Acrid/cool. 164 Eutrema scapiflorum (Hook. f. & Thomson) Al- treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders. Shehbaz, G.Q. Hao & J. Quan Liu Reference: 1–4, 10, 14. Cochlearia scapiflora Hook. f. & Thomson, Pegaeophyton scapiflorum (Hook. f. & Thomson) C. Marq. & Airy Shaw sro lo dkar po ( ་ོ ལོ་དཀར་པོ་). Himalayan scape flower (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, forming rosette. Native range: W Himalaya to W & C China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Streamside rocks, wet gravelly slopes and wet scree slopes (3900–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 20. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of respiratory disorders, hot disorder of the lung, fractured bones and wounds. The whole plant is used as a substitute for wa mo glo ba (lungs of red fox: Vulpes vulpes) in compounding medication to treat lung diseases. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 15a. Lepidium apetalum Willd. me tog dar ya kan (མེ་ཏོག་དར་ཡ་ཀན་). Megacarpaea polyandra Benth. ba gan (བ་གན་)Sr-Dl. lung skyes na chen ( ང་ སེ ་ན་ཆེན་)Sr-Dl. Rugo-sāg (Np). रूगो-साग. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 1–2 m tall; stems erect. Native range: W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Sub-alpine open pastures, open slopes, light forests, forest margins, and streamsides (2700–4600 m; W Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of hot disorders and malarial fever. Reference: 4. Raphanus sativus L. la phug (ལ་ ག་). Mūlā (Np). मूला. khrag khrog pa (ཁྲག་ཁྲོག་པ་). Mūlaka (Sn). मूलक. Pepper weed (En). Radish (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial herb, with erect, branched stem. Native range: E Europe to temperate Asia. Habitat: Open slopes, roadsides, waste places and fields (2600–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Annual or biennial herb, with succulent taproot. Native range: It is a cultigen, probably originated in the eastern Mediterranean region; now cultivated throughout the world. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Astringent to acrid/mild. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of blood disorder (blood impurity), lymph disorder, retention of urine, swelling, broken bone, pain, indigestion and other digestive disorders. The whole plant is used as a substitute for la phug (seeds of Raphanus sativus) for the Uses: Fresh seeds promote digestive heat and are used to treat indigestion and constipation. Seeds are also used to treat wind (rlung), bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders. Reference: 1–3, 15a, 16. 1 165 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern Nasturtium heterophyllum D. Don; N. indicum (L.) DC., N. montanum Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thomson, Sisymbrium indicum L. ske tshe ( ེ་ཚ་). Torī-ghāns (Np). तोरी-घाँस. Indian field-cress (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial herb, 20–70 cm tall; stems much branched above. Native range: Africa, and tropical and subtropical Asia. Habitat: Roadsides, field margins and riverside (100–2600 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating inflammation, swellings, vomiting and throat infection (peritonsillar abscess). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Foetid annual herb, 20–60 cm tall; stems erect, simple or branched above. Native range: Temperate Eurasia. Habitat: Agriculture fields, open meadows, waste places, roadsides, riverbanks and grazed pasture (2100–4550 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 21. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warm and oily. Uses: Plant parts are used for treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorder, kidney and lung disorders, urinary retention, liver trouble, lymph disorders and indigestion. Seeds of Thlaspi arvense are used as a substitute for go yu (seeds of Areca catechu) and sug smel (Elettaria cardamomum) in medicine to treat kidney disorders and urinary retention. Reference: 1–4, 6, 9–13, 15a, 15b, 17. Reference: 1–4. BURSERACEAE Sisymbrium brassiciforme C.A. Mey. sgong thog pa ( ངོ ་ཐོག་པ་). Torī-ghāns (Np). तोरी-घाँस. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect annual herb, 30–80 cm tall. Native range: C Asia, W & C Himalaya to N Asia. Habitat: Roadside and fields (2600–3800 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of lung and heart diseases, impaired blood circulation, meat poisoning and disturbed fever. Reference: 1, 3. Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari Balsamodendrum wightii Arn., Commiphora mukul (Hook.) Engl. gu gul (གུ་གུལ་). Guggul (Np). गुग्गुल. Indian bdellium-tree, Guggul, Mukul myrrh tree (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Shrub or small tree, to 4 m tall, with thin papery bark and thorny branches. Native range: Arabian Peninsula (Oman), Pakistan to Central India. It is imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rn. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool and heavy. Suwānle-sāg, Tīte-sāg (Np). सुवाँल-े साग, तीते-साग. Uses: Resin is used for the treatment of hiccup, epilepsy, liver and heart disorders, infections and wounds. It also cures psychological disorder from land spirits (sa dak). Field pennycress, Frenchweed, Pennycress-fan-weed (En). Reference: 1–3, 10, 16. Thlaspi arvense L. bre ga ( 166 ེ་ག་). Reference: 2, 7. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Critically Endangered [A2cd] (Ved et al. 2015b). Cyananthus lobatus Wall. ex Benth. sngon bu ( sngon bu mchog ( CAMPANULACEAE Codonopsis thalictrifolia Wall. klu bdud rdo rje nag po ( ོན་ ་). ་བ ད་ ོ་ ེ་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect or ascending perennial herb, with fleshy taproot and flexuous stem, to 40 cm. Native range: C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist grassy slopes (3300–4800 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 21. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/cool. ོན་ ་མཆོག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely tufted decumbent perennial herb. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows and forest margins (2800– 4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 21. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid and bitter/warm. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating lung, lymph and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, pain in the small intestine, and diarrhoea. Flower petals are used as a lip balm, but calyces are toxic to skin. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of impure blood, neurological disorders, swellings, disturbed phlegm, poisoning and psychological disorders caused by nagas (serpent). Pseudocodon grey-wilsonii (J.M.H. Shaw) D.Y. Reference: 7, 10. Hong Codonopsis viridis Wall. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 7, 9. Codonopsis convolvulacea Kurz. subsp. grey-wilsonii (J.M.H. Shaw) D.Y. Hong, C. grey‐wilsonii J. M. H. Shaw Campanula viridis (Wall.) Spreng. snyi ba ( klu bdud rdo rje dkar po ( khril skyes me tog (ཁྲིལ་ klu bdud rdo rje dman pa ( ་བ ད་ ་ོ ེ་དཀར་པོ་). ་བ ད་ ོ་ ེ་དམན་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial twining herb; stems glabrous, branched. Native range: W Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and NW Myanmar. Habitat: Moist slopes and forest margins (1200–3000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 21. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL ི་བ་). ེས་མེ་ཏོག་). Grey-Wilson bonnet bellflower (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial twining herb. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open fields and shrubberies (2200–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 21. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Fr. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/neutral. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/cool. Uses: Fruits are used in the treatment of poisoning and fever. Roots treat lung infection, liver dysfunction, cough and cold, asthma, physical debility and diseases of the stomach and spleen. Roots heal fractured bone. Uses: Plant parts are used in the treatment of swellings of legs from bad blood and pus, gout, rheumatism and poisoning. The plant parts are also used to treat psychological disorders caused by harmful effects of nagas (serpent). Reference: 4, 7, 15b. 167 CANNABACEAE PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Cannabis sativa L. sro ma nag po ( ་ོ མ་ནག་པོ་). sro ma ras rgyu ( ་ོ མ་རས་ ་). sro ma ra dza ( ོ་མ་ར་ཛ་). Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Bhangā, Ganjā, Sanvidāmanjarī, Shivapriyā (Sn). भङ्गा, ग ा, संिवदाम री. िशविपर्या. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of infectious fever, gout, arthritis, blood impurity, lung disorders, pus in the lung, cough, poisoning, bile (mkhris pa) disorder, diarrhoea, dysentery, intestinal pain and heart fever. Hemp, Marijuana (En). Reference: 1–5, 7, 9–13, 14, 15b. Bhāng, Bhāngo, Gānjā (Np). भाङ्ग, भाङ्गो, गाँजा. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 1–1.5 m tall. Native range: Temperate C Asia; widely cultivated and naturalized in most temperate and tropical areas of the world. Habitat: Agriculture borderland, open places, wasteland and among shrubs (200–2800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/neutral. Uses: Resin and leaves are used for the treatment of physical debility, impotency, eye diseases, wind and lymph fluid disorders, skin diseases and diarrhoea. The plant is toxic. Resin obtained from the plant is prescribed as a substitute for spos dkar (resin of Shorea robusta) to treat wind (rlung) disorder and lymph fluid (chu ser) disorder. Reference: 1–3, 4, 15a. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Bassecoia hookeri (C.B. Clarke) V. Mayer & Ehrend. Pterocephalodes hookeri (C.B. Clarke) V. Mayer & Ehrend., Pterocephalus hookeri (C.B. Clarke) Diels, Scabiosa hookeri C.B. Clarke ང་ ི་དོ་བོ་). Tākullyā (Np-Dl). टाकु ल्या. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 10–50 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Meadows and grassy slopes (2900–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 22. 168 Devendraea myrtillus (Hook. f. & Thomson) Pusalkar, Lonicera myrtillus Hook. f. & Thomson, L. myrtillus var. depressa Rehder, L. parvifolia var. myrtillus (Hook. f. & Thomson) C.B. Clarke phang ma nag po (ཕང་མ་ནག་པོ་). Part(s) use: Rn, Lf. spang rtsi do bo ( Lonicera angustifolia Wall. ex DC. var. myrtillus (Hook. f. & Thomson) Q.E. Yang, Landrein, Borosova & J. Osborne Myrtle honeysuckle (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect deciduous shrub, to 3 m tall. Native range: Afghanistan, Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Light forests, open shrubby slopes, scrub and stony places (2200–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 21. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: Fruits and seeds are used in the treatment of heart and kidney disorders. Lonicera hypoleuca Decne. phang ma dkar po (ཕང་མ་དཀར་པོ་). Yellow Himalayan honeysuckle (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect deciduous shrub, to 2 m tall. Native range: Iran, Afghanistan to C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Stony slopes and thickets (2700– 4200 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: Fruits and seeds are used for the treatment of hot disorder of the heart, kidney trouble, gynaecological disorders, and lower abdominal pain. Seeds of Lonicera hypoleuca are substituted for snying zho sha (seeds of Choerospondias axillaris) in treating heart disorders and fever. Reference: 7. Lonicera rupicola Hook. f. & Thomson Caprifolium rupicolum (Hook. f. & Thomson) Kuntze, Lonicera thibetica Bureau & Franch. khyi shing (ཁྱི་ཤིང་). Pillo (Np). िपल्लो. Lilac flowered honeysuckle (En). screes, rocky slopes and shrubby steppes (3600– 4800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 22. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet (Fr) and bitter (St)/cool. Uses: Same as Lonicera rupicola. Reference: 7. Morina nepalensis D. Don Acanthocalyx nepalensis (D. Don) M.J. Cannon, Morina betonicoides Benth., M. nana Wall. ex DC. spyang tsher g.yung ba ( ང་ཚར་ག spyang tsher khra bo ( ང་ཚར་ཁྲ་བོ་). ང་བ་). Kāndāmāsi vultey (Np-Dl). काँडामािस भुल्त्ये. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Low, spreading shrub, 0.5–2 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to NC China. Habitat: Dry scree slopes, rocky slopes, shrubby steppe and scrub (3800–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 21. Perennial herb, fertile stems coming from below rosettes, 10–50 cm tall; leaves spiny. Native range: Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, alpine meadows and rock crevices (3000–4950 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 22. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: St, Fr. Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet (Fr) and bitter (St)/cool. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/neutral to warm. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment phlegm (bad kan) disorders, and lung and eye diseases. It draws out phlegm. Reference: 1, 3, 4. Uses: Root decoction is applied externally for massage (ra gan) to cure joint pain. It also heals wounds. Reference: 4. Lonicera spinosa (Jacquem. ex Decne.) Walp. Caprifolium spinosum (Jacq. ex Walp.) Kuntze; Xylosteum spinosum Jacquem. ex Decne. khyi shing (ཁྱི་ཤིང་). Pillo (Np). िपल्लो. Spiny honeysuckle (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Low spiny shrub, 0.5–0.7 m tall, forming dense mats. Native range: NE Afghanistan to E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Dry alpine slopes, Morina polyphylla Wall. ex DC. spyang tsher dkar po ( spyang tsher rgod pa ( ང་ཚར་དཀར་པོ་). ང་ཚར་ དོ ་པ་). Chilletī (Np-Dl). िचल्लेटी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny perennial herb, 15–50 cm tall; thickened rootstock with unpleasant smell. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, grazing ground and rhododendron shrubberies (3000–4300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 22. 169 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL LEGAL STATUS Part(s) use: Rt. Global: CITES Appendix II (13/09/2007). Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/neutral to warm. National: Government protection. Crude plant part/product (unprocessed rhizome) has been banned for export, but refined extract/product (e.g., essential oil) extracted within Nepal can be exported after permission. Uses: Root is used for the treatment of phlegm disorders, swellings, joint pain, sore throat, indigestion, gastritis, ear injuries, and eye diseases. It heals wounds, and cures injury from thunderbolt. Reference: 4, 5, 7. Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. Nardostachys chinensis Batalin, N. gracilis Kitam., N. grandiflora DC., Patrinia jatamansi D. Don spang spos ( ང་ སོ ་). Jatāmasī, Balaichan, Bhulte (Np). जटामसी, बलइचन, भुल्ते. Jatāmānsī, Mānsī, Mānsinī, Chakravartinī (Sn). जटामांसी, मांसी, मांिसनी, चकर्वितनी. Spikenard, Nardin, Muskroot (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Foetid perennial herb, to 15 cm, with stout, aromatic rhizome, covered with a mantle of reddish brown fibers. Native range: W Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Meadows, thickets, rocky slopes, cliffs, rock crevices and streamsides (3200– 5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 22. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are used in the treatment of headache, epilepsy, infectious diseases, chronic fever, poisoning, wounds, cough and cold, heart and spleen disorders, hypertension, tumor and swellings. Leaves are used in high altitude sickness, headache, fever and wounds. Rhizomes are mixed with other herbs and used as incense. Reference: 1–5, 7, 10–13, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Critically Endangered [A2cd] (Ved et al. 2015c). National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). 170 Valeriana hardwickei Wall. Valeriana acuminata Royle, V. elata D. Don nags spos (ནགས་ སོ ་). ་ སོ ་དཀར་པོ་). rgya spos dkar po ( Nakkalī jatāmasi, Sugandhavāl (Np). नक्कली जटामसी, सुगन्धवाल. Tagara, Pindītagarak (Sn). तगर, िपण्डीतगरक. Valerian (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, to 1.5 m tall, with short, aromatic rhizome and long fibrous roots. Native range: W Himalaya to SE China and SE Asia. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, grassy slopes, and along streams ([1200–]1700–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 22. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are used in the treatment of headache, fever, eye trouble, sore throat, indigestion and wounds. Rhizomes are mixed with other herbs and used as incense. Reference: 4. Valeriana jatamansi Jones Valeriana wallichii DC. nags spos (ནགས་ སོ ་). Samāyo, Sugandhavāl (Np-Dl, Np). समायो, सुगन्धवाल. Tagara (Sn). तगर. Valerian (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 20–70 cm tall, with a short, aromatic rhizome and fibrous roots. Native range: E Afghanistan through Himalaya to C China and SE Asia. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, grassy slopes, open places and streamside (1500–3600[–4300] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 23. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are used in the treatment of headache, fever, eye disorder, sore throat, indigestion and wounds. Rhizomes are mixed with other herbs and used as incense. Reference: 4, 5. National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). rtsa a krong ( ་ཨ་ཀྲོང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted perennial herb, with short erect flowering stem. Native range: W & C Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and W China. Habitat: Grassland rocks (2000–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 23. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of hot disorders of lung, cough, and lung abscesses. Reference: 2, 9, 15a. LEGAL STATUS National: Government protection. Crude plant part/product (unprocessed rhizome) has been banned for export, but refined extract/product (e.g., essential oil) extracted within Nepal can be exported after permission. CARYOPHYLLACEAE Arenaria globiflora (Fenzl) Edgew. & Hook. f. Dolophragma globiflorum Fenzl byi shang dkar mo ( ་ི ཤང་དཀར་མོ་). ་ཨ་ཀྲོང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely tufted, mat-forming perennial herb, with rigid, spiny-tipped leaves. Native range: Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open shrubland, morainic deposits, rocky slopes and screes (3500–4650 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 23. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used in the treatment of hot disorders of lung, cough and wounds. Reference: 4. Arenaria festucoides Benth., A. roylei Fenzl ex Klotzsch Taste/potency: Astringent to sweet/cool. CONSERVATION STATUS rtsa a krong ( Eremogone festucoides (Benth.) Rabeler & W.L. Wagner Eremogone kansuensis (Maxim.) Dillenb. & Kadereit Arenaria kansuensis Maxim., A. kansuensis var. acropetala Y. W. Tsui & L. H. Zhou rtsa a krong ( ་ཨ་ཀྲོང་). a krong dkar po (ཨ་ཀྲོང་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted perennial herb, stems short, 4–5 cm, pulvinate. Native range: W & C Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Alpine meadows and gravelly areas (3900– 5000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 23. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant is used in the treatment of hot disorders of lung, cough, and lung abscesses. Reference: 1, 2, 11, 12. Silene himalayensis (Rohrb.) Majumdar Melandrium apetalum (L.) Fenzl var. himalayense Rohrb., M. himalayense (Rohrb.) Y.Z. Zhao, Silene gonosperma (Rupr.) Bocquet subsp. himalayensis (Rupr.) Bocquet, S. gonosperma var. himalayensis (Rohrb.) Bocquet sug pa ( ག་པ་). 171 ra sug (ར་ su gu ( ག་). ་གུ་). Nāru (Np). नारु. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 15–80 cm tall; stems erect, simple, hairy, solitary or sparsely clustered. Native range: C Asia and Afghanistan to Himalaya and E China. Habitat: Alpine meadows, sand and loose rock debris and scrub (3000–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 23. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in the treatment of blockage of nose and ear, deafness, constipation, and mental disorder. Root extract is used to wash wound, skin and hair. Reference: 4, 12. Silene indica Roxb. ex Otth Lychnis ciliata Wall., Lychnis indica (Roxb. ex Otth) Benth., Melandrium indicum (W. W. Sm.) Walp., Silene thomsonii Majumdar ra sug (ར་ sug pa ( ག་). ག་པ་). Nāru (Np). नारु. Indian campion (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Caespitose perennial herb, 25–80 cm tall; stems erect or ascending, simple or branched, hairy. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests and scrubs (1300–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 23. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Silene nigrescens (Edgew.) Majumdar Lychnis nigrescens Edgew., L. tristis Hook. f. & Thomson, Melandrium nigrescens (Edgew.) F.N. Williams lug sug ( ག་ ག་). sug pa ( ག་པ་), Jhwānī, Nāru (Np). झ्वानी, नारु. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 8–20 cm tall; stems simple or branched, few to several from a creeping branched base, blackish, glandular hairy above. Native range: Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and N Myanmar. Habitat: Dry rocky slopes, gravelly areas, rock ledges, morainic deposits and screes (3500–5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 24. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in the treatment of indigestion, loss of appetite, constipation, frost bite, blockage of nose and ear, and deafness. Root extract is used to wash wound, skin and hair Reference: 4, 15a. Silene vautierae Bocquet lug sug ( sug pa ( ག་ ག་). ག་པ་), Nāru (Np). नारु. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Hairy perennial herb, 10–25 cm tall; stems simple or branched, laxly caespitose, suffused dark purple. Native range: Endemic to Nepal. Habitat: Stony slopes, screes, riverside sands and gravel (3500– 5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 23. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/cool. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fl. Uses: Roots are used in the treatment of frost bite, constipation, blockage of nose and ear, deafness, rheumatism and eye disease. Root extract is used to wash wound, skin and hair. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/cool. Reference: 4, 15a. 172 Uses: Plant parts are used in the treatment of indigestion, constipation, blockage of nose and ear, and deafness. CELASTRACEAE Habitat: Mixed forests often associated with Shorea robusta (100–1100 m; W–E Nepal). Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle dngul tig (ད PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL ལ་ཏིག་). Sr-Ms gya' kyi si kyi me tog (གྱའ་ཀྱི་སི་ཀྱི་མེ་ཏོག་) . Māmīrā, Nirvish, Nirvishī (Np). मामीरा, िनिवष, िनिवषी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Glabrous perennial herb, 11–40 cm tall, with bright yellow-orange rhizome and fibrous roots. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open grassy places in forests, streamside and meadows ([1950– ]2700–4200[–4570] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 24. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool and coarse. Uses: Plant parts are used in the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and liver disorders, tumors and neurological disorders. Rhizomes are particularly useful to treat bleedings, fresh cuts and wounds, tissue growth, and for the treatment of liver disorders and headache. The whole plant is used as a substitute for dom mkhris (bile of Himalayan black bear: Ursus thibetanus) in compounding medication to treat bile disorders, headache, bile fever, neurological disorders, wounds and tissue growth. Reference: 2, 4, 7, 9, 12, 15b. COMBRETACEAE Terminalia bellirica (Gaeitn.) Roxb. Myrobalanus bellirica Gaertn. ba ru (བ་ ་). ba ru ra (བ་ ་ར་). Barro (Np). बर . Vibhītaka, Aksha, Bahuvīrya (Sn). िवभीतक, अक्ष, बहुवीयर्. Belleric myrobalan (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large deciduous tree, 30–35 m tall; trunk with large buttresses; bark gray, longitudinally ridged. Native range: Tropical S Asia to SC China and SE Asia. Part(s) use: Fr, Wd. Taste/potency: Astringent and slightly sour/ neutral. Uses: Outer fleshy part of fruit (ba ru 'bras bu) is used for the treatment of wind disorders, a combination of phlegm (bad kan) and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, and lymph fluid (chu ser) disorder. Wood (ba ru shing) is used to treat fever and diarrhoea. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. Terminalia chebula Retz. Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertn. a ru (ཨ་ ་). a ru ra (ཨ་ ་ར་). Harro (Np). हर . Harītakī, Abhayā, Pathyā (Sn). हरीतकी, अभया, पथ्या. Chebulic myrobalan, Yellow myrobalan (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Medium-sized deciduous tree, to 25–30 m tall. Native range: Tropical S Asia to SC China and SE Asia. Habitat: Mixed forests and riverine habitat of Tarai, inner Tarai, and deep river valleys (100–1100 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Astringent, sweet and slightly sour/neutral to cool and light. Uses: Outer fleshy part of the fruit is used for balancing the three humors of rlung (wind), mkhris pa (bile) and bad kan (phlegm). Fruits are used as a tonic and antidote, and for purifying the blood. Fruits are also beneficial for digestive disorders, and to cure diarrhoea, and lung and kidney diseases. Fruits are used for processing and detoxification of poisonous ingredients. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. 173 CONVOLVULACEAE CRASSULACEAE Cuscuta europaea L. var. indica Engelm. Hylotelephium ewersii (Ledeb.) H. Ohba Cuscuta indica (Engelm.) Petrov ex Butkov Sedum ewersii Ledeb. gu gu sa 'dzin dmar po (གུ་གུ་ས་འཛིན་དམར་པོ་). brag lcam dmar po ( sbrul zhags ( Pink sedum, Pink stonecrop (En). ལ་ཞགས་). Ãkāshbelī (Np). आकाशबेली. Indian dodder, Greater dodder (En). ག་ མ་དམར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Twining parasitic herb, with yellowish or reddish, filiform stems. Native range: W Asia (Turkey), Himalaya. Habitat: Parasitic on shrubs along streamside and thickets (2400–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Glabrous, succulent perennial herb, 5–75 cm with woody rhizome and many, branched, ascending stems. Native range: SW & C Asia, W & C Himalaya, NW China, Mongolia and Russia. Habitat: Stony slopes, rocks in forests and rock crevices on sides of ravines (2700–4500 m; W Nepal). Pl. 24. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet and acrid/cool. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used as a tonic to the kidneys and liver. It is also used as an aphrodisiac. It regulates vaginal/seminal discharge, and treats blurred vision. Uses: The whole plant is used in wounds, muscular pain and toothache. It also cures extra skin cells, scales and warts. Reference: 6. Reference: 1, 4, 15a. Rhodiola bupleuroides (Wall. ex Hook. f. & Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Thomson) S.H. Fu Cuscuta hookeri Sweet, C. macrantha G. Don, C. reflexa var. grandiflora Engelm. Sedum bupleuroides Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thomson., S. cooperi Praeger., S. gorisii R. Hamet gu gu sa 'dzin dkar po (གུ་གུ་ས་འཛིན་དཀར་པོ་). sro lo dmar po ( sbrul zhags ( ལ་ཞགས་). Ãkāshbelī, Sun-laharā (Np). आकाशबेली, सुन-लहरा. Ãkāshavallī, Amarvallī (Sn). आकाशवल्ली, अमरवल्ली. Giant dodder (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Twining parasitic herb, with yellowish or reddish, filiform stems. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China, S & SE Asia. Habitat: Parasitic on shrubs (800–3100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 24. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet and acrid/cool. Uses: Same as Cuscuta europaea var. indica. Reference: 1, 15a. 174 ོ་ལོ་དམར་པོ་). ང་པ་). mtshan jung pa (མཚན་ GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb, 10–60 cm tall; plant dioecious; rootstock elongated, 1–3 cm thick. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Rock crevices, mossy rocks, rocky slopes, dry grassy slopes, screes and thickets (3200–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 24. Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Astringent, bitter to slightly sweet/ cool. Uses: Rhizomes are used to treat urinary disorders, lungs disorders, poisoning, and fever. Reference: 4. Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. & Thomson) H. Ohba Rhodiola rotundata (Hemsl.) S.H. Fu, Sedum crenulatum Hook. f. & Thomson, S. rotundatum Hemsl. sro lo dmar po ( ་ོ ལོ་དམར་པོ་). mtshan jung pa (མཚན་ ང་པ་). mtshan dmar (མཚན་དམར་). Crenulate-leaved Himalayan rhodiola (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial glabrous herb, 15–21 cm; plant dioecious, with branched, stout rhizome. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Rock crevices, screes and moraines (3700–5800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 25. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Astringent, bitter to slightly sweet/ cool. Uses: Rhizomes are useful in the treatment of hot disorders of the lungs, lung tuberculosis, foul mouth odour, cold associated fever, and weakness. Rhizomes of Rhodiola crenulata are used as a substitute for 'bri mog ri skyes (rootstocks of Arnebia benthamii) in treating fever and lung diseases. Its rhizomes are also substituted for wa mo glo ba (lungs of red fox: Vulpes vulpes) in compounding medication to treat tuberculosis and other lung diseases. Reference: 1–3, 10, 12, 14. Rhodiola himalensis (D. Don) S.H. Fu Chamaerhodiola himalensis (D. Don) Nakai; Sedum himalense D. Don sro lo smug po ( ་ོ ལོ་ ག་པོ་). sro lo dmar po ( ་ོ ལོ་དམར་པོ་). mtshan jung pa (མཚན་ ང་པ་). China. Habitat: Rocky slopes, streamside rocks, and scrubs (3300–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 24. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Astringent, bitter to sweet/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are useful to treat kidney and associated urinary disorders, hot disorders of the lungs, lung tuberculosis, poisoning, fever, arthritis, skin diseases and oral infection. Rhodiola himalensis rhizomes are also used as a substitute for wa mo glo ba (lungs of red fox: Vulpes vulpes) in compounding medication to treat tuberculosis, other lung diseases, and urinary disorders. Note: Rhodiola discolor (Franch.) S.H. Fu (Pl. 24), R. fastigiata (Hook. f. & Thomson) S.H. Fu, and R. tibetica (Hook. f. & Thomson) S.H. are also used for the same purpose. Reference: 4–6, 11. Rhodiola prainii (Raym.-Hamet) H. Ohba Sedum prainii Raym.-Hamet brag tshan dmar po ( ག་ཚན་དམར་པོ་). ག་ ་ཧ་བོ་). mtshan dmar (མཚན་དམར་). brag skya ha bo ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial glabrous herb, up to 8 cm tall; plant dioecious; rhizome erect, thick; leaves verticillate, ovate-elliptic to suborbicular. Native range: C & E Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocks in forests, and rocky alpine slopes (3300–5300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 24. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Mahāgurū (Np). महागुरू. Taste/potency: Astringent, bitter and sweet/cool. Common Himalayan rhodiola (En). Uses: Rhizomes are used in the treatment of food poisoning, fever, wounds, diarrhoea, bile (mkhris pa) and kidney disorders, and heart disease. Rhizomes are substituted for brag skya ha bo (whole plant of Corallodiscus lanuginosus) to treat GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial dioecious herb, 20–50 cm tall; rhizomes stout, cylindrical, creeping; stems minutely pubescent. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC 175 food poisoning, diarrhoea, bile associated fever, wounds and urinary disorders. Reference: 4, 15a, 15b. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Fruits and seeds are used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and stomach disorders. Reference: 1, 3. Sedum oreades (Decne.) R.-Hamet Cotyledon oreades (Decne.) C.B. Clarke, C. spathulata (Hook. f. & Thomson) C.B. Clarke; Sedum filicaule Duthie ex R.Hamet; S. squarrosum Royle ex R.-Hamet, Umbilicus oreades Decne. bre gu ser thig ( ་ེ གུ་སེར་ཐིག་). gya' kyi ser chung (གཡའ་ཀྱི་སེར་ ང་). Mountain sedum (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted perennial herb, stems to 3–12 cm. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open rocky slopes, screes, rock crevices and grasslands (3200–5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 25. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used to treat liver disorder, fever and poisoning. Reference: 4, 15a, 15b. Herpetospermum pedunculosum (Ser.) C.B. Clarke Bryonia pedunculosa Ser., Herpetospermum grandiflorum Cogn. gser gyi me tog (གསེར་གྱི་མེ་ཏོག་). Ban karelā, Kurkure-kānkro (Np). वन करे ला, कु रकु रे -काँकर्ो. Himalayan bitter gourd (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual climbing herb, with bifid tendrils. Native range: Himalaya to Assam and SC China. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets and roadsides (1000–3600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 25. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Fruits and seeds are useful to treat hot disorders of the stomach and intestine, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, jaundice, headache associated with bile, piles, and cough. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 5, 10–12, 15a. CUCURBITACEAE Herpetospermum darjeelingense (C.B. Clarke) H. Schaef. & S.S. Renner Edgaria darjeelingensis C.B. Clarke, E. darjeelingensis var. clarkiana S.N. Biswas gser gyi me tog dman pa (གསེར་གྱི་མེ་ཏོག་དམན་པ་). Ban karelā, Chāthil (Np). वन करे ला, चािथल. Darjeeling bitter gourd (En). Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Cucurbita siceraria Molina, Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. ka bed (ཀ་བེད་). Laukā, Tītotumbā (Np). लौका, तीतोतुम्बा. Katutumbī, Ãlābū (Sn). कटु तुम्बी, आलाबू. Bottle gourd, Bitter calabash gourd (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual climbing herb, with bifid tendrils. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Thickets, forest margins and grasslands (900–3200 m; C & E Nepal). Annual pubescent herb; plant creeping or climbing. Native range: W Tropical Africa to Ethiopia and Tanzania; cultivated in all warmer regions. It is cultivated as a vegetable crop in Nepal (100–2300 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. 176 Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/neutral to warm. Uses: Seeds are useful to treat fever, hot and cold diarrhoea, dysentery and lung disorders. Seeds induce vomiting. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool to coarse. Uses: Seeds are used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) disorders, poisoning, and accumulation of serous fluid. Reference: 2, 10. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 16. CYPERACEAE Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. Momordica cylindrica L., Luffa cylindrica (L.) M. Roem., L. racemosa Roxb. gser gyi phud bu dman pa (གསེར་གྱི་ gser gyi phud bu (གསེར་གྱི་ ད་ ་). ँ ा. Ghiraunlā (Np). िघरौल ད་ ་དམན་པ་). Hastikoshātakī (Sn). हिस्तकोशातकी. Sponge gourd, Egyptian cucumber (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, scandent or climbing, with robust tendrils. Native range: Tropical Old World; cultivated in all warmer regions. It is cultivated as a vegetable crop in Nepal (100–1700 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Carex atrata L. rtsa dur nag po ( ་ ར་ནག་པོ་)Sr-Dl. Black alpine sedge (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Caespitose perennial sedge with densely tufted culms, 10–65 cm tall, rhizomatous. Native range: Greenland, Eurasia. Habitat: Alpine meadows, rocky slope and moist rock ledges (3400–5000 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Part(s) use: Sd. Uses: Rhizomes are used to treat mental disorders (madness). Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Reference: 4. Uses: Seeds are used in treating bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, and poisoning. Reference: 1, 3, 16. DIPTEROCARPACEAE Shorea robusta C.F. Gaertn. Thladiantha cordifolia (Blume) Cogn. Luffa cordifolia Blume gser gyi phud bu (གསེར་གྱི་ Ban karelā (Np). वन करे ला. Dryobalanops robusta (C.F. Gaertn) Oken spos dkar ( ད་ ་). Himalayan goldencreeper, Himalayan tuber-gourd (En). ོས་དཀར་). Sāl, Sakhuwā, Agrāth (Np). साल, सखुवा, अगर्ाठ. Sāla, Ashvakarna (Sn). सालः, अ कणर्ः. Sal tree (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial climbing herb, pubescent, with much branched, robust stems and simple tendrils. Native range: Tropical Asia to S China. Habitat: Forests, forest margins and streamsides (400–2500 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 25. Evergreen or ± tardily deciduous tree, reaching up to 50 m tall. Native range: Subtropical Himalaya, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests in Tarai and Siwalik hills (100–1500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Part(s) use: Rn. 177 Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/warm. ELAEAGNACEAE Uses: Wood resin is used for drying out and eliminating accumulation of lymph fluid in the body and treating wind (rlung) disorder and swellings. Hippophae salicifolia D. Don Reference: 1–3, 10. Hippophae rhamnoides L. subsp. salicifolia (D. Don) Servett. star bu ( ར་ ་), star bu gnam star ( ར་ ་གནམ་ ར་). Dālechuk, Chugo (Np, Np-Dl). डालेचुक, चुगो. Ashuka (Sn). अशुकः. CONSERVATION STATUS Sea buckthorn, Willow-leaved sea buckthorn (En). Global: Lower Risk/Least Concern (Ashton 1998). LEGAL STATUS National: Government protection. It is banned for felling and transport for commercial purpose and for overseas export. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous thorny shrub or small tree, up to 5 m tall. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forest margins, stony slopes, and streamside gravel (2200–3900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 25. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL DROSERACEAE Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Drosera peltata Thunb. Taste/potency: Sour/ neutral, sharp and light. Jhinge-jālo, Mākhe-jhār (Np). िझङ्गे-जालो, माखे-झार. Uses: Fruits and seeds are used for the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, liver and lung diseases, throat pain, menstrual disorders, blood disorders, toothache, joint pain, dysentery, gum infection, diabetes and intestinal parasites. Pale sundew, Shield sundew (En). Reference: 4, 5, 12, 15b. Drosera lunata Buch.-Ham. ex DC., D. peltata var. lunata (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) C.B. Clarke bdud rtsi rtag ngu (བ rtag ngu ( ད་ ི་ ག་ ་). ག་ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 7–30 cm tall; aerial part remain only for a few months during early summer; carnivorous. Native range: Himalaya to E & SE Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Habitat: Pine forests, scrub, marshes, damp meadows and streamside (1500–3600 m; W– E Nepal). Pl. 26. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of blood disorder (anemia), bile (mkhris pa) disorders, physical debility. The plant improves the function of sensory organs, including vision. Reference: 2, 7, 8, 11, 12. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Zhuang 2011). 178 Hippophae tibetana D. Don Hippophae rhamnoides L. subsp. tibetana (Schltdl.) Servett. star bu ( ར་ ་), star bu sa star ( ར་ ་ས་ ར་). ँ क ु , अशुक. Bhuinchuk, Ashuk (Np). भुईच Sea buckthorn, Tibetan sea buckthorn (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous thorny shrub or shrublet, up to 1 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to NC China. Habitat: Riverside sandy and gravelly areas, stony moraines (3300–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 25. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sour/neutral, sharp and light. Uses: Fruit cure blood disorders, lung and liver diseases, loss of appetite and intestinal parasites. Reference: 1, 2, 4–7, 15b. ERICACEAE Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D. Don Andromeda cupressiformis Wall. ex D. Don, Andromeda fastigiata Wall. gru gu ras na ( ་གུ་རས་ན་). Himalayan heather (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted subshrub, 10–30 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open places, shrubberies, rocky places and streamsides (2800–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 26. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Fruits are used for the treatment of urinary disorders, cough, indigestion, blood in stool, arthritis, wind imbalances, and fever. Reference: 2, 4, 7, 14. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Rhododendron anthopogon var. album H.H. Davidian; R. haemonium I.B. Balf & Cooper. ba lu dkar po (བ་ ་དཀར་པོ་), dwa li dkar po ( ་ལི་དཀར་པོ་). Sunpātī, Muse chimāl (Np, Np-Dl). सुनपाती, मुसे िचमाल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aromatic evergreen shrub or shrublet; branchlets loose, intricate, scaly, sparsely setose; bud scales deciduous. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows, cliff ledges, open forests and thickets (2900–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 26. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter, astringent and acrid/warm and coarse. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of loss of appetite, indigestion and liver disorders. Leaves are used in treating cold phlegm (bad kan) disorders, lung tuberculosis, and balancing cold and hot disorders. Dried flowers are taken as herbal tea and leaves are used as incense. Leaves and flowers of R. anthopogon are substituted for li shi (floral buds of Syzygium aromaticum) in treating cold disorders, indigestion, and loss of appetite. Reference: 4, 5, 11, 12, 15b. Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don Azalea campanulata (D. Don) Kuntze, Rhododendron batemanii Hook. f. stag ma shing ( ག་མ་ཤིང་). stag ma zing skya ( ག་མ་ཟིང་ ་). Chimāl, Nīlo chimāl (Np). िचमाल, नीलो िचमाल. Bell-flowered rhododendron (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen shrub, 2–6 m tall; branches spreading. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Thickets and treeline forests (2800–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 26. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl, Lf. Taste/potency: Sweet and slightly bitter/neutral. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of chest infection, chiefly the accumulation of pus and serous fluids in the chest. Leaves are used for the treatment of scabies and other skin affections. Flowers are considered to be slightly toxic, used after detoxification. Reference: 4. Rhododendron hypenanthum Balf. f. Rhododendron anthopogon subsp. hypenanthum (Balf. f.) Cullen, R. anthopogon var. hypenanthum (I. B. Balf.) H. Hara ba lu dkar po (བ་ sur dkar ( ་དཀར་པོ་), dwa li dkar po ( ་ལི་དཀར་པོ་). ར་དཀར་). Sunpātī, Muse chimāl (Np, Np-Dl). सुनपाती, मुसे िचमाल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aromatic evergreen shrub or shrublet; branchlets short, scaly, setose; bud scales persistent. Native 179 range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows and thickets (3300–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 26. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter, astringent and acrid/warm and coarse. Uses: Same as Rhododendron anthopogon. Reference: 4. Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex G. Don Azalea lepidota (Wall.) Kuntze, Rhododendron elaeagnoides Hook. f., R. obovatum Hook. f., R. salignum Hook. f., R. sinolepidotum I. B. Balf. ba lu nag po (བ་ ba lu dmar po (བ་ sur nag ( ར་ནག་). su lu ( ་ནག་པོ་), dwa li nag po ( ་ལི་ནག་པོ་). ་དམར་པོ་), dwa li dmar po ( ་ལི་དམར་པོ་). ་ ་). Bhairung-pātī, Bhāle sunpātī (Np). भैरुङ-पाती, भाले सुनपाती. Pink scaly rhododendron (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, evergreen, mat-forming shrub or shrublet, 0.5–2 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, thickets, scrub, open meadows and rock crevices (2000– 4850 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 26. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/warm and coarse. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used for the treatment of cold disorders and accumulation of lymph fluid. Leaves and flowers stimulate appetite, and promote digestive heat. Herbal tea prepared from fresh flowers is taken in back pain and cold, and for blood purification. The tea also treats blood pressure, and cures bile (mkhris pa), lung and blood disorders. Herbal bath with its leaves and flowers treats bone diseases. Reference: 4, 5, 14, 15b. 180 Rhododendron nivale Hook. f. Azalea nivalis (Hook. f.) Kuntze, Rhododendron paludosum Hutchinson & F.K. Ward. ba lu nag po (བ་ sur nag ( ར་ནག་). ་ནག་པོ་), dwa li nag po ( ་ལི་ནག་པོ་). Lek chimāl (Np). लेक िचमाल. Dwarf snow rhododendron (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Dwarf, spreading shrub or shrublet, 0.1–0.8 m tall, evergreen. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: High alpine slopes forming scattered vegetation, meadows, screes ([4000–]4500–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 26. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/warm and coarse. Uses: Flowers and leaves help to stimulate appetite, promote digestive heat, dry lymph fluid, and treat cold disorders, indigestion, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, lung diseases, back pain and blood disorders. Reference: 1, 3. EUPHORBIACEAE Euphorbia pseudosikkimensis (Hurus. & Yu. Tanaka) Radcl.-Sm. Euphorbia donii Oudejans, E. longifolia D. Don [nom. illeg.], Tithymalus pseudosikkimensis Hurus. & Yu. Tanaka, T. longifolius Hurus. & Yu. Tanaka dur byid ( ར་ ིད་). thar chen (ཐར་ཆེན་). Dudhe-jhār (Np). दुध-े झार. Himalayan euphorbia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Hairless perennial herb, to 1 m tall; rootstock woody; stem single or several, clustered. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests, forest clearings, cultivated areas, shady banks and grassy places (1500–3200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 27. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Euphorbia wallichii Hook. f. Part(s) use: Rt. Tithymalus wallichii (Hook. f.) Soják Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warm, rough and sharp. thar chen (ཐར་ཆེན་). Uses: Rootstocks are used for the treatment of hot and cold disorders from the three humors, bacterial infections, infectious fever, sinusitis, skin diseases, indigestion, constipation, and other stomach disorders. The whole plant is slightly toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 3–5. Euphorbia stracheyi Boiss Euphorbia himalayensis (Klotzsch) Boiss., E. mairei H. Lév., Tithymalus himalayensis Klotzsch; T. stracheyi (Boiss.) Hurus. & Y. Tanaka khron bu (ཁྲོན་ ་). thar chung (ཐར་ ང་). Dudbukī, Dudhe-jhār (Np, Np-Dl). दुदबुकी, दुध-े झार. Himalayan prostrate spurge (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Prostrate, ascending or erect perennial herb, 2–20 cm tall, reddish-tinged; rootstock a subglobose tuber; stem single or several clustered. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Forest margins, open grassy slopes, meadows, scrubs, thickets, rocky slopes and stream banks ([2000–]3800–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 27. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid and astringent/ neutral and cool. Uses: Rootstocks are used for the treatment of hot and cold disorders from the three humors, and as purgative to cleanse bile (mkhris pa) disorders and improve digestive system. The rootstocks also treat diarrhoea, skin diseases, fever due to poisoning, and swellings. The whole plant is slightly toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 1, 3–5, 7, 10. thar nu (ཐར་ ་). Dudhe-jhār (Np). दुध-े झार. Wallich spurge (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb, 0.3–1 m tall; rootstock stout; stem several clustered. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Moist places, meadows, rocky areas, forest margins and forest clearings (2300–4100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 27. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Acrid and sweet/cool, coarse and heavy. Uses: Rootstock is used as purgative and laxative medicine. It treats hot and cold disorders, fluid retention, swellings, stomach disorders, vomiting and skin infection (scabies and pimples). The plant is slightly toxic, used after detoxification. Roots are substituted for shri khan da (resin of Toxicodendron succedaneum and T. vernicifluum) in compounding medication that is used as a laxative and purgative agent. Reference: 2, 3, 7, 10, 12. FABACEAE (= LEGUMINOSAE) Abrus precatorius L. Abrus pauciflorus Desv., Glycine abrus L. mda' rgyus (མདའ་ ས་). dmar ru mgo nag (དམར་ ་མགོ་ནག་). dmar ril mgo nag (དམར་རིལ་མགོ་ནག་). Lālgedī, Rātigedī (Np). लालगेडी, राितगेडी. Gunjā, Raktagunjā (Sn). गु ा, रक्तगु ा. Crab's eye, Indian liquorice, Wild liquorice (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Woody climber, 1–4.5 m tall, deciduous; stems often attaining over 1.5 cm in diameter. Native 181 range: Africa, tropical and subtropical Asia, Australia. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, and open areas (100–1200 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wd. Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/cool. Part(s) use: Sd. Uses: Wood is used in treating hot disorders of blood, hypertension, heart pain and eye disorder. Taste/potency: Bitter/warm. Reference: 4. Uses: Seeds are used to treat blood vomiting, tumors in the gall bladder, and gynaecological disorders, such as abnormal menstrual bleeding. Seeds are slightly toxic, used after detoxification. Reference: 1–3, 13. Astragalus tatsienensis Bureau & Franch. srad ser ( ད་སེར་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, hairy, perennial herb, 2–20 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya to C & E China. Habitat: Moist alpine meadows and open slopes (3500–5600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 27. Astragalus floridulus Podlech Astragalus floridus Benth. ex Bunge srad dkar ( Astragalus yunnanensis Franch. ད་དཀར་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Erect hairy perennial herb, 15–80 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows and forest margins (3500–4700 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Acrid and sweet/neutral. Uses: The plant is used in treating channel fever and bleeding. Reference: 1–3, 4, 7. Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Acrid and sweet/neutral. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Butea frondosa Roxb. ex Willd., Erythrina monosperma Lam. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of fluid accumulation in the body, spleen disorder, intestinal pain, and hot disorder of the lung. ma ru rtse (མ་ Reference: 1, 3, 4. Palāsha, Kinshuka (Sn). पलाश, िकशुकः. ་ ེ་). Palāsh (Np). पलाश. Flame of the forest, Bastard teak (En). Astragalus rhizanthus Royle ex Benth. subsp. candolleanus (Royle ex Benth.) Podlech Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth., A. royleanus Bunge; Tragacantha candolleana (Royle ex Benth.) Kuntze mdzo mo shing chung ba (མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་ ང་བ་). Candolle's milk-vetch (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny herb or shrublet, clump-forming. Native range: W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky and scree slopes, and meadows ([2600–]3500–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 27. 182 GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, 10–20 m tall. Native range: Tropical Himalaya, Indian Subcontinent, China and SE Asia. Habitat: Riverside forests, and also planted (100– 1200 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet to acrid/warm. Uses: Fruits are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, parasite infestation, itching, infections of the skin, phlegm (bad kan) disorders and arthritis. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a. Reference: 1–3, 7, 13. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Caesalpinia bonducella (L.) Fleming, Guilandina bonduc L., G. bonducella L. 'jam 'bras (འཇམ་འ Uses: Seeds are used in treating hot and cold disorders of the kidneys. The plant is toxic, used after detoxification. ས་). Boksi-kāndā, Gainde-kāndā (Np). बोक्सी-काँडा, गैडँ े-काँडा. Kuberākshi, Latākaranja (Sn). कु वेराक्षी, लताकर ः. Fever nut, Physic nut, Bonduc nut, (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Climbing shrub, plant spiny. Native range: Tropics and Subtropics of both World. Habitat: Forests, thickets and roadsides (100–1500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: Fruits and seeds are used in treating indigestion and kidney disorders. Reference: 2, 3, 7, 13, 16. Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC. Dolichos ensiformis L. mkhal ma zho sha (མཁལ་མ་ཞོ་ཤ་). mkhal ma zho sha dkar po (མཁལ་མ་ཞོ་ཤ་དཀར་པོ). Khadga simī, Tarwārsimī (Np). खड्ग िसमी, तरवार िसमी. Asishimvī, Sthūlshimvī (Sn). अिसिशम्वी, स्थूलिशम्वी. Horse bean, Jack bean, Sword bean (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb or subshrub, erect or twining, to 1 m tall. Native range: Central America and West Indies; widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions, including Nepal (100–1800 m; C & E Nepal). Caragana brevifolia Kom. bra ma ( ་མ་). bra ma shing ( ་མ་ཤིང་). bra tsher ( ་ཚར་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub, to 0.5–0.8 m tall; stem branched, spreading, sometimes with arched branchlets. Native range: W & C Himalaya to C & N China. Habitat: Dry open slopes, dry alpine scrub and streamsides (3500–4730 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to slightly astringent/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating hot disorders of the channels, inflammation of muscles and nerves, and other nervous disorders. Reference: 1–4. Caragana brevispina Benth. Caragana triflora Lindl., C. williamsii Vassilcz. mdzo mo shing dman pa (མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་དམན་པ་). Bhālu-kāndā, Bebalī-kāndā (Np). भालु-काँडा, बेबली-काँडा. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect spiny shrub, 2–3 m tall. Native range: Afghanistan, C Asia and W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, shrubberies and open slopes (2400–3500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 27. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/cool. Part(s) use: Sd. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating kidney disorders and joint pain. Fruits are used in stomach pain. Taste/potency: Sweet/neutral. Reference: 4, 15b. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL 183 Caragana gerardiana Benth. Aspalathus gerardianus (Benth.) Kuntze mdzo mo shing (མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་), mdzo mo shing che ba (མཛ་ མོ་ཤིང་ཆེ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub, 0.5–1.5 m tall, forming tight clumps. Native range: NE Afghanistan, W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, rocky areas and shrubland (3000–4200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 27. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wd. Taste/potency: Astringent/cool. Uses: Heartwood treats cough, blood disorder, hypertension, heart pain, eye disease, gynaecological disorder, indigestion and skin diseases. Heartwood of Caragana gerardiana is substituted for tsan dan dmar po (heartwood of Pterocarpus santalinus) in treating heart disorder, blood-related diseases, high blood pressure, and gynaecological disorders. Reference: 4, 5, 10. Caragana jubata (Pall.) Poir. Aspalathus jubatus (L.) Kuntze, Robinia jubata Pall. mdzo mo shing (མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་). mdzo tsher (མཛ་ཚར་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub, 0.3–1 m tall, forming tight clumps. Native range: C Asia, C & E Himalaya, China, Mongolia and E Russia. Habitat: Open dry slopes, open rocky slopes and forest margins (3300–4350 m; C Nepal). Pl. 28. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wd. Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/cool. Uses: Heartwood is used in treating hot disorders of heart and blood, hypertension, and gynaecological disorder. It dissolves blood clots and enhances circulation of blood. 184 Heartwood of Caragana jubata is also substituted for tsan dan dmar po (heartwood of Pterocarpus santalinus) in treating heart disorders, hypertension, blood disorders and gynaecological disorders. Reference: 1–3, 15a. Caragana versicolor Benth Caragana pygmaea Baker bra ma ( ་མ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub, 0.5–1.5 m tall; stems densely branched, spreading or erect. Native range: Afghanistan through W & C Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Dry alpine scrub, streamside rocky and sandy areas (3300–4750 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 28. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating fevers, nerve disorders, inflammation of nerves and muscles, paralysis, blood disorders, skin diseases, body injuries, bone fractures, poisoning, kidney disorders, joint pain and rheumatic fever. Roots are substituted for sle tres (stem of Tinospora sinensis) in treating fever, rheumatism. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 6. Cassia fistula L. Cassia fistuloides Collad., C. rhombifolia Roxb. dong ga (དོང་ག་). Amaltāsh, Rājbriksha (Np). अमलतास, राजवृक्ष. Ãragvada, Kritamāla (Sn). आरग्वध, कृ तमाल. Golden shower, Indian laburnum, Purging cassia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous or nearly evergreen tree, 10–20 m tall. Native range: Tropical Himalaya, Indian Subcontinent to Myanmar. Habitat: Evergreen forests, often planted as an ornamental tree (100–1500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/cool, heavy and oily. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool to neutral. Uses: Fruits and seeds treat diseases of the liver, poisoning and swelling of the limb. Uses: Roots are used in treating hot disorder of the lung and nerve. Roots are also used to alleviate dehydration and excessive thirst. Reference: 1–3, 7, 13, 16. Reference: 1, 2, 10, 15a, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (BGI & IUCN SCC 2018a). Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. Entada scandens (L.) Benth., Lens phaseoloides L. mchin pa zho sha (མཆིན་པ་ཞོ་ཤ་). mchin pa nag po (མཆིན་པ་ནག་པོ་). Pāngrā, Rukh-pāngrā (Np). पाङ्गर्ा, रुख-पाङ्गर्ा. Box bean, St. Thomas bean (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large, woody, evergreen climber, with spirally twisted stems. Native range: Tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia. Habitat: Forests (350–1600 m; C & E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Seeds treat liver disorders, poisoning and nerve disorders. The plant is slightly toxic, used after detoxification. Reference: 1–3, 16. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Glycyrrhiza glandulifera Waldst. & Kit. shing mngar (ཤིང་མངར་). Jethīmadhu, Istamī, Mulathī (Np). जेठीमधु, इ मी, मुलठी. Yastīmadhu, Madhuka (Sn). य ीमधु, मधुकः. Liquorice (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tall perennial herb or under-shrub, to 1.5 m tall, woody at base. Native range: S Europe, SW Asia, C Asia and N Asia. It is cultivated/imported in Nepal. Medicago falcata L. Medicago sativa L. subsp. falcata (L.) Arcang. 'bu su hang (འ ་ ་ཧང་), 'bu su hang dman pa (འ ་ ་ཧང་ དམན་པ་). rgya so ser po ( ་སོ་སེར་པོ་). Methī-jhār (Np). मेथी-झार. Yellow-flowered alfalfa (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems spreading to ascending, much branched, 25–80 cm. Native range: Europe to NC China, Himalaya and Mongolia. Habitat: Grassy slopes, meadows, streamsides, field margins and irrigation canal (2600–4000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 28. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent /cool. Uses: It is beneficial for hot disorders of the lungs, poisoning, and stomach disorders. It is also used in wound healing and treating skin diseases. The whole plant is substituted for shing mngar (roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra) in treating hot disorder of the lung. Reference: 4, 14, 15b. Medicago lupulina L. 'bu su hang (འ ་ ་ཧང་). ་ ་ཧང་མོ་). ‘bu su hang mo (འ Methī-jhār (Np). मेथी-झार. Black medic, Hop clover (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or short-lived perennial herb, 15–60 cm; stems decumbent, prostrate or ascending, much 185 branched. Native range: Europe, N Africa and most of Asia. Habitat: Waste fields, forest margins, stream banks and roadsides (1000–4000 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: It used in treating hot disorders of the lung, common cold, cough and stomach disorder. It is also used for wound healing. Note: Trigonella emodi Benth. is also used for the same purpose. Reference: 2, 4, 10, 15a. Mucuna macrocarpa Wall. Galedupa macrocarpa Roxb., Mucuna castanea Merr., M. ferruginea Matsum., M. irukanda Ohwi, M. subferruginea Hayata, M. wangii Hu, Pillera macrocarpa (Wall.) Endl. gla gor zho sha (གླ་གོར་ཞོ་ཤ་). Baldhengrā (Np). बलढेङ्गर्ा. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large climbing shrub. Native range: C & E Himalaya to Japan and SE Asia. Habitat: Forests and forest margins (1200–2200 m; C & E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool, light. Uses: Seeds are used in treating hot disorders of the spleen (mcher tshad), impotency, and swelling. Mucuna monosperma Roxb. ex Wight Carpopogon monospermus (Roxb. ex Wight) Roxb., Mucuna cristata Buch.-Ham. ex Wall., Stizolobium monospermum Kuntze gla gor zho sha (གླ་གོར་ཞོ་ཤ་). Kāuso (Np). काउसो. Negro bean (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large climbing shrub with twining stems. Native range: South Asia and Indo-China. Seeds are mostly imported in Nepal for medicinal purpose. 186 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool, light. Uses: Seeds are used in treating hot disorders of the spleen (mcher tshad), impotency, and swelling. Hairs on the seedpods are irritant causing intense itching. Reference: 2, 3, 10. Oxytropis microphylla (Pall.) DC. Astragalus microphyllus (Pall.) Pall., Oxytropis tibetica Bunge, Phaca microphylla Pall. stag sha ( ག་ཤ). stag sha dkar po ( ག་ཤ་དཀར་པོ་). sngo stag sha ( ོ་ ག་ཤ་). ldum bu stag sha ( མ་ ་ ག་ཤ་). Small-leaved locoweed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small subacaulescent perennial herb, 5–15 cm tall, with thick rhizome, white hairy branches and tiny leaflets. Native range: C Asia, W & C Himalaya to NC China, Mongolia and S Siberia. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, sandy places (2700–5000 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of wounds, infectious fever, poisoning, tumor, inflammation, swelling, and serous fluid (chu ser) disorders. The plant is poisonous, used after detoxification. The plant is used as a substitute for gu gul (resin of Commiphora wightii) in treating wounds and infections. Roots and stems of the plant are used as a substitute for musk pod of gla ba (alpine musk deer: Moschus chrysogaster) in compounding medications to treat infectious diseases, fever, poisoning, serous fluid disorder, wounds, inflammation, and swellings. Reference: 1–3, 7, 8, 10, 13. Oxytropis williamsii Vassilcz. srad nag ( Global: Least Concern (Mani 2011). ད་ནག་). gla ba sren chung (གླ་བ་ CONSERVATION STATUS ེན་ ང་). thom tsa (ཐོམ་ཙ)Sr-Ms. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely tufted, silvery to grayish hairy perennial herb; stems several, spreading, caespitose. Native range: Endemic to Nepal. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, sandy places, scree and riversides (2400–4550 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 28. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: Roots are used in treating scabies and urinary disorders; and seeds are used in cough and kidneys disorders and edema. Seeds of Oxytropis williamsii are used as a substitute for mkhal ma zho sha (seeds of Canavalia ensiformis) in treating kidney disorders. Phyllolobium donianum (DC.) M.L. Zhang & Podlech Astragalus donianus DC., A. macrorhizus D. Don srad sngon ( ད་ ནོ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Prostrate perennial herb with ascending flowering stems. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forest margins, moist grassland and alpine meadows (2700–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 28. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Acrid and sweet/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in treating urinary disorders, hot disorders of the lung, and excessive menstrual flow. Reference: 4. Reference: 4. Pterocarpus santalinus L. f. Parochetus communis Benth.-Ham. ex D. Don Cosmiusa repens Alef., Parochetus maculata R. Br., P. major D. Don; P. oxalidifolius Royle srad sngon ( ད་ ནོ ་). Bhatteulā, Badāme-jhār (Np-Dl, Np). भ ेउला, बदामे-झार. Blue clover, Blue oxalis, Shamrock pea (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Creeping perennial herb, 10–20 cm. Native range: Africa, Himalaya to SC China, Myanmar, and tropical S & SE Asia. Habitat: Open slopes, agriculture fields and grasslands (900–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 28. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: Root tubers are used in treating food poisoning, dog bite and diarrhoea. Leaves are used in bleeding. Lingoum santalinum (L. f.) Kuntze tsan dan dmar po (ཙན་དན་དམར་པོ་). Raktachandan (Np). रक्तचन्दन. Raktachandana, Raktasāra (Sn). रक्तचन्दनः, रक्तसारः. Red sanders, Red sandalwood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small tree, to 8 m tall. Native range: India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu). It is planted in Nepal and also imported. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wd. Taste/potency: Astringent/cool. Uses: Wood is used in treating hot disorders of the blood, hypertension, the combination of blood and wind disorders, wounds, and swellings in the limbs. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. Reference: 4. 187 CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Near Threatened (B1ab[iii,v]; Barstow 2018a). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (13/09/2007). widely naturalized in the tropical and subtropical regions. Habitat: Cultivated areas, secondary vegetation, wastelands and riversides (200–1500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Senegalia catechu (L. f.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb. Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd., A. catechuoides (Roxb.) Benth., A. wallichiana DC., Mimosa catechu L. f., M. catechuoides Roxb. seng ldeng (སེང་ ངེ ་). seng ldeng khan da (སེང་ Khayer (Np, Hn). खयर. ེང་ཁ ྜ་). Khadira (Sn). खिदरः. Cutch tree, Black catechu, Black cutch (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tree to 15 m tall, deciduous, thorny. Native range: South Asia, foothills of the Himalaya, Myanmar, SC China and Thailand. Habitat: Forests in riverine alluvium of Tarai with Dalbergia sissoo, and on dry south-facing slopes in hill sal forest (80–1400 m; W– E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ex. Taste/potency: Astringent and bitter/cool. Uses: Concentrated extract (khan da) obtained from the heartwood is used in treating blood disorders, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser), skin diseases, gout, arthritis, chronic fever, and other wind-associated disorders. Reference: 2, 10, 13, 15a, 16. Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/neutral. Uses: Seeds are used for the treatment of skin diseases, such as scabies, blisters or eruptions on skin, and leprosy. Seeds are also used to treat lymph (chu ser) disorders, arthritis and epilepsy, and as an aphrodisiac. Seeds of Senna tora are used as a substitute for spos dkar (resin of Shorea robusta) in compounding medication to treat lymph (chu ser) disorders. Reference: 1–3, 10, 7, 13, 16. Sophora moorcroftiana (Benth.) Benth. ex Baker Astragalus moorcroftianus Graham, Caragana moorcroftiana Benth. skyi ba ( ི་བ་). skyi tsher ( ི་ཚར་). tang tsher (ཏང་ཚར་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub, 0.5–1.5 m or more tall; stems muchbranched; branchlets covered with dense hairs; stipules spiny; flowers blue. Native range: Pakistan to NE India (Sikkim, West Bengal) and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, riverside sandy and gravelly areas (2250–3900 m; C Nepal). Pl. 29. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Cassia tora L., C. tora var. borneensis (Miq.) Miq. Part(s) use: Sd. thal ka rdo rje (ཐལ་ཀ་ Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. ོ་ ེ་). Tāpre, Sāno tāpre (Np). तापर्े, सानो तापर्े. Chakramarda (Sn). चकर्मदर्. Foetid cassia, Foetid senna, Sickle senna (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Foetid annual herb or undershrub to 1 m tall; stem erect, glabrous. Native range: Tropical America, 188 Uses: Seeds are used in treating excessive accumulation of bile (mkhris pa), indigestion, gastritis, infectious diseases (e.g., diphtheria), parasite infestation, poisoning, and reduced blood flow to the heart. Reference: 2, 4, 7, 10, 15b. Thermopsis barbata Benth. Tibetia himalaica (Baker) H.P. Tsui Anagyris barbata Graham ex Wall., Thermopsis atrata Czefr. gla ba srad ma (གླ་བ་ ད་མ་). gza' bdud mug po (གཟའ་བ ད་ ག་པོ་). gza'a bdud rgya smug (གཟའ་བ ད་ ་ ག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely hairy perennial herb; rootstocks thick, woody; stems tufted, erect, branching from base, 10–45 cm. Native range: Himalaya to NW & SC China. Habitat: Open dry slopes, alpine meadows, rocky slopes, scree slopes, and cliffs (2700–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 29. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool and neutral. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of epilepsy, infectious (srin) diseases, accumulation of lymph fluid, pain and swelling. The plant parts are also used for healing wounds and treating dog bites. Reference: 1–3, 4, 7, 9. Thermopsis lanceolata R. Br. Thermopsis sibirica Czefr. gza' bdud dkar po (གཟའ་བ ད་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; rootstock stout; stem erect, 15–40 cm, ridged, creamy pubescent. Native range: South European Russia to subtropical and temperate regions in Asia, and C Himalaya. Habitat: Open slopes, gravelly riversides, and edges of crop fields (3600–4300 m; C Nepal). Pl. 29. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Sd. Amblytropis uniflora (Jacot Guill.) H.P. Tsui, Gueldenstaedtia diversifolia Maxim., G. himalaica Baker, G. santapaui Thoth., G. uniflora Jacot Guill. srad smug ( ད་ ག་). ལ་པ་ ་ བ་). khal sral smug po (ཁལ་ ལ་ ག་པོ་). rkyal pa chu thub ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Mat-forming perennial herb, to 5 cm high; stems hairy, prostrate to erect. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Open rocky slopes and meadows (2850–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 29. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/neutral. Uses: Plant parts are useful to treat vomiting, cough, fever, accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser) and urinary obstruction. The whole plant of Tibetia himalaica is used as a substitute for whole organ of byan pa (blister beetle: Mylabris sp.) in treating urinary obstructions and swellings. Reference: 1–3, 4, 7. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. shu mo za ( ་མོ་ཟ་). Methī (Np, Hn). मेथी. Methikā (Sn). मेिथका. Fenugreek (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Strongly scented annual herb; stem erect, pubescent. Native range: Probably originated in the Near East; now cultivated worldwide, including Nepal (100–1300 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Part(s) use: Sd. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating epilepsy, infectious (srin) diseases, wounds and pains. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/heavy, oily and warm. Reference: 1. 189 Uses: Seeds are used in treating diarrhoea, cough, formation of pus in the lungs, and other disorders associated with the imbalances of wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan). Reference: 1–3, 10, 15a. forest margins and forest clearings (1500–4000[– 4500] m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. FAGACEAE Uses: Leaves and flowers are used in treating cough, fever, poisoning and diarrhoea. Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Reference: 4, 15b. Quercus cassura Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Q. obtusifolia D. Don be shing (བེ་ཤིང་), mon cha ra (མོན་ཆ་ར་). Kharshu, Khasru (Np). खसुर्, खसर्ु. Kharshu oak (En). Gentiana depressa D. Don spang rgyan sngon po ( ང་ ན་ ནོ ་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large evergreen tree. Native range: E Afghanistan, through Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and N Thailand. Habitat: Broad-leaved forests (1700–3800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Perennial stoloniferous herb, 3–6 cm tall. Native range: Peninsular India, C & E Himalaya, and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Grassland (2900–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 29. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Rn. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/neutral. Uses: The plant is used in treating phlegm (bad kan) disorder, infectious fever, poisoning, sore throat, cough, cold, and difficulty in breathing. Uses: Plant resin is used in treating constipation, indigestion, channel disorders (tsa brum), and hot and cold diarrhoea. Reference: 7, 15b. Reference: 1, 3, 4. Gentiana membranulifera T.N. Ho GENTIANACEAE Gentiana capitata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Ericala capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) D. Don ex G. Don, Gentiana cephalodes Edgew., Varasia capitata (Buch.-Ham.) Soják gang ga chung (གང་ག་ ང་). Hānsphūl, Tīte (Np). हाँसफू ल, तीते. Clustered gentian (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, erect annual herb; stem single, unbranched, 2–5.5 cm tall. Native range: W Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and N Myanmar. Habitat: Dry exposed slopes, meadows, open slopes, rocky areas, forests, 190 Eyrythalia carinata D. Don, Gentiana carinata (D. Don ex G. Don) Griseb., G. carinata var. marginata C.B. Clarke, G. marginata (D. Don ex G. Don) Griseb. gang ga chung (གང་ག་ ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small annual or short-lived perennial herb. Native range: W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Open slopes and meadows (3000–4300 m; W Nepal). Pl. 30. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating cough, fever, poisoning and diarrhoea. Gentiana phyllocalyx C.B. Clarke Gentiana nubigena Edgew. Gentiana algida Pall. var. nubigena (Edgew.) Kuzn., G. algida var. przewalskii (Maxim.) Kuzn., G. przewalskii Maxim., Gentianodes algida (Pall.) Á. Löve & D. Löve var. nubigena (Edgew.) Omer, Ali & Qaiser spang rgyan khra bo ( po ( ང་ ན་ཁྲ་བོ་), spang rgyan sngon ང་ ན་ ནོ ་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial rhizomatous herb, 3–15 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to NC China (Gansu) and Myanmar. Habitat: Meadows, alpine grasslands, rocky places and alpine scrub (2900–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 30. spang rgyan sngon po ( spang rgyan nag po ( ང་ ན་ ནོ ་པོ་). ང་ ན་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial stoloniferous herb, 3–10 cm tall; stems ascending to erect, simple, glabrous. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Meadows, grasslands, rocky slopes and stony pastures (3800–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 30. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating hot disorders, pulmonary diseases and skin diseases. Taste/potency: Astringent and bitter/cool. Reference: 7. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, pulmonary diseases, pimples, loss of eye vision, and blood disorders. Reference: 4–6. Gentianodes ornata (Wall.) A. Löve Pneumonanthe ornata Wall. ex G. Don kyi lce dkar po (ཀྱི་ ེ་དཀར་པོ་). Broad-leaf gentian, Robust gentian (En). & D. Löve, spang rgyan sngon po ( ང་ ན་ ནོ ་པོ་). ང་ ན་ཁྲ་བོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 4–7 cm tall, with simple, ascending stems. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Stony pastures and alpine grassy slopes (3400–5500 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 29. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatments of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, infectious fever, chronic fever, sore throat, cough and cold, difficulty in breathing, and poisoning. Reference: 1–3, 7. Gentiana lhakangensis C. Marquand, G. pharica Burkill, G. tibetica var. robusta (King ex Hook. f.) Kuzn. Ghodtīto, Seto tiktā (Np). घोडतीतो, सेतो ितक्ता. Gentiana ornata (Wall. ex G. Don) Griseb. spang rgyan khra bo ( Gentiana robusta King ex Hook. f. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 15–30 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows, damp places in thickets, and stream banks (3100–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 30. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts treat bile and liver disorders, fever-related to bile disorder, gastrointestinal disorders, joint pain, swelling, fever of the lung, pus formation in lungs, bleeding, wound, inflammation due to wound and food poisoning. Leaves and flowers are substituted for tsan dan dkar po (heartwood of Santalum album) in treating hot disorders of the lung. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 7, 9–13, 15b. 191 Gentiana stipitata Edgew. Gentiana tibetica King ex Hook. f. Gentianodes stipitata (Edgew.) A. Löve & D. Löve Gentiana brevidens Regel, Tretorhiza tibetica (King) J. Soják. spang rgyan dkar po ( kyi lce nag po (ཀྱི་ ང་ ན་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 4–10 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and SC China. Habitat: Alpine meadows and streamside rocky areas (3600–4500 m; W Nepal). Pl. 31. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating hot disorders of bile (mkhris pa), liver and lung, poisoning, infectious fever. Flowers are substituted for tsan dan dkar po (heartwood of Santalum album) in treating hot disorders of the lung. Reference: 1, 3. Gentiana straminea Maxim. ེ་ནག་པོ་). Ghod tīto (Np). घोड तीतो. Tibetan gentian (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 20–50 cm tall; stems erect, stout, simple, glabrous. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows, damp places in thickets and forest margins (3700–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 31. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and liver disorders, fever, intestinal fever, poisoning, wounds, retention of urine, accumulation of serous fluids (chu ser), and swelling. Reference: 2, 9. Tretorhiza straminea (Maxim.) Soják kyi lce dkar po (ཀྱི་ ེ་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 10–35 cm tall. Native range: C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and C & N China. Habitat: Open slopes, rocky slopes, meadows, thickets, forest clearings and stream banks (3300–4300 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating hot disorders of the bile (mkhris pa), liver and lung, poisoning, wounds and swelling. Leaves and flowers of Gentiana straminea can also be used as a substitute for tsan dan dkar po (heartwood of Santalum album) in treating hot disorders of the lung. Reference: 1, 3, 13. 192 Gentiana urnula Harry Sm. Gentiana amoena Wedd. var. major Burkill, Gentianodes urnula (Harry Sm.) A. Löve & D. Löve. gang ga chung (གང་ག་ ང་). Urn-shaped gentian (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Mat-forming perennial herb, 4–5 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Alpine slopes, scree slopes and stony areas (4700– 6200 m; E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating phlegm (bad kan) disorder, poisoning, fevers associated with bile (mkhris pa), infectious fever, tuberculosis, hot diarrhoea, blood disorders and wound. Reference: 1–3, 7, 8, 10–12. Gentianella moorcroftiana (Wall. ex G. Don) Airy Shaw Swertia peloria Griff. Aliopsis moorcroftiana (Wall. ex G. Don) Omer, Qaiser & Ali, Aloitis moorcroftiana (Wall. ex G. Don) Omer, Qaiser & Ali, Eyrythalia canaliculata D. Don ex Griseb., Gentiana moorcroftiana Wall. ex G. Don zangs tig (ཟངས་ཏིག་). Tīte (Np). तीते. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect annual herb, 5–20 cm tall with stems branched from base. Native range: E Afghanistan to Nepal and Tibetan Plateau (Burang Xian). Habitat: Meadows, hillsides along forest margins and thickets (2900–5200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 31. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter to slightly sweet/cool and slightly smooth. Uses: Whole plant is beneficial for treating bile disorders, wind fever, headache, cold and cough. Reference: 6, 7, 10, 15a. Gentianopsis paludosa (Munro ex Hook. f.) Ma Gentianella paludosa (Munro ex Hook. f.) Harry Sm. lcags tig nag po ( ut pal ( Halenia elliptica D. Don གས་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་). ྤལ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial herb, 10–50 cm tall; stem branched from base. Native range: Himalaya to C & N China. Habitat: Meadows and thickets (3000– 4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 30. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. lcags tig ra mgo ma ( lcags tig ( གས་ཏིག་ར་མགོ་མ་). གས་ཏིག་). Tīte (Np). तीते. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 10–60 cm tall. Native range: C Asia, through Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, streamside, scrub, thickets and trailside (2000–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 30. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating hot disorders of the liver and gall bladder, fever and headache associated with bile (mkhris pa) disorders, wounds, cold and cough. Reference: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15b. Lomatogonium carinthiacum (Wulfen) Reichenb. Gentiana carinthiaca (Wulfen) Froel., Gentianella carinthiaca (Wulfen) Galasso, Banfi & Soldano, Pleurogyne carinata (Wulfen) Edgew., Swertia carinthiaca Wulfen dngul tig dman pa (ད ལ་ཏིག་དམན་པ་). tig ta (ཏིག་ཏ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 5–20 cm tall; stem ascending to erect, solitary or several, branched at base. Native range: C Europe to Siberia, Himalaya, China and Japan. Habitat: Moist meadows, open slopes and streamsides (3100–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 31. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating bile (mkhris pa), liver and blood disorders, heart disease, infectious diseases, lung disorder, fever, stomach trouble, wound, and headache. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Reference: 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 15b. Reference: 4, 17. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used to treat bile (mkhris pa) and liver disorders, fever, and wounds. 193 Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Ophelia angustifolia (Buch.-Ham.) G. Don, Swertia angustifolia var. hamiltoniana Burkill, S. kachinensis Lace dngul tig (ད ལ་ཏིག་). Chirāito, Bhāle chirāito, Tīte (Np). िचराईतो, भाले िचराईतो, तीते. Narrow-leaved swertia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 15–60 cm tall; stem erect, 4-angled, branched. Native range: Himalaya to S China and Mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Open slopes, grassy slopes, thickets, trailside, and edges of cultivated land (300–3600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 31. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ap. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Aerial parts are used in the treatment of fever associated with bile (mkhris pa) disorder, liver disorder, cough, headache and wounds. Reference: 4, 15b. Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H. Karst. Gentiana chirayita Roxb., Ophelia chirayita (Roxb.) Griseb., Swertia chirata (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wall., S. tongluensis Burkill rgya tig ( ་ཏིག་). tig ta (ཏིག་ཏ་). Chirāito, Tīte (Np). िचराईतो, तीते. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders, and all types of fever associated with bile (mkhris pa). It is also used to treat wounds. The whole plant is used as a substitute for dom mkhris (bile of Himalayan black bear: Ursus thibetanus) in compounding medication to treat bile disorders, headache, bile fever, and wounds. Reference: 2–4, 7, 10, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) B.L. Burtt Ophelia ciliata D. Don ex G. Don, O. purpurascens Wall. ex D. Don, Swertia purpurascens Wall. [nom. nud.] bal tig (བལ་ཏིག་). rgya tig ( ་ཏིག་). tig ta (ཏིག་ཏ་). Chirāito, Tīte (Np). िचराईतो, तीते. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 20–50 cm tall. Native range: NE Afghanistan to E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forest margins, shrubberies, open slopes, and streamsides (2600–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Nepālnimba, Bhūnimba, Haimatikta, Kairātatiktaka (Sn). नेपालिनम्ब, भूिनम्ब, हैमितक्तः, कै रातितक्तकः. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders, fever, headache and gastritis. Chirayita, Chirata, Brown chiretta (En). Reference: 1, 3, 4, 9, 15b. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Biennial or short-lived perennial herb, to 0.6–1.5 m tall. Native range: W Himalaya to N Myanmar. Habitat: Open moist places, forest margins, steep banks, and edges of agriculture (1200–3000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 30. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. 194 Swertia cuneata Wall. ex D. Don Swertia hugelii Griseb. lcags tig nag po chen ( Tīte (Np). तीते. གས་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་ཆེན་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb, up to 30 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist slopes, alpine meadows (3900–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 31. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Reference: 7. CONSERVATION STATUS Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating wound, fever associated with bile disorder (mkhris pa), infectious diseases, and headache. Reference: 4, 7. National: Data deficient (Tandon et al. 2001). Swertia paniculata Wall. Ophelia paniculata (Wall.) D. Don, O. wallichii G. Don, Swertia dilatata C.B. Clarke, S. griffithii C.B. Clarke sum cu tig ( Nakkalī chirāito, Tīte (Np). नक्कली िचराईतो, तीते. Swertia kingii Hook. f. lcags tig dkar po ( མ་ ་ཏིག་). གས་ཏིག་དཀར་པོ་). Chirāito, Tīte (Np). िचराईतो, तीते. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb; stem erect, striate, simple, 60–200 cm. Native range: C & E Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forest margins, moist meadows and stream banks (3100–4500 m; C & E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders, fever and headache associated with imbalance of bile, infectious diseases and wounds. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 20–80 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, scrub, open grassy slopes and trailside (1500–3600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of liver and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, cough, cold, fever and headache. Reference: 4, 15b. Swertia petiolata D. Don Swertia lahulensis A. Kern. Swertia multicaulis D. Don lcags tig nag po chung ( Sharmaguru (Np). शमर्गुरु. གས་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་ ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small perennial herb, 4–18 cm tall, with stout rootstock. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist open slopes, alpine meadows and alpine shrubberies (4000–4900 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 31. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating fever associated with bile disorder (mkhris pa), infectious diseases, headache and wounds. lcags tig dkar po ( གས་ཏིག་དཀར་པོ་). Chirāito, Tīte (Np). िचराईतो, तीते. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stem erect, 15–60 cm tall. Native range: Pakistan to W Nepal. Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes and alpine meadows (3300–4500[– ?5600] m; W Nepal). Pl. 33. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in the treatment of fever and headache associated with imbalance of bile (mkhris pa), and infectious diseases, and wounds. Reference: 6, 7, 9. 195 Swertia racemosa (Wall. ex Griseb.) C.B. Clarke Ophelia racemosa Wall. ex Griseb. rgya tig dman pa ( ་ཏིག་དམན་པ་). tig ta (ཏིག་ཏ་). Chirāito, Tīte (Np). िचराईतो, तीते. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 10–40 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forest margins, shrubland and meadows (2200–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders, cough, cold, fever, headache, loss of appetite, wound, and heart disease. Reference: 1, 4. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems ascending to decumbent, 20–70 cm. Native range: Afghanistan to Siberia, Himalaya, SC China and Japan. Habitat: Open places, meadows, forest margins and shrubberies (2500–4000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating eye and ear disorders, cataract, ear pain, fevers, wind disorder, and abdominal pain. The plant is slightly toxic, used after detoxification. Reference: 15a, 15b. Geranium donianum Sweet Geranium forrestii Stapf, G. multifidum D. Don, G. stapfianum Hand.-Mazz., G. stenorrhizum Stapf Swertia speciosa D. Don Swertia perfoliata Royle ex G. Don lcags tig dkar po ( li ga dur (ལི་ག་ ར་). Stephen's stork's bill (En). གས་ཏིག་དཀར་པོ་). Chirāito, Tīte (Np). िचराईतो, तीते. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, up to 140 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Meadows, open slopes and forest margins (2700– 4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 33. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL li ga dur (ལི་ག་ ར་). Rāto āsne (Np-Dl). रातो आ े. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems slender, erect, branched. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, alpine meadows, forest margins and shrubberies (3200–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Part(s) use: Rt/Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Astringent and sweet/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating fever and headache associated with the imbalance of bile (mkhris pa), and infectious diseases and wounds. Uses: Roots or whole plant parts are used in treating fevers of the lung and other internal organs, cough, pneumonia, liver trouble, blood disorder, diarrhoea, and poisoning. Roots are used as a substitute for ba le ka (stems of Aristolochia griffithii) in treating hot disorders of the lung, liver and intestines, and blood disorders. GERANIACEAE Erodium stephanianum Willd. Geranium stephanianum (Willd.) Poir. mig sman sang rgyas (མིག་ 196 ན་སང་ ས་). Reference: 4, 5, 15b, 20. Geranium nepalense Sweet Geranium nepalense var. oliganthum (C.C. Huang) C.C. Huang & L.R. Xu, G. oliganthum C.C. Huang, G. patens Royle in Hook. f., G. quinquenerve Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, G. radicans DC. li ga dur dman pa (ལི་ག་ spor chung ( ར་དམན་པ་). རོ ་ ང་). Chunetro-ghāns, Ãsne (Np, Np-Dl). चुनेतर्ो-घाँस, आ े. Nepalese crane's-bill (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial sprawling herb; stem trailing or ascending. Native range: E Afghanistan through Himalaya to E & SE Asia. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, scrub, meadows, trailside and waste places (1500–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 33. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt/Wp. Taste/potency: Astringent and sweet/cool. Uses: Rootstock or whole plant is used for the treatment of fever, headache, lung and stomach disorders, diarrhoea, swellings, and joint pain. Reference: 9, 15b. Geranium polyanthes Edgew. & Hook. f. li ga dur (ལི་ག་ ར་). Rāto āsne (Np-Dl). रातो आ े. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems erect, 10–50 cm tall, not rooting at nodes. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, open slopes, scrub and meadows (2400– 4500 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Astringent and sweet/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of lung and liver disorders, fever, cold and cough, stomach disorders. The plant is also used as an antidote against poisoning. Geranium pratense L. li ga dur sngon po (ལི་ག་ spor chung ( ར་ ོན་པོ་). ོར་ ང་). Nīlo āsne (Np-Dl). नीलो आ े. Meadow crane's-bill (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with erect, branched stems, 40–100 cm or more tall. Native range: Europe, temperate Asia, W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, alpine meadows, shrubberies, forests and forest margins (2200–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Astringent, sweet and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant is used in treating cold and cough, inflammation of the lung, pneumonia, blood disorders, eye diseases, fever, lymph fluid disorder, joint pain, swelling of limbs, and bile (mkhris pa) and stomach disorders. Reference: 1–6, 9, 14, 20. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex. Sweet li ga dur mchog (ལི་ག་ ར་མཆོག་). li ga dur sngon po (ལི་ག་ ར་ ོན་པོ་). Kakreto, Raktyāmūl (Np-Dl). ककर्ेटो, रक्त्यामूल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with trailing or ascending stems, 25–80 cm tall. Native range: Afghanistan to C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes and rocky placecs (2000– 4200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 32. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Astringent and sweet/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating fever, cold, cough, inflammation of the lung, pneumonia, blood disorder, nerve disorder, and swellings. Reference: 2, 9, 10, 15b. 197 GESNERIACEAE Corallodiscus lanuginosus (Wall. ex R. Br.) B.L. Burtt Didissandra lanuginosa (Wall. ex R. Br.) C.B. Clarke, Didymocarpus lanuginosus Wall. ex R. Br. brag skya ha bo ( ག་ ་ཧ་བོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless, rhizomatous perennial herb, forming rosettes. Native range: Himalaya to SC China, Myanmar and Thailand. Habitat: Moist rocks, cliffs, moist rock faces inside forests and forest margins (1000–3400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 33. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating food poisoning, aconite poisoning, diarrhoea, bile associated fever, infections, wounds, urinary disorders, and disorder of the seminal vesicles. The whole plant is substituted for ko byi la (seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica) in treating poisoning and stomach disorders. Reference: 1, 4, 15a, 22. IRIDACEAE Crocus sativus L. kha che gur gum (ཁ་ཆེ་གུར་གུམ་). gur gum (གུར་གུམ་), Kesar (Np). के सर. Kunkuma, Kesara (Sn). कु ङ्कु म, के सर. Saffron (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small bulbous herb. Native range: A cultigen originated in E Mediterranean region (Greece); now widely cultivated elsewhere. In Nepal, it is cultivated in small extent and also imported. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. 198 Uses: Dried stigmas are used in treating disorders of gall bladder, liver and bile (mkhris pa), fever, coughs, asthma, blood impurities, and kidney inflammations. It also strengthens veins. Crocus sativus stigmas can be used as a substitute for elephant bezoar (gi wang) in medicine to treat liver and bile disorders and fever. Similarly, its flowers are also substituted for bear bile (dom mkhris) in compounding medication to treat bile disorders, bile-associated fever, and wounds. Reference: 1–4, 7, 10, 13, 16. Iris decora Wall. Evansia nepalensis Klatt, Iris nepalensis D. Don, I. yunnanensis H. Lév.; Junopsis decora (Wall.) W. Schulze gres ma (གྲེས་མ་) Padmapuskar, Piperī (Np, Np-Dl). प पुष्कर, िपपेरी. Nepal iris, Graceful Himalayan iris (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely tufted perennial herb, with swollen, fusiform tuberous roots. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and SC China. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, scrub, stony pastures and cliffs in drier inner valleys (1600–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 33. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/neutral and slightly coarse. Uses: Roots are used in treating infectious (srin) diseases, wounds and stomach disorders. Seeds are used in treating sinusitis. The plant is slightly toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 4, 10, 15b. Iris goniocarpa Baker Iris goniocarpa var. tenella Y.T. Zhao, Iris gracilis Maxim. ma ning gres ma (མ་ནིང་གྲེས་མ་). gres ma (གྲེས་མ་). Padma-puskar, Piperī (Np). प पुष्कर, िपपेरी. Angular-fruit iris (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Slender rhizomatous perennial herb, flowering stems 10–25 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Opens slopes, alpine meadows, and scrubs in drier inner valleys (3600–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 33. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/cool and coarse. Uses: Rhizomes are used for the treatment of infectious (srin) diseases, stomach disorders, loss of appetite, intestinal parasites, and poisoning. Seeds are used in treating infectious diseases and sinusitis. The plant is slightly toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 1–5, 7, 15a. JUGLANDACEAE Juglans regia L. Juglans duclouxiana Dode, J. fallax Dode, J. kamaonia (C. DC.) Dode, J. orientis Dode, J. regia var. kamaonia C. DC., J. regia var. sinensis C. DC., J. salicifolia Hort. ex Dippel, J. sinensis (C. DC.) Dode star ga ( ར་ག་). Hāde okhar, Okhar (Np). हाडे ओखर, ओखर. Akshota, Akshotaka (Sn). अक्षोटः, अक्षोटकः. Common walnut, Persian walnut, Walnut, (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous trees, up to 30 m tall, with rough fissured bark on older branches. Native range: SE Europe to E Himalaya and SE China. Habitat: Forests along the river, mountain slopes, and also planted (1200–3000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 34. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Iris kemaonensis Wall. ex D. Don Iris duthiei Foster., I. kingiana Foster, I. tigrina Jacquem. ex Baker gres ma pho (གྲེས་མ་ཕོ་) pho gres (ཕོ་གྲེས་). Piperī (Np). िपपेरी. Kumaon iris (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb; flowering stems very short, usually <4 cm or indistinct. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Grassy slopes, scrub, alpine meadows and grazed pastures (2000–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 33. Part(s) use: Br, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/neutral to oily. Uses: Nuts are used in treating wind disorders, gastritis, constipation and swelling of the limbs. Nuts are also used as tonic in weakness. Bark and fleshy wall of fruits are used in treating mouth sores, and for nourishing hair and promoting hair growth. Seed oil massage is considered beneficial to treat swelling of the limbs and shrunken body caused by wind. Reference: 1–7, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/neutral and slightly coarse. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating infectious (srin) diseases, wounds and stomach disorders. The plant is slightly toxic. It is used after detoxification. Global: Least Concern (Rivers & Allen 2017). LEGAL STATUS National: Government protection. Plant bark is banned for collection, use, sale, distribution, transportation, and overseas export. Further, trees within the Government forest (National Forest) are also banned for felling and transport for commercial purposes and for overseas export. Reference: 2, 11, 12. 199 JUNCAGINACEAE Triglochin maritima L. Habitat: Open grassy slopes and forests (700–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 37. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL na ram (ན་རམ་). Seaside arrowgrass (En). Part(s) use: Wp. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Perennial herb, with short stout rhizome. Native range: Temperate N Hemisphere and S America. Habitat: Marshy places, marshy meadows and wet grassland (2600–4600 m; W & C Nepal). Uses: Plant parts are used in treating fever. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Reference: 4, 15b. Ajuga lupulina Maxim. zin tig rgod pa (ཟིན་ཏིག་ ོད་པ་). Chhortentāmbā (Np-Dl). छोतनताम्बा. Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/cool. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Plant parts are used in treating hot disorders of the stomach, hot diarrhoea, constipation, kidney disorder, urinary retention, lung disorder, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser), burning sensation of the skin and wounds. Fruits of Triglochin maritima are substituted for da trig (fruits of Rhus chinensis/Brucea javanica) in treating diarrhoea and lung disorder. Erect or spreading, densely wooly-haired perennial herb, 10–25 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to N China. Habitat: Open slopes, dry and moist meadows, rock crevices, rocky slopes and riverbanks (2200–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 34, 37. Reference: 1, 3, 7, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Maiz-Tome 2016). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool and coarse. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating skin allergy, fever, sinusitis, menstrual disorders, epilepsy, infections and swellings. Reference: 1–5, 15a, 15b. LAMIACEAE (=LABIATAE) Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Coleus barbatus (Andrews) Benth ex G. Don Ajuga alba (Gürke) Robyns, A. bracteosa Wall. ex Benth., A. bracteosa var. densiflora (Wall. ex Benth.) Hook. f., A. densiflora Wall. ex Benth., A. remota Benth. Coleus coerulescens Gürke, C. forskohlii var. adoensis Briq., Ocimum asperum Roth, Plectranthus barbatus Andrews, P. asper (Roth) Spreng., P. coerulescens (Gürke) R.H. Willemse, P. comosus Sims, P. pseudobarbatus J.K. Morton zin tig chung ba (ཟིན་ཏིག་ zhim thig nag po (ཞིམ་ཐིག་ནག་པོ་). khang su me tog (ཁང་ ང་བ་). ་མེ་ཏོག་). zin tig (ཟིན་ཏིག་). Nīlpāte, Rātopāte-jhār (Np). नीलपाते, रातोपाते-झार. Chivillikā (Sn). िचिविल्लका. Bracted bugleweed, Blue bugleweed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Low-growing, perennial stoloniferous herb; stems erect or ascending, branched from base, 10–30 cm tall. Native range: Africa, SW Asia to E & SE Asia. 200 bya pho tsi tsi sngon po ( ་ཕོ་ཙི་ཙི་ ནོ ་པོ་)Sr-Dl, Sr-Ms. Sanjanī, Sujino (Np). स नी, सुिजनो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Prennial herb, 25–90 cm tall; stem erect or ascending, unbranched, densely hairy. Native range: Tropical E Africa, Arabian Peninsula to Tropical S Asia, Himalaya, SC China and Thailand. Habitat: Edges of pine forests and dry open slopes (700–2600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 35. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: neutral. Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Sweet, bitter to astringent/ Uses: The plant is used in treating infectious diseases (srin), parasite infestation, wounds and blood disorders. Reference: 4, 15b. Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth. Dracocephalum acanthoides Edgew. ex Benth. 'jib rtsi dkar po (འཇིབ་ ི་དཀར་པོ་), 'jib dkar (འཇིབ་དཀར་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aromatic perennial herb, with stout ascending stems, 15–20 cm. Native range: NE Afghanistan to Russia (SE Siberia), Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and C & N China. Habitat: Open slopes, dry and rocky places, scree, shrubberies and alpine meadows in dry valleys (3250–5500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 34. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: Aerial parts of plant are used in treating liver dysfunction, fever arising from hot disorders of stomach and liver, lung disorders, brown phlegm (bad kan smug po), edema, cuts and wounds. Very young leaves in the juvenile stage of the plant are used in treating dysentery and child fever. Young plant of Dracocephalum tanguticum (known as klu mo gur gum) is used as a substitute for gur gum (flowers of Carthamus tinctorius and Crocus sativus) in treating liver, bile and lung disorders, and fever. Reference: 1–4, 7, 10–13, 20, 21. Dracocephalum wallichii Sealy Dracocephalum speciosum Wall. ex Benth. [nom. illeg.] 'jib rtsi chen po (འཇིབ་ 'jib rtsi nag po (འཇིབ་ ི་ཆེན་པོ་). ི་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Aerial parts of plant are used in treating hot disorder of the liver, cold and cough, fever, oral infection, toothache, gastritis and pain. Perennial herb, with erect or ascending stem, 15– 50 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, alpine pastures and shrubland (3000–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 34. Reference: 1, 2, 4–7, 10, 14, 15b, 20. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Dracocephalum tanguticum Maxim. Dracocephalum hookeri C.B. Clarke, Fedtschenkiella hookeri (C.B. Clarke) Kudr. pri yang ku ( ་ི ཡང་ཀུ་). ི་ནག་པོ་). klu mo gur gum ( ་མོ་གུར་གུམ་). bod kyi gur gum (བོད་ཀྱི་གུར་གུམ་). 'jib rtsi nag po (འཇིབ་ GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aromatic perennial herb, with ascending to erect stems, 10–60 cm. Native range: W & C Himalaya to N & C China. Habitat: Dry meadows and boulders (3400–5000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 36. Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: Aerial parts of plant are used in circulatory system disorders, low blood pressure, dizziness, liver disorders, and oral diseases (mouth sores, mouth ulcers and dental diseases). Reference: 7, 12. Elsholtzia ciliata (Thumb.) Hyland Elsholtzia cristata Willd., E. patrinii (Lepech.) Garcke, Mentha cristata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, M. patrinii Lepech., Perilla polystachya D. Don, Sideritis ciliata Thunb. byi rug nag po ( ་ི ག་ནག་པོ་). 201 phur smug ( ར་ ག་). Ban silām (Np). वन िसलाम. Crested late-summer-mint, Vietnamese balm (En). infestation, liver trouble, stomach disorder, wounds, and toothache. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 15a, 15b. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect herb, 30–50 cm tall. Native range: Tropical to Temperate Asia, Himalaya. Habitat: Open places, trailsides, riverbanks, and edges of broad-leaved forests (1500–3900 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/warm. Uses: Aerial parts of plant are used in treating phlegm (bad kan) disorders, infectious (srin) diseases, skin infection, parasitic disease and indigestion. Flowers and seeds of Elsholtzia ciliata are used as a substitute for byi tang ga (fruits of Embelia tsjeriam-cottam) in treating phlegm disorders, infectious diseases, parasitic disease, and indigestion. Reference: 1–3, 15a. Elsholtzia densa Benth Elsholtzia calycocarpa Diels, E. densa var. calycocarpa (Diels) C.Y. Wu & S.C. Huang., Platyelasma densum (Benth.) Kitag. byi rug nag po ( byi rug smug po ( ་ི ག་ནག་པོ་). ་ི ག་ ག་པོ་). Ban silām, Nīlo bhotpāti, (Np). वन िसलाम, नीलो भोटपाती. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 15–60 cm tall. Native range: SW and C Asia to E Himalaya, Mongolia and China. Habitat: Open places, meadows, forests, trailside, edges of forests and riverbanks (2400–4600 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/warm and coarse. Uses: Aerial parts of plant are used in treating infectious (srin) diseases, skin infection, parasite 202 Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth) Benth Aphanochilus eriostachyus Benth., Elsholtzia eriostachya var. pusilla (Benth.) Hook. f., E. hoffmeisteri Klotzsch, E. pusilla Benth., Platyelasma eriostachyum (Benth.) Kitag. byi rug ser po ( ི་ ག་སེར་པོ་). ँ ो-भोटपाती. Pahenlo-bhotpāti (Np). पहेल GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 5–40 cm tall, strongly aromatic. Native range: Himalaya to NC China. Habitat: Oak forests, open slopes, trailsides, damp places and alpine meadows (1800–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 34. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/warm and coarse. Uses: Aerial parts of plant are used in treating infectious (srin) diseases, skin infection, intestinal parasites, sinusitis, wounds, insect stings and toothache. Reference: 1–5, 14, 15a. Elsholtzia fruticosa (D. Don) Rehder Aphanochilus fruticosus (D. Don) Kudô, Elsholtzia polystachya Benth., E. tristis H. Lév. & Vaniot, Perilla fruticosa D. Don, byi rug rgod pa ( ི་ ག་ དོ ་པ་). ི་ ག་སེར་པོ་ དོ ་པ་). byi rug ser po rgod pa ( Sāno silām (Np). सानो िसलाम GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect shrub, 1–3.5 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to C & SE China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, grassy slopes and open slopes (1200– 3600[–4200] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 34. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/warm. Uses: Aerial parts of plant are used in treating infectious (srin) diseases, intestinal parasites, constipation, stomachache, sinusitis, wounds, insect stings, and toothache. Reference: 27. Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and Bangladesh. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, streamside and trailside shrubland (1200–4050 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 35. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool and coarse. Eriophyton wallichii Benth. shang len smug po (ཤང་ལེན་ ག་པོ་). bdud rtsi gangs sham pa (བ ད་ ི་གངས་ཤམ་པ་). gangs sham me tog (གངས་ཤམ་མེ་ཏོག་)Sr-Dl. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used in treating eye disorders, intestinal worms and cramps; and as an antiseptic for drying pus and healing wounds. Reference: 2, 4, 9, 10, 15a. Sr-Dl, Sr-Ms gangs sung me tog (གངས་ ང་མེ་ཏོག་) gnyan 'dul ba (གཉན་འ ལ་བ་). spang mtshan spu ru ( spang ru spu mtshan ( . ང་མཚན་ ་ ་). ང་ ་ ་མཚན་)Sr-Ms. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely woolly-haired dwarf perennial herb, with woody rootstock. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, morainic deposits and scree slopes ([3200–]4000–5400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 35. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating pulmonary diseases, lung infection, disorders of the nerves and veins, and wounds. Reference: 1–4, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15b. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd Isodon plectranthoides Schrad. ex Benth., Plectranthus rugosus Wall. ex Benth., Rabdosia rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara zhim thig nag po (ཞིམ་ཐིག་ནག་པོ་). Sr-Dl yog mo (ཡོག་མོ) . Merrattī (Np-Dl). मेरर् ी. Wrinkled-leaf isodon (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect aromatic shrub or undershrub, 60–150 cm tall. Native range: Oman, NE Afghanistan to E Lamium album L. zhim thig dkar po (ཞིམ་ཐིག་དཀར་པོ་). zwa 'brum dkar po ( ་འ མ་དཀར་པོ་). White nettle, White dead-nettle (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems erect, 25–50 cm tall, simple or branched, covered with recurved hairs; flowers white. Native range: Europe, Temperate Asia, Himalaya. Habitat: Shady and wet places in forests, forest margins, grassy slopes and grazing ground (1500–3800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 34. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp/Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid to bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used in treating eye disorders, infectious diseases and stomach cramps. Lamium amplexicaule L. Galeobdolon amplexicaule (L.) Moench zhim thig dmar po (ཞིམ་ཐིག་དམར་པོ་). zhim thig dmar chung (ཞིམ་ཐིག་དམར་ ང་). Henbit dead-nettle, Common henbit, Greater henbit (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial herb; stems ascending, 20–35 cm high, branched from base,; leaf blade circular to reniform; flowers purple-red or reddish. Native range: Europe, N & NE Africa, subtropical and temperate regions in Asia. Habitat: Shady and wet 203 places in forests, forest margins and marshy places (900–3800 m; W–E Nepal). stony places, thickets and riverbanks (3700–5300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 37. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid to bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid and astringent/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of eye disorders, cataracts, poor eye sight, infectious diseases, and stomach cramp. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating eye disease and stomach disorders. Nepeta discolor Royle ex Benth. or Nepeta laevigata (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz. can be used for its substitute. Reference: 1, 2. Reference: 1–3, 14. Marmoritis nivalis (Benth.) Hedge Glechoma nivalis (Benth.) Press, Nepeta nivalis Benth., Phyllophyton nivale (Benth.) C.Y. Wu, Pseudolophanthus nivalis (Benth.) Levin gnyan 'dul ba (གཉན་འ ལ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Hairy perennial herb; stem erect, 8–16 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rock crevices and scree slopes in dry valleys (4300–5600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 36. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Nepeta staintonii Hedge pri yang ku ( ི་ཡང་ཀུ་)Sr-Dl, pri yang ku dman pa ( ི་ཡང་ཀུ་ Sr-Dl དམན་པ་) . klu mo gur gum ( ་མོ་གུར་གུམ་)Sr-Dl. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Strongly aromatic perennial herb; stems erect, 10– 40 cm tall; corolla blue, pale violet or mauve, white marked within with purple spots. Native range: Endemic to Nepal. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, open slopes and thickets (3500–5000 m; W Nepal). Pl. 35. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/cool. Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Fr. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of infectious diseases, fever, indigestion, cold and cough. The plant is slightly toxic. It used after detoxification. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to acrid/cool. Reference: 4. Nepeta coerulescens Maxim. Dracocephalum coerulescens (Maxim.) Dunn, Glechoma thomsonii (Benth. ex Hook. f.) Kuntze, Nepeta thomsonii Benth. ex Hook. f. zhim thig sngon po (ཞིམ་ཐིག་ ོན་པོ་). zhim thig (ཞིམ་ཐིག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems erect, 25–45 cm tall, covered with short soft hairs. Native range: Himalaya to W & C China. Habitat: Alpine meadows, grassy slopes, 204 Uses: Aerial parts of the plant are used in treating fever arising from hot disorders of stomach and liver. The plant parts are also used to treat lung disorders, brown phlegm (bad kan smug po), cuts and wounds. The plant removes retained fluid due to hot conditions. Very young leaves in the seedling or juvenile stage of the plant (known as klu mo gur gum) are used in treating dysentery and fever in children. Aerial parts of Nepeta staintonii are used as a substitute for pri yang ku (aerial parts of Dracocephalum tanguticum) in treating hot disorders of the stomach and liver, accumulation of lymph fluid, lung disorders and brown phlegm. Similarly, aerial parts are also used as a substitute for gur gum (flowers of Carthamus tinctorius and Crocus sativus) in treating liver and lung disorders and fever. Origanum vulgare L. Origanum laxiflorum Royle ex Benth., O. normale D. Don smag tog pa ( Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and bitter/cool. Uses: Roots and leaves are used in treating infectious diseases, common cold, fever, cough, lung disorders and wounds. Reference: 4. ག་ཏོག་པ་). Kair, Rām tulashī (Np-Dl). कएर्, राम तुलशी. Phlomoides macrophylla (Benth.) Kamelin & Oregano, Wild marjoram (En). Makhm. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aromatic perennial herb to 70 cm tall. Native range: Mediterranean region to Temperate Europe, C & SW Asia, Himalaya and C & SE China. Habitat: Open slopes, forest margins, moist shrubland and grasslands (600–4000 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating blood and lung disorders, high blood pressure, cough, cold, indigestion and toothache. Reference: 4, 15b. Phlomis macrophylla Benth., P. setigera Falc. ex Benth., Phlomoides setigera (Falc. ex Benth.) Kamelin & Makhm. lug mur che ba ( ག་ ར་ཆེ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large perennial herb; stem erect, 0.5–2 m tall, leafy; leaves large, heart-shaped; flowers purple. Native range: Pakistan to E Himalaya. Habitat: Forest clearings, forest margins, open slopes and riverside thicket (2200–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 37. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and bitter/cool. Uses: Roots and leaves are used in treating lung disorders, cough and cold, and fever. Phlomoides bracteosa (Royle ex Benth.) Kamelin & Makhm. Phlomoides rotata (Benth. ex Hook. f.) Mathiesen Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth., P. bracteosa var. longifolia Hook. f., P. cordata Royle ex Benth., P. lamiifolia Royle ex Benth., P. latifolia Royle ex Benth., P. simplex Royle ex Benth. Phlomoides lamiifolia (Royle ex Benth.) Kamelin & Makhm. Lamiophlomis rotata (Benth. ex Hook. f.) Kudô, L. rotata subsp. bhutanica (R.A. Clement) V.S. Kumar, L. rotata var. subglabra C.Y. Wu, Phlomis rotata Benth. ex Hook. f., P. rotata subsp. bhutanica R.A. Clement lug mur ( rta lpags ( ག་ ར་). pu shud mig sman dmar po ( ་ ད་མིག་ ན་དམར་པོ་). Purple Jerusalem sage, Purple lampwick plant (En) GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stem erect, pubescent, usually unbranched, 10–80 cm tall; leaves ovate-cordate; flowers rose to pink-purple; bracts numerous, fringed with long hairs. Native range: E Afghanistan to E Himalaya. Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes and meadows (2400–4100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 35. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf. ་ གས་). rta lpags nag po ( ་ གས་ནག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial rhizomatous herb, forming rosette; leaves large, broadly ovate or orbicularreniform, leathery; flowers purple in dense terminal spike at the center of the rosette leaves. Native range: C & E Himalaya to NC China. Habitat: Scree slopes, rocky places, and dry stony alpine meadows (4100–5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 35. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. 205 Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating sinus and infectious diseases (srin), edema, swellings, inflammation, joint pain, nerve disorders and indigestion. The plant is also used in cleaning blood, and joining and healing damaged or fractured bones. Reference: 1–7, 11, 12, 14. Salvia campanulata Wall. ex Benth. Salvia campanulata var. codonantha (E. Peter) E. Peter, S. campanulata var. nepalensis E. Peter, S. codonantha E. Peter ‘jib rtsi dkar po dman pa (འཇིབ་ ི་དཀར་པོ་དམན་པ་). zhim thig dkar po (ཞིམ་ཐིག་དཀར་པོ་). Open north-facing slopes and forests (2600–4100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 36. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool and heavy. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating liver and blood disorders, low blood pressure, fever, mouth ulcers and dental diseases. Roots, leaves and flowers of Salvia hians are used as a substitute for pri yang ku (aerial parts of Dracocephalum tanguticum), and gur gum (flowers of Carthamus tinctorius and Crocus sativus) in treating liver disorders and fever. Reference: 7, 9, 15b. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb, covered with glandular hairs, 40–100 cm tall; leaves ovate-cordate; flowers yellow in much branched inflorescence. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins and open slopes ([720– ]1300–3800[–4550] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 36. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: Roots are used in treating infectious diseases, fever, mouth ulcer, toothache, cold, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery and body pain. Leaves and flowers are used in treating urinary disorders. Reference: 15a. Salvia hians Royle ex Benth. Salvia himalaica W. Thomps. 'jib rtsi sngon po (འཇིབ་ ་ི ནོ ་པོ་). ‘jib rtsi nag po (འཇིབ་ ི་ནག་པོ་). 'jib rtsi chen po (འཇིབ་ ི་ཆེན་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, glandular-hairy perennial herb, 35–120 cm tall; leaves ovate-cordate; flowers blue, lips often marked with white. Native range: Himalaya. Habitat: 206 Salvia nubicola Wall. ex Sweet Salvia glutinosa L. subsp. nubicola (Wall. ex Sweet) Murata 'jib rtsi dkar po (འཇིབ་ Gobre (Np). गोबर्े. ི་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, glandular-hairy perennial herb, 60–120 cm tall; leaves triangular-ovate; flowers yellow with orange or purplish markings on upper lip. Native range: Afghanistan to E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes and forest clearings (1600–4300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 36. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool and heavy. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating hot disorders of the liver, blood disorders, fever, oral infection and dental diseases. Reference: 7, 9. Salvia przewalskii Maxim. Salvia feddei H. Lév., S. labellifera H. Lév., S. mandarinorum Diels, S. przewalskii var. alba X.L. Huang & H.W. Li, S. przewalskii f. albiflora Y.H. Wu, S. przewalskii var. rubrobrunnea C.Y. Wu, S. tatsienensis Franch., S. thibetica H. Lév. ‘jib rtsi nag po (འཇིབ་ ི་ནག་པོ་). 'jib rtsi smug po (འཇིབ་ ི་ ག་པོ་). Reference: 1–3. Przewalski's sage (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, covered with glandular hairs; stems branched from base, ascending, densely pubescent, 40–100 cm tall; calyx red-brown, corolla purple-red or red-brown. Native range: Nepal, Tibetan Plateau and C China. Habitat: Forests, open slopes, thickets and streamside (3000–4100 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 36. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool and heavy. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating liver and blood disorders, low blood pressure, fever, mouth ulcers and dental diseases. Roots, leaves and flowers of Salvia przewalskii are sometimes substituted for pri yang ku (aerial parts of Dracocephalum tanguticum) and gur gum (flowers of Carthamus tinctorius) in treating hot disorders of the liver. Reference: 9. Note: Salvia transhimalaica Yonek., endemic to C Nepal, is also used for the same purpose. Salvia roborowskii Maxim . zhim thig ser po (ཞིམ་ཐིག་སེར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual or biennial herb, covered with glandular hairs; stem solitary, erect, 20–60 cm tall, much branched; flowers smaller, light yellow or creamy without markings. Native range: C & E Himalaya to China. Habitat: Open slopes, sandy slopes, grasslands, forest clearings and streamside (3000– 5000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 36. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating eye disorders. Thymus linearis Benth. Thymus afghanicus Ronniger, T. baluchistanicus Klokov, T. himalayicus Ronniger, T. linearis subsp. hedgei Jalas, T. pseudalbanus Ronniger smag tog pa ( ག་ཏོག་པ་). Ghodāmarchā (Np). घोडामचार्. Himalayan creeping thyme (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Dwarf mat-forming aromatic subshrub; stems spreading, 12–20 cm. Native range: N Iran to NW China and W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Open places, shrubberies, steppes and stony slopes in drier areas (1600–4700 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 35. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating loss of appetite, blood and lung disorders, indigestion, toothache and other oral diseases. Young flowers or flowering spikes are used in blood purification. Reference: 4, 5, 15b, 20. LAURACEAE Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J.S. Presl. Laurus camphora L. ga bur (ག་ ར་). Kapūr (Np). कपूर. Karpūra (Sn). कपूरर् ः. Camphor tree, Japanese camphor (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Much-branched evergreen tree, up to 30 m tall. Native range: N Vietnam to S Japan; cultivated widely. The tree is planted in Nepal at 1300–1500 m; and the camphor is also imported. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Ex. Taste/potency: Bitter, acrid and astringent/cool. 207 Uses: Fruits and plant extract (camphor, a terpene) are used in treating high fever, chronic fever, and pain due to fever. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid and astringent/warm. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 16. Reference: 3, 10. Cinnamomum parthenoxylon (Jack) Meisn. Uses: Bark is used in treating indigestion, cold wind disorders, lung disorders, and diarrhoea. Cinnamomum verum J. S. Presl Camphora parthenoxylon (Jack) Nees, Laurus parthenoxylon Jack Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, Laurus cinnamomum L. a ga ru dmar po (ཨ་ག་ ar dmar (ཨར་དམར་). agar shing tsha (ཨགར་ཤིང་ཚ་). a gar go sngod (ཨ་གར་གོ་ ་དམར་པོ་). ོད་). Selasian wood, Saffrol laurel, Martaban camphor (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen tree, 10–20 m tall. Native range: E Himalaya to S China and SE Asia. It is imported in Nepal. shing tsha (ཤིང་ཚ་). Dālchīnī (Np). दालचीनी. Dārūsitā, Tvak (Sn). दारूिसता, त्वक् . True cinnamon, Ceylon cinnamon (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Wd. Small evergreen tree, up to 12 m tall. Native range: Sri Lanka; cultivated in many countries in Asia and S America. The tree is planted in Nepal and its bark is also imported. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warm and neutral. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Wood is used in treating wind disorders, fever associated with wind, stress and anxiety. Note: Cinnamomum glanduliferum (Wall.) Meisn. (Np: Malagiri, Sinkauli), a native species, can also be used for the same purpose. Reference: 1–3, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS Part(s) use: Br. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid and astringent/warm. Uses: Bark is used in treating wind disorders, lung and kidney disorders, impaired digestive heat, indigestion, flatulence, diabetes, menstrual cramps, and diarrhoea. Reference: 1, 2, 13, 15a, 16. Global: Data deficient (ARW 1998). LILIACEAE Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Nees & Eberm. Laurus tamala Buch.-Ham., Persea tamala Spreng. shing tsha (ཤིང་ཚ་). Tejpāt (Np). तेजपात. Tamālapatra, Tamālaka (Sn). तमालपतर्, तमालक. Indian bay leaf, Malabar leaf, Nepal cinnamon (En). Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Baimo cirrhosa (D. Don) Raf., Fritillaria cirrhosa subsp. roylei (Hook.) Ali, F. roylei Hook., Melorima cirrhosa (D. Don) Raf. a bi sha (ཨ་བི་ཤ་). a'u rtsi (ཨ ་ ི་). klu bdud rdo rje nag po ( ་བ ད་ ོ་ ེ་ནག་པོ་)Sr-Dl. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Ban lasun (Np). वन लसुन. Evergreen tree, to 20 m tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China, Myanmar and Vietnam. Habitat: Broadleaved forests (400–2300 m; W–E Nepal). Himalayan fritillary, Snake's-head fritillary (En). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br. 208 Kākolī (Np, Sn). काकोली. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial bulbous herb, 15–75 cm tall; stem erect, simple, leafy; flowers large, showy, nodding, yellow to yellowish green with purple spots. Native range: Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, thickets, shrubberies, open slopes and moist alpine meadows (3000–4765 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 37, 38. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Bl, Lf, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating fractured head bones, poisoning, menstrual disorder, infectious fever, cough and cold. Bulbs are also used as a tonic to increase memory and subdue mental disorders. Reference: 1–4, 15a. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Gagea serotina (L.) Ker Gawl. Bulbocodium serotinum L., Lloydia alpina (Mill.) Salisb., L. serotina (L.) Rchb., L. serotina var. parva (C. Marquand & Airy Shaw) H. Hara, Ornithogalum serotinum (L.) Rchb. rtsa a wa ( ་ཨ་ཝ་). rtswa a wa ( ་ཨ་ཝ་). bdud rtsi a wa (བ ད་ ི་ཨ་ཝ་). Sāno kākolī (Np). सानो काकोली. Common alplily, Snowdon alplily, Snowdon lily (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, delicate perennial herb, bulbiferous; scape 2–20 cm; flower solitary or few, white with purple venation outside; tepals and filaments glabrous. Native range: Arctic–alpine Northern Hemisphere. Habitat: Grassy slopes, meadows, rock crevices and thickets (3300–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 37. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Bl, Lf, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and slightly bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating chest pain, wounds, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser), and eye diseases, such as blurred vision. Bulbs and leaves of Gagea serotina are substituted for whole organism of lcags sbrul (Chinese krait: Bungarus multicinctus) in medicine to treat eye disorders, and cure poor eye sight. Reference: 2, 6, 9, 10, 15a. Lilium nanum Klotzsch Fritillaria gardneriana Wall. ex Baker, F. stracheyi Hook. f., Nomocharis nana (Klotzsch) E.H. Wilson a bi sha dman pa (ཨ་བི་ཤ་དམན་པ་). Nakkalī kākolī (Np). नक्कली काकोली. Dwarf lily, Himalayan dwarf lily (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, perennial bulbous herb, 10–30 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Meadows, open grassy slopes, rocky open places, alpine thickets and forest margins (3500–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 38. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Bl, Lf, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and slightly bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used as antidote against food poisoning, and for treating head injuries and fractured head bones. Bulbs are also used as tonic to treat general debility. Bulbs, leaves and fruits of Lilium nanum are substituted for the respective parts of a bi kha (Fritillaria cirrhosa) in treating poisoning, head injuries, head bone fracture, and debility. Reference: 12. Lloydia longiscapa Hook. Gagea pulchella Wall. [Invalid] rtsa a wa ( ་ཨ་ཝ་). rtswa a wa rgod pa ( ་ཨ་ཝ་ ོད་པ་). Sāno kākolī (Np). सानो काकोली. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, delicate perennial herb, bulbiferous; scape 10–30 cm; flower solitary or few, nodding, white, sometimes flushed pinkish, with orange reddish or 209 brownish basal spot; tepals acute, hairy at the base; filaments hairy. Native range: Himalaya,?Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Grassy slopes, alpine meadows, mossy rocks and rock crevices (4000–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 38. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Bl, Lf, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to slightly bitter/cool. The plant is toxic. Seeds are used after detoxification. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 16. LYTHRACEAE Punica granatum L. Granatum punicum (L.) St.-Lag., Punica nana L. se 'bru (སེ་འ ་). Uses: The plant parts are used in treating eye disorders (cataract, blurred vision, night blindness), internal chest problems, chest pain, paralysis, wounds of the abdomen, bone fracture and accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser). Plant juice is taken as a survival strategy during meditation. Leaves and bulbs of Lloydia longiscapa are substituted for whole organism of lcags sbrul (Chinese krait: Bungarus multicinctus) in medicine to treat eye disorders and cure poor eye sight. Shrub or small tree, 2–5 m tall. Native range: NE Turkey, Afghanistan to W Nepal; widely cultivated in S Europe, Africa, Asia and Latin America. In Nepal, wild populations of Punica granatum are found in the rain shadow of the dry inner valleys on exposed slopes (700–2700 m; W & C Nepal). Reference: 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Anār, Dādim, Dārim (Np). अनार, दािडम, दािरम. Dādima (Sn). दािडमः. Pomegranate (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Fl, Fr, Sd. LOGANIACEAE Taste/potency: Sour, sweet and astringent/warm. Strychnos nux-vomica L. Uses: Flowers, outer fleshy part of the fruit, and seeds are prescribed for promoting digestive heat, liver heat and in treating stomach disorders (indigestion, constipation, loss of appetite), cold phlegm (bad kan) and wind (rlung) disorders, and diarrhoea due to cold phlegm. Fruits increases blood and protects from infectious diseases. Strychnos ovalifolia Stokes, S. spireana Dop ko byi la (ཀོ་ ི་ལ་). ku byi la (ཀུ་ ི་ལ་). Kuchilā (Np). कु िचला. Kupīlu, Kāraskar (Sn). कु पीलु, कारस्करः. Nux-vomica, Poison-nut (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Medium-sized, densely branched tree, 12–20 m tall. Native range: India to Malaysia. It is planted in Nepal at 300–600 m; and also imported. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Seeds are used in treating poisoning, fever due to poisoning, blood pressure, wind disorders, gastritis, constipation, asthma and bronchitis. 210 Reference: 1–5, 10, 13, 15a, 16. MALVACEAE Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Bamia abelmoschus (L.) R. Br. ex Wall. [nom. inval.], Hibiscus abelmoschus L., Hibiscus moschatus (Medik.) Salisb. so ma ra dza (སོ་མ་ར་ཛ་). Ban kapās, Jangalī bhindī, Latākastūrī (Np). वन कपास, जङ्गली िभडी, लताकस्तूरी. Latākasturikā (Sn). लताकस्तूिरका. Musk mallow (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust annual or perennial herb, 0.5–3 m tall, with tuberous root; stems and branches hirsute with simple prickly or stellate yellow hairs. Native range: Tropical and Subtropical Asia. Habitat: Open slopes, forest margins, field margins and streamside (150– 2000 m; W & C Nepal). na ga ge sar (ན་ག་གེ་སར་). Simal (Np). िसमल. Shālmali (Sn). शाल्मिल. Red silk-cotton tree, Simal tree, Kapok tree (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Sd. Large deciduous tree, up to 40 m tall. Native range: Tropical and Subtropical Asia. Habitat: Riverine grassland, riverine forests, open slopes in mid hills (60–1400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 38. Taste/potency: Astringent, bitter to acrid/warm. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Seeds are used in skin diseases, lymph (chu ser) disorder, arthritis, excessive sweating, blood disorders and diabetes. Seeds are considered as aphrodisiac and are used in impotency. Note: Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik. can also be used for the same purpose. Reference: 1, 3, 10, 15a, 16. Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Astringent/cool and coarse. Uses: Floral parts (mainly stamens, but also sepals and petals) are used in treating hot disorders of the lung, liver and heart, and in the treatment of infections, diarrhoea, and bile (mkhris pa) and kidney disorders. Reference: 1–3 , 7, 10, 13, 16. Alcea rosea L. Althaea coromandeliana Cav., A. rosea (L.) Cav., A. rosea var. sinensis (Cav.) S.Y. Hu, A. sinensis Cav. pho lcam (ཕོ་ མ་). ་ མ་). Malva parviflora L. Malva microcarpa Desf., M. trionoides DC. mo lcam (མོ་ མ་). མ་པ་). rgya lcam ( ha lo (ཧ་ལོ་), ha lo dkar po (ཧ་ལོ་དཀར་པོ་). lcam pa ( pho lcam ha lo dkar po (ཕོ་ Sāno majino (Np). सानो मिजनो. མ་ཧ་ལོ་དཀར་པོ་). Chitra seavatī (Np). िचतर् सेवती. Common hollyhock (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Hairy annual or biennial herb. Native range: SE Europe to Turkey; widely cultivated as ornament. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in improving kidney function and treating retention of urine. Reference: 1–3, 7. Bombax ceiba L. Bombax malabaricum DC., Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endl. rgya lcam dkar po ( ་ མ་དཀར་པོ་). Cheeseweed mallow, Egyptian Mallow (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, sprawling or decumbent pubescent herb, up to 50 cm tall. Native range: Mediterranean region to SW Asia; widely naturalized elsewhere. Habitat: Naturalized in waste places, roadsides and along streams ([200–]2700–3620 m; W–E Nepal]. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in improving kidney function, and treating retention of urine, and accumulation of lymph fluid. Reference: 15a. 211 Malva verticillata L. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Althaea verticillata (L.) Alef., Malva neilgherrensis Wight, M. pulchella Bernh. ma ning lcam pa (མ་ནིང་ lcam pa ( མ་པ་). bod lcam (བོད་ མ་པ་). མ་). nyi dga'a (ཉི་དགའ་). Chāmlā, Lāphe-sāg, Majino, Majāino (Np-Dl). चाम्ला, लाफे -साग, मिजनो, मजाइनो. Cluster mallow, Chinese mallow (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, annual or biennial pubescent herb, up to 1.5 m tall. Native range: NE Africa to C & N Asia, Himalaya, E Asia. Habitat: Waste places, roadsides, village areas and edges of cultivated fields (2000– 3800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 38. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr, Sd. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: Aerial parts of the plant are used in treating pulmonary disorders, activating the circulation of blood in the body and treating heart disorders. Roots are also used in cough, lung infection and fever; and leaves in cuts and wounds. Seeds of Lancea tibetica are substituted for snying zho sha (seeds of Choerospondias axillaris) in treating heart disorders. Reference: 1–12, 14, 20. MELANTHIACEAE Paris polyphylla Sm. Daiswa polyphylla (Sm.) Raf. lo ma bdun can dwa ba (ལོ་མ་བ ན་ཅན་ ་བ་). tang ma (ཏང་མ་)Sr-Dl. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/neutral. Satuwā, Tīntale bānko (Np). सतुवा, तीनतले बाँको. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating kidney disorders, retention of urine, lymph disorder, headache, and diarrhoea. It improves sperm discharge. Seeds are used in menstrual disorders and indigestion. Haimavatī (Sn). हैमवती. Reference: 1–4, 6, 10, 13, 15b. MAZACEAE Lancea tibetica f. albiflora Y.H. Wu spa yag rtsa ba ( ་ཡག་ ་བ་). ་ཡག་པ་). Bhuinphūl (Np). भुईंफू ल. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial herb, forming rosette, plant glabrous, with creeping rhizomes. Native range: Himalaya to C China and Mongolia. Habitat: Open moist places, moist meadows, streamside, grazing grounds, cultivated areas and open forests (3100– 4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 38. 212 Erect perennial herb, 40–70 cm tall, with stout, creeping rhizome. Native range: W Himalaya to N & E China and mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Forests, grassy slopes, thickets and streamsides ([1300– ]1800–3560 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 38. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Lancea tibetica Hook. f. & Thomson spa yag pa ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet and slightly bitter/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are used in treating chest pain, throat infection, intestinal worms, and cold and cough. Rhizomes are also used in healing of wounds. The plant is slightly toxic. Rhizomes are used after detoxification. Reference: 4. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Vulnerable [A4cd] (Chauhan 2020). National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). MELIACEAE Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Melia azadirachta L., M. indica (A. Juss.) Brandis nim pa (ནིམ་པ་). Nīm (Np, Hn). नीम. Nimba, Prabhadra (Sn). िनम्ब, पर्भदर्. Nim tree (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Medium-sized evergreen tree. Native range: India (Assam) to Myanmar; widely planted, including in Nepal (100–900 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Tw, Lf, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are useful in treating blood, bile (mkhris pa) and lymph fluid (chu ser) disorders, infectious diseases, fevers of all kind, and skin diseases. Reference: 2, 7, 10. MENISPERMACEAE Stephania rotunda Lour. Cissampelos glabra Roxb., Clypea rotunda Steud., Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers sle tres ( ེ་ ེས་). Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Campylus sinensis Lour. sle tres ( ེ་ ེས་). Gurjo, Gurjo-laharā (Np). गुज , गुज -लहरा. Guduchī, Amritvallī, Amritā (Sn). गुडूची, अमृतवल्ली, अमृता. Chinese tinospora (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large, glabrous climbing shrub. Native range: Tropical S Asia to C & E China and mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Open places, hedge, shrubland and forest margins (200–1540 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating fevers associated with wind (rlung), bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan) disorders, contagious fever, hidden fever, rheumatism, gout, headache, intestinal disorders, and depleted bodily constituents. Note: Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thomson is also used for the same purpose. Reference: 1–3, 13, 15a, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Barkulī-laharā, Nimī-laharā (Np). बकुर् ली-लहरा, िनमी-लहरा. MORACEAE Hairless tape vine (En). Morus serrata Roxb. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Morus alba L. var. serrata (Roxb.) Bureau Climbing or twining perennial herb. Native range: Tropical S Asia to Tibetan Plateau and mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Shrubland, forests and forest margins (300–2600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 39. dar shing (དར་ཤིང་). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat fevers related to infectious diseases, and intestinal disorders. Reference: 10, 16. Kimbu (Np). िकम्बु. Tūta, Tūda, Brahmakāstha (Sn). तूत, तूद, बर् का . Himalayan mulberry (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, 15–20 m tall. Native range: Pakistan to Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests and open places (1600–2400 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Lf, Fr, Sd. 213 Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and sour/cool to warm. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating indigestion, constipation, liver and kidney disorders, urinary retention, fever, high blood pressure, diabetes, blurred vision, gynaecological diseases and bone disorders. Reference: 1–4. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen tree, 8–20 m tall. Native range: Maluku Islands in Indonesia. Dried flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum are imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Flb. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/warm, coarse and oily. Myristica aromatica Sw., M. laurella Gand., M. moschata Thunb., M. philippinensis Gand., Palala fragrans (Houtt.) Kuntze Uses: Dried flower buds are used in treating coldwind disorders, toothache and indigestion. Dried flower buds also treat loss of appetite, neurological disorders, and disorders of the channels and blood vessels. Flower buds are also used to restore warmth of the liver and stomach. dza ti (ཛ་ཏི་). Reference: 1–3, 10, 13. MYRISTICACEAE Myristica fragrans Houtt. Jāiphal (Np). जाइफल. Jātī, Jātīphala (Sn). जाती, जातीफलः. Nutmeg (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen tree, 5–15 m or more tall. Native range: Banda Islands in Indonesia. Nutmeg seeds are imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter, acrid and astringent/warm, oily and heavy. Uses: Seeds are used in generating body heat, and treating wind (rlung) disorders, heart disorder accompanied by wind, cough, asthma, indigestion, diarrhoea, vomiting, and dysentery. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce, E. jambolana Lam., Myrtus cumini L., Syzygium jambolanum (Lam.) DC. sa 'bras (ས་འ sra 'bras ( ས་). ་འ ས་). Jāmun, Jāmunū, Phadīr (Np). जामुन, जामुनू, फणीर. Jambū, Mahāphala (Sn). जम्बू, महाफल. Jambolan plum, Java plum (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen tree, to 25 m tall. Native range: Tropical and Subtropical Asia to N Australia. Habitat: Evergreen forests along streams and in swampy places (100–1870 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, sour and astringent/warm. Caryophyllus aromaticus L., Eugenia aromatica (L.) Baill. Uses: Bark and fruits are used for the treatment of kidney disorders, stomach disorders, diarrhoea, dysentery and indigestion. Bark and fruits are also used to treat diabetes. li shi (ལི་ཤི་). Reference: 1–3, 10, 13. MYRTACEAE Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry Lwāng (Np). ल्वाङ् . Lavangam, Devakusumam (Sn). लवङ्गम्, देवकु सुमम्. Clove tree (En). 214 CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (BGI & IUCN SCC 2019b). NELUMBONACEAE Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbium nelumbo (L.) Druce, N. speciosum Willd., Nelumbo indica Pers., N. speciosa G. Lawson, Nymphaea nelumbo L. pad ma (པ ྨ་). Kamal (Np). कमल. Ambuja, Kamala, Padma, Pankaja (Sn). अम्बुज, कमल, प , पङ्कज. Lotus, Sacred lotus (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial aquatic herb, with branched rhizomes. Native range: Warm-temperate to tropical regions of Asia and NE Australia; widely cultivated. Habitat: Ponds and lakes (100–1500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cool. Uses: Flower parts (pad ma ge sar) and rhizomes (pad rtsa) are used in treating hot disorders of the lung, heart and liver, and in bile (mkhris pa) disorders. Reference: 1–3, 7. NYCTAGINACEAE Boerhavia diffusa L. ba spru (བ་ ་). Kuthal, Rāto punarnavā (Np-Dl, Np). कु थल, रातो पुननर्वा. Raktapunarnava (Np). रक्तपुननर्वा. Red spiderling, Spreading hogweed, Tarvine (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb with stout woody rootstock. Native range: Tropical and subtropical regions. Habitat: Dry and rocky places, waste ground and open shrubby slopes (60–1500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Uses: Roots are used as tonic and diuretic. Roots treat cold diseases, kidney disorders, diabetes, accumulation of lymph (chu ser), rheumatism, and swellings. Reference: 4, 15b. Mirabilis himalaica (Edgew.) Heimerl Allionia himalaica (Edgew.) Kunze, Mirabilis himalaica var. chinensis Heim., Oxybaphus himalaicus Edgew., O. himalaicus var. chinensis D. Q. Lu ba spru (བ་ ་). Kuthal (Np). कु थल. Himalayan mirabilis, Himalayan umbrellawort (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 60–150 cm; stems prostrate or ascending, glandular-pubescent; flowers terminal or axillary, pink. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Open eroded slopes, steppes and dry pasture (2300–4000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 39. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and acrid/warm and light. Uses: Rootstocks are used as tonic and aphrodisiac in general debility, lack of sexual desire and impotency. Rootstocks are also used for the treatment of wind (rlung) disorders, coldrelated diseases of the lower parts of the body, cold-associated kidney disorders, lymph fluid (chu ser) disorder, swellings, diabetes, wounds and skin infections. Rootstocks of Mirabilis himalaica are substituted for a 'bras (seeds of Mangifera indica) in treating wind (rlung) disorders and kidney diseases. Rootstocks are also substituted for a sho gan dha (roots of Withania somnifera) in treating wind (rlung) disorders, kidney diseases, lymphatic (chu ser) disorder, general debility, lack of sexual desire, and impotency. Reference: 1–3, 8–10, 13, 15a, 16. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. 215 OLEACEAE PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Sd. Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Syringa tibetica P.Y. Pai, Syringa villosa subsp. emodi (Wall. ex Royle) A.E. Murray Uses: Plant parts are used as cooling agent, and in fever, bile (mkhris pa) and lung disorders, cough, arthritis, mouth sores and pimples. srin shing ( ིན་ཤིང་). se rgod (སེ་ ོད་)Sr-Dl. Bhatrāsī (Np). भतर्ासी. Reference: 1–4, 6. Himalayan lilac (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 5 m tall. Native range: Pakistan to Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests, forest margins and thickets (2400– 3600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 39. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/warm to neutral. Uses: Plant parts are used in treating disorders related to wind and phlegm, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser), and indigestion. Leaves are used for herbal tea. Seeds are substituted for ba ru (Terminalia bellirica) in treating wind and phlegm disorders and accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser). Epilobium speciosum Decne. Chamerion speciosum (Decne.) Holub, Epilobium latifolium L. subsp. speciosum (Decne.) P.H. Raven. byar pan chu rtsi ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb; stem erect, leafy, to 30–45 cm, densely strigillose. Native range: W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist gravelly places, rocky slopes, meadows and streamsides (3600–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 39. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used as cooling agent, and in fever, bile (mkhris pa) and lung disorders, cough, arthritis, mouth sores and pimples. Reference: 4. Note: Epilobium conspersum Hausskn. and E. latifolium L. have also beed cited as having same medicinal properties. ONAGRACEAE Epilobium angustifolium L. subsp. circumvagum Mosquin Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Scop. subsp. circumvagum (Mosquin) Moldenke, C. angustifolium var. platyphyllum Daniels, Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub subsp. circumvagum (Mosquin) Hoch byar pan chu rtsi ( Reference: 4, 6, 9, 15a. ORCHIDACEAE Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch Serapias helleborine L. var. longifolia L., Cephalanthera acuminata Wall. ex Lindl. ར་པན་ ་ ི་). Wandering fireweed, Willow herb (En). dbang ril (དབང་རིལ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust, rhizomatous perennial herb; stem erect, to 2 m. Native range: temperate Asia and N America. Habitat: Open forests, moist slopes, streamsides and disturbed places (3300–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 39. Narrow-leaved helleborine (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Terrestrial orchid, 20–50 cm tall. Native range: Europe, Mediterranean region to Himalaya, C & E 1 216 ར་པན་ ་ ི་). China and Japan. Habitat: Forests, forest margins thickets, streamsides and grasslands (1200–3300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 40. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Tubers are used as appetizer and tonic and to heal wounds. Its tubers can be substituted for dbang lag mchog (Dactylorhiza hatagirea) in medicine. Reference: 4. CONSERVATION STATUS Europe: Least Concern (Rankou 2011a). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Cymbidium speciosissimum D. Don, Pleione speciosissima (D. Don) Kuntze pu shel rtse ( ་ཤེལ་ ེ་). pu shel dkar po ( ་ཤེལ་དཀར་པོ་). Chāndigābhā, Bhālu kelā (Np). चाँदीगाभा, भालु-के ला. Crested coelogyne (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Epiphytic and occasionally lithophytic rhizomatous orchid, 13–30 cm tall, with cylindric-ovoid pseudobulbs. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests and forest margins (1000–2600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 39. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl. Part(s) use: St, Pb. Pleione corymbosa (Lindl.) Kuntze Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool and light. pu shel rtse ( ་ཤེལ་ ེ་). pu shel dkar po ( ་ཤེལ་དཀར་པོ་). Uses: Same as Coelogyne corymbosa. Chāndīgābhā (Np). चाँदीगाभा. Umbrella-like coelogyne (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Epiphytic or lithophytic rhizomatous orchid, 12–24 cm tall, with oblong-ovoid to weakly rhomboid, densely clustered pseudobulbs. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins and moist cliffs (1500–2900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 39. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Pb. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool and light. Uses: Stems and pseudobulbs are used as antiemetic to stop vomiting, and to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorder and fever associated with phlegm disorder. Pseudobulbs are also used to alleviate dehydration and excessive thirst, and to strengthen veins. Reference: 7. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Cypripedium himalaicum Rolfe Cypripedium macranthos Sw. var. himalaicum (Rolfe) Kraenzl. khu byug pa (ཁུ་ ག་པ་). Himalayan cypripedium, Himalayan slipper orchid (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect terrestrial orchid, 20–30 cm tall with slender rhizome. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Alpine meadows, rocky slopes and amongst shrubs (2800–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 40. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool and coarse. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of kidney disorders, retention of urine, edema and stone formation in kidneys and gall bladder. It is 217 also used in constipation, heart disease and lung disorders. Reference: 2, 4, 5. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Endangered [B2ab(ii,iii,v); D] (Rankou 2014). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó Dactylorhiza hatagirea var. doniana (Soó) Soó, Orchis hatagirea D. Don, O. hatagirea var. doniana Soó, O. latifolia L. var. indica Lindl. Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl. Callista amoena (Wall. ex Lindl.) Kuntze, Dendrobium egertoniae Lindl., D. mesochlorum Lindl. pu shel rtse ( ་ཤེལ་ ེ་). smug cu gang ( ག་ ་གང་). Jīvantī (Np). जीवन्ती. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Epiphytic orchid, 15–40 cm tall, stems slender, erect or suberect, thickened at nodes. Native range: S Asia, Himalaya and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests and forest margins (600–2900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 40. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL dbang po lag pa (དབང་པོ་ལག་པ་). Part(s) use: St. dbang lag (དབང་ལག་). Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cool. dbang lag mchog (དབང་ལག་མཆོག་). ँ , ह ाजडी. Pānchaunle, Hattājadī (Np). पाँचऔले Munjātaka, Sālāpmisri (Sn). मुञ्जातक, सालापिमिसर्. Himalayan marsh orchid (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect terrestrial orchid, 10–60 cm tall; tubers fleshy, palmately lobed. Native range: Pakistan to E Himalaya, C & N China and Mongolia. Habitat: Moist meadows, marshy places, thickets and shrubberies (2800–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 40. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Stems are used to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorder and fever. It stops vomiting and strengthens vein. Reference: 2. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Dendrobium densiflorum Lindl. Callista densiflora (Lindl.) Kuntze, Dendrobium clavatum Roxb. pu shel rtse ( ་ཤེལ་ ེ་). ་ཤེལ་གསེར་པོ་). Part(s) use: Tb. pu shel gser po ( Taste/potency: Sweet/warm and oily. Sungāvā (Np). सुनगाभा. Uses: Tubers are used as aphrodisiac and tonic to increase regenerative fluid and restore vitality and physical strength. Tubers are also used to treat joint pain, open wounds, cuts and burns. Pineapple orchid, Densely flowered dendrobium (En). Reference: 3–6, 10–12, 15a. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Endangered (Tandon et al. 2001). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Epiphytic or lithophytic orchid, 30–45 cm tall; stem club-shaped, swollen, pseudobulbous at base. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SE China and mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Broad-leaved forests and forest margins (600–2900 m; C & E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). National: Government protection. It is banned for collection, use, sale, distribution, transportation, and overseas export. 218 Part(s) use: St, Pb. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: Stems and pseudobulbs are used as an antiemetic to stop vomiting, and to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorder and fever associated with phlegm. Pseudobulbs are also used in dehydration and excessive thirst, and to strengthen veins. Native range: E Afghanistan to C Asia and Himalaya. Habitat: wet places along forest margins, thickets, streamside (1200–3700 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 41. Reference: 7. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Dendrobium longicornu Lindl. Callista longicornis (Lindl.) Kuntze, Dendrobium bulleyi Rolfe, D. flexuosum Griff., D. hirsutum Griff., Froscula hispida Raf. pu shel rtse ( ་ཤེལ་ ེ་). pu shel dkar po ( ་ཤེལ་དཀར་པོ་). Long-horned dendrobium (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Epiphytic orchid, 10–40 cm tall; stems clustered, erect or pendulous, cylindric, with many nodes. Native range: Himalaya to S China, Myanmar and Vietnam. Habitat: forests, forest margins (1200– 3000 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 41. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St. Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet/warm and oily. Uses: Rhizomes are used as an aphrodisiac and tonic and for the treatment of wounds. Its rhizomes are substituted for dbang lag mchog (Dactylorhiza hatagirea). Reference: 4. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. Gymnadenia cylindrostachya Lindl., G. himalayica Schltr., Habenaria orchidis (Lindl.) Hook. f. dbang lag dkar po (དབང་ལག་དཀར་པོ་). dbang lag dman pa (དབང་ལག་དམན་པ་). dbang ril (དབང་རིལ་). ँ े, Nakkalī pānchaunle, Hattājadī (Np). नक्क्ली पाचऔल ह ाजडी. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Stems are used as antiemetic to stop vomiting, and treat phlegm (bad kan) disorder and fever associated with phlegm disorder. Terrestrial orchid, 20–60 cm; tubers fleshy, palmately lobed; stem stout, leafy; flowers pink to creamy-white, fragrant. Native range: W Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, thickets, grassy slopes and meadows (1850–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 40, 41. Reference: 10. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Epipactis royleana Lindl. Amesia royleana (Lindl.) Hu, Arthrochilium royleanum (Lindl.) Szlach., Cephalanthera royleana (Lindl.) Regel, Helleborine royleana (Lindl.) Soó, Limodorum royleanum (Lindl.) Kuntze dbang ril (དབང་རིལ་). dbang lag dman pa (དབང་ལག་དམན་པ་). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet/warm and oily. Uses: Tubers are used as an aphrodisiac and tonic and for the treatment of wounds, cuts and burns. Its tubers are substituted for dbang lag mchog (Dactylorhiza hatagirea). Reference: 1, 2. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Terrestrial orchid, 30–100 cm tall; rhizome elongate with fibrous roots; stem erect; flowers purple. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). 219 Hemipilia calcicola (W.W. Sm.) Y. Tang & H. Peng Gymnadenia calcicola W.W. Sm., Neottianthe calcicola (W.W. Sm.) Schltr., N. cucullata (L.) Schltr. var. calcicola (W.W. Sm.) Soó, Ponerorchis cucullata (L.) X.H. Jin, Schuit. & W.T. Jin var. calcicola (W.W. Sm.) X.H. Jin, Schuit. & W.T. Jin dbang lag dman pa (དབང་ལག་དམན་པ་). dbang ril (དབང་རིལ་). bye lce lag pa ( ེ་ ེ་ལག་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Terrestrial orchid, 5–20 cm tall; tubers globose, fleshy. Native range: Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets and moist meadows (3140–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 42. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet/warm and oily. Uses: Tubers are used as an aphrodisiac and tonic and for the treatment of wounds, cuts and burns. Tubers are substituted for dbang lag mchog (Dactylorhiza hatagirea). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Hemipilia chusua (D. Don) Y. Tang & H. Peng Chusua donii Nevski, C. nana (King & Pantl.) Pradhan, C. pauciflora (Lindl.) P.F. Hunt, Gymnadenia pauciflora Lindl., Habenaria chusua (D. Don) Benth., Orchis chusua D. Don, O. chusua var. nana King & Pantl., Ponerorchis chusua (D. Don) Soó dbang lag dman pa (དབང་ལག་དམན་པ་). dbang ril (དབང་རིལ་). ེ་ ེ་ལག་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Terrestrial orchid, 10–30 cm tall; tubers oblong or globose, fleshy. Native range: W Himalaya to Siberia, Korea and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, grassy slopes, scree, moist places, moist alpine meadows and Rhododendron thickets (2400– 4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 41. 220 Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet/warm and oily. Uses: Tubers are used as an aphrodisiac and tonic and for the treatment of wounds, cuts and burns. Tubers are substituted for dbang lag mchog (Dactylorhiza hatagirea). Reference: 4, 15a. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). Herminium monorchis (L.) R. Br. Epipactis monorchis (L.) F.W. Schmidt, Herminium haridasanii A.N. Rao, Monorchis herminium O. Schwarz, Ophrys monorchis L., Orchis monorchis (L.) Crantz; Satyrium monorchis (L.) Pers. bye lce lag pa ( ེ་ ེ་ལག་པ་). dbang lag dman pa (དབང་ལག་དམན་པ་). dbang ril (དབང་རིལ་). Musk orchid (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Reference: 4. bye lce lag pa ( PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Terrestrial orchid, 5–20 cm tall; tubers globose to ellipsoid, fleshy. Native range: Europe to north temperate region in Asia, Himalaya to Japan. Habitat: Moist places, alpine meadows and thickets (3400–4600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 41. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet/warm and oily. Uses: Tubers are used as an aphrodisiac and tonic and for the treatment of wounds. Its tubers are sometimes substituted for dbang lag mchog (Dactylorhiza hatagirea). Reference: 4, 15a. CONSERVATION STATUS Europe: Data Deficient (Rankou 2011b). LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (26/11/2019). OROBANCHACEAE Orobanche solmsii C.B. Clarke ex Hook. f. gro shang rtse (གྲོ་ཤང་ ེ་). Thokrā-jhār (Np). ठोकर्ा-झार. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust parasitic herb, 20–50 cm tall, densely villous; stem erect, unbranched, stout, bearing scales; flowers pale yellow. Native range: C Asia and NW China to E Himalaya. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, forests, thickets, shrubberies (2400–3900 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 42. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet/neutral to warm Uses: The whole plant is used as an antidote against general poisoning. The plant is also used for the treatment of bleeding, and promoting kidney functions. Reference: 2. Pedicularis gracilis Wall. ex Benth. glang sna (གླང་ ་). me tog glang sna (མེ་ཏོག་གླང་ ་). ma ning glang sna (མ་ནིང་གླང་ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, annual hemiparasitic herb, 15(30–)–80 cm tall. Native range: Afghanistan to E Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Moist places, moist alpine meadows and open slopes (1400–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 43. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Pedicularis hoffmeisteri Klotzsch Pedicularis megalantha D. Don var. hoffmeisteri (Klotzsch) Sealy lug ru dkar po ( ག་ ་དཀར་པོ་). lug ru ser po dman pa ( ག་ ་སེར་པོ་དམན་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, perennial hemiparasitic herb, 15–60 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya (Kashmir to Nepal). Habitat: Moist places, moist alpine meadows, streamsides and forest margins (2200–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 40. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent to bitter/cool. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used for the treatment of circulatory system disorder, fever associated with the liver, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, accumulation of lymph fluid, poisoning and pain. It is also beneficial for infections and wound healing. Flowers of Pedicularis hoffmeisteri are substituted for gi wang (bezoar) obtained from glang chen (Asian elephant: Elephas maximus) in compounding medication for the treatment of fever, bile and liver disorders, infections, and poisoning. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 9, 15b. Pedicularis integrifolia Hook. f. glang sna (གླང་ ་). me tog glang sna (མེ་ཏོག་གླང་ ་). pho glang (ཕོ་གླང་). Part(s) use: Fl, Ap. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/warm Ascending, perennial hemiparasitic herb, 4–10 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and SC China. Habitat: Moist ground and moist rocky meadows (4300–4850 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 42. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of lymph fluid disorder, cough and wounds. Whole aerial parts of the plant are used for the treatment of liver and blood disorders. Reference: 9, 15a, 15b. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. 221 Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/warm. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of lymph fluid disorder, urinary retention, fever, weakness, and wounds. Reference: 3, 12, 19, 23. lutra) to treat disorders of liver, kidney and other vessel organs. Reference: 1, 4, 5, 9, 15b, 20. Pedicularis oederi Vahl Pedicularis versicolor Wahlenb. Pedicularis longiflora Rudolph var. tubiformis (Klotzsch) Tsoong Pedicularis longiflora subsp. tubiformis (Klotzsch) Pennell, P. tubiformis Klotzsch lug ru ser po ( sngo gi wang ( ག་ ་སེར་པོ་). ོ་གི་ཝང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect or spreading, annual hemiparasitic herb, 8–15 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Moist meadows, lakeside marshy places and along streams (2500–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 41. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl, Ap. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent/cool. Uses: Flowers or aerial parts of the plant are used for the treatment of food poisoning, meat poisoning, lymphatic disorders, joint pain, hangover, semen leakage, dehydration, fever associated with liver and the vessel organs, stomach disorders, mouth blisters caused by liver disorder, asthma, wounds, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, headache associated with bile disorder and infections. Its flowers are substituted for gi wang (bezoar) obtained from glang chen (Asian elephant: Elephas maximus) in compounding medication for the treatment of fever associated with liver and other internal organs, bile disorders, infections, and poisoning. Its flowers are mixed with rock and soil minerals (such as sa gi wang and chu gi wang) to prepare an artificial gi wang (bezoar), known as gim jo, which is used as a substitute for animal gi wang and organs of other animals, such as sram (Eurasian otter: Lutra 222 lug ru ser po dman pa ( ག་ ་སེར་པོ་དམན་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, perennial hemiparasitic herb, 5–15 cm tall. Native range: Temperate Eurasia, Himalaya and N America. Habitat: Alpine meadows, pasture areas, amongst shrubs, and open slopes (3600–5300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 42. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ap. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: Aerial parts of the plant are used for the treatment of liver disorder, poisoning, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser), and wounds. Reference: 4–6. Pedicularis pectinata Wall. ex Benth. glang sna (གླང་ ་). me tog glang sna (མེ་ཏོག་གླང་ ་). lha glang ( ་གླང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, annual hemiparasitic herb, 50–150 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Meadows, thickets, open slopes and stony pastures (3000– 4300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 43. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/warm. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of lymphatic disorder (chu ser), urinary retention, and wounds. Reference: 9, 15a. Pedicularis scullyana Prain ex Maxim. lug ru dkar po ( ག་ ་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb; stem erect, 15–100 cm, stout, pubescent to nearly glabrous. Native range: C & E Himalaya (Nepal, Sikkim). Habitat: Forest margins, marshy places, wet meadows and open slopes (3000–5300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 40. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, perennial hemiparasitic herb, 20–40 cm tall; stems hairy. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Stony meadows and open slopes (3000–5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 43. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of poisoning, bile (mkhris pa) disorders and fever. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent to bitter/cool. Reference: 1, 4. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Leaves and flowers are used for the treatment of circulatory system disorder, hot disorders of the liver and bile (mkhris pa), lymphatic disorder, poisoning and wounds. Reference: 14. Pedicularis dolichosiphon (Hand.-Mazz.) H.L. Li lug ru dmar po ( ག་ ་དམར་པོ་). ག་ ་ ག་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, perennial hemiparasitic herb, 5–30 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open slopes, moist meadows and forest margins ([1520– ]2900–5100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 41. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of food and meat poisoning, liver disorders, fever, headache, accumulation of lymph fluid, wounds, diarrhoea, and dysentery. Reference: 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15a, 19. Pedicularis trichoglossa Hook. f. lug ru smug po ( ག་ ་ ག་པོ་). ག་ ་དམར་པོ་). sngo bong mar ( ་ོ བོང་མར་). lug ru dmar po ( Boschniakia handelii Beck, B. himalaica Hook. f. & Thomson, B. kawakamii Hayata, Xylanche kawakamii (Hayata) Beck no pa'i pad dkar (ནོ་པའི་པད་དཀར་)Sr-Dl. stag ma'i yung rdog ( Pedicularis siphonantha D. Don lug ru smug po ( Xylanche himalaica (Hook. f. & Thomson) Beck ག་མའི་ ང་ ོག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Parasitic herb to 50 cm tall; stem erect, stout, bearing scales; flowers yellowish to brown. Native range: W Himalaya to C China. Habitat: Rhododendron shrubberies, moist slopes, forests and thickets (2900–4300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 42. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet/neutral Uses: Underground stem base and aerial parts of the plant are used for the treatment of indigestion, constipation and lung disorders. Reference: 4, 19, 26. PAPAVERACEAE Corydalis cashmeriana Royle Capnoides cachemiriana Kuntze ga bur zil gnon (ག་ ར་ཟིལ་གནོན་). re skon sngon po (རེ་ ོན་ ོན་པོ་). stong zil sngon po ( ོང་ཟིལ་ ན ོ ་པོ་). dom nag zil pa (དོམ་ནག་ཟིལ་པ་). Kashmir corydalis, Blue Himalayan corydalis (En). 223 GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, delicate perennial herb with unbranched stem. Native range: W & C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Alpine meadows, open slopes and screes (2400–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 44. Caespitose perennial herb, 3–8 cm tall. Native range: NW China (Xinjiang) to W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Sandy and gravely places and scree (3800–6100 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 42. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb, Lf, Fl, Fr. Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of chronic fever, bile fever, anemia, degenerated blood diseases, common cold, and burns. Leaves and flowers are substituted for ga bur (camphor) in treating fever. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of high blood pressure, chronic fever, brown phlegm (bad kan smug po) and blood disorders. It purifies contaminated blood. It is substituted for btsod (roots and stems of Rubia manjith) in treating blood disorders. Reference: 4, 5, 7, 15a. Reference: 1–4, 7, 10, 15a, 21. Corydalis govaniana Wall. Capnoides govaniana Kuntze skra bzang zil pa ( stong zil ( ་བཟང་ཟིལ་པ་). ོང་ཟིལ་). Bhūtkesh, Bhūtkeshī (Np). भूतके श, भूतके शी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Caespitose perennial herb, 15–35(–50) cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forest margins, moist open slopes, alpine meadows and shrubland (1900–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 43. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are useful for the treatment of hot disorders, chronic fever, bile fever, blood fever, and wounds. Reference: 6, 15a. Corydalis hendersonii Hemsl. Corydalis nepalensis Kitam. re skon (རེ་ ནོ ་). re skon rtsi dmar (རེ་ rtsi dmar zil pa ( ོན་ ི་དམར་). ་ི དམར་ཟིལ་པ་). Bhūtkesh (Np). भूतके श. 224 Corydalis hookeri Prain Corydalis denticulato-bracteata Fedde, C. paniculata C.Y. Wu & H. Chuang skra bzang zil pa ( ldum ba sha ka ( sngo ba sha ka ( ་བཟང་ཟིལ་པ་). མ་བ་ཤ་ཀ་). ོ་བ་ཤ་ཀ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Clump-forming perennial herb, 10–50 cm tall; stems few to several, ascending to suberect, branched, leafy. Native range: C & E Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Grassland, thickets, sandy slopes, scree, field margins and other disturbed places (2730–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 42. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of hot disorders of the liver, bile (mkhris pa) and blood, chronic fever, and wounds. The whole plant of Corydalis hookeri is substituted for shing ba sha ka (leaves of Justicia adhatoda) in treating hot disorders of the liver, bile and blood, and chronic fever. Reference: 4, 9. Corydalis juncea Wall. Capnoides juncea Kuntze bya pho tsi tsi ( ་ཕོ་ཙི་ཙི་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 15–60 cm tall; stems erect, glabrous. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Grassy slopes, pasture, thickets, stony areas and alpine shrubberies (2500–4400[– 5100] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 44. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/mild or neutral. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of haemorrhage, nosebleed, menstrual disorders (e.g., heavy menstrual bleeding). Reference: 14, 15a. Corydalis megacalyx Ludlow & Stearn re skon (རེ་ stong zil ( ནོ ་). ོང་ཟིལ་). Bhūtkesh (Np). भूतके श. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Cushion-forming perennial herb, 2–12 cm tall; stems several from long, slender, deeply buried rootstock. Native range: Endemic to Nepal. Habitat: Scree slopes, rocky meadows and rock crevices (3600–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 43. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of chronic fever, hot disorders of the liver and bile (mkhris pa), wounds, ulcer, cold and blood disorders. Reference: 4–6, 15b, 20. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Endangered (Tandon et al. 2001). Corydalis meifolia Wall. Capnoides meifolia sikkimensis Prain Kuntze, Corydalis meifolia var. stong ri zil pa ( ང ོ ་རི་ཟིལ་པ་). stong zil ( ོང་ཟིལ་). Sup-ghāns (Np). सुप-घाँस. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect or spreading perennial herb, 10–45 cm tall, glaucous. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist rocky slopes and scree slopes (3900–5200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 43. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts treat wounds, cough, fever, bile disorder, and disorders of liver and blood. It can be substituted for ga bur zil gnon (whole plant of Corydalis cashmeriana) and re skon (whole plant of Corydalis megacalyx) in treating fever, bile and blood disorders. Reference: 4–10. Dicranostigma lactucoides Hook. f. & Thomson Chelidonium dicranostigma Prain, C. lactucoides (Hook. f. & Thomson) Prain, Glaucium lactucoides Benth. & Hook. f., Stylophorum lactucoides (Hook. f. & Thomson) Benth. & Hook. f. rtsa thag ( ་ཐག་)Sr-Dl. Kogle-sāg, Dudhe-sāg (Np-Dl). कोग्ले-साग, दुध-े साग. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Short-lived perennial herbs, 15–60 cm tall, shortly pubescent; stems ascending to spreading. Native range: W & C Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, dry stony slopes, screes, rock crevices, and riverside gravel (2400–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 43. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. 225 Uses: The plan is used to treat liver disorder and retained placenta. Reference: 4, 15b. Hypecoum leptocarpum Hook. f. & Thomson Hypecoum alpinum Z.X. An, H. chinense Franch., H. leptocarpum var. chinense (Franch.) Kanitz par pa ta (པར་པ་ཏ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, with many procumbent stems. Native range: NE Afghanistan to Mongolia, Himalaya and China. Habitat: Open rocky slopes, moist places, grasslands, cultivated fields, wasteland and alpine steppes (2700–4800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 44. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, intermittent fever, fever of the blood, hot disorders of the bile (mkhris pa) and liver, heart disorders, hypertension and headache. The plant is also used to treat general poisoning, and fever-related to poisoning. The plant is used as a substitute for gu gul (resin of Commiphora wightii) in treating infections, and liver and heart disorders. Reference: 1–4, 6, 7, 9–14, 15b, 21. Meconopsis grandis Prain Papaver grande (Prain) Christenh. & Byng ut pal sngon po ( ྤལ་ ནོ ་པོ་). Nīlo kheldār (Np-Dl). नीलो खेलदार. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, up to 1.5 m tall, bristly; flowers blue or purple. Native range: C & E Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, moist glasslands, rocky slopes, thickets, shrubberies and streamsides (3000–4500[–5487] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 44. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. 226 Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat fever, especially fever of lung and liver, infectious diseases, cough, throat obscuration and neurological disorders. Flowers are substituted for na ga ge sar (floral parts of Bombax ceiba) in treating hot disorders of lung and liver, and kidney disorders. Note: Two subspecies (M. grandis ssp. jumlaensis Grey-Wilson and M. grandis ssp. grandis Prain) are found in Nepal, and both are used. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 15a. Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. & Thomson Papaver horridulum (Hook. f. & Thomson) Christenh. & Byng a byag tsher sngon (ཨ་ ག་ཚར་ ོན་), tsher sngon (ཚར་ ནོ ་). Prickly blue-poppy (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Monocarpic herb, 5–39 cm tall; covered with yellow-orange, sharp bristles, with blackish or purplish base; flowers blue. Native range: C & E Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Alpine slopes, rocky slopes, scree areas, rock crevices and cliffs (3700–5800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 44. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat bone diseases, fractured bones, fever associated with the bone, pain in the ribs and upper back part of the body. It is also used for the treatment of lung and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, skin disease, sinusitis, headache and wounds. Reference: 1–5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15a, 15b, 20, 26. Meconopsis paniculata (D. Don) Prain Papaver paniculatum D. Don, Meconopsis longipetiolata G. Taylor ex Hay, M. paniculata var. elata Prain. ut pal ser po ( ལྤ ་སེར་པོ་). Kheldār, Langur (Np-Dl, Np). खेलदार, लङ्गुर. Golden Himalayan poppy, Panicled yellow poppy (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust monocarpic herb, 0.8–2.7 m tall, covered with pale-yellow or brownish barbellate bristles; flowers yellow. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist places in open forests, forest margins, shrubberies, streamsides, ravines, grassy slopes, alpine meadows ([2150– ]2700–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 44. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Papaver rhoeas L. rgya men me tog ( ་མེན་མེ་ཏོག). ha lo (ཧ་ལོ). Common poppy, Field poppy, Corn poppy (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb, 25–90 cm tall. Native range: S Europe and N Africa to Temperate Asia; widely cultivated and naturalized. Habitat: Waste places and often planted in garden (2500–3550 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cool. Part(s) use: Fl, Sd. Uses: Flowers are used for the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, fever associated with lung and liver, bile (mkhris pa) disorders, inflammation of throat, cough, swelling of limbs and sores. Flowers also promote digestion and treat digestive disorders. Flowers of Meconopsis paniculata are used as a substitute for pu shel rtse (rhizomes and pseudobulbs of Coelogyne spp. and Dendrobium spp.) in treating lung and phlegm disorders, and indigestion. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool and heavy. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 11, 12, 19, 26. Meconopsis punicea Maxim. Uses: Flowers are used to treat blood disorder, and back pain; and seeds in stomach trouble. Papaver somniferum L. is also used for the same purpose. Reference: 1–3, 4. PEDALIACEAE Sesamum indicum L. Sesamum orientale L. til dkar (ཏིལ་དཀར་), til nag (ཏིལ་ནག་). Til (Np). ितल. Sesame (En). Papaver puniceum (Maxim.) Christenh. & Byng GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT ut pal dmar po ( Erect annual herb, 50–100 cm tall, puberulous. Native range: Probably originated in India; now widely cultivated in tropics and subtropics. Habitat: Cultivated in Nepal (150–2400 m; W–E Nepal). ཏ་པལ་དམར་པོ་). Red poppywort (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial or monocarpic herb, 30–75 cm tall, covered with dense yellowish or brown bristles; flowers deep red. Native range: Tibetan Plateau and C China. Its flowers are sourced from Tibet. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cool. Uses: Flowers are used to treat fever, infectious diseases, blood-related diseases and hepatitis. Reference: 1–3, 11. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet/heavy, oily and warm. Uses: Seeds are used to treat wind disorders, physical debility, and tumors of the uterus. Seeds are also beneficial for skin, hair growth, and for the enhancement of semen and other bodily constituents, and preventing greying of hair. Reference: 1–3, 7, 16. 227 PHYLLANTHACEAE Phyllanthus emblica L. Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Phyllanthus taxifolius D. Don skyu ru ( ་ ་). skyu ru ra ( ་ ་ར་). Uses: Roots are used in treating poisoning, fever due to poisoning, and other poison-related disorders. Roots are laxative and also treat pains. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10–12. Amalā (Np). अमला. PIPERACEAE Ãmalakī, Dhātrī (Sn). आमलकी, धातर्ी. Piper longum L. Amla, Emblic myrobalan, Indian gooseberry (En). pi pi ling (པི་པི་ལིང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Piplā, Sāno piplā (Np). िपप्ला, सानो िपप्ला Tree, up to 15 m tall. Native range: Tropical and Subtropical Asia. Habitat: Forests, river banks, dry slopes and also planted (150–1600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 44. Pippalī, Māgadhī (Sn). िपप्पली, मागधी. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sour, sweet and astringent/cool, sharp and coarse. Uses: Fruits are used to treat combined phlegm (bad kan) and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, bloodrelated diseases and liver disorders. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13, 16. PHYTOLACCACEAE Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Phytolacca esculenta Van Houtte, P. pekinensis Hance, Sarcoca acinosa (Roxb.) Skalický, S. esculenta (Van Houtte) Skalický dpa' bo dkar po (དཔའ་བོ་དཀར་པོ་). Jaringo, Jaringe-sāg (Np). जिरङ्गो, जिरङ्गे-साग. Indian pokeweed, Indian poke, Indian pokeberry (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 90–150 cm, glabrous, succulent. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau to mainland SE Asia and E Asia. Habitat: Broad-leaved forests, forest margins, roadsides and cultivated areas (1500–3200 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. 228 Long pepper, Indian long pepper (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Climbing or creeping sub-shrub with flexuous stems. Native range: E Himalaya to mainland SE Asia and SC China. Habitat: Forests and forest margins; also cultivated (150–800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm, coarse and sharp. Uses: Fruits are used to treat cold disorders associated with wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan), indigestion and stomach ulcers. Fruits improve kidney-heat and purify the blood. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Piper nigrum L. na le sham (ན་ལེ་ཤམ་). pho ba ris (ཕོ་བ་རིས་). Marich (Np). मिरच. Maricham (Sn). मिरचम्. Black pepper (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Climbing shrub, 10 m or more in length. Native range: S India (Western Ghats of Kerala); cultivated all over the tropics as a commercial crop. The species is cultivated in a smaller extent in Nepal, fruits are mostly imported. ditches and slow-running waters (3000–4700 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 45. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Part(s) use: Lf, St. Taste/potency: Acrid/rough and warm. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool to neutral. Uses: Fruits are used to treat cold disorders, cold associated phlegm disorder, indigestion, loss of body heat, and loss of appetite. PLANTAGINACEAE Uses: The plant is used to treat hot disorder of the lung, liver, bone and nerve. It is also beneficial for wound healing and kidney diseases. Leaves and stems of Hippuris vulgaris are substituted for shing mngar (roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra) in treating hot disorders associated with the lung and nerve. Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall. Reference: 1, 7, 9, 10. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13, 16. a 'bi ra (ཨ་འབི་ར་). Nās-jhār, Mālā-jhār (Np). नास-झार, माला-झार. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Lansdown 2014). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Creeping perennial herb, rooting at nodes. Native range: Himalaya to SE China, Myanmar and Philippines. Habitat: Forests, rock crevices, meadows, open slopes, cultivated fields and forest margins (900–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 45. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat irregular menstrual discharge, weakening of nerves, lower back pain, elephantiasis, arthritis, and wounds. Ripe fruits are eaten for improving physical strength. Reference: 3, 4, 19. Gymnandra kunawurensis Royle ex Benth., Lagotis glauca Gaertn. var. kunawurensis (Royle ex Benth.) Hook. f., L. glauca var. sikkimensis Hook. f., L. kunawurensis var. sikkimensis (Hook. f.) Yamazaki. sngo ba sha ka ( ོ་བ་ཤ་ཀ་). hong len dman pa (ཧོང་ལེན་དམན་པ་). Kinnaur lagotis (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb. Native range: Himalaya (N Pakistan to Bhutan). Habitat: Wet meadows, damp/marshy places, moist rocky areas, streamside (3500–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 45. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Hippuris vulgaris L. Hippuris eschscholtzii Cham. ex Ledeb., H. spiralis D. Yu. 'dam bu ka ra (འདམ་ Lagotis kunawurensis (Royle ex Benth.) Rupr. ་ཀ་ར་). Common mare's-tail (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aquatic perennial herb, with creeping rhizome, and simple erect stem. Native range: Subarctic and temperate regions of the world. Habitat: Lakes, Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of hot disorders of the liver, lung, small intestine and blood. It cures high blood pressure, disturbed fever, pain, vomiting of blood, cuts and wounds. Rhizome or whole plant of Lagotis kunawurensis is substituted for (i) hong len mchog (rhizomes of Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora) in treating hot disorders of the liver, bile, blood and 229 intestine, disturbed fever, and hypertension; (ii) pu shel rtse (rhizomes, pseudobulbs and stems of Coelogyne spp. and Dendrobium spp.) in treating disorders of the lung and intestine, and fever; (iii) shing ba sha ka (leaves of Justicia adhatoda) in treating hot disorders of the liver, bile and blood; and (iv) skyu ru (fruits of Phyllanthus emblica) in treating liver and blood disorders. LEGAL STATUS Reference: 2, 4–6, 9, 15b, 20. Plantago asiatica L. subsp. erosa (Wallich) Z.Y. Li National: Government protection. Kutkī is banned for overseas export except when the Department of Forest issues collection permit based on its availability and recommendation of Department of Plant Resources with confirm species identity as Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora. Plantago erosa Wall., P. centralis Pilg. Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D.Y. Hong, Veronica lindleyana Wall. [nom. nud.] hong len (ཧོང་ལེན་). hong len mchog (ཧོང་ལེན་མཆོག་). Kutkī (Np). कु ट्की. Katukā (Sn). कटु का. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb, 4–12 cm tall. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Alpine gravelly meadows, grassland, rocky slopes, shrubland, forests and stream banks (3500–4800[– 5300] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 44. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are used for the treatment of blood and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, lung disorders, and all kinds of fever. Rhizomes are also used to treat hypertension, headache, intestinal pain, vomiting, indigestion, sore throat, cough and cold. Rhizomes of Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora are substituted for pu shel rtse (rhizomes and pseudobulbs of Coelogyne spp. and Dendrobium spp.) in treating disorders of the lung and intestine, and fever. Reference: 4, 5, 9, 11–13, 15a, 15b, 19. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). 230 tha ram (ཐ་རམ་). na tha ram (ན་ཐ་རམ་). Isābgol-jhār (Np). इसाबगोल-झार. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial herb; roots numerous, fibrous; leaves rosulate. Native range: Tropical S Asia to N & E China. Habitat: Open slopes, river/stream banks, fields and trailside (900–4500 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: Seeds are used for the treatment of hot and cold constipation, diarrhoea, intestinal fever, lung fever and cough. The plant parts are also used to cure wounds, lymphatic (chu ser) disorders and urinary disorders. Reference: 4. Plantago depressa Willd. Plantago sibirica Hort. ex Poir., P. tibetica Hook. f. & Thomson tha ram (ཐ་རམ་). Isābgol-jhār (Np). इसाबगोल-झार. Depressed plantain (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless annual or perennial herb with long, vertical taproot; leaves radical. Native range: C Asia through Siberia to Korea and W–E Himalaya. Habitat: Meadows, gravelly slopes, waste places, fields and trailsides (1530–4400 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat diarrhoea, wounds, and disorders of the lymphatic system (chu ser), lung and urinary system. Reference: 1–3, 7–9, 11, 12, 19. Plantago himalaica Pilg. Plantago brachyphylla Edgew. ex Decne., P. gentianoides Decne. tha ram (ཐ་རམ་). Isābgol-jhār (Np). इसाबगोल-झार. Himalayan plantain (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stemless perennial herb; with short rhizome and fibrous roots; leaves rosulate. Native range: Pakistan to Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Meadows and open slopes (1600–3800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, wounds, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser), urinary disorders and lung disorders. Note: Plantago major L. is also prescribed for the similar use. Reference: 6, 9, 15b. Veronica ciliata Fisch. Veronica chingii H.L. Li ldum nag dom mkhris ( ldum ba sha ka ( མ་ནག་དོམ་མཁྲིས་). མ་ནག་དོམ་མཁྲིས་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial hairy herb; stems caespitose, erect, 8–30 cm tall. Native range: C Asia to Siberia, China and W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Rocky slopes and stony meadows (3600–4900 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl or Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet/cool. Uses: The plant is used to treat fevers associated with bile and blood disorders, malarial fever, wound fever, hypertension, poisoning, and sores. Its leaves and flowers are commonly substituted for bear bile (dom mkhris) in compounding medication to treat bile disorders, infections, fever, wounds and bleeding. Reference: 1–4, 7, 14. Veronica ciliata subsp. cephaloides (Pennell) D.Y. Hong Veronica cephaloides Pennell ldum nag dom mkhris ( ldum ba sha ka ( མ་ནག་དོམ་མཁྲིས་). མ་ནག་དོམ་མཁྲིས་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial hairy herb; stem often 1, erect, 3–30 cm tall. Native range: W–E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky slopes and stony meadows (3600–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 45. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl or Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet/cool. Uses: The plant is used for the treatment of fever associated with bile (mkhris pa) and blood disorders, malarial fever, wound fever, high blood pressure, poisoning, and sores. Leaves and flowers of Veronica ciliata subsp. cephaloides are also commonly used as a substitute for dom mkhris (bile of Himalayan black bear: Ursus thibetanus) in compounding medication to treat bile disorders, infection, fever, wounds and bleeding. Reference: 5, 12, 19. Veronica himalensis D. Don ldum nag dom mkhris ( མ་ནག་དོམ་མཁྲིས་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, perennial herb, 15–50 cm tall. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and NE Myanmar. Habitat: 231 Open slopes, alpine meadows and thickets (3000– 4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 45. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of fever associated with bile (mkhris pa) and blood disorders, malarial fever and poisoning. Leaves and flowers of Veronica himalensis are also used as a substitute for dom mkhris (bile of Himalayan black bear: Ursus thibetanus) only if V. ciliata and V. ciliata subsp. cephaloides are not available. Reference: 4, 11. Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Andropogon muricatus Retz., Phalaris zizanioides L., Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash rtswa pu shel rtse ( ་ pu shel rtse ( ་ཤེལ་ ེ་). ་ཤེལ་ ེ་). Kāns, Khaskhas (Np). काँस, खसखस. Ushīra, Sevya (Sn). उशीर, से . Cuscus grass, Vetiver grass (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tussock-forming, coarse perennial grass, 1–2.5 m tall; roots stout, aromatic. Native range: Tropical and subtropical Asia; cultivated and naturalized elsewhere. Habitat: Open places and grassland (100–1400 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL POACEAE Part(s) use: Rt. Cenchrus flaccidus (Griseb.) Morrone Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet and acrid/cool and light. Pennisetum flaccidum Griseb., P. flaccidum var. interruptum Griseb., P. sinense Mez dur wa ( ར་ཝ་). rtswa ram pa ( ་རམ་པ་). Flaccid grass, Himalayan fountain grass (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Caespitose perennial grass; rhizomes thick tough; culms erect. Native range: SW & C Asia to Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau, N & C China and Mongolia. Habitat: Grassy slopes, open rocky places, field margins and roadsides on dry sandy soils (850–4300 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are used to treat bacterial diseases, lung infection, general poisoning, and insect sting. It detoxifies sulphur poisoning. Reference: 1–3, 15a, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Allen 2018). 232 Uses: Roots are used as antiemetic, and to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorder, and fever associated with phlegm disorder. Roots are used as a substitute for pu shel rtse (rhizomes and pseudobulbs of Coelogyne spp. and Dendrobium spp.) to treat vomiting and nausea, phlegm disorder, and fever. Reference: 3. Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda Agrostis maxima Roxb., Melica latifolia Roxb. ex Hornem., Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) Kuntze rtswa ku sha ( ་ཀུ་ཤ་). ku sha (ཀུ་ཤ་). Amliso, Amriso (Np). अिम्लसो, अिमर्सो. Broom grass, Asian broom grass, Tiger grass (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Caespitose perennial grass; culms 200–400 cm long, reed-like, hard, unbranched, often arching. Native range: Tropical and subtropical Asia. Habitat: open slopes, forest margins, among rocks, thickets and river banks (100–2100 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/neutral, mild. Uses: Flowers restore physical strength, increase longevity, and eliminate the influence of evil spirits on a person’s wellbeing. Reference: 1, 3, 15a, 16. POLYGONACEAE Bistorta affinis (D. Don) Greene Persicaria affinis (D. Don) Ronse Decr., Polygonum affine D. Don, P. brunonis Wall. ex Meisn., P. donianum Spreng. spang ram ( ང་རམ་). gla sgang dman pa (གླ་ ང་དམན་པ་). Simauro, Ban kode (Np-Dl). िसमौरो, वन कोदे. Himalayan knotweed (En). range: NE Afghanistan through Himalaya to C & SE China. Habitat: Grassy slopes, moist alpine meadows, forest margins and riverside moist places (2100–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 45. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/neutral. Uses: Rhizomes and seeds are used for the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, cough and cold, voice obstruction, fever, depleted blood, hot diarrhoea and dysentery. Reference: 4, 5. Bistorta macrophylla (D. Don) Soják Bistorta sphaerostachya (Meisn.) Greene, Persicaria macrophylla (D. Don) Cubey, Polygonum macrophyllum D. Don, P. sphaerostachyum Meisn. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT spang ram ( Tufted mat-forming perennial herb with woody, horizontal rhizome. Native range: Afghanistan to Sikkim, Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky slopes, screes, rock crevices, grassy slopes, streamsides ([2700–]3500–4800[–5600] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 45. Myākurī (Np-Dl). म्याकु री. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/warm. Uses: Rhizomes are used to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorders, diarrhoea and dysentery. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 14 ང་རམ་). mon bu (མོན་ ་). mon lug gla sgang (མོན་ ག་གླ་ ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb with thick fibrous rhizome; stems erect, 10–15 cm tall. Native range: W Himalaya to N & C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins, shrubland, grassy slopes and meadows (2700–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 46. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/neutral. Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Persicaria amplexicaulis (D. Don) Ronse Decr., Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don, P. petiolatum D. Don, P. speciosum Wall. ex Meisn. gla sgang (གླ་ ང་). Myākurī, Raktyāmūlo (Np-Dl, Np). म्याकु री, रक्त्यामूलो. Red bistort, Mountain fleece (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb with thick horizontal rhizome; stems erect, 15–80 cm tall, simple or branched. Native Uses: Rhizomes and seeds are used for the treatment of depleted blood, cough, lung infection, constipation, hot and cold diarrhoea, dysentery, stomach pain and other stomach disorders. Rhizomes of Bistorta macrophylla is used as a substitute of sngo ga tigs smug po (rhizomes of Bergenia purpurascens) and ga tigs smug po (Bergenia ciliata) in treating stomach disorders. Reference: 1, 3–5, 11, 12, 15a, 15b, 19. 233 Bistorta vivipara (L.) Delarbre Bistorta bulbifera (Royle ex Bab.) Greene, Persicaria vivipara (L.) Ronse Decr., Polygonum bulbiferum Royle ex Bab., P. viviparum L. ram bu rgod pa (རམ་ ་ དོ ་པ་). Lek myākurī (Np-Dl). लेक म्याकु री. Alpine bistort, Alpine knotweed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb with thick fibrous rhizome; stems erect, simple, 8–50 cm tall. Native range: Subarctic and subalpine regions through Europe, N America, and subtropical and temperate Asia. Habitat: Moist shady areas, moist open slopes, forest margins and alpine meadows (2700–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 45. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Sd. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd, St, Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat wounds, clotted blood in swellings, and cancerous growth ('bras nad). Stem and seeds cure indigestion and relieve alcohol hangover. Reference: 1–4, 15a. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Fagopyrum emarginatum (Roth) Moench, Polygonum emarginatum Roth, P. fagopyrum L. bra bo dkar po ( ་བོ་དཀར་པོ་). ་བོ་). btab pa’i bra bo (བཏབ་པའི་ Phāpar, Mīthe phāpar (Np). फाफर, मीठे फापर. Buckwheat, Common buckwheat (En). Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/neutral. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Rhizomes and seeds are used to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorders, poisoning, depleted blood, vomiting, diarrhoea, dysentery and stomach pain. Annual herb; stems erect, 30–90 cm tall, branched above. Native range: Probably originated in China (E Tibetan Plateau to Sichuan and Yunnan); widely cultivated and naturalized in Europe, Africa, Asia and Americas (1400–4100 m; W–E Nepal). Reference: 2–7, 15a, 15b. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Fagopyrum cymosum (Trevir.) Meisn. Fagopyrum acutatum (Lehm.) Mansf. ex K. Hammer, F. dibotrys (D. Don) H. Hara, F. triangulare Meisn. ex Wall., Polygonum acutatum Lehm., P. cymosum Trevir., P. dibotrys D. Don. bra bo nag po ( ་བོ་ནག་པོ་). ་ ོད་). ri skyes bra bo (རི་ ས ེ ་ ་བོ་). bra rgod ( Ban bhānde, Ban phāpar (Np). वन भाँड,े वन फापर. Perennial buckwheat, Tall buckwheat (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems erect, to 1 m or more, much branched. Native range: Pakistan and W Himalaya to C & SE China and Vietnam. Habitat: Moist and shady places, forest floor, forest margins, moist valleys, margins of agricultural and open grassy slopes (1230–3400 m; W–E Nepal). 234 Part(s) use: Lf, Sd, St. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Seeds are used for the treatment of wounds, and to dissolve clotted blood in solid swellings and cure cancerous growth ('bras nad). , Stems, flowering stalks and seeds are prescribed for curing indigestion and relieving alcohol hangover. Seeds and leaves are used to strengthen digestive tract and treat stomach disorders. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 15a. Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. Fagopyrum dentatum Moench, Polygonum tataricum L. bra rgod ( ་ ོད་). Tīte phāpar (Np). तीते फापर. Tartary buckwheat, Bitter buckwheat (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Koenigia polystachya (Wall. ex Meisn.) T.M. Annual herb; stems erect, to 30–70 cm or more, branched. Native range: Probably originated in Tibetan Plateau and C China; cultivated and or naturalized elsewhere. It is cultivated in Nepal, and also occur as a garden escapee (1400–3900 m; W–E Nepal). Schust. & Reveal PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Aconogonon polystachyum (Wall. ex Meisn.) M. Král, Persicaria polystachya (Wall. ex Meisn.) H. Gross, P. wallichii W. Greuter & Burdet, Pleuropteropyrum polystachyum (Wall. ex Meisn.) Munshi & Javeid, Polygonum polystachyum Wall. ex Meisn., Reynoutria polystachya (Wall. ex Meisn.) Moldenke, Rubrivena polystachya (Wall. ex Meisn.) M. Král snya lo ( ་ལོ་). Part(s) use: Sd, St. Chāwanle (Np). चावँले. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Himalayan knotweed (En). Uses: Like above two Fagopyrum spp., it is also used for the treatment of wounds, swellings, cancerous growth ('bras nad), alcohol hangover, indigestion, and other stomach disorders. It has been also prescribed for the treatment of brown phlegm (bad kan smug po). Reference: 2, 4. Koenigia mollis (D. Don) T.M. Schust. & Reveal Aconogonon molle (D. Don) H. Hara, Ampelygonum molle (D. Don) Roberty & Vautier, Persicaria mollis (D. Don) Gross, Polygonum molle D. Don snya lo ( ་ལོ་). Chāwanle, Thotne (Np-Dl, Np). चावँले, ठोट्ने. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Subshrub, 80–100 cm tall; stems much branched, angulate. Native range: Afghanistan to E Himalaya and SC China. Habitat: Open slopes, forest margins and streamsides (2700–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 46. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Slightly bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: Rootstocks are used for the treatment of blood disorder, hot disorders of the large and small intestines, chiefly hot diarrhoea and dysentery. Reference: 1, 3, 10, 14. Soft knotweed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Subshrub, 80–200 cm tall; stems straggling, much branched. Native range: S Asia, W Himalaya to SE China and Indonesia. Habitat: Moist open places, forest margins and streamsides (1200–3700 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, St. Taste/potency: Sour and astringent/cool. Uses: Rootstocks and stems are used for the treatment of blood disorders and gastrointestinal disorders, particularly hot disorders of large and small intestines, indigestion, diarrhoea and dysentery. Reference: 4. Koenigia rumicifolia (Royle ex Bab.) T.M. Schust. & Reveal Aconogonon rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) H. Hara, Pleuropteropyrum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) Munshi & Javeid, Polygonum rumicifolium Royle ex Bab. snya lo ( ་ལོ་). Chāwanle (Np). चावँले. Dock-leaf knotweed (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 20–60 cm tall; stem usually unbranched, stout, herbaceous, glabrous to hairy. Native range: C Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Moist alpine slopes, shady places, open rocky slopes, alpine meadows, rocky pasture and stream banks (3300–4400 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 46. 235 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Slightly bitter, astringent and sour/cool. Uses: Rootstocks are used for the treatment of hot disorders of the large and small intestines, blood disorder, pain in the lower part of the body, and solid tumorous growth (skran nad) as a consequence of suppressed wind (rlung). Rootstocks chiefly cure indigestion, hot diarrhoea, dysentery, gout, cough and poisoning. Reference: 4, 7, 9. Koenigia tortuosa (D. Don) T.M. Schust. & Reveal Aconogonon tortuosum (D. Don) H. Hara, Pleuropteropyrum tortuosum (D. Don) Munshi & Javeid, Polygonum tortuosum D. Don snya lo ( GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous glabrous perennial herb, 25–55 cm tall; stem solitary or several, prostrate or erect. Native range: Temperate to subarctic regions through Europe, Asia and N America. Habitat: Shady moist areas, landslide areas, gravelly places, scree, alpine meadows and streamsides (2400– 5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 46. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf, Pt. Taste/potency: Rh – bitter and astringent/cool and heavy; Lf & Pt – sour and sweet/cool. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of stomach disorders (indigestion, diarrhoea and dysentery), urinary retention and edema. Plant parts are also used as a cooling agent. Reference: 4–7, 15a. ་ལོ་). Chāwanle, Chyāp-lwā (Np, Np-Dl). चावँले, च्याप्ल्वा. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Subshrub, 30–150 cm tall; stem woody, branched, glabrous to hairy. Native range: NE Afghanistan to Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Dry alpine scrub, stony and grassy slopes and sandy places (3300–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 46. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Slightly bitter, astringent and sour/cool. Rheum acuminatum Hook. f. & Thomson chu rtsa ( ་ ་). Padamchāl (Np). पदमचाल. Himalayan rhubarb, Ornamental rhubarb (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, to 40–150 cm; rhizome thick; stem erect, stout, branched. Native range: W Himalaya to N & C China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins, meadows, open grassy and stony slopes (3200–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 46. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Same as Koenigia rumicifolia. Part(s) use: Rh, Pt. Reference: 6, 8, 11, 12. Taste/potency: Rh – bitter, sour and astringent/ cool, neutral and mild; Pt – sour/cool. Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill Acetosa digyna Mill., Oxyria elatior R. Br. ex Meisn., O. reniformis Hook., Rheum digynum (L.) Wahlenb., Rumex digynus L. chu ma rtsi ( lug sho ( ་མ་ ི་). ག་ཤོ). Boke, Bujo, Jhankārā (Np-Dl). बोके , बुजो, झंकारा. Alpine mountainsorrel (En). 236 Uses: Rhizomes and petioles are used as a purgative medicine in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) and hot disorders, accumulation of serous fluid and stomach disorders. Plant parts are also used to treat internal injuries, sprain and bone fracture. Reference: 4, 5. Rheum australe D. Don Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meisn. chu rtsa ( ་ ་). Chulthiamilo, Dolu, Mirechuk, Padamchāl (Np, Np-Dl). चुिल्ठअिमलो, डोलु, िमरे चक ु , पदमचाल. Amlaparnī, Pītamūlikā (Sn). अमलपण , पीतमूिलका. Himalayan rhubarb (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 100–200 cm tall; rhizome thick, stout; stem erect, branched above. Native range: Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and N Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, moist grassy slopes, rocky slopes and moist alpine meadows (2770–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 46. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Pt. Taste/potency: Rh – bitter, sour and astringent/ cool to neutral; Pt – sour/cool. Uses: Rhizomes and petioles are used as a purgative in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) and hot disorders, accumulation of serous fluid and stomach disorders. Plant parts are also used to treat internal injuries, sprain, bone fracture, wounds, bile fever, blood disorders, and menstrual disorders. Petioles are also used in the treatment of urinary retention. Rhizomes are substituted for bse yab (fruits of Chaenomeles speciosa) in treating phlegm disorders and stomach disorders. Reference: 4–7, 10–12. National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Rheum moorcroftianum Royle chu ma rtsi ( PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Bitter, sour and astringent/cool, neutral and mild. Uses: Rhizomes are used as purgative in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) and hot disorders, accumulation of serous fluid, stomach disorders, internal injuries, sprain, bone fracture and bile fever. Reference: 4, 5. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Near Threatened (Tandon et al. 2001). Rheum nobile Hook f. & Thomson lcum dkar ( མ་དཀར་). chu ma rtsi ( ་མ་ ་ི ). chu dkar me tog ( ་དཀར་མེ་ཏོག་). Padamchāl, Kenjo (Np). पदमचाल, के ो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 100–200 cm tall; rhizome thick, stout; stem erect, stout, simple, densely covered with pale or yellowish-green, overlapping leafy bracts. Native range: E Nepal to Bhutan and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open grassy and rocky slopes and morainic deposits (3600–5000 m; E Nepal). Pl. 47. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL CONSERVATION STATUS lcum rtsa chung ba ( cm. Native range: W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open rocky slopes with gravel, river or stream banks and alpine meadows (3600– 4800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 47. མ་ ་ ང་བ་). ་མ་ ་ི ). Boke, Tāntarī (Np). बोके , टाँटरी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial stemless herb; leaves forming a rosette, ovate or triangular ovate; flowering spikes up to 60 Part(s) use: Rh, St, Pt. Taste/potency: Sour and astringent/neutral. Uses: Plant parts are used as purgative in the treatment of stomach disorders, edema, retention of urine, and cold phlegm (bad kan) disorder. Reference: 10, 12, 15a, 19, 24. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). 237 Rheum spiciforme Royle Rheum moorcroftianum Meisn. (1857) [nom. illeg.], non Royle (1836), R. reticulatum Losinsk., R. scaberrimum Lingelsh. chu rtsa chung ba ( ་ lcum dmar ( མ་དམར་). ་ ང་བ་), chu chung ba ( ་ ང་བ་). Boke, Tāntarī (Np). बोके , टाँटरी. Note: Rheum palmatum L. has also been cited as a source of lcum rtsa. It is native to Tibetan Plateau, N & C China and N Vietnam. It is mostly sourced from cultivation at local scale and nearby market in Tibet or from Kathmandu, where it is imported. Reference: 4, 7. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial stemless herb; leaves all basal, broadly ovate or ovate-elliptic, leathery, hairy; flowering spikes up to 30 cm. Native range: C Asia (Kazakhstan) and Afghanistan through NW China to E Himalaya. Habitat: Open slopes and rocky places (3300–4800 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 47. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Rumex esquirolii H. Lév., R. ramulosus Meisn., R. tuberosus Roxb. ex Steud. klung sho ( ང་ཤོ་). sho mang (ཤོ་མང་). Halhale, Hale (Np). हलहले, हले. Common field sorrel, Nepal dock (En). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Bitter, sour and astringent/cool and mild. Uses: Rhizomes are used in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan), disorders of the stomach and large intestines, wounds and infections. Reference: 1–3, 6. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter and astringent/ cool. མ་ ་)Sr-Dl. Padamchāl, Padamachālnu (Np). पदमचाल, पदमचाल्नु. Pītamūlī, Pītamūlikā (Sn). पीतमूली, पीतमूिलका. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 50–200 cm tall; rhizome stout; stem erect, stout, branched above. Native range: Pakistan to Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes and rocks areas (2400–4200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 47. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Bitter, sour and astringent/ Uses: Rhizomes are used in the treatment of phlegm (bad kan) disorders, poisoning, stomach disorders, and wounds. Rhizomes also treat accumulation of serous fluid. 238 Uses: Rhizomes are used in the treatment of epidemic diseases, infectious fever, joint pain, intestinal disorders, wounds and fever due to wound. Stems are useful to treat lung and liver disorders, constipation, sores, and skin disease. Seeds are useful to treat mouth disorders. Reference: 1–4, 7, 10, 14, 15a, 15b. PRIMULACEAE Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: neutral. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, St, Sd. Rheum webbianum Royle lcum rtsa ( Perennial herb, 50–150 cm tall. Native range: C & S Africa, Madagascar, SE Europe to China, Himalaya, and tropical Asia. Habitat: Moist slopes, grazed meadows, cultivated areas, open forests, trailsides and marshy land (900–4550 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 47. Androsace robusta (R. Knuth) Hand.-Mazz. Androsace jacquemontii Duby var. robusta (R. Knuth) R. Govaerts, A. muscoidea Duby f. longiscapa (R. Knuth) Hand.-Mazz., A. robusta var. gracilis Y.J. Nasir, A. robusta subsp. jacquemontii (Duby) Y.J. Nasir, A. villosa L. f. longiscapa R. Knuth, A. villosa var. robusta R. Knuth spang a krong dmar po ( ང་ཨ་ཀྲོང་དམར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Loose cushion-forming perennial herb; stems wiry, much branched, terminated by globose rosettes. Native range: N Pakistan to C Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Dry exposed areas and gravelly slopes (3100–5600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 48. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to acrid/cool. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used in fever, hot lymph fluid disorders and swellings. It is mixed with other herbs. Habitat: Moist meadows, open slopes, amongst shrubs and forest margins (2400–4700 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 47. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of fever, urinary disorders, accumulation of serous fluid, and swellings. Reference: 4, 5, 9, 11, 12. Androsace tapete Maxim. Androsace densa Pax & K. Hoffm., A. gustavii R. Knuth, A. sessiliflora Turrill, Primula tapete (Maxim.) Kuntze Reference: 4. Androsace sarmentosa Wall. sga tig smug po ( sga tig khra bo ( ་ཏིག་ ག་པོ་). ་ཏིག་ཁྲ་བོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stoloniferous, lax mat-forming perennial herb. Native range: W–E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests, grassy slopes and rocky cliffs (1900–4200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 47. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL spang a krong dkar po ( ང་ཨ་ཀྲོང་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Cushion-forming perennial herb with tightly packed, silvery-haired shoots. Native range: C & E Himalaya to NW & C China. Habitat: Alpine meadows, gravelly slopes and on rocks (3800–5550 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 48. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to acrid/cool. Taste/potency: Bitter to slightly acrid/cool. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used for the treatment of lung disorders and fever associated with lungs. Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of fever, wounds, ulcers, sores, hot lymph fluid disorder, and body swelling. Reference: 1, 3. Reference: 4, 19. Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A. DC. Androsace strigillosa Franch. Ardisia tsjeriam-cottam Roem. & Schult., Embelia ferruginea Wall. ex A. DC., E. robusta Roxb. Androsace sarmentosa Wall. var. grandifolia Hook. f., A. strigillosa var. canescens C. Marquand byi tang ga ( sga tig nag po ( Kālīkāth, Vāyuvidang (Np). कालीकाठ, वायुिवडङ्ग. spang sga tig ( Vidang (Sn). िवडङ्ग. ་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་). ང་ ་ཏིག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with stout, creeping rhizome; flowering stem 9–27 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya (Nepal to Bhutan) and Tibetan Plateau. ི་ཏང་ག་). Malabar embelia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large, deciduous shrub; stems scandent, with rough bark. Native range: Foothills of the Himalaya, 239 tropical Asia and SC China. Habitat: Mixed forests and roadsides (300–1800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Primula munroi Lindl. Primula involucrata Wall. ex Duby. (1844) [nom. illeg.], non Sweet (1826) shang dril dkar po (ཤང་ Part(s) use: Fr. ིལ་དཀར་པོ་). Taste/potency: Acrid, sweet and sour/warm. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Fruits are used for generating digestive heat and treating gastritis, indigestion, phlegm (bad kan) disorder, sinusitis, infectious diseases and parasite infestation. Glabrous perennial herb. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Wet meadows, marshes, damp grasslands along stream and on mossy rock (2700–4850 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 48. Note: Fruits of Embelia ribes Burm. f. are also used for the same purpose. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Reference: 2, 10, 13, 15a. Primula macrophylla D. Don Aleuritia macrophylla (D. Don) J. Soják, Primula atroviolacea Jacq. ex Duby, P. nivalis Pall. var. macrophylla (D. Don) Pax, P. purpurea Royle, P. stuartii Wall. var. purpurea (Royle) Watt. shang dril nag po (ཤང་ shang dril sngon po (ཤང་ shang dril smug po (ཤང་ ིལ་ནག་པོ་). ིལ་ ོན་པོ་). ིལ་ ག་པོ་). Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat hot disorders of the lung and heart, infectious diseases. Flowers are used in dysentery and ulcer. Reference: 4, 5, 15a. Primula reidii Duthie shang dril dkar po (ཤང་ ིལ་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 15–45 cm tall. Native range: Tadzhikistan, Afghanistan, NW China, Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist meadows, grassy slopes, marshy places, streamside, stony areas and rock crevices (3300–5600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 48. Perennial herb; scape up to 15 cm long; flowers bell-shaped, corolla lobes white. Native range: W & C Himalaya (Kashmir to Nepal). Habitat: On mossy rocks and stony cave surfaces (3500–4600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 48. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cool. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: The plant is used as an antidote against food poisoning. Flowers are used for the treatment of hot disorders of the lung and heart, infectious diseases, contagious fever, cough and ulcer. Flowers are also used to treat constipation, indigestion and dysentery. Uses: The plant is used to treat hot disorders of the lung, infectious diseases and dysentery. Note: Two varieties known from Nepal (Primula macrophylla var. macrophylla and P. macrophylla var. moorcroftiana (Wall. ex Klatt) W.W. Sm. & H.R. Fletcher) are used in medicine. Reference: 4–6, 15a. 240 Primula reidii var. williamsii Ludlow shang dril sngon po (ཤང་ ིལ་ ོན་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; flowers bell-shaped, corolla lobes bluish purple. Native range: Endemic to Nepal. Habitat: Moist rock ledges and gravelly slopes (3200–4800 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Fl, Pd. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used to treat hot disorders of the lung, food poisoning, ear infection, fever, dysentery and ulcer. It is mixed with other herbs. Uses: Flowers and peduncles are used to treat hot disorders of the lung and heart, rheumatic fever, and blood and channel disorders. It is also used to treat pediatric diarrhoea and pneumonia. Its flowers are substituted for tsan dan dkar po (heartwood of Santalum album) in treating hot disorders of the lung and heart. Reference: 4, 5. Primula rotundifolia Wall. Aleuritia rotundifolia (Wall.) Soják, Primula cardiophylla Balf. f. & W.W. Sm., P. odontophylla Wall., P. roxburghii N.P. Balakr. brag lcam chen po ( ག་ མ་ཆེན་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; scapes up to 30 cm high; corolla pinkish-purple with yellow eye. Native range: W–E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Shady places under overhanging rocks and rock crevices (3400–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 48. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. RANUNCULACEAE Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. Aconitum virosum D. Don bong nag (བོང་ནག་). bong nga nag po (བོང་ང་ནག་པོ་). Bikh, Bish, Nīlo bikh (Np). िवख, िवष, नीलो िवख. Bisha, Vatsanābha (Sn). िवष, वत्सनाभ. Indian aconite (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in treating wounds and skin diseases. Reference: 2, 15b. Primula sikkimensis Hook. f. Aleuritia sikkimensis (Hook.) Soják, Primula pseudosikkimensis Forrest, P. pudibunda W.W. Sm. shang dril ser po (ཤང་ Reference: 1, 3–5, 12, 15a, 19. ིལ་སེར་པོ་). Syāulephūl (Np). स्याउलेफूल. Himalayan cowslip, Sikkim cowslip (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb; scape 15–90 cm; flowers yellow. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, alpine meadows, damp places, streamside rocky areas and shady floor (2100–5300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 48. Perennial tuberous herb; stem erect, 50–150 cm high, simple, puberulous. Native range: C & E Himalaya. Habitat: Shady and moist places, alpine meadows, shrubland and moist forests (2100–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warm. Uses: Tubers are used to treat wind disorder of the heart, bacterial diseases, infectious fever, skin diseases, and neurological disorders, such as fainting and epilepsy. The plant is highly poisonous. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 2, 4, 10, 13. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Data deficient (Tandon et al. 2001). 241 Aconitum gammiei Stapf Aconitum dissectum D. Don, A. napellus L. var. rigidum Hook. f. & Thomson, A. wallichianum Lauener ‘dzin pa (འཛིན་པ་). bdud rtsi lo ma (བ pa) associated fever, cough, arthritis, intestinal disorders, and skin infection. The plant is poisonous. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 2, 6, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15a, 18. ད་ ི་ལོ་མ་). Bikh, Bish, Madhubish (Np). िवख, िवष, मधुिवष. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial tuberous herb, 60–75 cm tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open slopes, thickets and shrubberies (3300–4900 m; W– E Nepal). Pl. 48. Global: Endangered [A2cd] (Ved et al. 2015a). National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf Aconitum bhutanicum Kadota, A. ferox Wall. ex Ser. var. naviculare Brühl; A. naviculare var. leiocarpum Tamura. bong dkar (བོང་དཀར་), bong nga dkar po (བོང་ང་དཀར་པོ་). ་ ེས་བོང་དཀར་). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL zwa skyes bong dkar ( Part(s) use: Tb, Lf. Bikh, Bish (Np). िवख, िवष. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Root tubers and leaves are used to treat gout, arthritis, skin infections, and infectious fever. The plant is poisonous. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 2. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall ex. Royle Aconitum atees Royle, A. cordatum Royle, A. petiolare Royle ex Stapf bong dkar (བོང་དཀར་). bong nga dkar po (བོང་ང་དཀར་པོ་). spang skyes bong dkar ( CONSERVATION STATUS ང་ སེ ་བོང་དཀར་). Atīs, Atirasa (Np). अतीस, अितरस. Ativishā, Swetakandā (Sn). अितिवषा, ेतकन्दा. Atis root, Indian atis, White aconite (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small perennial herb, with tuberous roots; stem erect or ascending, 5–30 cm. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open and dry rocky slopes, alpine meadows and juniper scrub ([3000–]4200–4900 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb, Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool and light. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat infectious diseases, fever, cough, general poisoning, food poisoning, arthritis, intestinal pains, and skin infection. The plant is slightly poisonous; used after detoxification . Reference: 2, 4, 5, 15a. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial tuberous herb; stem erect, 90–150 cm tall. Native range: W & C Himalaya (Pakistan to Nepal). Habitat: Wet and open places, meadows and amongst shrubs (2700–3900 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb, Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool and light. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat poisoning, infectious diseases, contagious fever, bile (mkhris 242 Aconitum novoluridum Munz Aconitum luridum Hook. f. & Thomson (1855) [nom. Illeg.], non Salisb. (1796) bong dmar (བོང་དམར་), bong nga dmar po (བོང་ང་དམར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial rhizomatous herb, 0.5–100 cm tall; stem simple, pubescent. Native range: Nepal to Bhutan and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open places, rocky meadows (3500–4500 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used as antidote and to treat cold, and bile (mkhris pa) disorders. The plant is poisonous. It is used after detoxification. Aconitum orochryseum Stapf bong dkar (བོང་དཀར་). bong nga dkar po (བོང་ང་དཀར་པོ་). Nirmasī (Np). िनमर्सी. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial tuberous herb; stem slender, 20–50 cm, hairless below, golden-tomentose above; flowers golden yellow or white tinged with yellow and blue. Native range: Nepal and Bhutan. Habitat: Open meadows, shrubberies and scree (3600–4900 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Bhutan, Tibetan Plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, river banks, open slopes and pasture (3000–4500 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Tubers are used as antidote against all kinds of poisoning, including snake bite, poisoning due to toxic plants, food and meat poisoning. Tubers are also used to treat cold disorders, infectious diseases, and bile (mkhris pa) disorders. Reference: 1–3, 14. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Data deficient (Tandon et al. 2001). Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. var. spicata Brühl bong nag (བོང་ནག་), bong nga nag po (བོང་ང་ནག་པོ་). btsan dug (བཙན་ ག་). Part(s) use: Tb, Lf, St, Fl. Bikh, Bish, Gobare bikh (Np). िवख, िवष, गोबरे िवख. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Bisha (Sn). िवष. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat infectious diseases, fever, and as an antidote against poisoning. The plant is used after detoxification. Nepal aconite (En). Note: Aconitum heterophylloides (Brühl) Stapf var. leucanthum (Brühl) Lauener is also used for the same purpose. Reference: 11, 12. Aconitum palmatum D. Don Aconitum bisma (Buch.-Ham.) Rapaics, A. ferox subsp. palmatum (D. Don) Brühl, Caltha bisma Buch.-Ham., Nirbisia bisma (Buch.-Ham.) G. Don bong dmar (བོང་དམར་). bong nga dmar po (བོང་ང་དམར་པོ་). Bikhmā, Nirmasī (Np). िवख्मा, िनमर्सी. Prativishā (Sn). पर्ितिवषा. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with paired tuberous root; stem erect, 50–150 cm, glabrous. Native range: Nepal to GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, with paired tuberous roots; stem erect, 1–2 m tall. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, alpine scrub, damp forests, forest margins, shrubberies, grassy slopes, streamside and cowshed areas in alpine zone (1800–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tb. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/warm. Uses: Tubers are used to treat all kinds of infections, lymphatic disorders, nerve disorders, paralysis, inflammations, pains, lung disorders, fever, cough, headache, cuts and wounds, and heart disorder associated with wind (rlung). The plant is highly poisonous; used after detoxification. Reference: 4, 5, 15a. 243 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Actaea frigida (Royle) Prantl Actinospora frigida Fisch. & C.A. Mey., Cimicifuga foetida auct. non L., Cimicifuga foetida var. bifida W.T. Wang & P.K. Hsiao, C. frigida Royle rgya rtsi rgod pa ( rgya rtsi ( ་ ི་). rgya rtsi dug lo ( ་ ི་ ོད་པ་). ་ ི་ ག་ལོ་). Foetid bugbane (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb; stem 1–4 m tall, branched, pubescent. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins and grassy slopes (2400–4000 m; W– E Nepal). Pl. 50. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of scabies, rashes and chronic wounds. The plant is poisonous. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 7. Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warm. Uses: Seeds are used as digestive, purgative and emetic agent. Reference: 1, 4, 5, 7. Anemonastrum polyanthes (D. Don) Holub Anemone narcissiflora L. var. polyanthes (D. Don) Finet & Gagnep., A. polyanthes D. Don, A. scaposa Edgew, A. villosa Royle srub ka dmar po ( srub ka ( བ་ཀ་དམར་པོ་). བ་ཀ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb; stems erect, 20–30 cm tall, hairy. Native range: Himalaya (NE Pakistan to Bhutan). Habitat: Open pastures, grassy slopes, moist places, rocky slopes and thickets (2300–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warm. Uses: Same as Anemonastrum obtusilobum. Reference: 4, 5, 9. Anemonastrum obtusilobum (D. Don) Mosyakin Anemone discolor Royle, A. obtusiloba D. Don, A. obtusiloba var. leiocarpa Tamura, Anemonidium obtusilobum (D. Don) Christenh. & Byng, Pulsatilloides obtusiloba (D. Don) V.N. Starod. srub ka sngon po ( srub sngon ( བ་ཀ་ ོན་པོ་). བ་ ནོ ་). Kāngre-jhār, Ratanjot (Np). काङ्गर्े-झार, रतनजोत. Himalayan thimbleweed, Blue Himalayan anemone (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb; stems erect, 15 cm tall; basal leaves densely tufted. Native range: C Asia, Afghanistan to E Himalaya, C China, Mongolia and Myanmar. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins, thickets, alpine meadows and open grassy slopes (1800–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 49. 244 Caltha palustris L. rta rmig che ba ( ་ ིག་ཆེ་བ་). Ekānkhle-phūl (Np). एकआँख्ले-फू ल. Marsh marigold, Yellow marsh marigold, Cowflock (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Glabrous perennial herb with creeping rhizome; stem usually erect, 10–70 cm tall. Native range: Temperate and subarctic regions of N Hemisphere. Habitat: Wet places, forest margins, grassy slopes, wet grasslands, marshy land, streamsides, ditches and canals (2400–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 49. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter to astringent /cool. Uses: The plant is used to treat wounds, bone fracture and headache. It heals the opening of veins and stops bleeding. The plant is used after detoxification. Reference: 4, 7, 10, 19. Clematis barbellata Edgew. Clematis nepalensis Royle. dbyi mong khra bo (ད ི་མོང་ཁྲ་བོ་). Chidhchīde, Junge-laharā (Np). िचढ्चीडे, जुङ्गे-लहरा. Barbellate clematis, Nepal clematis (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Scandent or climbing glabrous shrub. Native range: W Pakistan to Nepal. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins, scrubs, riverbed and along streams (2100– 3400[–4000] m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 51. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Acrid to slightly sweet/warm, sharp and coarse. Uses: The plant parts are used to generate digestive heat, and treat indigestion, infectious diseases, wounds, cough, cold, and accumulation of lymph (chu ser). Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Acrid to slightly sweet/warm, sharp and coarse. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat indigestion, infectious diseases, tumors of cold nature, wounds, cough and cold, and arthritis from phlegm (bad kan) disorders. It dries accumulation of serous fluids, restores digestive heat and improves digestion. Flowers and seeds are used as a substitute for byi tang ga (fruits of Embelia tsjeriam-cottam) in treating phlegm disorders, infectious diseases, and indigestion. Aerial parts are substituted for body parts of bya rgod (Himalayan griffon vulture: Gyps himalayensis) and gong mo (Himalayan snowcock: Tetraogallus himalayensis; and Tibetan snowcock: T. tibetanus) in treating indigestion, loss of appetite and other stomach disorders. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 10, 13, 15a. Clematis tibetana Kuntze Clematis chrysantha Ulbr. var. brevipes Tamura, C. tibetana subsp. brevipes (Tamura) Yonek. dbyi mong nag po (ད Reference: 4, 5. Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Clematis anemoniflora D. Don, C. montana var. grandiflora Hook., C. punduana Wall. [nom. nud.] dbyi mong dkar po (ད PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL ི་མོང་དཀར་པོ་). Junge-laharā, Seto junge-laharā (Np). जुङ्गे-लहरा, सेतो जुङ्गे-लहरा. Mountain clematis, Himalayan clematis (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Woody climber; branches terete, shallowly grooved, puberulous or glabrescent. Native range: NE Afghanistan through Himalaya to C & SE China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins, scrubs and along streams (1300–4000[– 4900] m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 50. ི་མོང་ནག་པོ་). Junge-laharā, Pahenlo junge-laharā (Np). जुङ्गे-लहरा, ँ ो जुङ्गे-लहरा. पहेल GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Woody climber; branches grooved, sparsely puberulous or glabrescent; flowers yellow spotted brown, with thin, long-acuminate sepals. Native range: W & C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and NW China. Habitat: Forest margins, edges of cultivated fields, riverside shrubberies and shrubby steppe (1500–4200 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Acrid to slightly sweet/warm, sharp and coarse. 245 Uses: The plant parts are used to treat cold disorders, cold tumors, indigestion, gastritis, joint pain, gall stone and wounds. Reference: 2, 4–6, 13, 15a. Clematis tibetana var. vernayi (C.E.C. Fisch.) W. T. Wang Clematis tibetana subsp. vernayi (C.E.C. Fischer) GreyWilson, Clematis vernayi C.E.C. Fisch. dbyi mong nag po (ད ི་མོང་ནག་པོ་). Junge-laharā, Pahenlo junge-laharā (Np). जुङ्गे-लहरा, ँ ो जुङ्गे-लहरा. पहेल GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Woody climber; branches sparsely puberulous or glabrescent; flowers reddish-yellow; sepals broad, thick in texture, acute to shortly acuminate, spreading. Native range: Nepal, Tibetan Plateau and NW China. Habitat: Field margins, shrubberies and riversides (1700–4200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 50. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat infectious diseases, fever, poisonings, phlegm (bad kan) and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, cough and cold, headache, dysentery, body swellings, blood pressure, skin diseases and wounds. The plant is also useful in psychological disorders caused by evil spirits. The plant is used after detoxification. Leaves and flowers are used as a substitute for musk pod obtained from gla ba (alpine musk deer: Moschus chrysogaster) in compounding medications to treat infectious diseases, fever, kidney problems, swellings and wounds. Note: The samples of bya rgod spos collected by some amchis were identified as Delphinium glaciale Hook. f. & Thomson. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 10–13, 15a, 15b. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, St, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Acrid to slightly sweet/warm, sharp and coarse. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat cold disorders, cold tumors, indigestion, gastritis, joint pain, gall stone, bile problems and wounds. Delphinium caeruleum Jacquem. ex Cambess. Delphinium caeruleum f. album W.T. Wang, D. grandiflorum L. var. kunawarensis Brühl, D. grandiflorum var. tsangense Brühl. bya rkang ( ་ ང་). ti mu sa (ཏི་ ་ས་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Delphinium brunonianum Royle Delphinium brunonianum var. jacquemontianum (Cambess.) Huth, D. jacquemontianum Cambess., D. minjanense Rech. f., D. moschatum Munro ex Hook. f. & Thomson bya rgod spos ( ་ ོད་ སོ ་). Mangromulo, Mauromulo (Np). मङ्गर्ोमुलो, मौरोमुलो. Musk larkspur (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Hairy perennial herb, with a musky odor when fresh; rootstock slender; stem erect, leafy, glandular pubescent. Native range: W & C Asia to Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky slopes, gravelly places, screes and morainic deposits (3500–6000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 50. 246 Much branched perennial herb, 5–40 cm tall; stem branched from the base, puberulent. Native range: Himalaya to N & C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Alpine meadows, gravelly slopes, rocky slopes and cliff-ledges (3000–5800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 50. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat hot and cold diarrhoea, fever, contagious diseases, skin diseases, wounds and accumulation of lymph fluid. The plant is slightly poisonous. It is prescribed after detoxification in any internal use. It is also used as an external application to treat head lice. Reference: 1–5, 13, 15b. Delphinium densiflorum Duthie ex Huth Delphinium brunonianum Royle var. densum Maxim., D. densiflorum var. platycentrum Brühl bong dmar (བོང་དམར་). bong nga dmar po (བོང་ང་དམར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herbs, 30–60 cm tall; stem simple, pubescent or glabrescent. Native range: W & C Himalaya to NC China. Habitat: Rocky slopes, amongst boulders, scrub and alluvial fans (4000– 6000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 50. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used as antidote for snake bite and food poisoning, and to treat common cold and bile (mkhris pa) disorders. The plant is used after detoxification. Reference: 1–3. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used to treat hot disorders of the intestine, diarrhoea, dysentery, skin diseases, wounds, and accumulation of serous fluid. The plant is slightly toxic, and is used after detoxification. It is also used as an external application to treat head lice. Reference: 2, 15b, 17. Delphinium himalayae Munz [as 'himalayai’] Delphinium himalayense Chowdhury ex Mukerjee [nom. nud.] bya rkang ( ་ ང་). a tig (ཨ་ཏིག་). a ti mu ye (ཨ་ཏི་ ་ཡེ་). Atīs (Np). अतीस. Nepali atis (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial tuberous herb; stem erect, 40–60 cm. Native range: Nepal and S Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows, field margins and open forests (2000–4550 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 50. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Delphinastrum grandiflorum (L.) Spach, Delphinium bonatii H. Lév., D. chinense Fisch. ex DC., D. grandiflorum var. chinense Fisch. ex DC., D. sinense Fisch. ex Link Uses: The plant parts are used to treat hot disorders of the intestine, cough, fever, liver and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, skin diseases, and wounds. The plant is used after detoxification. bya rkang ( Reference: 4, 10. Delphinium grandiflorum L. ti mu sa (ཏི་ ་ ང་). ་ས་). Nīlo bikh (Np). नीलो िवख. Siberian larkspur, Chinese delphinium (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Short-lived perennial herbs to 60 cm tall; stem branched. Native range: C Asia and Siberia through N China to Korea and Nepal. Habitat: Scrub and grassy slopes (3600–4000 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). Delphinium kamaonense Huth Delphinium grandiflorum L. var. kamaonense (Huth) Brühl, D. kamaonense var. glabrescens (W.T. Wang) W.T. Wang, D. pseudograndiflorum W.T. Wang bya rkang ( ་ ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial tuberous herb; stem erect, 20–60 cm, glabrous or subglabrous, branched. Native range: W 247 & C Himalaya to N & C China. Habitat: Moist grassy slopes, amongst shrubs, and thickets (2900–4500 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 51. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used to treat hot disorder of the intestine, diarrhoea, dysentery, skin diseases, wounds and accumulation of lymph fluid. The plant is slightly poisonous. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 9. Eriocapitella rivularis (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Christenh. & Byng Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC., A. rivularis var. parviflora Tamura, A. wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn.; Anemonidium rivulare (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) V.N. Starod. srub ka dkar po ( srub ka ( བ་ཀ་དཀར་པོ་). བ་ཀ་). Bāghpāile, Kangrāte-jhār, Kaudephūl (Np). बाघपाइले, कङ्गर्ाते-झार, कउडेफूल. Common wild anemone, Riverside anemone, Riverside windflower (En). Eriocapitella rupicola (Cambess.) Christenh. & Byng Anemone batangensis Finet, A. rupicola Cambess., A. rupicola var. glabriuscula Hook. f. & Thomson, A. rupicola subsp. reniformis R.P. Chaudhary, A. rupicola subsp. sericea (Hook. f. & Thomson) R.P. Chaudhary, A. rupicola var. sericea Hook. f. & Thomson srub ka dkar po ( བ་ཀ་དཀར་པོ་). Rock anemone, Cliff anemone (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with long, slender, woody rhizome covered with leaf remains; scapes 5–30 cm, hairy. Native range: E Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open places, open rocky or gravelly slopes, stony cliffs and streamside (2700–4800; W–E Nepal). Pl. 51. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warm. Uses: Seeds are used in the treatment of cold disorders of the lung and intestine, indigestion, acidity, gastritis, diarrhoea, fever, liver and bile disorders, and swellings. Reference: 4, 5. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb; scapes 30–100 cm. Native range: Himalaya to C China and tropical Asia. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, grassy slopes, meadows, grazing ground, cultivated fields and streamside (1600–4300 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 51. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warm. Uses: Flowers and seeds are used in the treatment of cold disorders. Seeds are useful for generating heat, drawing out lymph fluid and treating liver and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, cold tumor, indigestion, acidity, diarrhoea, cough, and fever. Reference: 1–6, 9, 11, 13, 15b. 248 Halerpestes tricuspis (Maxim.) Hand.-Mazz. Ranunculus tricuspis Maxim. chu rug sbal lag ( chu rug ( ་ ག་ ལ་ལག་). ་ ག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small glabrous perennial herb with slender creeping stolons, rooting at the nodes and producing rosettes of leaves. Native range: Himalaya to N China and Mongolia. Habitat: Damp places by rivers or lakes, swamps, wet alpine meadows (2600–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 52. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet/mild and neutral. Uses: Plant parts are used to treat accumulation of serous fluids (chu ser), inflammation and joint pain due to rheumatism, indigestion, cough, cold, fever, and inflammation. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 11, 12, 19. Nigella sativa L. Nigella indica Roxb. ex Flem. zi ra nag po (ཟི་ར་ནག་པོ་). Mugrelo, Kālo jīra (Np). मुगर्ल े ो, कालो जीरा. Krishnajīrakā (Sn). कृ ष्णजीरका. Black caraway, Black cumin (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Slender or stout annual herb, 15–50 cm tall; stem erect, simple or branched, pubescent. Native range: SE Europe to SW Asia (Romania to Afghanistan). Seeds are imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cool. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of wounds, fever associated with wound, blood disorder (thrag tshab), uterine tumors, gynaecological diseases, retained placenta, and retained foreign objects (bullets, nails) in the body and their poisoning. Leaves, stems and flowers of Paraquilegia microphylla are substituted for rgya ra (horn of Himalayan serow: Capricornis thar) in treating gynaecological diseases, difficult labor, retention of placenta, and poisoning. Reference: 1, 3–6. Ranunculus brotherusii Freyn Ranunculus brotherusii subsp. latisectus H. Riedl, R. brotherusii var. dasycarpus (Maxim.) Hand. Mazz. Part(s) use: Sd. lce tsha ( Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warm. sga tsha ( Uses: Seeds are used for the treatment of cold disorders of liver and intestine. Seeds cure indigestion, flatulence, loss of appetite and other stomach disorders associated with wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan). Reference: 2, 10, 13, 15a. Paraquilegia microphylla (Royle) J.R. Drumm. & Hutch. Isopyrum grandiflorum Fisch. ex DC. var. microphyllum (Royle) Finet & Gagnep., Isopyrum microphyllum Royle yu mo mde'u 'byin ( ་མོ་མདེ ་འ ིན་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Densely tufted perennial herb with woody base, forming a large clump; rootstocks covered with bases of old petioles. Native range: C Asia to Siberia, NW & C China, Himalaya and Japan. Habitat: Open gravelly slopes, on moist rocks, steep rocky cliffs, rock ledges, rock crevices (3400–4900; W & C Nepal). Pl. 51. ་ེ ཚ་). ་ཚ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with fibrous roots; stems several, tufted, 5–25 cm, suberect or ascending, sparsely branched. Native range: C Asia, Himalaya, N & C China. Habitat: Open moist places in forests, forest margins, moist meadows, streamside, among rocks and boulders and amongst thickets (2600–5000; W–E Nepal). Pl. 52. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of cold disorders, indigestion, cold tumors, and chronic wounds. The plant generates digestive heat and dries lymph fluid. The aerial parts of Ranunculus brotherusii can be substituted for pi pi ling (fruits of Piper longum) in treating cold disorders and indigestion. Reference: 4–6, 11, 12. 249 Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Ranunculus attenuatus Royle ex D. Don, R. glabellus Royle ex D. Don, R. glabratus Hook. f. & Thomson, R. nervosus Royle ex D. Don sga tsha ( ་ཚ་). Tītephūl (Np). तीतेफूल. Softly hairy buttercup (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with fibrous roots; stems erect or decumbent, 5–27 cm high, simple or branched, puberulent. Native range: E Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Moist places, open pastures, shady floors, open fields and weedy places ([2200–]2800–5500; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: The plant parts are used to treat cold disorders, indigestion, cold tumors, accumulation of serous fluid, and pus formation in wounds. Reference: 4, 5, 10. Ranunculus tanguticus (Maxim.) Ovcz. Ranunculus affinis R. Br. var. tanguticus Maxim., R. brotherusii Freyn var. tanguticus (Maxim.) Tamura lce tsha ( ་ེ ཚ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems 6–11 cm. Native range: C & E Himalaya to N & C China and Mongolia. Habitat: Moist places, grassy slopes, meadows and forest margins (3500–4900; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm. Uses: Same as R. hirtellus. Note: Ranunculus adoxifolius Hand.-Mazz., R. distans D. Don and R. pulchellus C.A. Mey. have also been prescribed for similar medicinal use. Reference: 7, 12. 250 Thalictrum cultratum Wall. Thalictrum chelidonii DC. var. cultratum (Wall.) Hook. f. & Thomson, T. fistulosum Jacquem. ex Lecoy. sngo sprin ( ོ་ ན ི ་). sngo sprin lo ma chung ba ( ོ་ ིན་ལོ་མ་ ང་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 50–120 cm tall, glabrous or pubescent; stem solitary, erect, branched distally. Native range: W Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, damp rock ledges, wet meadows, shrubland, steppe and moist forest floor (1500–4500; W–E Nepal). Pl. 51. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Ap. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Roots and aerial parts are used to treat infectious diseases, inflammations, wounds, fever, and as a general antidote. Reference: 2. Thalictrum foetidum L. Thalictrum acutilobum DC., Thalictrum minus L. var. foetidum (L.) Massas, T. vaginatum Royle sngo sprin lcags kyu ( ོ་ ིན་ གས་ ་). ོ་ གས་ ་). གས་ ་). sngo lcags kyu ( lcags kyu ( Ganāune dāmpāte, Masino dāmpāte (Np). गनाउने दाम्पाते, मिसनो दाम्पाते. Foetid meadow-rue, Lesser meadow-rue, Stinking meadow-rue (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Glabrous or pubescent perennial herb, 30–60 cm tall; stem solitary or tufted, erect, branched or simple. Native range: Temperate Eurasia, Himalaya. Habitat: Forest margins, open slopes, grassland and damp rock ledges (2000–4700; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Ap. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Roots and aerial parts are used to treat all types of infections, contagious fever, plague, tumor, poisoning, and wounds. Reference: 4. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Thalictrum dalingo Buch.-Ham. ex DC. sngo sprin lcags kyu ( ་ོ ིན་ གས་ ་). sngo lcags kyu ( ་ོ གས་ ་). lcags kyu ( གས་ ་). Bansuli, Dāmpāte (Np). वनसुिल, दाम्पाते. Asian meadow-rue (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust perennial herb, 60–200 cm tall; stem diffuse, much branched, leafy; plant glabrous. Native range: Tropical S Asia, Himalaya to SC China and Vietnam. Habitat: Open broadleaved and coniferous forests, forest margins, thickets, streamside and open slopes (1300–3400; W–E Nepal). Pl. 51. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Ap. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Roots and aerial parts are used to treat infectious diseases, inflammations, wounds, fever, and poisoning. Reference: 2, 7, 11, 12, 19. ROSACEAE Argentina anserina (L.) Rydb. Potentilla anserina L. gro lo sa 'dzin (གྲོ་ལོ་ས་འཛིན་). gro ma (གྲོ་མ་). Masino mūlā-jhār (Np). मिसनो मूला-झार. Silverweed cinquefoil (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial stoloniferous herb, forming dense patches; stems prostrate, creeping. Native range: Temperate N Hemisphere. Habitat: Wet places, grassy slopes, wet meadows and streamsides (2700–4600; W–E Nepal). Pl. 53. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Part(s) use: Rt. Uses: Roots and aerial parts are used to treat all types of infections, contagious fever, plague, tumor, poisoning, and wounds. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Roots are used to treat wind (rlung) disorders, diarrhoea and dysentery. Reference: 1, 3, 5. Reference: 1–4, 6, 7, 12. Thalictrum reniforme Wall. Thalictrum chelidonii DC. var. reniforme (Wall.) Hook. f. & Thomson, T. neurocarpum Royle sngo sprin ( ་ོ ནི ་). sngo sprin lo ma che ba ( ་ོ ིན་ལོ་མ་ཆེ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 80–120 cm tall, pubescent; stem erect, simple or branched. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, scrub, open slopes and moist rock ledges (2000–3800; W–E Nepal). Pl. 51. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Argentina microphylla (D. Don) Soják Potentilla microphylla D. Don, P. microphylla var. caespitosa T.T. Yu & C.L. Li, P. microphylla var. depressa Wall. ex Lehm., P. microphylla var. glabriuscula Wall. ex Wolf, P. microphylla var. latiloba Hook. f. gro lo sa 'dzin chung ba (གྲོ་ལོ་ས་འཛིན་ ང་བ་). gro ma (གྲོ་མ་). Small-leaved Himalayan cinquefoil (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Cushion-forming perennial herb, 2–10 cm, white hairy. Native range: Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and N Myanmar. Habitat: Meadows, rocky places and grasslands (3400–5200; W–E Nepal). Pl. 52. Part(s) use: Rt, Ap. 251 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: Rootstocks are used to treat stomach disorders, indigestion, gastritis and diarrhoea. Reference: 4. Argentina peduncularis (D. Don) Soják Potentilla peduncularis D. Don, P. peduncularis var. abbreviata T.T. Yu & C.L. Li, P. peduncularis var. elongata T.T. Yu & C.L. Li, P. peduncularis var. subcontigua Soják gro lo sa 'dzin che ba (གྲོ་ལོ་ས་འཛིན་ཆེ་བ་). gro ma (གྲོ་མ་). Thūlo mūlā-jhār (Np). ठू लो मूला-झार. Himalayan cinquefoil (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial hairy herbs, with stout, creeping rhizomes. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Meadows, forest margins and gravelly slopes (3000–4700; W–E Nepal). Pl. 52. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Sweet/cool. Uses: It is used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, bronchial cough, blood in lung, and fever. Reference: 11, 14. Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Nakai Chaenomeles lagenaria (Loisel.) Koidz., Cydonia speciosa Sweet, Pyrus speciosa (Sweet) M. F. Fay & Christenh. bse yab (བསེ་ཡབ་). Flowering quince, Chinese quince (En). Uses: Fruits are used to treat phlegm (bad kan) disorder, brown phlegm (bad kan smug po), fever due to phlegm, ear disease, and chronic disorders of the stomach and stomach ulcers. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 16. Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl. Cotoneaster bakeri G. Klotz, C. nepalensis André, Crataegus acuminata Desf. ex Steud., Pyrus acuminata (Lindl.) M.F. Fay & Christenh. tshar dkar (ཚར་དཀར་), tshar pa dkar po (ཚར་པ་དཀར་པོ་). tshar pa shing (ཚར་པ་ཤིང་). Dhalkephūl, Ghuins, Rains, Ruis (Np). ढल्के फू ल, घुइँस, रइँ स, रुइस. Acuminate-leaved cotoneaster (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous shrub, to 3 m. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Mixed forests, forest margins and thickets (2500–4200; W–E Nepal). Pl. 52. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, sour and astringent/cool to neutral. Uses: Fruits are used to cure menstrual disorders, heavy menstrual bleeding, and accumulation of fluids in joints. Reference: 4, 15a. Cotoneaster frigidus Wall. ex Lindl. Cotoneaster gamblei Klotz, C. himalaiensis Hort. ex Zabel, Pyrus frigida (Wall. ex Lindl.) M.F. Fay & Christenh. tshar pa (ཚར་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT tshar dkar (ཚར་དཀར་). Thorny deciduous shrub, to 2 m tall. Native range: China and Myanmar; cultivated elsewhere. Fruits are imported for medicinal use. Ghuins, Rains, Ruis (Np). घुइँस, रइँ स, रुइस. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sour to sweet/cool. 252 tshar pa shing (ཚར་པ་ཤིང་). Frigid cotoneaster (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large deciduous shrub or small tree, 5–12 m tall. Native range: W–E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests, forest margins and edges of agriculture fields (1900–3600; W–E Nepal). Pl. 52. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, sour and astringent/cool to neutral. Uses: Fruits are used to cure menstrual disorders, heavy menstrual bleeding and accumulation of fluid in joints. Herbal tea made from the leaves is taken to cure gynaecological disorders. Reference: 4. Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex Lindl. Cotoneaster buxifolia f. cochleata Franch., C. microphyllus var. cochleatus (Franch.) Rehder & E.H. Wilson, C. microphyllus var. glacialis Hook. f. ex Wenz., C. microphyllus var. nivalis G. Klotz tshar leb (ཚར་ལེབ་). Pudke rains, Hocho rains (Np). पुड्के रइँ स, होचो रइँ स. Himalayan shrubby cinquefoil (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Shrub, 30–150 cm tall; stem erect, leafy. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forest margins, meadows, rocky places, cliffs, thickets and river banks (2600–6000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 53. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tw, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and astringent/cool to neutral. Uses: Young twigs, leaves and flowers are used to treat breast swelling, breast distension, lung disorders, accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser), menstrual disorder, toothache, indigestion and other stomach disorders. Herbal tea is taken to cure different diseases. The plant is also used as incense for healing purpose. Reference: 1–5, 12, 15b, 19. Small-leaved cotoneaster (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Prostrate mat-forming shrub; stems rigid, much branched. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, stony areas and thickets (1800–5400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 53. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, sour, astringent/neutral. Uses: Fruits are used to cure heavy menstrual bleeding, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser), rheumatism and bile (mkhris pa) disorders. Reference: 1–4, 11, 12, 15a, 19. Dasiphora arbuscula (D. Don) J. Soják Dasiphora rigida (Wall. ex Lehm.) Soják, Pentaphylloides arbuscula (D. Don) A. Love, Potentilla arbuscula D. Don, P. fruticosa L. var. arbuscula (D. Don) Maxim., P. fruticosa var. ochreata Lindl., P. fruticosa var. rigida (Wall. ex Lehm.) Wolf, P. rigida Wall. ex Lehm. spen nag ( ེན་ནག་), spen ma nag po ( ནེ ་མ་ནག་པོ་). Bhairung-pāte, Jhwānī (Np-Dl). भैरुङ-पाते, झ्वानी. Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex. Lacaita Fragaria vesca L. var. nubicola Hook. f., Potentilla nubicola (Hook. f.) Mabb. 'bri ta sa 'dzin (འ ི་ཏ་ས་འཛིན་). 'bri ta sa 'dzin mchog (འ ི་ཏ་ས་འཛིན་མཆོག་). Bhuin ainselu, Bhuin kāphal (Np). भुइँ ऐँशेल,ु भुइँ काफल. Himalayan strawberry, Wild strawberry (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, prostrate perennial herb, with long runners rooting at the nodes. Native range: NE Afghanistan through Himalaya to Tibetan Plateau and N Myanmar. Habitat: Grassy slopes, moist places along forest margins, shrubberies, shady banks and meadows (1600–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 53. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet, bitter and sour/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used as emetic to treat accumulation of fluid in lung and chest cavity, and lymphatic disorders. It is beneficial for treating combined phlegm and bile (bad kan– 253 mkhris pa) disorders, lung inflammation and infection, cough, inflammation of the nerve, heavy menstrual bleeding, and kidney disorder. It dries pus and purifies blood. Leaves and flowers of Fragaria nubicola are substituted for bse ru (horn of greater onehorned rhinoceros: Rhinoceros unicornis), and sha ru (horns of barasingha: Rucervus duvaucelii; and red deer: Cervus elaphus) in treating lung infections, accumulation of lymph fluid and pus formation in the lung. Reference: 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15a, 19. Geum elatum Wall. ex G. Don Acomastylis elata (Wall. ex G. Don) F. Bolle, Geum elatum var. leiocarpum W.E. Evans, Sieversia elata (Wall. ex G. Don) Royle rgyu mkhris ser po dman pa ( ་མཁྲིས་སེར་པོ་དམན་པ). ga dur ser po (ག་ ར་སེར་པོ་). gur gum ser po (གུར་གུམ་སེར་པོ་). Kharamte (Np-Dl). खरम्ते. Yellow Himalayan avens (En). Apple (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large deciduous shrubs or small tree. Native range: Originated in C Asia; cultivated throughout the temperate regions. In Nepal, it is cultivated near villages (2000–3300 m; W–E Nepal), and fruits are also imported. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to slightly sour/cool to light. Uses: Fruits are used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, and loss of appetite. Reference: 1–4, 7. Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. ex Lehm. Potentilla argyrophylla var. leucochroa Hook. f., P. candolleana Royle, P. insignis Royle ex Lindl., P. jacquemontiana Cambess., P. nivea L. var. himalaica Kitam. rgyu mkhris ser po ( ་མཁྲིས་སེར་པོ་). gur gum ser po (གུར་གུམ་སེར་པོ་). ri skyes gur gum (རི་ སེ ་གུར་གུམ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Ãte (Np). आते. Perennial herb, 10–50 cm tall, with stout rootstock. Native range: W Himalaya to N & C China. Habitat: Meadows and grassy slopes (2900–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 54. Himalayan silver weed, Silver-leaved cinquefoil, Yellowflowered silver weed (En). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used to treat fever associated with common cold, cough, diarrhoea, poisoning, cuts and wounds and neurological diseases. Reference: 2, 4, 7. Malus pumila Mill. Malus domestica Borkh., M. pumila var. domestica C.K. Schneid., Pyrus malus L., Sorbus malus (L.) Crantz ku shu (ཀུ་ ་). Syāu (Np). स्याउ. 254 GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with stout, terete rootstock; flowering stems 3–40 cm; flowers yellow. Native range: Afghanistan to E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, thickets, meadows, sandy places and streamsides (3600– 4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 53. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used in the treatment of fever associated with common cold, epidemic diseases, diarrhoea, poisoning, and cuts and wounds. Reference: 4, 7, 9. Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. ex Lehm. var. atrosanguinea (Lodd.) Hook. f. Potentilla atrosanguinea Lodd., P. cautleyana Royle rgyu mkhris smug po ( Ãte (Np). आते. ་མཁྲིས་ ག་པོ་). Himalayan cinquefoil, Dark crimson cinquefoil, Ruby cinquefoil (En). Himalayan GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with stout, terete rootstock; flowering stems 15–30 cm; flowers crimson or orange. Native range: W & C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open grassy placecs, meadows and riversides (2900–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 53. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cool. Uses: The whole plant is used to treat fever, common cold, diarrhoea, poisoning, and cuts and wounds. Reference: 9. Prunus davidiana (Carriére) Franch. Amygdalus davidiana (Carrière) de Vos ex Henry, Persica davidiana Carriére, Prunus persica (L.) Stokes var. davidiana Maxim., P. sibirica L. var. davidiana (Carriére) Y.L. Chou ri kham (རི་ཁམ་). kham bu (ཁམ་ ་). Uses: Mesocarp (thin fleshy part of the fruit) is used in treating lung and eye troubles, serum disorder (chu ser), wounds, sores, sinusitis, and obscuration of the bowels. Seed oil is applied to promote hair growth and cure baldness. Seed oil is also used to treat allergy, body swelling and to protect a child from hotness. Reference: 1, 4, 7. Prunus mira Koehne Amygdalus mira (Koehne) T.T. Yu & L.T. Lu, A. mira (Koehne) Ricker., Persica mira (Koehne) Kovalev & Kostina, P. mira subsp. nepalensis Seraf., Prunus mira subsp. nepalensis (Seraf.) H. Hara bod kham (བོད་ཁམ་). kham bu (ཁམ་ ་). Jhuse āru (Np). झुसे आरु. Nepal peach, Smooth stone peach, Smooth-pit peach, Tibetan peach (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree to 10 m tall; flowers shortly stalked, pink, calyx hairless; fruits hairy, mesocarp fleshy, endocarp smooth. Native range: W & C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and SC China. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, open hill slopes, edges of agriculture fields, and thickets (2700–4000 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 54. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Amile āru, Jhuse āru (Np). अिमले आरु, झुसे आरु. Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. David's peach, Chinese wild peach (En). Taste/potency: Sour, bitter/mild, smooth, oily. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree to 10 m tall; flowers nearly stalkless, pink, calyx hairy; fruits hairy, mesocarp thin, endocarp deeply furrowed or pitted. Native range: NC China to Russian Far East and Korea; introduced and naturalized in Nepal. Habitat: Edges of agriculture fields, also planted around villages and marginal land (2100–3400 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sour, bitter/mild, smooth and oily. Uses: Mesocarp of fruit is used in treating serum disorder (chu ser), wounds and bowel complaints. Seed oil is applied to promote hair growth and cure baldness. Reference: 1, 3. Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Amygdalus persica L., Persica domestica Risso, P. laevis DC., P. vulgaris Mill. rgya kham ( klung kham ( ་ཁམ་). ང་ཁམ་). 255 kham bu (ཁམ་ ་). Uses: Ripe fruits are used in lung disorder. Fruits help to release sputum. Peach (En). Reference: 1, 3, 4, 7. Ãru, Jhuse āru (Np). आरु, झुसे आरु. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, 3–8 m tall; flowers nearly stalkless, pink or white, calyx hairy; fruits hairy, mesocarp thick and juicy, endocarp deeply furrowed or pitted. Native range: Originated in N China, widely cultivated in Asia and Europe. Habitat: Cultivated in Nepal (1100–3600 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet, sour, bitter/mild, smooth, oily. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (BGI & IUCN SCC 2018b). Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosa clavigera H. Lév., R. moschata Mill. var. nepalensis Lindl., R. pubescens Roxb. se rgod (སེ་ དོ ་). se rgod mo (སེ་ ོད་མོ་). Bhainsī-kāndā, Jangalī gulāf (Np). भसी-काँडा, जङ्गली गुलाफ. Himalayan musk rose, Nepalese musk rose (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Mesocarp (thick fleshy part of the fruit) is used in treating lung and bile (mkhris pa) disorders, accumulation of serum (chu ser), wounds, and intestinal disorders, such as constipation. Seed oil is used to promote hair growth and cure baldness. Climbing or scandent shrub, 2–8 m, stems and branches covered with curved prickles. Native range: NE Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets and scrubs (1300–3100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 54. Reference: 1–4, 7, 16. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Malus pashia (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Wenzig, Pyrus kumaoni Decne. ex Hook. f., P. nepalensis Hort ex Decne., P. variolosa Wall. ex G. Don, Sorbus variolosa (Wall. ex G. Don) Schau. 'o se'i 'bras bu (འོ་སེའ་ི འ ས་ ་). ས་ ་). ག་པ་ཤིང་). gub li 'bras bu (གུབ་ལི་འ skrag pa shing ( Mayal (Np). मयल Part(s) use: Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sour and sweet/cool. Uses: Flowers and fruits are used in the treatment of hot disorder of bile (mkhris pa), wind (rlung) disorder, dizziness, headache, poisoning, liver fever and blood pressure. Ripe fruits help to restore physical strength. Reference: 4, 5. Himalayan wild pear (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, 5–15 m tall. Native range: SW Asia through Himalaya to SC China and Vietnam. Habitat: Forests, open shrubland and margins of agriculture fields (700–3100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 54. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, sour and astringent/neutral to warm. 256 Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Rosa hookeriana Wall. [nom. nud.], Rosa macrophylla var. hookeriana Hook. f., R. torulosa Wall. ex Hook. f. se rgod (སེ་ ོད་). se rgod pho (སེ་ ོད་ཕོ་). Jangalī gulāf (Np). जङ्गली गुलाफ. Big-hip rose, Himalayan rose, Himalayan wild rose (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous shrub, 1–4 m tall; stems and branches with few straight prickles, sometimes naked. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, thickets, scrubs and dry sandy slopes (2100–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 54. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sour, sweet and astringent/cool to neutral. Uses: Flowers, fruits and middle bark cure fever related to liver disorder, cold and cough, bile (mkhris pa) disorder, diarrhoea, poisoning, accumulation of lymph fluid (chu ser) and swelling of limbs. Ripe fruits also help to restore physical vigour. Reference: 4, 5, 11, 12, 15a, 15b, 19. Rosa sericea Lindl. Rosa sericea var. hookeri Regal, R. tetrapetala Royle, R. wallichii Tratt. se ba (སེ་བ་). se ba'i me tog (སེ་བའི་མེ་ཏོག་). Bhot gulāf, Dārimpāte, Dārimpāte gulāf (Np). भोट गुलाफ, दािरमपाते, दािरमपाते गुलाफ. Silky rose, Himalayan silky rose, Himalayan white rose, Winged thorn rose (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect spiny shrub, 0.6–3 m. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, scrubs, cliffs and dry exposed slopes (1900–4600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 54. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Fl, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Sour, sweet and astringent/cool to neutral. Uses: Flowers (se ba'i me tog) and ripe fruits (se ba ’bras bu) are used in the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) and wind (rlung) disorders, lung diseases, fever, liver ailments and menstrual disorder. Bark is used in the treatment of poisoning and lymph fluid disorder. Fruits and seeds of Rosa sericea are substituted for ba ru (fruits of Terminalia bellirica) in treating wind, phlegm and bile disorders, and lymph fluid disorder. Reference: 4, 5, 12, 15b. Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rubus flavus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, R. gowreephul Roxb., R. rotundifolius Wall. [nom. nud.], R. wallichianus Wight & Arn. ga bra (ག་ ་). kan da ka ri (ཀ ྜ་ཀ་རི་). ँ ो ऐँशेल.ु Ainshelu, Pahenlo ainselu (Np). ऐँशेल,ु पहेल Asian wild raspberry, Yellow Himalayan raspberry (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Scandent shrub, 1–3 m tall; branchlets bristly- or glandular-hairy, with sparse, curved prickles. Native range: Tropical S Asia, Himalaya to SC China, Myanmar and Philippines; introduced elsewhere. Habitat: dry slopes, montane valleys, sparse forests, open shrubland, cultivated fields (300–2600 m; W– E Nepal). Pl. 55. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent, acrid/ neutral. Uses: Stem is used to treat fever, wind (rlung) fever, cold and cough. Ripe fruits are edible. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13, 16. Rubus niveus Thunb. Rubus bonatii H. Lév., R. distans D. Don, R. foliolosus D. Don, Rubus foliolosus var. incanus (Sasaki ex T.S. Liu & T.Y. Yang) S.S. Ying, R. incanus Sasaki ex Lui & T.Y. Yang, R. lasiocarpus Sm., R. micranthus D. Don, R. niveus var. micranthus (D. Don.) H. Hara, R. pauciflorus Wall. ex Lindl. kan da ka ri (ཀ ྜ་ཀ་རི་). kan da ka ri smug po (ཀ ྜ་ཀ་རི་ ག་པོ་). Ainshelu, Bhālu ainshelu, Kālo ainshelu (Np). ऐँशेल,ु भालु ऐँशेल,ु कालो ऐँशल े ु. Ceylon raspberry, Mysore raspberry, Hill raspberry (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Scandent or trailing shrub; stems up to 3 m, covered with sparse hooked prickles; leaves usually 5–7-foliolate. Native range: SW & C Asia through 257 Himalaya to C China, Myanmar and SE Asia; introduced and naturalized elsewhere. Habitat: Thickets, sparse forests, forest margins, stream banks, flood plains, open places, open grassy slopes, edges of agriculture land (1000–3600 m; W– E Nepal). Pl. 55. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and acrid/ neutral. Uses: Stem pith is used to treat wind (rlung) disorders. It is beneficial to treat hidden fever associated with wind, cold disorders, rheumatic fever, lung ailments, cough. Ripe fruits are edible. Stem is prescribed as a substitute for sle tres (stem of Tinospora sinensis) in treating fever associated with wind, and rheumatism. Reference: 1–5, 15b, 25. Note: In a recent treatments of Nepalese flora, Rubus foliolosus has been placed conspecific to R. hypargyrus/R. pedunculosus (Boufford et al. 2011; Rajbhandary & Rai 2019). Rubus pedunculosus D. Don Rubus hypargyrus Edgew., R. hypargyrus var. concolor (Hook. f.) H. Hara, R. hypargyrus var. niveus (Wall. ex G. Don) H. Hara, R. niveus Wall. ex G. Don [nom. Illeg.], non Thunb., R. niveus var. concolor Hook. f., R. pedunculosus var. concolor (Hook. f.) Kitam., R. pedunculosus var. hypargyrus (Edgew.) Kitam. kan da ka ri (ཀ ྜ་ཀ་རི་). kan da ka ri smug po (ཀ ྜ་ཀ་རི་ ག་པོ་). Uses: Stem pith is used to treat wind associated fever, cough and cold, and other pulmonary diseases. Ripe fruits are edible. Reference: 4, 5. Spiraea arcuata Hook. f. Spiraea canescens D. Don var. glabra Hook. f. & Thomson [nom. inval.] smag shad ( ག་ཤད་). Masenā, Munde (Np). मसेना, मुण्डे. Arching spirea (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous shrub, to 2 m tall, with arched branches. Native range: W Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Forest margins, thickets, open slopes, river and stream banks and rocky places (1700–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 55. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent/cool. Uses: Leaves and first flowers are used to treat skin diseases, rashes, wounds and menstrual irregularities. It also draws out lymph fluid and heals lymphatic disorder (chu ser). Reference: 4, 15b, 19. RUBIACEAE Galium aparine L. Kālo ainshelu (Np). कालो ऐँशेल.ु Rubia aparine (L.) Baill. Three-leaf raspberry (En). zangs rtsi dkar po (ཟངས་ GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rambling shrub, to 3 m; branchlets with few prickles; leaves 3-foliolate. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Forests and thickets (2200– 3800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 55. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, St. Taste/potency: Sweet, astringent and acrid/ neutral. 258 ི་དཀར་པོ་). Kāngre-jhār (Np). काङ्गर्े-झार. Bedstraw, Catchweed bedstraw, Cleavers (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Scrambling or climbing annual herb; stems 10–100 cm, 4-angled, prickly along angles. Native range: W Eurasia and the Mediterranean; now a common weed in temperate zones on all continents. Habitat: Forest margins, waste places, riversides, meadows and open fields (2700–3800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 55. Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl, Fr. shrubberies and thickets (1100–3000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 55. Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/cool to coarse. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Uses: Aerial parts of the plant are used to treat bile (mkhris pa) disorders, jaundice, bone and nerve disorders, and sinusitis. The plant stops bleeding, heals head wounds and fixes cracked bones. Reference: 1–3, 10, 11, 12, 15a. Galium hirtiflorum Req. ex DC. Galium ciliatum D. Don [nom. Illeg.], Galium hirtiflorum var. hirsutum T. Yamaz. zangs rtsi dkar po (ཟངས་ Laharejethī (En). लहरे जठ े ी. Part(s) use: Rt, St. Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/cool. Uses: Roots, stems and branches are used to treat blood fever, hot disorders of lungs, kidneys and intestines, and menstrual disorders. Reference: 1–4, 10, 13, 15a, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS National: Vulnerable (Tandon et al. 2001). ི་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; rhizome stoloniferous; stems tufted, branched, decumbent, 5–60 cm, 4-angled, densely hirsute. Native range: Himalaya (Kashmir to Sikkim). Habitat: Amongst shrubs, boulders and rock crevices (800–3000 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/cool to coarse. Uses: The aerial parts are used to treat bile (mkhris pa) and nerve disorders, bleeding and wounds. Reference: 4. Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Rubia cordifolia L. var. khasiana Watt, R. cordifolia var. munjista (Roxb.) Miq., R. mungith Roxb. ex Desv., R. munjista Roxb. RUTACEAE Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Crateva marmelos L. bil ba (བིལ་བ་). Bel (Np). बेल. Bilva, Shandilya (Sn). िबल्व, शािण्डल्य. Bel tree, Bengal quince (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small deciduous tree to 15 m tall, with spines 2.5–5 cm long. Native range: Tropical and subtropical regions in S Asia, Himalaya to Myanmar; introduced into SE Asia. Habitat: Open dry places and forests; widely cultivated (100–1400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 56. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Astringent/warm and dry. Majitho (Np). मिजठो. btsod (བཙད་). Uses: Dried fruit pulp is used in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting and lung disorders. Manjisthā, Yojanvallika (Sn).मंिज ा, योजनविल्लका. Reference: 1, 10, 15a, 16. Indian madder, Manjith (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Trailing or climbing prickly perennial herb; stems and branches 4-angled. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins, Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne. Laureola fragrans M. Roem., Limonia laureola DC., Skimmia laureola (DC.) Siebold & Zucc. ex Walp. [nom. illeg.] zhu mkhan ( ་མཁན་). 259 spang zhun ( ང་ ན་). Himalayan skimmia (En). CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (BGI & IUCN SCC 2018c). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Aromatic evergreen shrub, creeping to erect, 0.5– 1.5 m tall; stems and leaves glabrous; branches grayish green. Native range: C & E Himalaya, Tibetatan Plateau and Myanmar. Habitat: Evergreen forests (2400–3100[–4050] m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf. Taste/potency: Astringent/neutral. Uses: Leaves are useful for the treatment of hot disorders of the kidney and lung, disturbed fever, and oral diseases. Reference: 1, 3. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium var. timbor Buch.-Ham. ex Hook. f., Z. alatum Wall. [nom. nud.], Z. timbor Wall. [nom. nud.] g.yer ma (གཡེར་མ་). Boke timur (Np). बोके िटमुर. Prickly ash (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub, 1.5–4 m or more taller, with dense foliage and prickly branches and trunk; branches usually pubescent with reddish-brown short matted hairs. Native range: Himalaya to S China and mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Open oak-laurel forests, open slopes and thickets (800–3400 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm and coarse. Uses: Fruits are used for treating infectious (srin) diseases, mouth diseases, itching, stomach disorders, indigestion, stomachache, parasite infestation, food poisoning and blood pressure. Fruits are also used to treat vocal cord dysfunction, and relieve alcohol hangover. Reference: 4. 260 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb., Z. hostile Wall. [nom nud.] g.yer ma (གཡེར་མ་). Timur (Np). िटमुर. Tejasvinī, Tejovatī, Tumburu (Sn). तेजिस्वनी, तेजोवती, तुम्बरु. Toothache tree, Winged prickly-ash (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub or small tree, 1.5–5(–7) m tall, with prickles on the branches and leaf stalks; branches mostly glabrous. Native range: Tropical and subtropical Asia, W–E Himalaya through C & E China to Japan and Philippines. Habitat: Open forests, forest margins, open slopes and edges of agriculture fields (800–3100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 56. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm and coarse. Uses: Fruits are used to treat infectious (srin) diseases, skin allergy, indigestion and other stomach disorders and parasite infestation. Fruits are also used as an antidote against foodpoisoning and for the treatment of oral diseases, vocal cord dysfunction, and alcohol hangover. Reference: 8, 10, 16. Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. Zanthoxylum bungei Planch. & Linden ex Hance, Z. bungei var. imperforatum Franch., Z. nepalense C.R. Babu g.yer ma (གཡེར་མ་). Timur, Ban timur (Np). िटमुर, वन िटमुर. Nepal pepper, Sichuan pepper (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Spiny shrub or small tree, 2.5–7 m tall, with larger prickles on the stems and branches. Native range: C & E Himalaya to China. Habitat: Open forests and forest margins (2100–3100 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 56. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Acrid/warm and coarse. Uses: Same as Zanthoxylum armatum. Reference: 1–3, 15a. SALICACEAE Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle Populus pyriformis Royle ma gal (མ་གལ་). dbyar pa (ད ར་པ་). Bhot pīpal (Np). भोट पीपल. Himalayan poplar (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tree, 5–30 m tall; branches slender, pendulous. Native range: N & E China to Russian Far East and Korea; widely planted. Habitat: Planted in Nepal along riverbanks and edges of crop fields (1300– 3800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Inner bark is used as an emetic to treat pus formation and lymph fluid (chu ser). It also cures poisoning, neurological diseases, and swellings caused by hot and cold disorders. Reference: 2, 3, 7. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, 10–30 m tall, with spreading crown and grayish bark. Native range: N Pakistan to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: River and stream banks and coniferous forests (1800–3600 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 56. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Bark is useful for the treatment of lung diseases, small pox, cold-associated swellings and complications during pregnancy and delivery. It is also used as an antidote against general poisoning. Long silky hairs present in capsules are used as bandages to treat wounds. Reference: 1–3, 4, 15b. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Barstow 2018b). Salix babylonica L. Salix chinensis Burm. f., S. japonica Thunb., S. pendula Gaterau, S. propendens Ser. lcang ma ( ང་མ་). rgya lcang ( ་ ང་). Bains (Np). बस. Babylon willow, Weeping willow (En). Salix calyculata Hook. f. ex Andersson glang ma nag po chung (གླང་མ་ནག་པོ་ glang ma chung ba (གླང་མ་ ང་). ང་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Decumbent shrub to 30 cm; stems ascending, dark brown, glabrous. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Rocky slopes, shrubberies and rhododendron thickets (3300–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 56. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Bark is used to treat gynaecological disorders, heavy menstrual bleeding, premature birth, joint pain due to accumulation of fluid (chu ser), and fever. Reference: 4, 7. Salix lindleyana Wall. ex Andersson glang ma chung (གླང་མ་ནག་པོ་ glang byar (གླང་ ང་). ར་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Creeping, tight mat-forming shrublet. Native range: Pakistan to SC China. Habitat: Alpine slopes, screes 261 and moist rock crevices mainly in north-facing slopes (3800–5000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 56. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL SANTALACEAE Santalum album L. Santalum myrtifolium (L.) Roxb., S. ovata R. Br. Part(s) use: Wp. tsan dan dkar po (ཙན་དན་དཀར་པོ་). Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Shrikhanda (Np, Sn). शर्ीखण्ड. Uses: The whole plant is used to prevent premature birth, and treat high bleeding. It is not used alone, but mixed with other herbs. Chandana, Swetchandana (Sn). चन्दन, Reference: 4. ेतचन्दन. Indian sandalwood, White sandalwood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen tree, to 10 m tall, with rough dark-grey bark. Native range: S India to SE Asia. The tree is planted in Nepal, and the wood is also imported. Salix sclerophylla Andersson glang ma nag po (གླང་མ་ནག་པོ་). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Wd. Erect shrub, to 2 m tall. Native range: W Himalaya to NC China. Habitat: Open slopes, riverside boulders, and thickets (3500–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Taste/potency: Astringent to bitter and acrid/cool. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br. Uses: Heartwood is beneficial for hot disorders of the lung and heart, disturbed fever, and inflammation of skin. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. CONSERVATION STATUS Uses: Bark is useful in treating heavy menstrual bleeding, premature birth, and accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser). Reference: 1, 2, 4. Global: Vulnerable [A2de] (Arunkumar et al. 2019). SAPINDACEAE Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Sapindus abruptus Lour., S. detergens Roxb., S. indicus Poir. Salix serpyllum Andersson Salix fruticulosa Andersson, S. hylematica C.K. Schneider, S. hylematica var. scopulicola (P.I Mao & W.Z. Li) N. Chao & G.T. Gong, S. scopulicola P.Y. Mao & W.Z. Li lung tong ( ང་ཏོང་). lung thang ( ང་ཐང་). glang ma nag po chung (གླང་མ་ནག་པོ་ Rithā (Np). िर ा. ང་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Low creeping shrub or shrublet, to 30 cm tall. Native range: W–E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Gravelly and rocky places and streamsides (2600–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 57. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Same as Salix calyculata. 262 lung thang mig ( ང་ཐང་མིག་). Chinese soapberry, Indian soapberry, Soapnut, Washnut (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Deciduous tree, to 10 m tall. Native range: Himalaya through SC China to Japan and mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Roadside; usually planted (900–1700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 57. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Astringent/neutral. Uses: Fruits and seeds improve male sperm and also treat plague. Reference: 1, 3. SAXIFRAGACEAE Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Bergenia ciliata (Royle) A. Braun ex Engl. [nom. illeg.], B. ligulata (Wall.) Engl. var. ciliata (Royle) Engl., Megasea ciliata Haw., Saxifraga ciliata Royle, S. ligulata Wall. var. ciliata (Royle) Hook. f. & Thomson ga tigs smug po (ག་ཏིག་ ga dur (ག་ ར་). ga dur smug po (ག་ ག་པོ་). ར་ ག་པོ་). Pākhanved (Np). पाखनभेद. Pāshānavedaka, Shilāveda (Sn). पाषाणभेदक, िशलाभेद. Hairy bergenia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with stout, creeping rhizomes; leaves pubescent below, the upper surface sometimes glabrous. Native range: W & C Himalaya. Habitat: Rocks in forest and open moist slopes (900–2500 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Pāshānavedaka, Shilāveda (Sn). पाषाणभेदक, िशलाभेद. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, with stout, creeping rhizomes; leaves glabrous. Native range: Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Shady rocks in forest and open slopes (1300–4400 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 57. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/cool. Uses: Same as Bergenia ciliata. Reference: 4, 5. Bergenia purpurascens (Hook. f. & Thomson) Engl. Bergenia delavayi (Franch.) Engl., B. purpurascens var. delavayi (Franch.) Engl. & Irmsch., Saxifraga delavayi Franch., S. purpurascens Hook. f. & Thomson sngo ga tigs smug po ( ga dur (ག་ ོ་ག་ཏིགས་ ག་པོ་). ར་). ga dur mchog (ག་ ར་མཆོག་). Pākhanved (Np). पाखनभेद. Purple bergenia (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/cool. Uses: Rhizomes are useful for the treatment of contagious diseases, bile (mkhris pa) and liver disorders, indigestion, vomiting, diarrhoea, and dysentery. Reference: 4, 5. Perennial herb with thick, stout, creeping rhizomes; flowering stems to 30 cm or more. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and N Myanmar. Habitat: Rocks on open slopes, rocky meadows, amongst shrubs on north-facing slopes (3200-4700 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 57. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Bergenia pacumbis (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) C.Y. Part(s) use: Rh. Wu & J.T. Pan Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/cool. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. f. ligulata Yeo, B. himalaica Boriss., B. ligulata (Wall.) Engl., Saxifraga ligulata Wall., S. pacumbis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, ga tigs smug po (ག་ཏིག་ ga dur (ག་ ག་པོ་). ར་). ga dur smug po (ག་ ར་ ག་པོ་). Pākhanved, Simtādī (Np, Np-Dl). पाखनभेद, िसम्ताडी. Uses: Rhizomes are used for the treatment of contagious diseases, hot disorders of lung and liver, bile (mkhris pa) disorder, food poisoning, swellings, vomiting, diarrhoea, dysentery and indigestion. Reference: 1, 3, 14. 263 Chrysosplenium carnosum Hook. f. & Thomson Micranthes melanocentra (Franch.) Losinsk. Chrysosplenium carnosulum Hook. f. & Thomson ex Maxim., C. tibeticum H. Limpr. Saxifraga melanocentra Franch. g.ya' kyi ma (གཡའ་ཀྱི་མ་). ser g.ya' kyi ma (སེར་གཡའ་ཀྱི་མ་). spyan gzigs rtag ngu ( ན་གཟིགས་ ག་ ་). 'rtag ngu 'od ldan (འ ག་ ་འོད་ ན་). ँ ो िसमझार. Pahenlo simjhār (Np). पहेल 'od ldan dkar po mchog (འོད་ 'jam dbyangs rtag ngu (འཇམ་ད ན་དཀར་པོ་མཆོག་). ངས་ ག་ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Loose mat-forming to caespitose perennial herb, up to 15 cm tall, glabrous throughout, with branches arising from leaf axils. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Scree slopes and wet meadows (3700–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 57. Perennial herb; stems erect, 3–9 cm, pubescent; inflorescence flat-topped at flowering; fillaments linear. Native range: Pakistan to Bhutan and NC China. Habitat: Meadows, alpine scrub, open shrubland, rock crevices and near streams (3900– 5300 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 58. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ap. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Part(s) use: Wp. Uses: The aerial parts are used to treat bile (mkhris pa) disorders and fever associated with bile. It induces vomiting, and is beneficial for downward digestion. Taste/potency: Sweet/neutral. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 7, 10. Chrysosplenium nudicaule Bunge g.ya' kyi ma (གཡའ་ཀྱི་མ་). ser g.ya' kyi ma (སེར་གཡའ་ཀྱི་མ). ँ ो िसमझार. Pahenlo simjhār (Np). पहेल GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Small, tufted rhizomatous perennial herb, 3–13 cm tall, glabrous, erect; stem leaf absent or 1, very close to cyme. Native range: C Asia to S Siberia, C & E Himalaya, China, Mongolia. Habitat: Marshy areas, stream sides, moist gravel, scree and stony slopes (3700–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 57. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ap. Taste/potency: Bitter/cool. Uses: Same as Chrysosplenium carnosum. Uses: The whole plant acts as an elixir and is antiaging. It is beneficial for treating loss of healthy red blood (anemia), curing physical debility, maintaining physical balance and promoting longevity. It improves the functioning of the sensory organs, including the eye. Reference: 1, 3. Micranthes pallida (Wall. ex Ser.) Losinsk. Saxifraga pallida Wall. ex Ser., Saxifraga himalaica Balakr., S. micrantha Edgew. 'od ldan dkar po dman pa (འོད་ spyan gzigs rtag ngu ( ན་དཀར་པོ་དམན་པ་). ན་གཟིགས་ ག་ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb similar to M. melanocentra, but plant taller, 7–25 cm, flowers smaller in size; fillaments club-shaped. Native range: Himalaya to C China, N Assam. Habitat: Meadows and stony slopes (3200– 4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 58. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Note: Chrysosplenium forrestii Diels (Pl. 58) is used if the former two species are not available. Taste/potency: Sweet/neutral. Reference: 11, 23. Uses: Same as Micranthes melanocentra. 264 Micranthes pseudopallida (Engl. & Irmsch.) Losinsk. Saxifraga lychnitis Hook. f. & Thomson Hirculus lychnitis (Hook. f. & Thomson) Losinsk. Saxifraga pseudopallida Engl. & Irmsch. gur tig (གུར་ཏིག་). 'od ldan dkar po chung ba (འོད་ gser tig (གསེར་ཏིག་). spyan gzigs rtag ngu ( ན་དཀར་པོ་ ང་བ་). ན་གཟིགས་ ག་ ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb similar to M. melanocentra, but plant taller, 5–15 cm, inflorescence not flat-topped, and flowers smaller in size. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Meadows, rock crevices, scree and near streams (3400–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Perennial herb; caespitose or forming clumps without stolon; flowering stems 3–8 cm; stems, leaves and calices red or brown glandular-hairy. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Streamside rocks and moist meadows (3900–5500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 58. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet/neutral. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cooling. Uses: Same as Micranthes melanocentra. Uses: The whole plant is used in the treatment of hot disorders of the phlegm (bad kan) and bile (mkhris pa). It is specifically prescribed in the treatment of blood and nerve disorders, contagious diseases, and urinary retention. Reference: 9. Note: Micranthes pseudopallida has been placed by some workers under the synonymy of M. melanocentra. Saxifraga diversifolia Wall. ex Ser. Hirculus diversifolius (Wall. ex Ser.) Losinsk. me tog ser chen (མེ་ཏོག་སེར་ཆེན་). gser tig dman pa (གསེར་ཏིག་དམན་པ་). Diverse-leaved saxifrage (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 10–45 cm tall at flowering; stems caespitose or simple, erect. Native range: Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Forests, forest margins, scrub, alpine meadows and rock crevices (2400–4800 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Saxifraga nigroglandulifera N.P. Balakr. Hirculus nutans (Hook. f. & Thomson) Losinsk., Saxifraga nutans Hook. f. & Thomson gur tig (གུར་ཏིག་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 5–24 cm tall at flowering; stems caespitose or simple, erect, glandular hairy. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Open slopes, meadows and stony slopes (4000–5000 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/cooling. Taste/potency: Bitter/cooling. Uses: The whole plant is used for the treatment of hot disorders of blood and bile (mkhris pa), fever of nerves and channels, wounds, indigestion, diarrhoea, and urinary retention. Uses: Whole plant is used to treat hot disorders of the bile (mkhris pa) and liver, fever, hot disorders of the stomach and intestine, indigestion and wounds. Reference: 1, 3, 4. 265 Saxifraga parnassifolia D. Don Saxifraga diversifolia Wall. ex Ser. var. parnassifolia (D. Don) Ser. me tog ser chen (མེ་ཏོག་སེར་ཆེན་). gser tig dman pa (གསེར་ཏིག་དམན་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 8–50 cm tall at flowering; stems caespitose or simple, erect, leafy. Native range: Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Moist forests, forest margins, thickets, open slopes, alpine meadows and moist grasslands (1400–4900 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 58. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to astringent/cooling. Uses: Leaves and flowers are used in lung disorders, lung infection, hot disorders of the large and small intestines, bleeding and swellings of hands and feet. Reference: 1, 3, 4, 7. Oreosolen wattii Hook. f. Oreosolen schaeferi Melch., Scrophularia wattii (Hook. f.) P. Li rta lpags dkar po ( ་ གས་དཀར་པོ་). ོ་ ་ གས་དཀར་པོ་). sngo rta lpags dkar po ( Part(s) use: Wp. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Bitter/cooling. Small, minutely glandular-hairy perennial herb, forming rosette; stem to 2 cm or absent; flowers bright yellow. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Dry open slopes, rocks, scree slopes (4400–5800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 58. Uses: The whole plant is used in the treatment of bile (mkhris pa) disorders, fever, indigestion and wounds. The whole plant is substituted for gser gyi me tog (fruits/seeds of Herpetospermum pedunculosum) in treating hot disorders of the stomach and intestine, and bile (mkhris pa) disorders. Reference: 4, 11, 12, 15a, 19. SCROPHULARIACEAE PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet to bitter/neutral to heavy. Uses: The plant parts are used in treating wind disorders (rlung), infectious diseases (srin), weak bones, lymphatic disorders, and inflammation. Reference: 2, 7, 10, 11. Buddleja crispa Benth. Buddleja farreri Balf. f. & W.W. Sm., B. tibetica W.W. Sm., Buddleja tibetica var. glandulifera C. Marquand shing a krong (ཤིང་ཨ་ཀྲོང་). sgro ba shing ( sgro dkar ( ོ་བ་ཤིང་). ོ་དཀར་). Sīmtāro (Np-Dl). सीमतारो. Curly butterfly bush, Himalayan butterfly bush (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Shrub to 5 m tall, densely wooly-haired. Native range: SW Pakistan through Himalaya to C China and Myanmar. Habitat: Exposed cliffs, dry river valleys, rocky slopes and thickets (1800–4400 m; W & C Nepal). 266 Scrophularia decomposita Royle ex Benth. g.yer shing pa (གཡེར་ཤིང་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb, 18–30 cm tall; stems ascending to erect, purple, 4-angled, glabrous; leaves much divided. Native range: SW Pakistan to Nepal. Habitat: Dry stony slopes, forest margins and roadside (1500–3250 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 59. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/neutral to cooling. Uses: The whole plant or aerial parts are used to treat small-pox and infectious common cold. It is also used as an antidote. Habitat: Edges of cultivated areas, village areas, wasteland, open forests, grassy slopes and streamside (2200–3800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 58. Reference: 10, 15a. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Verbascum thapsus L. Verbascum indicum Wall., V. thapsus var. albiflora S.K. Agarwal shing gyi gser bye (ཤིང་གྱི་གསེར་ ེ་). sngo gser bye ( ་ོ གསེར་ ེ་). yu gu shing ser po ( ་གུ་ཤིང་སེར་པོ་) Sr-Dl, Sr-Ms. Gunā-puchhare, Gunā-lānkuri, Gunu-puchhu (Np, NpDl). गुना-पुच्छरे , गुना-लाँकुरी, गुनुपुछु. Aaron's-rod, Common mullein, Great mullein (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Biennial herb, densely yellow to white tomentose; flowering stem erect, 0.5–2 m tall. Native range: Europe and Asia, naturalized throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Habitat: Open slopes, grassy areas, river banks and roadside (1200–4000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 59. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St, Lf, Fl, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to astringent/cooling and coarse. Uses: Aerial parts of the plant are used to treat kidney and blood disorders, urinary retention, sores, infectious diseases, and cuts and wounds. Reference: 4, 6, 11, 12, 15a, 15b. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cooling. Uses: Roots and seeds are used to treat infectious diseases, accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser), intestinal disorders, neurological disorders, colic pain, sores, intestinal parasites, toothache, sinusitis, swellings and inflammation. The plant is highly toxic. It is used after detoxification. Reference: 10, 11, 12, 15b, 19. Anisodus tanguticus (Maxim) Pascher Anisodus tanguticus var. viridulus C.Y. Wu & C. Chen, Scopolia tangutica Maxim., Scopolina tangutica (Maxim.) Kuntze, Whitleya tangutica (Maxim.) Sandina thang phrom nag po (ཐང་ dug thang phrom ( ོམ་ནག་པོ་). ག་ཐང་ ོམ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect, foetid perennial herb; stem branched, 1–2 m, usually glabrous. Native range: Nepal, Tibetan Plateau and N & C China. Habitat: Edges of cultivation, village areas, wasteland, shrubland and steppes (3800–4400 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 59. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to sweet/cooling. SOLANACEAE Uses: Same as Anisodus luridus. Anisodus luridus Link ex Spreng. Anisodus anomalus (Link & Otto) V.S. Kumar, A. mairei (H. Lév.) C.Y. Wu & C. Chen, A. stramonifolius (Wall.) G. Don, Physalis stramonifolia Wall., Scopolia lurida (Link ex Spreng.) Dunal, S. mairei H. Lév., S. stramonifolia (Wall.) Shrestha thang phrom nag po (ཐང་ dug thang phrom ( Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. ོམ་ནག་པོ་). ག་ཐང་ ོམ་). Reference: 1, 2, 4, 7, 10–13, 15b, 19. Datura stramonium L. thang phrom khra bo (ཐང་ ོམ་ཁྲ་བོ་). ་ཐང་ཁྲོམ་). ་ལང་ཐང་). rgya thang khrom ( rgya lang thang ( Dhaturo, Seto dhaturo (Np). धतुरो, सेतो धतुरो. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Dhatūra (Sn). धतूर. Erect perennial herb; stem branched, 1–2 m, shortly pubescent. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Devil’s apple, Devils trumpet, Jamestown weed, Jimson weed, Common thornapple (En). 267 GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual herb or subshrub, 0.5–2 m tall; stems erect, woody at base, branched. Native range: Tropical regions of Central and South America; widely naturalized elsewhere. Habitat: Edges of cultivated areas, open places, roadsides, grasslands (200–2700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 61. Part(s) use: Lf, Fl, Fr, Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid to slightly sweet/ warming. Uses: The plant parts are used in the treatment of infectious diseases (srin), fever, body pain, toothache, rheumatism, ulcers and lymphatic disorder (chu ser). The plant is toxic. The plant parts are used after detoxification. Reference: 1–4, 6, 7, 13, 16. Hyoscyamus niger L. Hyoscyamus agrestis Kit. ex Schult., H. niger subsp. agrestis (Kit.) Hultén, H. niger var. chinensis Makino. lang thang rtse (ལང་ཐང་ )ེ . Bajrabhāng (Np). बजर्भाङ् . (Sn). पारसीक यवानी, Henbane, Black henbane, Stinking nightshade (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Robust, annual or biennial herb, to 1 m tall, glandular hairy and sticky throughout. Native range: Temperate Eurasia and NW Africa; naturalized elsewhere. Habitat: Wasteland, cultivated areas, and often planted (2000–4200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 59. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/oily, sharp and warming. Uses: Seeds are used to treat infectious (srin) diseases, sinusitis, pain, toothache, stomach 268 thang phrom dkar po (ཐང་ མོ ་དཀར་པོ་). thang khrom dkar po g.yung ba (ཐང་ཁྲོམ་དཀར་པོ་ག ང་བ་). Himalayan mandrake (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial pubescent herb, with fleshy rootstock; flowers yellow to dark purple. Native range: C & E Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Open slopes, grassy slopes and amongst shrubs (3600– 4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 59. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet/cooling. ོམ་སེར་པོ་). Madakārinī Anisodus caulescens (C.B. Clarke) Diels, A. humilis Hook. f. ex C.B. Clarke, A. mariae Pascher, Mandragora caulescens subsp. flavida Grierson & D.G. Long, M. caulescens subsp. purpurascens Grierson & D.G.Long, M. tibetica Grubov Part(s) use: Rt, Sd. thang khrom lang thang rtse (ཐང་ཁྲོམ་ལང་ཐང་ ེ་). Pārasīka-yavānī, मदकािरणी. Reference: 1–4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15b, 17. Mandragora caulescens C.B. Clarke PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL thang phrom ser po (ཐང་ disorders, worm infestation, lymphatic disorders (chu ser), cough, asthma, wounds and ulcers. The plant is toxic, seeds are properly detoxified before use. It is used singly or in combination with other herbs. Uses: Root and seeds are used in the treatment of urinary retention, obscuration in throat, intestinal disorders and infectious (srin) diseases. The plant is toxic; its parts are detoxified before use. Reference: 1, 3, 7, 13. Physochlaina praealta (Decne.) Miers Belenia praealta Decne., Hyoscyamus praealtus (Decne.) Walp., Physochlaina grandiflora Hook., Scopolia praealta (Decne.) Dunal lang thang rtse g.yung ba (ལང་ཐང་ ེ་ག ང་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb; stems erect, 50–120 cm, branched above, glandular pubescent. Native range: Karakorum to C Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Stony slopes and riversides in dry trans-Himalayan valleys (3500–4600 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 59. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Sapphireberry, Asiatic sweetleaf (En). Part(s) use: Ap. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Taste/potency: Bitter and sweet to acrid/cooling. Deciduous shrub or small tree; flowers in terminal panicles. Native range: W Himalaya to N & E China, Japan and mainland SE Asia. Habitat: Mixed broadleaved forests (1000–3200 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 59. Uses: Aerial parts are used in the treatment of infectious (srin) diseases, liver and stomach disorders, mouth sores, ulcers and toothache. The plant is toxic, its parts are properly detoxified before use. It is used in combination with other herbs. Reference: 4, 6. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Physalis somnifera L. a sho gan dha (ཨ་ཤོ་ག ་). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf. Taste/potency: Bitter and astringent/cooling. Uses: Leaves are used in the treatment of lung disorders, kidney fever and swelling. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a. Ashwagandhā (Np, Sn). अ गन्धा. TAMARICACEAE Indian ginseng, Indian winter cherry, Poisonous gooseberry, Winter cherry (En). Myricaria rosea W.W. Sm. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect or spreading undershrub, tomentose; stems several to many arising from a woody rootstock. Native range: S Europe and Africa through SW Asia to India and C China. It is cultivated and imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet and acrid/warming. Uses: Rootstocks are used for the treatment of cold disorders and rheumatic fever. Rootstocks increase heat in the kidney and gall bladder, and are also valued as tonic and aphrodisiac. Reference: 2, 10, 15a, 16. SYMPLOCACEAE Symplocos paniculata (Thunb.) Miq. Myrtus chinensis Lour., Prunus paniculata Thunb., Symplocos chinensis (Lour.) Druce, S. crataegoides Buch.Ham. ex D. Don, S. sinica Ker-Gawl. zhu mkhan ( ་མཁན་). nags zhun (ནགས་ ན་). Lodh, Sāno lodh, Kholme (Np). लोध, सानो लोध, खोल्मे. 'om bu (འོམ་ ་). 'om bu chung ba (འོམ་ ་ ང་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Prostrate shrub; stem 15–60 cm, brownish, much branched; young branches green, spreading or erect. Native range: Himalaya to SC China. Habitat: Streamside sandy and gravelly areas, rocky slopes and riverine shrubby steppes (2650–4500 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 60. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tw, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cooling. Uses: Young twigs, leaves, flowers and fruits are used for the treatment of all types of poisoning, fever associated with poisoning, headache, cough, blood disorder, lymphatic disorder (chu ser) and diarrhoea. Leaves and flowers are used for processing and detoxifying a number of poisonous medicinal ingredients before their use in medicine. Leaves, flowers and fruits of M. rosea are substituted for a ru (Terminalia chebula) in treating digestive disorders, diarrhoea, blood disorders, and poisoning; and in detoxifying 269 poisonous ingredients. Its flowers are also substituted for gi wang (bezoar) obtained from glang chen (Asian elephant: Elephas maximus) in treating poisoning and fever. Reference: 4, 5, 11, 12, 15a 15b, 23. Myricaria squamosa Desv. Myricaria germanica (L.) Desv. var. squamosa (Desv.) Maxim., M. hoffmeisteri Klotzsch 'om bu (འོམ་ ་). 'om bu che ba (འོམ་ ་ཆེ་བ་). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tw, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cooling. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of poisoning, blood disorders, digestive disorders and diarrhoea. Leaves and flower are also used for detoxification of poisonous ingredients. Leaves, flowers and fruits are substituted for a ru (fruits of Terminalia chebula) in treating digestive and blood disorders, and poisoning; and in detoxifying poisonous ingredients. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect shrub, 1–2 m tall; young branches pale green to reddish brown. Native range: W & C Asia to Russia, W & C Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and N & C China. Habitat: Rocky slopes, gravelly areas, sandy places at river banks, lakesides (2500–4400 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 60. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Tw, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet and astringent/cooling. Uses: The plant parts are used for the treatment of poisoning, blood disorders, digestive disorders and diarrhoea. Leaves and flower are also used for detoxification of poisonous ingredients. Leaves, flowers and fruits of M. squamosa are substituted for a ru (fruits of Terminalia chebula) in treating digestive disorders, diarrhoea, blood disorders, and poisoning; and in detoxifying poisonous ingredients. Reference: 4, 5, 10. Myricaria wardii C. Marquand 'om bu (འོམ་ ་). 'om bu che ba (འོམ་ ་ཆེ་བ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect shrub, 1–3 m tall; young branches pale green to reddish brown. Native range: Nepal and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Sandy places along river and gravelly areas (2600–4300 m; W & C Nepal). 270 THEACEAE Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze Thea sinensis L. ja shing (ཇ་ཤིང་). Chiyā (Np).िचया. Tea plant (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Evergreen shrub or small tree. Native range: NE India, mainland SE Asia and S China; widely cultivated. It is cultivated in the hills of Nepal (450– 2700 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 60. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf. Taste/potency: Astringent to bitter/cooling. Uses: Tea is used for hot disorders and fever. Reference: 1–3, 7. THYMELAEACEAE Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. Agallochum malaccense (Lam.) Kuntze, Aquilaria agallocha Roxb., A. secundaria DC., Aquilariella malaccensis (Lam.) Tiegh. a ga ru nag po (ཨ་ག་ ་ནག་པོ་). ar nag (ཨར་ནག་). Agar, Aguru (Np). अगर, अगुरु. Aguru, Krishnaguru (Sn). अगुरु, कृ ष्णगुरु Agarwood, Aloewood, Eaglewood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large evergreen tree. Native range: Bangladesh, NE India, S Bhutan, Myanmar to Malaysia. Agarwood is imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wd. LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (02/01/2017). Stellera chamaejasme L. Chamaejasme stelleriana Kuntze, Stellera himalayensis Gand., Wikstroemia chamaejasme (L.) Domke, W. chinensis Meissn. Taste/potency: Bitter to acrid/warm, oily, coarse. re lcag pa (རེ་ Uses: Heartwood is used for the treatment of fever due to wind disorder, inflammation of the heart, nerve disorder, depression, ear and eye infections, and poisoning. Deuralī-phūl, Jhāran (Np, Np-Dl). देउराली-फू ल, झारन्. Reference: 1, 2, 10, 13, 16. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Critically Endangered [A2cd] (HarveyBrown 2018a). ག་པ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Clump-forming perennial herb, ca. 60 cm tall, with many stems arising from woody rhizome. Native range: Himalaya, NW China (Xinjiang) to Russian Far East and Korea. Habitat: Meadows, dry open slopes, stony slopes and sandy places (2600–4300 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 60. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL LEGAL STATUS Global: CITES Appendix II (02/01/2017). Part(s) use: Rh, Lf, Fl. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warming. Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Spreng. Agallochum grandiflorum (Benth.) Kuntze, A. sinense (Lour.) Kuntze, Aquilaria grandiflora Benth., A. ophispermum Poir., Ophispermum sinense Lour. a ga ru dkar po (ཨ་ག་ ar dkar (ཨར་དཀར་). ་དཀར་པོ་). Chinese agarwood, Chinese eaglewood (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Uses: Rhizomes, leaves and flowers are used for the treatment of infectious diseases, pains, swellings, tumors, ulcers and skin diseases. Medicinal paste of rhizome heals bone fracture and wounds. The plant is slightly toxic. Reference: 1–5, 8, 10, 15b, 17. Wikstroemia canescens Meisn. Evergreen tree, 5–15 m tall. Native range: S & SE China. Chinese agarwood is probably imported in Nepal. Daphne canescens Wall. [nom. nud.], D. inamoena Gardner, Diplomorpha canescens (Meisn.) C.A. Mey., Wikstroemia inamoena (Gardner) Meisn., W. virgata Meisn. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL shog shing ar nag (ཤོག་ཤིང་ཨར་ནག་). Part(s) use: Wd. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/warming and heavy. Uses: Heartwood is used for the treatment of heart fever and nerve disorders. Reference: 1, 13. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Vulnerable [A2a] (Harvey-Brown 2018b). shog shing (ཤོག་ཤིང་). Kālo lokte, Phurkepatī (Np-Dl, Np). कालो लोक्ते , फु कपाती. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Shrubs, 1–2 m tall, silky-haired, with greenish yellow flowers. Native range: NE Afghanistan through Himalaya to SC China and Myanmar. Habitat: Shrubby slopes, open slopes, among rocks, light forests and forest clearings (1200–3200 m; W & C Nepal). Pl. 60. 271 PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: St. Taste/potency: Bitter and acrid/cooling. Uses: Stems are used to treat heart disorder due to imbalance of wind (rlung), disorders of lifeforce channels and toothache. Reference: 1, 4, 15a. Subtropical Old World. Habitat: Moist and shady places, light forests, forest margins, shrubberies, shady stream banks, edges of agriculture fields, disturbed places and trailsides (850–3000 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 61. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Lf, Rt. Taste/potency: Sweet and bitter/warming. ULMACEAE Ulmus wallichiana Planch. Ulmus brandisiana C.K. Schneid., U. laevigata Royle yo 'bog (ཡོ་འབོག་). Dhaminā (Np). धिमना. Himalayan elm (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tall deciduous tree with spreading branches. Native range: E Afghanistan to Nepal. Habitat: Mixed forests (1000–3000 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Br, Sd. Taste/potency: Astringent/cooling. Uses: Bark and seeds treat chronic fever, heartfever, wounds, skin diseases and pains. Reference: 4, 15a. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Vulnerable [A1c] (WCMC 1998). URTICACEAE Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Girardinia heterophylla Decne., Urtica diversifolia Link, U. palmata Forssk. zwa pho ( ་ཕོ་). Alle sisnu, Allo (Np). अल्ले िस ु, अल्लो. Himalayan nettle (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Stout perennial herb, ca. 3 m tall, armed with stinging hairs. Native range: Tropical and 272 Uses: Cooked leaves generate body heat and treat stomach disorders. Root paste is applied to treat swellings and wounds. Reference: 4, 15b. Urtica dioica L. Urtica dioica subsp. hispida (DC.) Chrtek, U. dioica var. vulgaris Wedd., U. hispida DC., U. tibetica W.T. Wang zwa rgod ( ་ ོད་). ་ ་ི ཨ་ཡ་). zwa ’brum ( ་འ མ་). zwa phyi a ya ( Sisnno, Sisnu (Np). िस ो, िस ु. Stinging nettle (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted perennial herb, 40–150 cm tall, armed with bristly stinging hairs. Native range: Europe, N Africa, Asia and N America, introduced elsewhere. Habitat: Moist places in forests, forest margins, thickets, stream banks, edges of cultivation, disturbed places, wasteland and trailsides ([?500–]3000–4800 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 60. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ts, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid and bitter/warming. Uses: Leaves, tender shoots and roots are used in generating body heat, cleansing of the stomach and improving digestion. The plant parts also cure lymphatic disorders, swellings and wounds. Reference: 1–4, 14, 15a, 15b, 21. CONSERVATION STATUS Global: Least Concern (Maiz-Tome 2016). Urtica hyperborea Jacquem. ex Wedd. zwa rgod ( zwa ’brum ( ་ དོ ་). ་འ མ་). Sisnu, Lek sisnu (Np). िस ु, लेक िस ु. GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Tufted perennial herb, 10–40 cm tall, armed with bristly stinging hairs. Native range: Himalaya to NW & C China and Mongolia. Habitat: Rock crevices, meadows and thickets (4100–5100 m; W & C Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Ts, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet, acrid and bitter/warming. Uses: Same as Urtica dioica. Reference: 6, 14. Viola wallichiana Ging. ex DC. Viola reniformis Wall. sngo rta rmig chung ( rta rmig dkar po ( ོ་ ་ ིག་ ང་). ་ ིག་དཀར་པོ་). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb with slender stem, 5– 15 cm tall; flowers yellow; basal spur of petal longer (>4 mm), tubular. Native range: C & E Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. Habitat: Open grassy slopes, moist places in forests, forest margins and moist rocky slopes (1900–3450 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 61. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet and astringent/ cooling. VIOLACEAE Viola biflora L. Viola manaslensis Maekawa sngo rta rmig ( Reference: 1–5, 7, 20. ་ོ ་ གི ་). ་ ིག་དཀར་པོ་). rta rmig dkar po ( ँ ो घ ेफूल. Pahenlo ghattephūl (Np); पहेल Alpine yellow violet, Arctic yellow violet, Twinflower violet (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Perennial herb with erect or ascending stem, 10–25 cm tall; rhizome slender; leaves reniform to broadly ovate; flowers yellow; basal spur of petal <2.5 mm, cylindric. Native range: Europe, subtropical and temperate Asia, and N America. Habitat: Meadows, grassy slopes, thickets, forests, forest margins and rock crevices (2100–4700 m; W–E Nepal). Pl. 61. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Wp. Taste/potency: Bitter, sweet and astringent/ cooling. Uses: The plant is used for treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders and headache. The plant heals wounds, fractured bones, and the opening of veins. It is mixed with other herbs. Uses: The plant is used for treating bile (mkhris pa) disorders, headache, wounds, and fractured bones. It is mixed with other herbs. VITACEAE Vitis vinifera L. rgun 'brum ( ན་འ མ་). Angūr, Dākh, Kismis (Np). अंगरू , दाख, िकसिमस. Drākshā (Sn). दर्ाक्षा. Common grape vine, Grape, Wine grape (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Large, deciduous tendril climber. Native range: SC & SE Europe to C Asia and N Iran; widely cultivated. The grape vine is cultivated in Nepal up to 1400 m. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet to slightly sour/cooling and heavy. Uses: Partially dried grape fruits (raisin) are used for treating hot disorders of the lung, influenza, haemoptysis and asthma. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13, 16. 273 ZINGIBERACEAE Amomum subulatum Roxb. Cardamomum subulatum (Roxb.) Kuntze ka ko la (ཀ་ཀོ་ལ་). tropical Asia; now widely cultivated. Habitat: Cultivated in Nepal (100–2000 m, W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. ँ ी, ठू लो अलैची. ँ Alainchī, Thūlo alainchī (Np). अलैच Taste/potency: Acrid and bitter/cooling. Brihadelā, Divyagandhā, Sthūlailā, Triputā, (Sn). बृहदेला, Uses: Rhizomes are used for treating poisoning, chronic wounds, infectious diseases, infectious fever, respiratory infection, plague and rectal pain due to hemorrhoids, fissures or piles. िद गन्धा, स्थूलल ै ा, ितर्पुटा. Greater cardamom, Nepal cardamom (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect perennial herb, 1–2 m tall, with creeping rhizomes; leaf blade glabrous; flowering spike arising from rhizomes; capsules winged. Native range: Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Myanmar and S China. Habitat: Mostly cultivated on moist shady slopes, light forests and forest margins (1000–2350 m; C & E Nepal). Pl. 61. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid/warming and light. Uses: Seeds are used to treat cold disorders of the stomach and spleen, and combined phlegm (bad kan) and wind (rlung) disorders. Seeds are particularly used in loss of appetite, indigestion, flatulence, diarrhoea, vomiting and evacuation of the bowel. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13, 16. Curcuma longa L. Curcuma domestica Valeton yung ba ( sga ser ( ང་བ་). ་སེར་). Besār, Haledo (Np). बेसार, हलेदो. Haridrā, Haridra, Swarnavarnī (Sn). हिरदर्ा, हिरदर्, स्वणर्वण . Turmeric (En). Note: Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. and Curcuma aromatica Salisb. are also similarly used. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Amomum cardamomum L. sug smel ( ག་ ེལ་). Sukumel (Np). सुकुमेल. Elā, Niskutī, Trutī (Sn). एला, िनष्कु टी, तर्ुटी. Cardamom, Green cardamom (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Rhizomatous perennial herb, 2–4 m tall. Native range: Western Ghats of S India; cultivated in tropical Asia. Cardamom fruits are imported in Nepal. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Sd. Taste/potency: Sweet to acrid and astringent/ warm and sharp to cool. Uses: Seeds are used for treating cold disorders of stomach and kidneys, urinary retention, stomach disorders, loss of appetite, and for generating digestive heat. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. Zingiber officinale Roscoe GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Amomum zingiber L. Erect rhizomatous perennial herb, ca. 1 m tall; rhizomes many branched, orange or bright yellow, aromatic. Native range: Probably originated in sga skya ( 274 ་ ་). bca'a sga (བཅའ་ ་). sga smug ( ་ ག་). sman sga ( ན་ ་). Aduwā, Shutho (Np). अदुवा, शुठो. Ãrdraka, Shunthī (Sn). आदर्र्क, शुण्ठी. Ginger (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Erect rhizomatous perennial herb, 30–150 cm tall; rhizomes branched, fleshy, aromatic. Native range: native origin unknown; widely cultivated in the tropics and subtropics. In Nepal, ginger is cultivated throughout the plains and hills of the country at the elevation range of 300–1500 m. PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rh. Taste/potency: Acrid and astringent/warm. Uses: Rhizomes are used for treating sleep disorders, combined disorders of wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan), cough, cold, blood impurities, impotency, loss of digestive heat and indigestion. It improves appetite, cleanses the blood and rejuvenates the nutritive vessels. Note: Cautleya spicata (Sm.) Baker, Hedychium gardnerianum Sheppard ex Ker Gawl., H. spicatum Sm. and Kaempferia rotunda L. are the plants cited with similar medicinal uses. Reference: 1–3, 7, 10, 13, 16. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Tribulus terrestris L. gze ma (གཟེ་མ་). gze ma ra mgo (གཟེ་མ་ར་མགོ་). ra gze (ར་གཟེ་). Gokhur (Np). गोखुर. Gokchura, Svadamstraka (Sn). गोक्षुर, दं क. Caltrop, Puncture vine (En). GENERAL HABIT, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Annual prostrate herb, glabrous or hispid; stems greenish-red 20-60 cm or more, branched, radiating from a central axis. Native range: Originated in Mediterranean region; now widespread throughout the world. Habitat: Sandy areas, banks of streams and canals (150–3600 m; W–E Nepal). PROPERTIES AND SOWA-RIGPA USE IN NEPAL Part(s) use: Rt, Lf, Fl, Fr. Taste/potency: Sweet/warm and mild. Uses: Plant parts are used for the treatment of cold wind (rlung) disorders, kidney disorders, urinary retention, difficult urination, diabetes, dermatitis, loss of regenerative fluid, lymphatic disorders and arthritis. Reference: 1–3, 10, 13, 15a, 16. 275 276 Color Plates 277 278 Lycoperdon perlatum [pha wang sgo ti] Parmotrema tinctorum [rdo dreg] [Plate 1] Ophiocordyceps sinensis [dbyar rtswa dgun ‘bu] Ophiocordyceps sinensis Thamnolia vermicularis [dngul skud] Dolichousnea longissima [gser skud] Selaginella pulvinata [sngo chu srin sder mo] Athyrium wallichianum [gyu ’brug ’khyil ba] [Plate 2] Equisetum arvense [chu mtshe] E. arvense subsp. diffusum [chu mtshe] Aglaomorpha propinqua [be ljang re ral] Ephedra gerardiana [mtshe ldum] Cupressus torulosa [rgya shug] Juniperus squamata [shug tsher] Juniperus communis [shug pa tsher can] [Plate 3] Juniperus indica [lha shug] Abies spectabilis [thang nag] Pinus wallichiana [sgron shing, sgron ma shing] Justicia adhatoda [shing ba sha ka] Allium carolinianum [rgya sgog] Allium fasciculatum [klung sgog] [Plate 4] Allium prattii [rug sgog] Allium sikkimense [byi’u sgog] Allium wallichii [‘dzim nag] Allium przewalskianum [‘dzim nag] Choerospondias axillaris [snying zho sha] Sambucus adnata [yu gu shing nag po] [Plate 5] Angelica cyclocarpa [lca ba] Bupleurum longicaule [sngo zi ra nag po] Bupleurum gracillimum [ri skyes zi ra ser po] Chaerophyllum villosum [lca ba] Tetrataenium nepalense [zi ra rgod pa] Bupleurum candollei [bod skyes zi ra nag po] Cortia depressa [tang kun nag po] Tetrataenium candicans [spru dkar] [Plate 6] Pterocyclus angelicoides [spru nag] Hymenidium benthamii [rtsad rgod] Hymenidium dentatum [rtsad rgod] Tetrataenium lallii [spru dkar] Hymenidium hookeri [tang kun dkar po, rtsad] Hymenidium brunonis [tang kun dkar po chung ba] Cynanchum auriculatum [sngo dug mo nyung] Vincetoxicum canescens [sngo dug mo nyung] [Plate 7] Ceropegia wallichii [sngo dug mo nyung] Hymenidium apiolens [tang kun dkar po] Ligusticopsis wallichiana [lca rgod, lca ba] Marsdenia roylei [dug mo nyung] Arisaema jacquemontii [dwa g.yung] [Plate 8] Arisaema flavum [dwa g.yung] Asparagus filicinus [nye shing] Arisaema tortuosum [dwa rgod] Aristolochia griffithii [ba le ka] Asparagus racemosus [nye shing tser me] Maianthemum purpureum [lug mnye dmar po] Polygonatum hookeri [spang gi ra mnye] [Plate 9] Polygonatum cirrhifolium [ra mnye] Ajania khartensis [khan chung ser mgo] Polygonatum verticillatum [ra mnye rgod pa] Ajania nubigena [mkhan pa dkar po] Allardia glabra [sgangs spos] Anaphalis contorta [spra ba] [Plate 10] Anaphalis nepalensis [spra ba] Anaphalis nepalensis var. monocephala [spra g.yung] Anaphalis triplinervis [spra rgod] Arctium lappa [byi bzung] Artemisia stricta [tshar bong smug po] Artemisia dubia [mkhan pa nag po] Artemisia gmelinii [phur nag] [Plate 11] Artemisia hedinii [zangs rtsi nag po] Anaphalis xylorhiza [spra g’yung] Artemisia indica [mkhan pa nag po] Artemisia roxburghiana [mkhan skya] Artemisia vestita [phur mong nag po] Artemisia sieversiana [mkhan skya] [Plate 12] Aster albescens [me tog lug mig g’yung ba] Aster diplostephioides [lug mig che ba] Aster flaccidus [me tog lug mig] Aster himalaicus [me tog lug mig] Aster stracheyi [lug mig chung ba] Dolomiaea macrocephala [khams kyi ru rta] [Plate 13] Aucklandia costus [sha pho ru rta] Carduus edelbergii [spyang tsher rgod pa] Himalaiella auriculata [khrog chen dman pa] Cirsium verutum [spyang tsher nag po] Cirsium wallichii [spyang tsher] Cremanthodium ellisii [ming can nag po] Cremanthodium decaisnei [sha la yu ring] [Plate 14] Cremanthodium arnicoides [ming can] Inula hookeri [ming can gser po] Cremanthodium nepalense [sga sho] Cremanthodium reniforme [sha la yu ring] Dubyaea hispida [rtsa mkhris dman pa] Leontopodium himalayanum [spra ba thog dkar rgod pa] Leontopodium jacotianum [spra ba thog dkar g’yung ba] [Plate 15] Ligularia amplexicaulis [ri sho] Melanoseris lessertiana [rtsa mkhris] Pseudognaphalium affine [gandha bha dra] Petasites tricholobus [lug sho] Melanoseris macrorhiza [rtsa mkhris mchog] Saussurea gossipiphora [bya rgod sug pa, gangs lha me tog] Saussurea tridactyla [bya rgod sug pa, gangs lha me tog chung] [Plate 16] Saussurea simpsoniana [bya rgod sug pa, gangs lha me tog chung] Saussurea graminifolia [srol gong ser po dman pa] Saussurea obvallata [gza’a dug nag po] Saussurea eriostemon [kon pa gab skyes chung] Saussurea leontodontoides [kon pa gab skyes chung] Soroseris deasyi [rdza skyes srol gong] [Plate 17] Soroseris pumila [srol gong ser po] Taraxacum eriopodum [khur mang] Soroseris hookeriana [srol gong ser po] Taraxacum sikkimense [khur dkar] Youngia gracilipes [rtsa mkhris chung] Podophyllum hexandrum [‘ol mo se] [Plate 18] Berberis aristata [skyer pa dkar po] Berberis angulosa [skyer pa nag po] Berberis wood and bark [skyer pa ker shun] Berberis mucrifolia [skyer pa nag po] Arnebia benthamii [‘bri mog ri skyes] Onosma bracteatum [‘bri mog che ba] Onosma hookeri [‘bri mog chung ba] [Plate 19] Cynoglossum furcatum [nad ma ‘byar ma] Lindelofia longiflora [nad ma g’yu lo] Maharanga emodi [‘bri mog dkar po] Hackelia uncinata [nadma snun ma] Incarvillea diffusa [ug chos dmar po] Incarvillea mairei [ug chos dmar po mchog] Eutrema scapiflorum [sro lo dkar po] [Plate 20] Capsella bursa-pastoris [sog ka pa] Descurainia sophia [shang tshe] Crucihimalaya himalaica [byi’u la phug] Erysimum pachycarpum [gser tig] Cardamine macrophylla [chu rug pa] Codonopsis viridis [klu bdud rdo rje dkar po] Cyananthus lobatus [sngon bu] [Plate 21] Thlaspi arvense [bre ga] Codonopsis thalictrifolia [klu bdud rdo rje] Lonicera angustifolia var. myrtillus [phang ma nag po] Pseudocodon grey-wilsonii [snyi ba] Lonicera rupicola [khyi shing] Lonicera spinosa [khyi shing] Morina nepalensis [spyang tsher g.yung ba] [Plate 22] Morina polyphylla [spyang tsher dkar po] Bassecoia hookeri [spang rtsi do bo] Nardostachys jatamansi [spang spos] Nardostachys jatamansi [spang spos] Valeriana hardwickei [nags spos] Valeriana jatamansi [nags spos] Arenaria globiflora [byi shang dkar mo, rtsa a krong] [Plate 23] Silene vautierae [lug sug] Eremogone kansuensis [rtsa a krong] Eremogone festucoides [rtsa a krong] Silene himalayensis [sug pa] Silene indica [ra sug] Cuscuta reflexa [gu gu sa ‘dzin dkar po] Parnassia nubicola [dngul tig] Silene nigrescens [lug sug] [Plate 24] Rhodiola prainii [brag tshan dmar po] Rhodiola himalensis [sro lo smug po] Rhodiola bupleuroides [sro lo dmar po] Rhodiola discolor [sro lo smug po] Hylotelephium ewersii [brag lcam dmar po] Rhodiola crenulata [sro lo dmar po] Sedum oreades [bre gu ser thig] Herpetospermum pedunculosum [gser gyi me tog] Thladiantha cordifolia [gser gyi phud bu] Hippophae salicifolia [star bu gnam star] Hippophae tibetana [star bu sa star] [Plate 25] Drocera peltata [bdud rtsi rtag ngu] Cassiope fastigiata [gru gu ras na] Rhododendron nivale [ba lu nag po] [Plate 26] Rhododendron anthopogon [ba lu dkar po] Rhododendron hypenanthum [ba lu dkar po] Rhododendron campanulatum [stag ma shing] Rhododendron lepidotum [ba lu nag po] Euphorbia pseudosikkimensis [dur byid] Astragalus yunnanensis [srad ser] Caragana brevispina [mdzo mo shing] [Plate 27] Euphorbia stracheyi [khron bu] Euphorbia wallichii [thar nu, thar chen] Astragalus rhizanthus subsp. candolleanus [mdzo mo shing chung ba] Caragana gerardiana [mdzo mo shing che ba] Caragana jubata [mdzo mo shing chung ba] Caragana versicolor [bra ma] [Plate 28] Medicago falcata [‘bu su hang dman pa] Oxytropis williamsii [srad nag, thom tsa] Parochetus communis [srad sngon] Phyllolobium donianum [srad sngon] Sophora moorcroftiana [skyi ba, skyi tsher] Thermopsis barbata [gla ba srad ma, gza’ bdud mug po] [Plate 29] Thermopsis lanceolata [gza’ bdud dkar po] Tibetia himalaica [srad smug] Gentiana depressa [spang rgyan sngon po] Gentiana ornata [spang rgyan sngon po] Gentiana nubigena [spang rgyan khra bo] Gentiana phyllocalyx [spang rgyan sngon po] [Plate 30] Gentiana membranulifera [gang ga chung] Halenia elliptica [lcags tig ra mgo ma] Gentiana robusta [kyi lce dkar po] Gentianopsis paludosa [lcags tig nag po] Swertia chirayita [rgya tig] Gentianella moorcroftiana [zangs tig] Lomatogonium carinthiacum [dngul tig dman pa] [Plate 31] Gentiana tibetica [kyi lce nag po] Swertia cuneata [lcags tig nag po chen] Gentiana stipitata [spang rgyan dkar po] Swertia multicaulis [lcags tig nag po chung] Swertia angustifolia [dngul tig] Swertia ciliata [bal tig] Swertia paniculata [sum cu tig] Swertia racemosa [rgya tig dman pa] [Plate 32] Geranium pratense [li ga dur sngon po] Geranium wallichianum [li ga dur mchog] Erodium stephanianum [mig sman sang rgyas] Geranium donianum [li ga dur] Geranium polyanthes [li ga dur] Swertia petiolata [lcags tig dkar po] Swertia speciosa [lcags tig dkar po] Geranium nepalense [li ga dur dman pa] [Plate 33] Corallodiscus lanuginosus [brag skya ha bo] Iris decora [gres ma] Iris goniocarpa [ma ning gres ma] Iris kemaonensis [gres ma pho] Juglans regia [star ga] Ajuga lupulina [zin tig rgod pa] [Plate 34] Dracocephalum wallichii [‘jib rtsi chen po] Elsholtzia eriostachya [byi rug ser po] Dracocephalum heterophyllum [‘jib rtsi dkar po] Lamium album [zhim thig dkar po] Elsholtzia fruticosa [byi rug rgod pa] Eriophyton wallichii [shang len smug po] Phlomoides rotata [rta lpags] [Plate 35] Nepeta staintonii [pri yang ku dman pa] Isodon rugosus [zhim thig nag po] Phlomoides bracteosa [lug mur] Coleus barbatus [zhim thig nag po] Thymus linearis [smag tog pa] Salvia campanulata [‘jib rtsi] Marmoritis nivalis [gnyan ‘dul ba] [Plate 36] Salvia roborowskii [zhim thig ser po] Salvia nubicola [‘jib rtsi dkar po] Salvia przewalskii [‘jib rtsi nag po/smug po] Salvia hians [‘jib rtsi sngon po] Dracocephalum tanguticum [pri yang ku] Phlomoides macrophylla [lug mur che ba] Nepeta discolor [zhim thig sngon po] [Plate 37] Nepeta coerulescens [zhim thig sngon po] Bulbs of Fritillaria cirrhosa [a bi sha] Ajuga integrifolia [zin tig chung ba] Gagea serotina [rtsa a wa] Ajuga lupulina [zin tig rgod pa] Bombax ceiba [na ga ge sar] Malva verticillata [ma ning lcam pa] [Plate 38] Fritillaria cirrhosa [a bi sha] Lancea tibetica [spa yag rtsa ba] Lilium nanum [a bi sha dman pa] Lloydia longiscapa [rtsa a wa rgod pa] Paris polyphylla [lo ma bdun can dwa ba] Stephania rotunda [sle tres] Mirabilis himalaica [ba spru] [Plate 39] Syringa emodi [srin shing] Coelogyne corymbosa [pu shel rtse] Epilobium angustifolium [byar pan chu rtsi] Epilobium speciosum [byar pan chu rtsi] Coelogyne cristata [pu shel rtse] Dendrobium amoenum [pu shel rtse] Cypripedium himalaicum [khu byug pa] [Plate 40] Cephalanthera longifolia [dbang ril] Pedicularis hoffmeisteri [lug ru dkar po] Dactylorhiza hatageria [dbang po lag pa] Gymnadenia orchidis [dbang lag dkar po] Pedicularis scullyana [lug ru dkar po] Dendrobium longicornu [pu shel rtse] Herminium monorchis [bye lce lag pa] [Plate 41] Gymnadenia orchidis [dbang lag dman pa] Pedicularis siphonantha [lug ru dmar po] Epipactis royleana [dbang ril] Hemipilia chusua [dbang lag dman pa] Pedicularis longiflora var. tubiformis [lug ru ser po] Pedicularis oederi [lug ru ser po dman pa] Pedicularis integrifolia [glang sna] [Plate 42] Orobanche solmsii [gro shang rtse] Corydalis hookeri [skra bzang zil pa] Xylanche himalaica [no pa’i pad dkar] Hemipilia calcicola [dbang lag dman pa] Corydalis hendersonii [re skon rtsi dmar] Corydalis govaniana [skra bzang zil pa] Corydalis meifolia [stong ri zil pa] [Plate 43] Pedicularis gracilis [glang sna] Corydalis megacalyx [re skon] Pedicularis pectinata [glang sna] Pedicularis trichoglossa [lug ru smug po] Dicranostigma lactucoides [rtsa thag] Corydalis juncea [bya pho tsi tsi] Corydalis cashmeriana [ga bur zil gnon] [Plate 44] Hypecoum leptocarpum [par pa ta] Meconopsis grandis subsp. jumlaensis [ut pal sngon po] Phyllanthus emblica [skyu ru] Meconopsis horridula [a byag tsher sngon] Meconopsis paniculata [ut pal ser po] Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora [hong len] Lagotis kunawurensis [sngo ba sha ka] Hemiphragma heterophyllum [a ‘bi ra] Bistorta affinis [spang ram, gla sgang dman pa] Veronica ciliata subsp. cephaloides [ldum nag dom mkhris] Veronica himalensis [ldum nag dom mkhris] [Plate 45] Hippuris vulgaris [‘dam bu ka ra] Bistorta amplexicaulis [gla sgang] Bistorta vivipara [ram bu rgod pa] Bistorta macrophylla [spang ram] Koenigia polystachya [snya lo] [Plate 46] Oxyria digyna [chu ma rtsi] Koenigia rumicifolia [snya lo] Rheum acuminatum [chu rtsa] Rheum australe [chu rtsa] Koenigia tortuosa [snya lo] Rheum moorcroftianum [lcum rtsa chung ba] Rheum spiciforme [chu rtsa chung ba] [Plate 47] Rheum nobile [lcum dkar] Androsace strigillosa [sga tig nag po] Rheum webbianum [lcum rtsa] Rumex nepalensis [klung sho] Androsace sarmentosa [sga tig smug po] Primula munroi [shang dril dkar po] Primula macrophylla [shang dril nag po] Primula redii [shang dril dkar po] [Plate 48] Androsace robusta [spang a krong dmar po] Aconitum gammiei [bdud rtsi lo ma] Androsace tapete [spang a krong dkar po] Primula sikkimensis [shang dril ser po] Primula rotundifolia [brag lcam chen po ] Aconitum orochryseum [bong dkar] Aconitum novoluridum [bong dmar] Anemonastrum obtusilobum [srub ka sngon po] Caltha palustris [rta rmig che ba] Aconitum spicatum [bong nag] Aconitum ferox [bong nag] [Plate 49] Aconitum palmatum [bong dmar] Aconitum naviculare [bong dkar] Anemonastrum polyanthes [srub ka dmar po] Actaea frigida [rgya rtsi rgod pa] Delphinium densiflorum [bong dmar] Delphinium himalayae [bya rkang, a tig] [Plate 50] Delphinium brunonianum [bya rgod spos] Delphinium caeruleum [bya rkang] Clematis tibetana var. vernayi [dbyi mong nag po] Clematis montana [dbyi mong dkar po] Delphinium kamaonense [bya rkang] Thalictrum cultratum [sngo sprin] Thalictrum reniforme [sngo sprin] [Plate 51] Eriocapitella rivularis [srub ka dkar po] Eriocapitella rupicola [srub ka dkar po] Clematis barbellata [dbyi mong khra bo] Paraquilegia microphylla [yu mo mde’u ‘byin] Thalictrum foliolosum [sngo sprin lcags kyu] Halerpestes tricuspis [chu rug sbal lag] Ranunculus brotherusii [lce tsha] [Plate 52] Argentina microphylla [gro lo sa ‘dzin chung ba] Argentina peduncularis [gro lo sa ‘dzin che ba] Cotoneaster acuminatus [tshar dkar] Cotoneaster frigidus [tshar pa] Cotoneaster microphyllus [tshar leb] Argentina anserina [gro lo sa ‘dzin] [Plate 53] Dasiphora arbuscula [spen nag] Fragaria nubicola [‘bri ta sa ‘dzin] Potentilla argyrophylla [rgyu mkhris ser po] Potentilla argyrophylla var. atrosanguinea [rgyu mkhris smug po] Geum elatum [rgyu mkhris ser po dman pa] Prunus mira [bod kham] [Plate 54] Pyrus pashia [‘o se’i ‘bras bu] Rosa brunonii [se rgod mo] Rosa macrophylla [se rgod pho] Rosa sericea [se ba, se ba’i me tog] Rubus ellipticus [ga bra] Rubus niveus [kan da ka ri] [Plate 55] Rubus pedunculosus [kan da ka ri] Spiraea arcuata [smag shad] Galium aparine [zangs rtsi dkar po] Rubia manjith [btsod] Zanthoxylum armatum [g.yer ma] Zanthoxylum bungeanum [g.yer ma] [Plate 56] Aegle marmelos [bil ba] Populus ciliata [ma gal] Salix lindleyana [glang ma chung] Salix calyculata [glang ma nag po] Salix serpyllum [glang ma nag po chung] Sapindus mukorossi [lung tong] [Plate 57] Bergenia pacumbis [ga tigs smug po] Bergenia purpurascens [sngo ga tigs smug po] Chrysosplenium nudicaule [g.ya’ kyi ma] Chrysosplenium carnosum [g.ya’ kyi ma] Saxifraga parnassifolia [me tog ser chen] [Plate 58] Micranthes pallida [‘od ldan dkar po dman pa] Micranthes melanocentra [‘od ldan dkar po mchog] Oreosolen wattii [rta lpags dkar po] Saxifraga lychnitis [gur tig] Chrysosplenium forrestii [g.ya’ kyi ma] Anisodus luridus [thang phrom nag po] Scrophularia decomposita [g.yer shing pa] Verbascum thapsus [shing gyi gser bye] Hyoscyamus niger [lang thang rtse] [Plate 59] Physochlaina praealta [lang thang rtse g.yung ba] Mandragora caulescens [thang phrom dkar po] Anisodus tanguticus [thang phrom nag po] Symplocos paniculata [zhu mkhan] Myricaria rosea [‘om bu chung ba] Myricaria squamosa [‘om bu che ba] [Plate 60] Camellia sinensis [ja shing] Wikstroemia canescens [shog shing ar nag] Stellera chamaejasme [re lcag pa] Urtica dioica [zwa rgod] Datura stramonium [thang phrom khra bo] Girardinia diversifolia [zwa pho] [Plate 61] Viola biflora [sngo rta rmig] Viola wallichiana [sngo rta rmig chung] Amomum subulatum [ka ko la] Flower buds of Amomum subulatum [ka ko la] Appendices 341 342 Appendix 1. Essential medicines frequently cited by amchi from Mustang, Dolpa and Kathmandu. Data shown are relative frequency of citation (RFC) separately for the three districts and for all districts combined. RFC was calculated based on only those amchi who prepared medicine themselves. The medicines are alphabetically arranged according to their Sowa rigpa name. Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration) Sowa Rigpa name (in Tibetan) English name a gar brgyad pa (a gar 8) ཨ་གར་བ ད་པ་ Eaglewood 8 a gar bco lnga (a gar 15) ཨ་གར་བཅོ་ ་ a gar nyi shu (a gar 20) 1 Main disorders treated RFC Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Overall Wind disorders, cardiac disorder, palpitation of heart, insomnia, dizziness, abnormal mental or behavioral patterns 0.91 1 1 0.95 Eaglewood 15 Blood and wind disorders, pain in the upper back and front, cough 0.36 0.67 0.75 0.52 ཨ་གར་ཉི་ ་ Eaglewood 20 Blood and wind disorders, neurological disorders, abnormal mental or behavioral patterns 0.27 0.50 0.75 0.43 a gar so lnga (a gar 35) ཨ་གར་སོ་ ་ Eaglewood 35 Wind disorders, wind associated blood disorder, fever, inflammation, dry cough, difficulty in breathing, insomnia, inflammation of the heart 0.73 0.67 0.50 0.67 a ru bdun pa (a ru 7) ཨ་ ་བ ན་པ་ Chebulic myrobalan 7 Spleen disorder, pain (such as neuralgic) in the region of the spleen 0.45 0.67 0.75 0.57 a ru bcu pa (a ru 10) ཨ་ ་བ ་པ་ Chebulic myrobalan 10 Urinary disorder, inflammation of the kidneys, urinary retention 0.45 0.67 0.75 0.57 blon po gsum sbyor ོན་པོ་ག མ་ ོར་ Compound of three ministers (with three ingredients) Cough, fever of the lungs, infectious fever, development of fever in children 0.18 0.33 0.50 0.29 bsam ‘phel nor bu བསམ་འཕེལ་ནོར་ ་ Wish-fulfilling jewel (with 30 ingredients) Inflammation of peripheral nerves, problem with the sciatic nerve, gout, stiffness and contraction of limbs, paralysis, skin diseases 0.36 0.17 0.50 0.33 Embelia 7 Parasite infestation, stomach pain, piles, rectal prolapse 0.09 0.5 0.25 0.24 Calcite 6 Phlegm disorders, impaired digestion, acidity and heartburn 0.09 0.5 0.25 0.24 byi tang bdun pa (byi tang 7) cong zhi drug pa (cong zhi 6) ི་ཏང་བ ན་པ་ ཅོང་ཞི་ ག་པ་ dwa lis bcu drug (dwa lis 16) ་ལིས་བ ་ ག་ Rhododendron 6 Phlegm disorders, oedema, body swellings, impaired digestion and abdominal cramps 0.27 0.50 0.75 0.43 glo tshad kun sel གློ་ཚད་ཀུན་སེལ་ Eliminator of inflamed lungs (14 ingredients) Inflammation of the walls of the alveoli in the lungs 0.09 0.5 0.25 0.24 Onosma 4 Combined phlegm and blood disorders 0.33 0.18 0.25 0.24 rga glo'i sman dmar ་གློའི་ ན་དམར་ 343 Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration) Sowa Rigpa name (in Tibetan) English name gser mdog lnga pa (gser mdog 5) གསེར་མདོག་ ་པ་ Golden colour 5 gser mdog bcu gcig (gser mdog 11) གསེར་མདོག་བ ་ གཅིག་ gtso bo brgyad pa (gtso bo 8) གཙ་བོ་བ ད་པ་ khyung lnga (khyung 5) ང་ ་ 1 Main disorders treated RFC Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Overall Combined phlegm and bile disorders, indigestion, yellowing of the eyes 0.33 0.12 0.25 0.22 Golden colour 11 Phlegm and bile imbalances, headache, gallstones, indigestion, yellowing of the eyes 0.36 0.33 0.50 0.38 Principal 8 Infectious/contagious fever, blood infection, pulmonary infection, inflammation of the gall bladder, bile fever, hepatitis 0.09 0.67 0.50 0.33 Garuda 5 Microbial infections, infectious fever, skin diseases, inflammations 0.18 0.67 0.25 0.33 ko byi bcu gsum (ko byi 13) ཀོ་ ི་བ ་ག མ་ Nux-vomica 13 Upper back pain due to blood-wind disorders, high blood pressure 0.09 0.5 0.25 0.24 li shi drug pa (li shi 6) ལི་ཤི་ ག་པ་ Clove 6 Infections, pulmonary diseases, fever, cough and sore throat 0.09 0.5 0.25 0.24 Margarita 25 nervous disorders, headache, paralysis, contraction and stiffness of limbs and loss of memories 0.09 0.5 0.25 0.24 mu tig nyer lnga (mu tig 25) ་ཏིག་ཉེར་ ་ nor bu bdun thang (nor bu 7) ནོར་ ་བ ན་ཐང་ Decoction of 7 precious ingredients Infectious fever, wind fever, common cold and hypertension 0.18 0.67 0.75 0.43 'ol se nyer lnga ('ol se 25) འོལ་སེ་ཉེར་ ་ Podophyllum 25 Menstrual disorders, menorrhagia, ovarian tumors 0.36 0.50 0.50 0.43 rdo rje rab ‘joms (rdo rab) ོ་ ེ་རབ་འཇོམས་ Vajra-like eliminator (with 10 ingredients) Sinusitis, eyes disorders, leucoma, eye polyps, toothache and windblood disorders 0.18 0.33 0.25 0.24 rgun 'brum bdun pa (rgun ‘brum 7) ན་འ མ་བ ན་པ་ Raisin/grape 7 Lung and digestive disorders, cough and asthma 0.18 0.50 0.25 0.29 rin chen byur dmar nyer lnga (rin chen byur dmar 25) རིན་ཆེན་ ར་དམར་ ཉེར་ ་ The precious coral 25 Neurological diseases, headache, vertigo, fainting, paralysis 0.09 0.5 0.25 0.24 Costus/ Saussurea 6 Dark-phlegm disorder, and digestive disorders, such as vomiting and indigestion 0.18 0.50 0.25 0.29 ru rta drug pa (ru rta 6) ་ ་ ག་པ་ se 'bru lnga pa (se ‘bru 5) སེ་འ ་ ་པ་ Pomegranate 5 Stomach disorders: indigestion, vomiting, stomach tumour. 0.55 0.83 0.75 0.67 se 'bru dangs gnas སེ་འ ་ ངས་གནས་ Maintainer of essence (with five ingredients) Digestive disorders, blockage of vessels, debility, weakness 0.33 0.29 0.25 0.30 344 Sowa Rigpa name (Wylie transliteration) Sowa Rigpa name (in Tibetan) English name 1 Main disorders treated RFC Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Overall skyu ru nyer lnga (skyu ru 25) ་ ་ཉེར་ ་ Amla or Phyllanthus 25 Bile-blood disorders in the stomach, acidity, hypertension, upper back-ache due to blood disorder 0.73 0.83 0.75 0.76 spang rtsi bcu gnyis (spang rtsi 12) ང་ ི་བ ་གཉིས་ Pterocephalus 12 Infectious fever, infectious swellings 0.27 0.50 0.25 0.33 spos dkar bcu ba (spos dkar 10) ོས་དཀར་བ ་བ་ Shorea 10 Blood and lymph disorders, rheumatic arthritis, pain and swellings in the joints. 0.18 0.50 0.50 0.33 spos khyung bco lnga (spos khyung 15) ོས་ ང་བཅོ་ ་ Shorea-garuda 15 Lymph disorders, swelling of joints, gout, rheumatic arthritis, paralysis 0.27 0.33 0.50 0.33 thang chen nyer lnga (thang chen 25) ཐང་ཆེན་ཉེར་ ་ Great decoction 25 Dark-phlegm disorders, chronic fever, and poisoning 0.27 0.33 0.25 0.29 tig ta brgyad pa (tig ta 8) ཏིག་ཏ་བ ད་པ་ Chirayita 8 Bile disorders, headache, fever and inflammation, tonic to liver 0.91 1 1 0.95 tsan dan bco brgyad (tsan dan 18) ཙན་དན་བཅོ་བ ད་ Sandalwood 18 Circulatory disorders, blood pressure, headache, brown phlegm, hepatitis, digestive disorders 0.45 0.67 0.75 0.57 zhi byed drug pa (zhi byed 6) ཞི་ ེད་ ག་པ་ Pacifying 6 Purgative, treats indigestions, distension of stomach, constipation and retained placenta 0.45 0.67 0.75 0.57 1 Uses of the medicines are based on literature (mainly Drungtso & Drungtso 2005 and Gyatso & Hakim 2010) and present study. 345 Appendix 2. List of Nepalese amchi. The names are arranged alphabetically according to district. (i) Amchi associated (as a member) with the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA), Nepal S.N. Name/Surname District Municipality and Ward No. 1. Sonam Tenzin Sherpa Baglung Dhorpatan-9 2. Sujan Tamang Dhading Dhun besi-1 3. Chetan Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 4. Chime Tenzin Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-4 5. Choebel Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-5 6. Chojang Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-3 7. Chokap Dhundup Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 8. Chuling Gyaltsen Ghale Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong-3 9. Chutup Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-6 10. Darkhe Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 11. Dondup Dolpa SheyPhok Sundo-3 12. Dorje Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-6 13. Golung Darke Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 14. Gukho Chewang Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-4 15. Jekri Tsering Dolpa Shey Phok sumdo- 1 16. Karma Dolpa Tsharkha Tensong-6 17. Karma Dhundup Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-3 18. Karma Dolma Gurung Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-4 19. Karma Namsel Gurung Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-4 20. Karma Tenzin Gurung Dolpa Charka Tansen-6 21. Karma Yeshi Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-3 22. Krishna Buda Dolpa Kainke-7 23. Kunsang Namgyal Gurung Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong-1 24. Kunsel Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 25. Lodoe Wango Gurung Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 26. Loto Anchung Dolpa Shey Phoksum do-2 27. Mendi Gurung Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong -5 28. Molam Dolma Budha Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo -8 29. Namgyal Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-1 30. Namgyal Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-9 31. Namsay Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-9 32. Ngodup Gurung Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong-1 346 S.N. Name/Surname District Municipality and Ward No. 33. Nima Wangmo Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-5 34. Nyima Tenzin Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 35. Nyima Woser Lama Dolpa Kaiguan -5 36. Pema Gyaltsen Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-3 37. Pema Tsering Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 38. Pema Tsewang Gurung Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong-3 39. Pemba Buti Lama Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-3 40. Pemba Choephel Gurung Dolpa Sheyphusundo-4 41. Pemba Gurung Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong-6 42. Pemba Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-3 43. Phubha Dhundup Gurung Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong.-6 44. Phuntsok Nyima Dolpa Dolpo Buddha-6 45. Samdrup Nyima Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo 46. Shek Dorje Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 47. Sherab Tenzin Gurung Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-5 48. Sonam Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-2 49. Sonam Dhanto Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-4 50. Takla Tsewang Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-1 51. Tashi Gyaltsen Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-5 52. Tashi Lhamu Gurung Dolpa TsarkhaTansong-1 53. Tasi Bhuti Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-5 54. Tengyal Sangpo Baije Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-9 55. Tenzing Gyalgen Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-5 56. Tsering Sangmo Lama Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-1 57. Tsering Dorje Gurung Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-3 58. Tsering Dundup Dolpa Dolpa Buddha-8 59. Tsewang Gurung Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-2 60. Tsewang Gyaltsen Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-2 61. Tsultrim Dorje Dolpa Tsharkha Tensong-6 62. Urgen Rinchen Gurung Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-2 63. Urken Puti Gurung Dolpa Tsarkha Tansong-5 64. Yungdrung Tsewang Lama Dolpa Shey Phoksumdo-5 65. Dem Dhorjen Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -1 66. Dhawang Sange Lama Gorkha Loha-9 347 S.N. Name/Surname District Municipality and Ward No. 67. Dhurmi Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -1 68. Dorje Thakur Gorkha Tsum Nubri -4 69. Kunsang Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -6 70. Mingmar Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -1 71. Norbu Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri-2 72. Sanga Tezi Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -4 73. Sange Dorje Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -3 74. Sonam Phuntsok Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri-7 75. Tashi Choephel Gorkha Loha-9 76. Tharpa Dhojang Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -4 77. Tsering Dolma Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -7 78. Tsewang Rigzin Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri-1 79. Tsewang Choden Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -4 80. Tsewang Choden Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -6 81. Tsewang Dolma Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -1 82. Wangchuk Lama Gorkha Tsum Nubri -4 83. Norbu Sangpo Lama (Tshewang) Humla Simkot-3 84. Tsering Norbu Lama Humla Simkot-3 85. Tsephel Dorje Lama Humla Namkha Rural Municipality -1 86. Tsephel Lama Humla Simkot-3 87. Gyalpo Gurung Kathmandu Kathmandu-17 88. Kunsang Dorje Lama Kathmandu Kathmandu-16 89. Tashi Peldon Sherpa Kathmandu Kathmandu 90. Karma Tsewang Tamang Mugu Karmarong-3 91. Pema Cheokyi Lama Mugu Karmarong-2 92. Dorje Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-2 93. Gyatso Bista Mustang Lomanthang-5 94. Khetub Gurung Mustang Dolame-4 95. Lakpa Bista Mustang Dolame-2 96. Lhundup Gyatso Bista Mustang Lomanthang-5 97. Nima Lodoe Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-1 98. Nyima Gurung Mustang Mukti chetra-1 99. Pema Mustang Dolame-4 100. Pema Wangyal Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-3 348 S.N. Name/Surname District Municipality and Ward No. 101. Pema Dolma Bista Mustang Lomanthang-5 102. Pema Dorjee Gurung Mustang Dalome-1 103. Pema Wangdue Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-3 104. Rigzin Wangmo Bista Mustang Lomanthang-5 105. Rigzin Wangyal Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-5 106. Samten Dakpa Gurung Mustang Dalome-3 107. Sonam Sangpo Gurung Mustang Dolame-1 108. Tashi Namgyal Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-4 109. Tashi Tenzing Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-3 110. Tasi Wangmo Gurung Mustang Lomanthang-3 111. Tenjing Bista Mustang Lomanthang-5 112. Tsewang Gyurme Gurung Mustang Gharpa jhong-5 113. Tshampa Ngawang Gurung Mustang Baragaun-5 114. Pemba Tsering Tamang Rasuwa Chileme-3 115. Lakpa Tsewang Tamang Rusuwa Galta-4 116. Sherab Gyaltsen Lama Sindulpalchowk Nagarjung-2 117. Tenjing Chulto Lama Solukhumbu Solukhumbu 349 (ii) List of other Amchi working in Nepal Name District Village/city Dawa Tenzin Dolpa Tsaga-3 Karma Dolpa Tsaga Karma Dadhul Dolpa Saldang Karma Tashi Dolpa Saldang-6 Kunga Dolpa Tsaga Yungdung Dolpa Tsaga-1 Sherab Nyima Dolpa Phoksundo Sonam Dukgye Dolpa Polde Dodrak Kathmandu Swayambhu Gyamtso Kathmandu Bouddha Ngawang Lama Kathmandu Bouddha Sherab Gyaltsen Kathmandu Swayambhu Sherab Verma Kathmandu Kathmandu Tenzin Dhargye Gurung Kathmandu Swayambhu Lodro Sherab Kathmandu Bouddha Tsering Choedup Mustang Dolame-4 350 Appendix 3. Animals or their parts prescribed in Sowa Rigpa: name, relative frequency of citation (RCF), parts/organs use, properties (taste and potency), medicinal use, and reference for similar properties, medicinal use and/or Sowa Rigpa name citation. The animals are alphabetically arranged according to the phylum, class, order and family name, followed by specific name. Domestic and wild animals are treated separately. Nomenclature follows animal databases (Orrell and Nicolson 2020; Ng and Davie 2020; MolluscaBase 2020; Uetz and Hošek 2020) accessed via Catalogue of Life (https://www.catalogueoflife.org/). [Note: the wild animals or their parts are listed here just for information purpose, which does not mean that these are currently being used. Although the animals listed here are mentioned in the pharmacopoeia of Tibetan Medicine, these are not used at present by majority of Nepalese amchi due to the legal restrictions and unavailability. Instead, amchi practice plant or mineral-based substitutes or alternatives derived from domestic animals (see Chapter 3). The wild animals were cited by amchi in response to our questions related to which wild animal parts are prescribed in Sowa Rigpa and for what purpose. Out of 37 informant amchi only 35 (12 from Mustang, 17 from Dolpa and 6 from Kathmandu) answered to these questions, on the basis of which RFC was calculated]. Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name 1 RFC Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total 2 Origin Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref A. DOMESTIC ANIMALS Phylum: Chordata; Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla; Family: BOVIDAE Bos grunniens (Linnaeus, gyag Domestic yak 0.25 0.18 0.33 0.23 N -0.5, T-0.5 Heart, blood, horn, flesh, bezoar, gallbladder/b ile Heart, blood and flesh are slightly sweet and astringent in taste, warm and cool in potency. Treats heart diseases, heart pain, loss of memory, general debility. Flesh treats cold diseases. Gallbladder or bile is bitter in taste and cool in potency, and treats bile disorders, bleedings, fever and dark phlegm. 1–5 Bos taurus (Linnaeus, ba Domestic cow 0 0.18 0 0.09 N Butter, urine, bezoar Astringent and salty in taste, sharp and cool in potency. Treats skin disease, wounds, joint pain, and rheumatism 1–3, 5 Capra hircus (Linnaeus, ra Domestic goat 0.17 0.12 0 0.11 N Blood, horn Sweet and salty in taste, cool in potency. Treats headache due to sinusitis, gynaecological disorders, removes toxins from the body. 1, 3, 5 Ovis aries (Linnaeus, 1758) lug, lug thug po Domestic sheep 0.17 0.12 0.33 0.17 N Brain, butter, horn Brain: slightly sweet in taste; warm in potency. Treats general debility, dizziness due to low blood pressure. Horn: sweet and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats gastritis, stomachache, infection, lung disorders. Butter: oily in potency, treats vitiligo (characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment). 1–3, 5 1766) 1758) 1758) 351 Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name 1 RFC Origin 2 Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total Domestic pig 0.17 0.24 0.17 0.2 N Blood Sweet and salty in taste, cool in potency. Treats gastritis, internal fever, and removes poison from the body. 1–5 Donkey 0.42 0.24 0.17 0.29 T Blood Astringent, salty, and slightly sweet in taste, cool in potency. Treats joint pain, rheumatism, uric acid, communicable diseases and inflammations. 2, 3, 5 Scorpion 0.08 0 0.17 0.06 I Whole animal Sweet and salty in taste, warm in potency. Treats kidney disorder, urinary problem (blockage of urine due to cold). 3 Crab 0.08 0.06 0.17 0.09 I Whole animal Sweet and salty in taste, warm in potency. Treats kidney disorder, urinary problem. Substitute of sdig srin. 2 Freshwater crab 0.5 0.06 0.83 0.34 I -0.6, T -0.4 Whole animal Sweet and salty in taste, warm in potency. Treats kidney disorder, urinary obstruction (blockage of urine due to cold). 5 Order: Artiodactyla; Family: SUIDAE Sus scrofa domesticus (Erxleben, 1777) phag pa Order: Perissodactyla; Family: EQUIDAE Equus africanus asinus (Linnaeus, 1758) bong bu B. WILD ANIMALS Phylum: 1. Arthropoda Class: 1. Arachnida Order: Scorpiones; Family: BUTHIDAE Buthus sp. sdig pa nag po Class: 2. Malacostraca Order: Decapoda; Family: PORTUNIDAE Charybdis sp. chu sdig Order: Decapoda; Family: POTAMIDAE Himalayapotamon atkinsonianum (WoodMason, 1871) 352 sdig srin, sdig srin dkar po Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name 1 RFC Origin 2 Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total Chinese medicinal cockroach 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.14 T Whole insect Treats appendicitis (lang thab), vein disorder. 1 Blister beetle 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.14 T Whole animal Slightly salty and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats sinusitis, urinary obstructions, fainting, and cleanses blood vessels. 1–3, 5 Murex snails or Rock snails 0.08 0.06 0.2 0.11 I White conch shell Slightly astringent and acrid in taste, warm in potency. Treats stomach disorders, bone fever, tumour; and dries pus and lymphatic fluids. 1, 2, 5 Money cowry 0.08 0 0.17 0.06 I Shell Slightly astringent in taste, warm in potency. Treats stomach disorders, tumour, bleeding; and dries pus and lymphatic fluids. 1, 5 Chinese mountain salamander, Stream salamander 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.14 I -0.4, N -0.1, T 0.5 Flesh Sweet in taste, warm in potency. Used as a general tonic to revitalize physical vigor, tonic to kidney, aphrodisiac (rocha); also treats cold disorders of kidneys. 1–3, 5 Class: 3. Insecta Order: Blattodea; Family: CORYDIIDAE Eupolyphaga sinensis (Walker, F., 1868) jhin jhing thu lu Order: Coleoptera; Family: MELOIDAE Mylabris sp. byan pa Phylum: 2. Mollusca Class: 1. Gastropoda Order: Neogastropoda; Family: MURICIDAE Rapana bezoar (Linnaeus, 1767) dung skar Order: Littorinimorpha; Family: CYPRAEIDAE Monetaria moneta (Linnaeus, 1758) ‘gron bu Phylum: 3. Chordata Class: 1. Amphibia Order: Caudata; Family: HYNOBIIDAE Batrachuperus pinchonii (David, 1872) gang sbal, da byid smug po, gang da byid 353 Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name 1 RFC Origin Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total Chinese krait, Many-banded krait 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.14 T Rat snake 0.25 0.06 0.17 0.14 N -0.5, T -0.5 2 Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref Whole animal Sweet in taste, cool in potency. Used as a tonic to the eye, and beneficial for poor eye sight. 1, 2 Flesh Sweet and salty in taste, neutral in potency. Treats gastritis with constipation, piles, and skin and blood diseases 1, 2 Class: 2. Reptilia Order: Squamata; Family: ELAPIDAE Bungarus multicinctus (Blyth, 1861) lcags sbrul Order: Squamata; Family: COLUBRIDAE Elaphe sp. lcags sbrul Class: 3. Aves Order: Accipitriformes; Family: ACCIPITRIDAE Aegypius monachus bya rgod Cinereous vulture, Black vulture 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.14 T Flesh, stomach/ intestine, throat, heart, bone, excreta Sweet and acrid in taste, warm in potency. Treats goiter, indigestion, stomachache, gastritis, gynaecological diseases, heart diseases, general debility, urinary obstructions, and swelling. 1, 3, 5 Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758) go bo (in Mustang – gol tog) Bearded vulture, Lammergeier 0.08 0 0.17 0.06 T Flesh, stomach/ intestine, throat, heart, bone, excreta Sweet and acrid in taste, warm in potency. Treats indigestion, stomachache, gynaecological disease, heart diseases, general debility, loss of concentration, urinary obstructions, and swelling. Strengthens vocal cords. 1 Gyps himalayensis (Hume, bya rgod Himalayan griffon vulture 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.14 N Flesh, stomach/ intestine, excreta Sweet to acrid in taste, warm in potency. Treats indigestion, stomachache, and loss of appetite. Chinese francolin 0.17 0.12 0 0.11 N/T Flesh Tonic and aphrodisiac [for better effect, dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu boiled in female yak milk is kept inside the body of the bird and roasted] (Linnaeus, 1766) 1869) Order: Galliformes; Family: PHASIANIDAE Francolinus pintadeanus (Scopoli, 1786) 354 sreg pa, gong ma sreg 1, 6 Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name Tetraogallus himalayensis gong mo Tetraogallus tibetanus gong mo (G.R. Gray, 1843) (Gould, 1854) 1 RFC Origin 2 Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total Himalayan snowcock 0.25 0.06 0.17 0.14 N Flesh, stomach/ intestine, throat, excreta Acrid in taste, warm in potency. Treats indigestion, stomachache, gynaecological disease, general debility, and swelling. 2, 3 Tibetan snowcock 0.58 0.12 0.5 0.34 N/T Flesh, stomach/ intestine, throat, excreta Acrid in taste, warm in potency. Treats indigestion, stomachache, gynaecological disease, general debility, and swelling. 1, 2 0.75 0.59 0.67 0.66 I -0.14, N -0.14, B -0.07, T -0.64 Blood, heart, bile Slightly sweet in taste, warm in potency. Treats heart diseases, heart pain, depression, loss of memory, general debility, and wound. 1, 2, 3, 5 Horn Bitter in taste, cool in potency. Treats gynaecological (menstrual) disorder, difficult delivery, expulsion of placenta and heart pain, poisoning. 5 Blood, horn Sweet and salty in taste, cool in potency. Treats headache due to sinusitis, gynaecological disorders, chest infection Class: 4. Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla; Family: BOVIDAE Bos mutus (Przewalski, 1883) [Syn. Bos grunniens mutus (Przewalski, 1883)] ‘brong Wild yak Capricornis thar rgya ra Himalayan serow, Thar 0 0 0.33 0.06 B -0.33, T -0.67 Hemitragus jemlahicus ra rgod Himalayan tahr, Jharal 0.17 0.12 0 0.11 N, T Naemorhedus goral ra rgod Himalayan ghoral 0.08 0 0.17 0.06 N Horn Bitter and sweet in taste, cool in potency. Treats gynaecological diseases, and heart pain. 1, 3 Ovis ammon (Linnaeus, gnyan Argali 0.08 0.06 0 0.06 T Old bone, flesh, lung, horn Sweet and salty in taste, cool in potency. Flesh and lung treat lung disorder; horn and bone treat gynaecological disorders and sinusitis 1, 3 Pantholops hodgsonii gtsod Tibetan antelope, Chiru 0 0.06 0.17 0.06 T Horn, bile, fur Intestinal disorders, dysentery, fever, phlegm disorders. 1, 3, 5 (Hodgson, 1831) (C.H. Smith, 1826) (Hardwicke, 1825) 1758) (Abel, 1826) 355 Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name Procapra picticaudata dgo ba Tibetan gazelle Pseudois nayaur gna' ba (Hodgson, 1846) (Hodgson, 1833) 1 RFC Origin Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total 0.17 0 0 0.06 T Blue sheep, Bharal 0 0.06 0.17 0.06 N -0.5, T -0.5 2 Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref Horn Sweet and astringent in taste, neutral in potency. Treats dysentery and diarrhoea. 1–3 Horn, blood Blood: Sweet in taste, neutral in potency. Treats general debility, tonic, indigestion, and fever associated with bile disorder. Horn: sweet and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats wounds, infections, lung disorders. 1–3 Order: Artiodactyla; Family: CERVIDAE Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) kha sha Spotted deer, Chittal 0 0.06 0.17 0.06 N Horn Sweet in taste, cool in potency. Treats lung infection. 3 Rucervus duvaucelii (G. sha ba, sha ru Swamp deer, Barasingha 0.58 0.47 0.67 0.54 I -0.5, T -0.5 Horn 1, 3–5 Cervus elaphus (Linnaeus, sha ba, sha ru Red deer Astringent and sweet in taste, cool in potency. Young horn is prescribed as a tonic; matured one treats lung infection, pus in the lungs and lymph fluid, wound and menstrual irregularity. Muntiacus muntjak subsp. vaginalis (Boddaert, 1785) kha sha Barking deer, Indian muntjak 0 0 0.5 0.09 N Horn Sweet and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats lung infection, dries accumulation of pus in the lung and lymph fluid. Alpine musk deer 1 1 1 1 I -0.24, N -0.5, B -0.03, T -0.24 Musk pod Astringent to bitter and acrid in taste, cool in potency. Treats poisoning, snake bite, liver and kidneys disorders, wind disorders, infectious diseases, chronic fever, epidemic fever, worm infestation, urinary retention, swelling, wounds, sinusitis, inflammation, and gastritis. 2–5 Wild boar 0.17 0.24 0.17 0.2 N Blood, fat, excreta Sweet in taste, cool in potency. Treats gastritis, removes gall stones, toxins from the body and dark phlegm. 3, 4 Cuvier, 1823) 1758) Order: Artiodactyla; Family: MOSCHIDAE Moschus chrysogaster (Hodgson, 1839)3 gla ba Order: Artiodactyla; Family: SUIDAE Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758) 356 ri phag, phag rgod Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name 1 RFC Origin Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total 2 Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref Order: Carnivora; Family: CANIDAE Canis lupus (Linnaeus, spyang ki Grey wolf 0.17 0.35 0.33 0.29 T Tongue, stomach Sweet in taste, cool in potency. Treats indigestion, mouth and throat disorders, tongue swelling (che bam), and goiter. 1–3, 5 Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, wa mo Red fox 0.08 0.29 0.33 0.23 N Lung, bile Sweet in taste, cool in potency. Treats lung tuberculosis, cough, asthma, urinary problems, and gall stone. 1–3, 5 1758) 1758) Order: Carnivora; Family: FELIDAE Panthera pardus gzig Common leopard 0 0.18 0 0.09 I -0.5, N -0.5 Bone, fur Sweet in taste, neutral in potency. Bone treats swelling due to wound and dog bite. Fur smoke stops bleeding. 1–3 Panthera tigris subsp. tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) stag Tiger 0 0.24 0 0.11 I Bone, fur Sweet and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Bone treats bone disorder (fever, pain), bone fracture, toothache and arthritis. Fur smoke stops bleeding and cures wounds. 1–3, 5 Eurasian otter 0.08 0.06 0.17 0.09 I -0.5, N -0.5 Flesh, liver, tail Sweet in taste, warm in potency. Treats disorders of kidney, liver and vessel organs 1–3 Himalayan black bear, Asian black bear 0.92 0.88 1 0.91 I -0.2, N -0.57, B -0.03, T -0.2 Gallbladder/ bile Bitter in taste, cool in potency. Treats bile disorder, headache, fever, menstrual bleeding, bleeding during pregnancy (pre- & postnatal), dark phlegm, cuts, wound, eye disorder, tissue necrosis, neurological disorders; boosts tissue growth and repair especially of lung tissues. 2–5 Wooly hare 0.58 0.24 0.5 0.4 T Heart Sweet in taste, neutral in potency. Treats wind disorder of the heart, heart pain, mental disorder, urinary problem, and diabetes. 1–5 (Linnaeus, 1758) Order: Carnivora; Family: MUSTELIDAE Lutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758) sram Order: Carnivora; Family: URSIDAE Ursus thibetanus (G.[Baron] Cuvier, 1823) dom Order: Lagomorpha; Family: LEPORIDAE Lepus oiostolus (Hodgson, 1840) ri bong 357 Zoological name Sowa Rigpa name Common name 1 RFC 2 Origin Parts/organs prescribed Properties and medicinal use Ref Mustang Dolpa Kathmandu Total 0.25 0.47 0.67 0.43 I -0.43, N -0.57 Horn Sweet, bitter and acrid in taste, cool in potency. Treats poisoning fever, lung infection, fever of the lungs and heart, tuberculosis, allergy (sa tuk), accumulation of abdominal lymph fluid, and pus formation in the lungs and wounds. 1–5 Chinese pangolin 0 0 0.33 0.06 I Scale Sweet and bitter in taste, cool in potency. Treats old inner fever (chha wa ning ba), bone disorder, bone fever, bone fracture, urinary disorder, disorders of the blood vessels, poisoning; and prevents excessive sweating. 1, 3, 5 Asian elephant 1 0.88 1 0.94 I -0.39, N -0.52, B -0.03, T -0.06 liver and gallbladder bezoar Sweet and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats liver disorder, infectious fever, old fever, epidemics, poisoning, and fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs. 1–3, 5 Himalayan marmot 0 0.06 0.17 0.06 N Flesh, fat, heart, liver, bile Treats bone fracture, cold-associated wind disorders, stomach disorders, poisoning, headaches, renal and gynaecological disorders. 1–3 0.58 0.35 0 0.37 I -0.36, T -0.64 Ossified bone Astringent in taste, neutral in potency. Treats headache, fever, dog bite; and heals fracture bone, injuries and chronic wounds. 1, 2, 5 Order: Perissodactyla; Family: RHINOCEROTIDAE Rhinoceros unicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) bse ru Greater one-horned rhinoceros Order: Pholidota Family: MANIDAE Manis pentadactyla (Linnaeus, 1758) chu srin sder mo, na gi Order: Proboscidea; Family: ELEPHANTIDAE Elephas maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) glang chen, glang po Order: Rodentia; Family: SCIURIDAE Marmota himalayana (Hodgson, 1841) 'phyi ba C. ANIMAL FOSSIL (fossilized bone) Fossil bone (Fossilia Ossis 4 Mastodi) 1 ‘brug Dragon, Longgu Origin [i.e. the region from where amchi in the past used to procure the ingredients]: N – Nepal, I – India, B – Bhutan, T – Tibet followed by frequency of citation, na – not available. Reference for similar properties, use and/or Sowa rigpa name: 1-Gawa Dorje (1995); 2-Drungtso & Drungtso (2005); 3-Gonpo (2008); 4-Gyatso & Hakim (2010); 5-Yeshi et al. (2017); 6-Arya (1998). 3 Moschus chrysogaster has been considered here in broad sense, which also includes other Moschus species commonly found in Nepal (see foot notes of Table 3.3). 4 It is a mixture of fossilized mammal bones found in China. Recent study revealed that the dragon bone or longgu specimens from China consisted mainly of fossil fragments from ungulates, including artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and proboscideans; including a few fossils of the orders Carnivora and Rodentia (Oguri et al. 2017). 2 358 Appendix 4. Precious stones, gems and other minerals prescribed in Sowa Rigpa: name, chemical properties, relative frequency of citation (RFC), properties and medicinal use, and reference for similar properties, medicinal use and/or Sowa Rigpa name citation. The ingredients are alphabetically arranged according to common name. RFC for each mineral type was calculated separately for Mustang (n = 10), Dolpa (n = 12) and Kathmandu (n = 4) and an overall value was obtained by combining all the informants (n = 26) who cited mineral-based ingredients from three districts. Note: all of these prescribed ingredients are not used in the raw form; instead one should follow a precise ingredient-specific method of processing according to Sowa Rigpa prescription. Common name Sowa Rigpa name Explanation/chemical formula RFC Must. Dolpa Kath. Total Agate/ achates mchong, chu snying A semi-precious gemstone belonging to the chalcedony family and consisting primarily of cryptocrystalline silica [SiO2] 0.1 0 0.25 Amber sbur len, spos shel A fossilized tree resin 0.1 0.17 Argentite dngul rdo Gray to black silver sulfide mineral [Ag2S] 0.1 Bamboo cilica cu gang Nodal silica of Bambusa spp. Chemically it is silicon dioxide [SiO2] Borax tsha la A soft and light, colorless crystalline mineral, chemically it is known as sodium tetraborate decahydrate [Na2B4O7.10H2O] Bronze 'khar ba A natural copper-tin alloy [CuSn] Calamine gangs thig Calcite Chalcedony 1 Properties and medicinal use Ref 0.08 Astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats neurological disorders (e.g., paralysis, epilepsy), headaches, fever, and eye disorders. 1, 2 0.25 0.15 Sweet in taste, neutral in potency. Treats nerve disorder, fainting, paralysis, epilepsy, blurred vision, and cataract. 1, 2 0.17 0.25 0.15 Treats accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser) and heals fractured bones. 1, 2 0.2 0.58 0.25 0.38 Sweet and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats general fever, fever of the lungs, and wounds. 2 0.2 0.17 0.25 0.19 Salty in taste, slightly acrid in potency. Heals open wounds; treats accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser), fever of the lung, liver and blood vessels; and digests rock medicine 1, 2 0 0 0.5 0.08 Sour in taste. Antidote and helps for the elimination of toxins from the body; cures skin diseases and eye disorders 1, 2 It represents two distinct minerals: (i) zinc carbonate [ZnCO3] known as smithsonite, and (ii) zinc silicate [Zn4Si2O7(OH)2·H2O] known as hemimorphite 0.1 0.17 0.5 0.19 Astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats hepatic fever, and heals fractured bones. 1, 2 cong zhi A colorless or white crystalline mineral that is a form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Source: limestone, marble, chalk 0.9 0.67 0.4 0.7 Sweet in taste, warm in potency. Treats diarrhoea, gastritis, fever associated with phlegm disorder and brown phlegm; also heals fractured bones 1, 2 lig bu mig, bel snabs Compact microcrystalline type of quartz consisting of silicon dioxide [SiO2] and occurs in many different forms, colors, and patterns. 0.1 0 0.25 0.08 Treats ophthalmic disorders, broken bones, inflammation of the bones, swelling of the glands, and dries lymph fluid (chu ser). 1, 2 359 Common name Sowa Rigpa name Explanation/chemical formula Must. Dolpa Kath. Total Chalcopyrite gser rdo, gangs ri gser rdo Brass yellow crystalline mineral containing sulfide of copper and iron [CuFeS2] 0.2 0.33 0.25 Chrysotile/ white asbestos rdo rgyus A soft and smooth white stone of fibrous silicate mineral; chemically it is a hydrous magnesium silicate [Mg3Si2O5(OH)4] 0.6 0.75 Coal rdo sol A hard black or dark brown sedimentary rock formed by the decomposition of plant material, widely used as a fuel 0.1 Copper metal/cuprite zangs Copper metal [Cu]. Cuprite is a reddish brown or black mineral that is an ore of copper and consists of cuprous oxide [Cu2O ] Coral byu ru, byi ru Crocidolite/ blue asbestos 1 Properties and medicinal use Ref 0.26 Treats accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser), nervous disorders and poisoning, and heals fractured bones. 1, 2 0 0.56 Astringent in taste, warm in potency. Cures disorders of the ligaments and tendons. 1, 2 0.08 0.25 0.12 Sweet in taste. Treats stone formation in kidneys and gallbladder, closes open blood vessels and stops bleeding, and treats gem poisoning. 1, 2 0.6 0 0.25 0.27 Sweet to sour in taste, cool in potency. Dries pus and water stored in the body; and cures tuberculosis and fever of the lung and liver. 1, 2 A hard deposit consisting of the skeletons of coral (Corallium spp.); chemically composed of calcium carbonate [CaCO3] 0.9 0.67 0.8 0.78 Astringent to sweet in taste, cool in potency. Treats hepatitis, channel fever, fever associated with colon infections and poisoning, nerve disorders, fainting and anxiety. 1, 2 mthing rgyus Naturally occurring fibrous form of riebeckite, a mineral with long, thin fibrous crystals consisting of sodium iron silicate 2+ 3+ [(Na2Fe3 Fe2 ) Si8O22(OH)2] 0.4 0.58 0.2 0.44 Heals injuries in ligaments and tendons. 1, 2 Diamond rdo rje pha lam, pha lam A solid and crystalline form of pure carbon [C] 0.1 0.17 0 0.12 Digests stone medicine, and treats disease/disorders caused by naga spirit and protect from harmful evil spirits. 1, 2 Fibroferritum/ Fibroferrite (black) nag mtshur A mineral consisting of a fibrous hydrated basic 3+ ferric sulfate [Fe (SO4) (OH)·5H2O] 0.3 0 0.25 0.15 Astringent to sour in taste, neutral in potency. Treats gangrene (tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply), mouth sores, tumors and hair loss. 1, 2 Fibroferritum (yellow) ser mtshur A mineral consisting of a fibrous hydrated basic 3+ ferric sulfate [Fe (SO4) (OH)·5H2O] 0.3 0 0.2 0.15 Sour in taste, warm in potency. Treats mouth sores and oral tumors; also used as hair dye. 1, 2 Goethite smug po mdung rtse, smug po chig thub Ferric oxyhydroxide mineral [α-Fe O(OH)] and occurs in various colors, such as brownish black, yellow-brown and reddish brown 0 0 0.5 0.08 Astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats poor eye sight, cataracts; also used as tonic to the eye nerve and to treat fractured bones and brain injuries. 1, 2 Gold/aurum gser, gser thal Gold [Au] 0.8 0.5 0.25 0.58 Astringent in taste, cool in potency. It is considered as rejuvenating and anti-aging, promotes longevity, 1, 2 360 RFC 3+ Common name Sowa Rigpa name Explanation/chemical formula RFC Must. Dolpa Properties and medicinal use Kath. 1 Ref Total treats glandular fever and acts as an antidote against gem poisoning. Halite/ Halitum violaceum (rock salt) kha ru tshva Halite is the naturally occurring mineral form of sodium chloride [NaCl]. It forms isometric crystals and is the source of kiln-fired rock salt (popularly known as black salt) 0 0.08 0.25 0.08 Salty in taste, warm in potency. Generates digestive heat and cures indigestions, reduces flatulence, and treats combined disorders of phlegm (bad kan) and wind (rlung). 1, 2 Halite/ halitum lce myang tshva A white natural salt [NaCl] with a red hue. There are 6 types of salts used in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal including common salt. 0.1 0.08 0 0.08 Sweet in taste, warm in potency. Cures stomach and eye disorders, cold tumors, improves digestive heat 1, 3 Halloysite rdo klad Literally, rdo klad means stone brain (brain shaped stone). It is an aluminosilicate clay mineral [Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4]. 0 0.08 0.25 0.08 Beneficial for brain disorders; stimulates growth of new flesh 1, 3 Hematite smug po sbal rgyab A black, brown, or red mineral consisting of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 0.8 0.33 0.5 0.54 Sweet in taste, neutral in potency. Dries lymph fluid (chu ser), preserves spongy bone, joins fractured bones and stops cerebro-spinal fluid discharge. 1–3 Iron lcags Iron [Fe] 0.4 0.17 0 0.22 Sweet to sour in taste. Cures liver diseases, liver poisoning, ophthalmic disorders and generalized edema. 1–3 Kaolinite yugs A white to cream and pale-yellow layered silicate clay mineral; chemically it is hydrated aluminium silicate [Al2Si2O5(OH)4] 0 0 0.5 0.08 Treat eye disorders, bone inflammation, and accumulation of serous fluid (chu ser) 2, 3 Lazurite (Lapis lazuli) mu men A tectosilicate mineral with sulfate, sulfur and chloride [Na6Ca2(Al6Si6O24)(SO4,S,S2,S3,Cl,OH)2]. It occurs in the form of isometric crystal. Color varies from blue, bluish green to green. 0.1 0.25 0.25 0.19 Astringent in taste, cool in potency. Cures poisoning, disorder of the serous fluid (chu ser), leprosy, skin diseases, and wounds; also used as an antidote 1, 2 Limestone rdo thal Sedimentary rock formed from the skeletons and shells of ocean organisms that consists chiefly of calcium carbonate [CaCO3]. Five types of rdo thal are described in literature. 0 0.08 0.25 0.08 Acrid to sour in taste, warm in potency. Treats disease of the vessel organs, cures consolidated mucous (bad kan) in the stomach. 1–3 Limonite sin dhu ra An amorphous brownish secondary mineral consisting of a mixture of hydrated ferric oxides [FeO(OH)·nH2O] 0.6 0.08 0.25 0.31 Sweet to astringent in taste. Treats fever of the channels, disorders of the vital organs, blood disorders, dries pus and blood of abscesses, and cures wounds (outer and inner) and fire burns. 1, 2 361 Common name Sowa Rigpa name Explanation/chemical formula Lodestone khab len Mineral magnetite or naturally occurring 2+ 3+ magnetized mineral [Fe Fe 2O4] Mercury (liquid) dngul chu Orpiment/ Auripigmentum RFC 1 Properties and medicinal use Ref Must. Dolpa Kath. Total 0.1 0 0.25 0.08 Bitter in taste, neutral to slightly cool in potency. Joins fractured bone, brings out foreign objects (like nails, needles, bullet) lodged inside the body, cures disorder of the brain, bone and nerves. 1–3 Mercury [Hg] 0 0.17 0.75 0.19 Removes toxins, dries accumulation of serous fluid, treats sinusitis, rheumatism, and cures all diseases and disorders caused by evil spirits (it is highly toxic, used only after proper detoxification). 1–3 ba bla A bright orange-yellow arsenic sulfide mineral [As2S3] 0 0.25 0.25 0.15 Bitter in taste, warm in potency. Heals glandular fever, inflamed lymph node, septic wounds, and treats diseases caused by evil spirits. 1–3 Pearl mu tig Hard shining sphere of calcium carbonate [CaCO3] formed inside the shell of certain oceanic mollusks, such as oysters (Pteria spp.). It is secreted by the epithelial cells of the mantle and is deposited in successive layers around an irritating object 0.9 0.33 0.5 0.58 Astringent in taste, cool in potency. Treats brain injuries, nerve disorders, paralysis and poisoning; prevents cerebro-spinal fluid discharge. 1–3 Pyritum/ pyrite pha wang, long bu A brass-yellow mineral of iron sulfide [FeS2] 0.1 0.08 0 0.08 Astringent in taste, warm in potency. Treats nerve disorder, paralysis, eye disorders, and bone fracture. 1–3 Pyritum/ pyrite gser zil A brass-yellow mineral of iron sulfide [FeS2] 0.1 0.08 0 0.08 Astringent to bitter in taste. Treats bone disorders, discoloration of bones. 1–3 Realgar/red orpiment ldong ros A soft orange-red arsenic sulfide [AsS] mineral 0 0.17 0.2 0.11 Acrid to bitter in taste, warm in potency. Treats inflamed lymph node, glandular fever, wounds, swelling of the throat and tongue; also used as antidote for snake and scorpion toxins. 1–3 Rock phag mgo, phag rdo Literally 'pig's head'. It is a reddish yellow colored fossil-type natural stone resembling pig's head. 0 0.08 0.25 0.08 Restores weak bone and drains out serous fluid (chu ser). 3 Rock exudate/ silajit brag zhun, brag zhun rig gnas Mineral exudate or mineral pitch derived from the cleft of a rock. Basically it is plant humic substance. It has five different types depending on the basic source of individual exudate of gold, silver, copper, iron and lead. 0.3 0.25 0.5 0.31 Sweet, bitter to astringent in taste, cool and sharp in potency. Treats all types of fever, particularly fever associated with stomach, liver and kidneys, gastritis, hepatitis, brown phlegm, gout, eye disease, and general debility. 1, 3 362 Common name Sowa Rigpa name Explanation/chemical formula RFC Must. Dolpa Kath. Total Rock exudate/ silajit gser zhun Yellow mineral exudate derived from the cleft of a rock. 0.1 0 0.25 Ruby pad ma ra ga A red precious stone that is a form/variety of corundum. The latter is an extremely hard crystalline form of aluminium oxide [Al2O3] 0.1 0.08 Sal ammoniac rgya tshva Naturally occurring mineral in the form of colorless, white, or yellow-brown crystals. It is composed of ammonium chloride [NH4Cl] 0 Sal lucidum/ rock salt rgyam tshva Crystalline salt, the primary constituents are sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sulfate Sapphire ain gra ni la Silver 1 Properties and medicinal use Ref 0.08 An ingredient of a medicine mixture used as substitute of animal-based gi wang (bezoar)*. - 0 0.08 Sweet in taste. Cures nerve disorder, paralysis; and protects from harmful evil spirits. 1–3 0.08 0.25 0.08 Salty in taste, warm in potency. Treats infectious diseases (srin), channel disorders, poisoning, tumors, menstrual disorder and abdominal cramps. 1–3 0 0.08 0.25 0.08 Salty in taste, warm and cool in potency. Cures the combined disorder of wind (rlung) and phlegm (bad kan), indigestion and cold disorders. 1–3 A clear hard precious stone, usually deep blue in color; most commonly refers to a gem variety of the mineral corundum consisting of aluminium oxide [Al2O3] with trace amounts of other elements 0.1 0.08 0 0.08 Sweet in taste. Treats imbalance of wind (rlung), bile (mkhris pa) and phlegm (bad kan), and cures nerve disorders, paralysis, and effects of poisonings. 1–3 dngul Silver [Ag] 0.6 0.58 0.25 0.52 Bitter to sour in taste. Treats lymph fluid disorder (chu ser), gout, arthritis, and pus formation; and controls proliferation of impure blood. 1–3 Smoke carbon rgya nag, rgya nag tsa Smoke carbon by burning herb known as ‘cha kundu sangbo’, which is brought from Tibet; ‘nag tsa’ prepared by burning pine wood is considered inferior. 0 0.17 0.25 0.11 Cures urine infection. - Stalactite ba nu, rdo ba nu Literally, ba nu means a stone with the shape of a cow’s breast. A icicle-shaped mineral that hangs from the cave ceiling, formed of calcium salts deposited by dripping water; chemically it is calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2] 0 0.33 0 0.15 Astringent in taste, warm in potency. Joins fractured bones, heals injuries in ligaments and tendons; treats accumulation of serous fluids (chu ser). 1–3 Stalactite dkar po sbal rgyab Literally dkar po sbal rgyab means a white thick stone with rough, pimply surface which resembles like the back of a frog; chemically it is calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2]. 0 0 0.6 0.11 Sweet and astringent in taste, cool in potency. Joins broken bones, dries lymph fluid (chu ser). 1–3 Sulphur nativum mu zi nag po, mu zi ser po Elemental sulfur [S]. 0.1 0.42 0.4 0.3 Astringent in taste, neutral in potency. Treats skin diseases, wounds, and lymph disorders; mu zi ser po dispels evil spirits and dries up collection of pus that 1–3 363 Common name Sowa Rigpa name Explanation/chemical formula RFC Must. Dolpa Properties and medicinal use Kath. 1 Ref Total has built up within the tissue of the body. It is used after detoxification. Trona bul tog A grayish white or yellowish evaporite mineral; chemically it is hydrated sodium bicarbonate [Na3H(CO3)2·2H2O] 0.60 0 0.40 0.30 Sweet to salty in taste, slightly acrid in potency. Treats indigestion, flatulence, constipation and abdominal cramps and tumors; and heals wounds. 1–3 Turquoise g’yu A semi-precious stone, typically opaque and of a blue-green colour; chemically it is hydrated phosphate of copper and aluminium [CuAl6(PO4)(OH)8.4H2O] 0.9 0.58 1 0.78 Antidote and helps for the elimination of toxins from the body, and also cures hepatic disorders and eye diseases 2, 3 Vermiculite gser bye, gser gyi bye ma A hydrous silicate mineral of aluminum, magnesium and iron. [(Mg, Al, Fe)3((Si,Al)4O10)(OH)2.4H2O] 0.4 0.17 0.75 0.35 Sweet in taste, warm in potency. Cures kidney disorder, urine retention, and fractured bones. 1–3 NA rdo gi wang - 0.1 0.25 0 0.15 An ingredient of a medicine mixture used as substitute of animal-based gi wang (bezoar)*. Cures fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs - NA chu gi wang Extracted from outer surface of rock in water source 0.6 0 0 0.23 An ingredient of a medicine mixture used as substitute of animal-based gi wang (bezoar)*. Cures fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs - NA sa gi wang Yellowish to brownish colored rock mineral 0 0.25 0.25 0.15 An ingredient of a medicine mixture used as substitute of animal-based gi wang (bezoar)*. Cures fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs - 1 Reference for similar properties, use and/or Sowa Rigpa name citation: 1-Drungtso & Drungtso (2005), 2-Yeshi et al. (2018), 3-Arya (1998). *Bezoar is a small stony concretion derived from animal's liver and bile, and is also found trapped in the gastrointestinal system. It is considered to be sweet and astringent in taste, and cool in potency, and treats liver disorder, infectious fever, old fever, epidemics, poisoning and fever associated with the liver and the vessel organs. NA – not available. 364 References ______________________________________________________ References cited Allen R. 2018. Cenchrus flaccidus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T117007898A117007955. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T117007898A117007955.en. Downloaded on 03 Nov. 2019. Amin R., Baral H.S., Lamichhane B.R., Poudyal L.P., Lee S., Jnawali S.R., Acharya K.P., Upadhyaya G.P., Pandey M.B., Shrestha R., Joshi D., Griffiths J., Khatiwada A.P. and Subedi N. 2018. The Status of Nepal’s Mammals. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 10: 11361–11378. doi: 10.11609/jott.3712.10.3.11361-11378. Angmo K., Adhikari B.S., Rawat G.S. 2012. Changing aspects of traditional healthcare system in western Ladakh, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 143: 621–630. Appiah S., Revitt M., Jones H., Vu M., Simmonds M., Bell C. 2017. Antiinflammatory and hepatoprotective medicinal herbs as potential substitutes for bear bile. International Review of Neurobiology, 135: 149–180. Arunkumar A.N., Dhyani A. and Joshi G. 2019. Santalum album. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T31852A2807668. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T31852A2807668.en. Downloaded on 20 Nov. 2019. ARW 1998. Cinnamomum parthenoxylon. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1998: e.T33198A9760889. Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam, August 1996). doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T33198A9760889.en. Downloaded on 21 Nov. 2019. Arya P.Y. 1998. Dictionary of Tibetan Materia Medica. Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, India. Aryal R.S. 2004. CITES Implementation in Nepal and India – Law, Policy and Practice. Bhrikuti Publications, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ashton P. 1998. Shorea robusta. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1998: e.T32097A9675160. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T32097A9675160.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. and Lama Y.C. 2008. Tibetan medicine and biodiversity management in Dolpo, Nepal: Negotiating local and global worldviews, knowledge and practices. In: Exploring Tibetan Medicine in the Contemporary World: Global Politics of Medical Knowledge and Practice (L. Pordié, ed.), pp. 160–185. Routledge, UK. Baral H.S. and Shah K.B. 2008. Wild Mammals of Nepal. Himalayan Nature, Kathmandu, Nepal. Barstow M. 2018a. Pterocarpus santalinus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T32104A67803072. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en. Downloaded on 24 Aug. 2019. Barstow M. 2018b. Populus ciliata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T61959792A61959807. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T61959792A61959807.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Bellezza J.V., 2010. gShen-rab Myi-bo: His life and times according to Tibet’s earliest literary sources. Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines, 19: 31–118. Bell C.M. and Simmond M.S.J. 2006. Plant Substances as Alternatives for Animal Products in Traditional Medicines. Report submitted to the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. London, United Kingdom. BGCI and IUCN SSC 2018b. Pyrus pashia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T61611945A13613 6635. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T61611945A136136635.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. BGI and IUCN SCC 2018a. Cassia fistula. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T136142327A136142329. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T136142327A136142329.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. BGI and IUCN SCC 2018c. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T136144639A136144641. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T136144639A136144641.en. Downloaded on 19 Nov. 2019. BGI and IUCN SCC 2019b. Syzygium cumini. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T49487196A145821979 1 365 Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T49487196A145821979.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. BGI and IUCN SCC 2019a. Berberis aristata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 019: e.T147027786A147027788. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T147027786A147027788.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Blaikie C., Craig S.R., Hofer T. and Gerke B. 2015. Coproducing efficacious medicines: Collaborative ethnography with Tibetan Medicine practitioners in Kathmandu, Nepal. Current Anthropology, 56(2): 178–204. Blezer H. 2012. The discourse on the origins of the teachers of past, present and future dus gsum ston pa ’byung khungs kyi mdo. In: Studies on the History and Literature of Tibet and the Himalaya (R. Vitali , ed.), pp. 1–30. Vajra Publications, Kathmandu, Nepal. Boesi A. 2005–2006. Plant categories and types in Tibetan materia medica. The Tibet Journal, 30 & 31: 65–90. Boufford D.E., Siwakoti M. and Pendry C.A. 2011. Rubus. In: Flora of Nepal. Volume 3 (M.F. Watson, H. Ikeda, K.R. Rajbhandari, S. Akiyama, C.A. Pendry and K.K. Shrestha, eds.), pp. 327–346. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. Cassells A.C., Walsh C., Belin M., Cambornac M., Robin J.R. and Lubrano C. 1999. Establishment of a plantation from micropropagated Arnica chamissonis a pharmaceutical substitute for the endangered A. montana. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 56: 139–144. Chauhan H.K. 2020. Paris polyphylla. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T175617476A176257430. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T175617476A176257430.en. Downloaded on 23 October 2021. Crook V. and Bachman S. 2013. Arisaema jacquemontii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e. T44393284A44482120. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T44393284A44482120.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Cuomu M. 2013. Qualitative exploration of the potential causes of serious reduction in availability of medicinal plants in the Qinghai-Tibetan high plateau. East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, 7: 397–423. Czaja O. 2017. The substitution of Materia Medica in Tibetan Medicine: An inquiry into traditional Tibetan treatises. East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine (EASTM), 46: 119–212. Dangol B.R. 2015. Illegal Wildlife Trade in Nepal: A Case Study from Kathmandu Valley. MS Thesis, Department of International Environment and Development Studies (Noragric), Faculty of Social Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås, Norway. Das S.C. 1970. A Tibetan-English Dictionary. Motilal Banatsidass, Delhi, India. Devkota K.N. (1968). Nepali Nighantu. Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu, Nepal. (in Nepali). Dobremez J.F. 1976. Le Népal: Écologie et Biogéographie. Editions du Central National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France. Dongol Y. and Heinen J.T. 2012. Pitfalls of CITES implementation in Nepal: A policy gap analysis. Environmental Management, 50: 181–190. Drungtso T.T. and Drungtso T.D. 2005. Tibetan-English Dictionary of Tibetan Medicine and Astrology. Drungtso Publications. Farjon A. 2013a. Juniperus indica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T42238A2965473. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42238A2965473.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Farjon A. 2013b. Juniperus squamata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T42254A2967233. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42254A2967233.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Farjon A. 2013c. Pinus wallichiana. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T42427A2979371. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42427A2979371.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Farjon A., Gardner M. and Thomas P. 2020. Conifer database (version Jan 2014). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annualchecklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Feng Y., Siu K., Wang N., Ng K.-M., Tsao S.-W., Nagamatsu T. and Tong Y. 2009. Bear bile: Dilemma of traditional medicinal use and animal protection. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 5: 2. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-5-2. Fraser-Jenkins C.R., Kandel D.R. and Pariyar S. 2015. Ferns and Fern-Allies of Nepal Volume 1. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal. Fraser-Jenkins C.R. and Kandel D.R. 2019. Ferns and Fern-Allies of Nepal Volume 2. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal. 366 Gammermann A.F. and Semichov B.V. 1963. Slovar' Tibeto-Latino-Russkikh Nazvanii Lekarstvennogo Rastitel'nogo Sir'ya, Primennyaego v Tibetskoi Meditsine. Akademia Nauk USSR, Ulan-Ude. Ghimire S.K. 2002. Community-Based Medicinal Plant Management in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Dolpa. Report submitted to People and Plants Himalayan Program, WWF Nepal Program, Lal Darbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ghimire S.K. and Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. 2009. Ethnobotanical classification and plant nomenclature system of high altitude agro-pastoralists in Dolpo, Nepal. Botanica Orientalis, 6: 56–68. Ghimire S.K., Sapkota I.B., Oli B.R. and Parajuli R.R. 2008. Non-Timber Forest Products of Nepal Himalaya: Database of Some 1 Important Species Found in the Mountain Protected Areas and Surrounding Regions. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu. Ghimire S.K, Awasthi B., Rana S., Rana H.K., Bhattarai R. and Pyakurel D. 2016. Export of medicinal and aromatic plant materials from Nepal. Botanica Orientalis, 10: 24–32. Ghimire S.K., 2008. Medicinal plants in the Nepal Himalaya: Current issues, sustainable harvesting, knowledge gaps and research priorities. In: Medicinal Plants in Nepal: An Anthology of Contemporary Research (P.K. Jha, S.B. Karmacharya, M.K. Chhetri, C.B. Thapa and B.B. Shrestha, eds.), pp 25–42. Ecological Society (ECOS), Kathmandu, Nepal. Ghimire S.K., Lama Y.C., Gurung T.N., and Aumeeruddy Thomas Y. 2000. Conservation of Plant Resources, Community Development and Training in Applied Ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its Bufferzone, Dolpa. Report Series No. 40, WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ghimire S.K., Lama Y.C., Tripathi G.R., Schmitt S. and Thomas Y.A. 2001. Conservation of Plant Resources, Community Development and Training in Applied Ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its Buffer Zone, Dolpa. Report Series No. 41. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. GoN (Government of Nepal). 2012–2016. Chandra Nighantu Volume 1–3. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population, Singhadurbar Vaidyakhana Vikash Saamiti, Kathmandu, Nepal. Gonpo Y.Y. 2008. The Basic and the Explanatory Tantra from the Secret Quintessential Instruction on the Eight Branches of the Ambrosia Essence Tantra. Men-Tsee-Khang Publications, Dharamshala, HP, India. Govaerts R. 2020. WCSP: World checklist of selected plant families (version Aug 2017). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annualchecklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Grierson A.J.C., Long D.J. and Noltie H.J., eds. 1983–2002. Flora of Bhutan. Royle Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, UK. Gurung T.N., Lama G.G., Shrestha K.K. and Craig S. 1996. Medicinal Plants and Traditional Doctors in Shey-Phoksundo National Park and Other Areas of the Dolpa District. WWF Report Series No. 26, WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. Gyatso T. and Hakim C. 2010. Essentials of Tibetan Traditional Medicine. North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California, USA. Hara H., Stearn W.T., and Williams L.H.J. 1978. An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. Volume 1. British Museum (Natural History), London, UK. Harris R. 2016. Moschus chrysogaster. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T13895A61977139. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T13895A61977139.en. Downloaded on 02 October 2020. Harvey-Brown Y. 2018a. Aquilaria malaccensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T32056A2810130. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32056A2810130.en. Downloaded on 21 Nov. 2019. Harvey-Brown Y. 2018b. Aquilaria sinensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T32382A2817115. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T32382A2817115.en. Downloaded on 21 Nov. 2019. Hassler M. 2020a. World ferns: Checklist of ferns and lycophytes of the world (version Nov 2018). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife. org/annual-checklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Hassler M. 2020b. World plants: Synonymic checklists of the vascular plants of the world (version Nov 2018). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Hemley G. and Mills J.A. 1999. The beginning of the end of tigers in trade? In: Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in the Human-Dominated Landscapes (J. Seidensticker, S. Christie and P. Jackson, eds.), pp. 217–229. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 367 Hilton-Taylor C. 2003. Holarrhena pubescens. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2003: e.T33988A9820780. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2003.RLTS.T33988A9820780.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Homes V. 1999. On the Scent: Conserving Musk Deer - the Uses of Musk and Europe’s Role in its Trade. TRAFFIC Europe, Brussels, Belgium. Inskipp C., Baral H.S., Phuyal S., Bhatt T. R., Khatiwada M., Inskipp T., Khatiwada A., Gurung S., Singh P. B., Murray L., Poudyal L. and Amin R. 2016. The Status of Nepal's Birds: The National Red List Series. Zoological Society of London, UK. Inskipp C. and Inskipp T. A. 1991. Guide to the Birds of Nepal. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Jena A.K., Karan M. and Vasisht K. 2017. Plant parts substitution based approach as a viable conservation strategy for medicinal plants: A case study of Premna latifolia Roxb. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, 8: 68–72. Jnawali S.R., Baral H.S., Lee S., Acharya K.P., Upadhyay G.P., Pandey M., Shrestha R., Joshi D., Lamichhane B.R., Griffiths J., Khatiwada A.P., Subedi N. and Amin R. 2011. The Status of Nepal Mammals: The National Red List Series. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. Joshi D.P. 1999. Bioclimate of Central Nepal. In: Nepal – Nature’s Paradise (T.C. Majupuria and R.K. Majupuria, eds.), pp. 45–55. M. Devi, Gwalior, India. Kang S. and Phipps M. 2003. A Question of Attitude: South Korea's Traditional Medicine Practitioners and Wildlife Conservation. TRAFFIC East Asia, Hong Kong. Katuwal H.B., Khanal B., Basnet K., Rai B., Devkota S., Rai S.K., Nobis M. and Scheidegger C. 2013. The mammalian fauna from the Central Himalaya, Nepal. Asian Journal of Conservation Biology, 2(1): 21–29. Kirk P.M. 2020. Species fungorum plus: Species fungorum for CoL+ (version Feb 2020). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2020-09-01 Beta (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/col. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISSN 2405-8858. Kletter C. and Kriechbaum M., eds. 2001. Tibetan Medicinal Plants. Medpharm Scientific Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany. Kværne, P. 1995. The Bon Religion of Tibet: The Iconography of a Living Tradition. Serindia Publications, London. Lama Y.C., Ghimire S.K. and Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. 2001. Medicinal Plants of Dolpo: Amchis’ Knowledge and Conservation. WWF Nepal Program and People and Plants Initiative, Kathmandu, Nepal. Lansdown R.V. 2014. Acorus calamus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T168639A43116307. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T168639A43116307.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Lansdown R.V. 2014. Hippuris vulgaris. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T167870A1178985. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T167870A1178985.en. Downloaded on 01 Nov. 2019. Li N., Rushforth K., Christian T. and Farjon A. 2013. Juniperus recurva var. recurva. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T191606A1991154. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T191606A1991154.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Li S., Tan H.Y., Wang N., Hong M., Li L., Cheung F. and Feng Y. 2016. Substitutes for bear bile for the treatment of liver diseases: Research progress and future perspective. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2016: 4305074. doi: 10.1155/2016/4305074. Luo J., Yan D., Zhang D., Feng X., Yan Y., Dong X. and Xiao X. 2011. Substitutes for endangered medicinal animal horns and shells exposed by antithrombotic and anticoagulation effects. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 136: 210–216. Mabberley D.J. 2008. Mabberley’s Plant-Book: A Portable Dictionary of Plants, their Classification and Uses. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Maiz-Tome L. 2016. Triglochin maritima. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T164116A78457207. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T164116A78457207.en. Downloaded on 05 December 2019. Maiz-Tome L. 2016. Urtica dioica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T167815A78457212. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T167815A78457212.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Maiz-Tome L. 2017. Equisetum arvense (amended version of 2016 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T167857A121904280. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T167857A121904280.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Manandhar N.P. 1990. Some endangered medicinal plants of Nepal. Ancient Science of Life, 9(4): 231–233. Manandhar N.P. 1996. Substitute species in Nepal. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 3(4): 71–77. Manandhar N.P. 2002. Plants and People of Nepal. Timber Press, Oregon, USA. 368 Mani S. 2011. Parochetus communis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T176913A7330107. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T176913A7330107.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. McCune, B. and Mefford M. J. 2018. PC-ORD. Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data. Version 7.08. MJM Software, Oregon, USA. Meyer F. 2007. La Médecine Tibétaine: Gso Ba Rig Pa. CNRS Edition, CNRS, Paris, France. Mikage M., Kojima S., Komatsu K., Takano A., Yamaji S. and Namba T. 1988. A list of medicinal and economic plants in Nepalese Himalayas. In: Tibetan Medicine and Materia Medica (T. Namba, ed.), pp. 5–88. Research Institute for Wakan-Yaku (Oriental Medicines), Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Japan. Mills J. 1998. Need for further research into tiger bone and musk substitutes agreed. TRAFFIC Dispatches, April 1998: 3–4. MoIvray M. 1988. A Glossary of Tibetan Medicinal Plants. Tibetan Medicine (gSo-rig), Series 11. The Library of Tibetan 1 Works and Archives, Dharamsala, India. MolluscaBase. 2020. WoRMS Mollusca: MolluscaBase (version 2019-03-06). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Mulliken T.A. 2000. Implementing CITES for Himalayan Medicinal Plants Nardostachys grandiflora and Picrorhiza kurrooa. TRAFFIC Bulletin, 18(2): 63–72. Mulliken T.A. and Crofton P. 2008. Review of the Status, Harvest, Trade and Management of Seven Asian CITES-listed Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Species. Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, Germany. Nellemann C., Henriksen R., Kreilhuber A., Stewart D., Kotsovou M., Raxter P., Mrema E. and Barrat S., eds. 2016. The Rise of Environmental Crime – A Growing Threat to Natural Resources Peace, Development and Security. A UNEPINTERPOL Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme and RHIPTO Rapid Response–Norwegian Center for Global Analyses. www.rhipto.org Ng P.K.L. and Davie P. 2020. WoRMS Brachyura: World list of marine Brachyura (version 2015-09-01). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife. org/annual-checklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Nijman V. 2010. An overview of international wildlife trade from Southeast Asia. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(4): 1101–1114. Norbu T. 2015. Encyclopedia of Myriad Herbs: Medicinal Herbs in Tibetan Medical Tradition. Volume 1 (translated from Tibetan by T. Zompa & T. Samdup). Men-Tsee-Khang (Tibetan Medical & Astro Institute), Dharmashala, HP, India. Norbu T. 2016. Encyclopedia of Myriad Herbs: Medicinal Herbs in Tibetan Medical Tradition. Volume 2 (translated from Tibetan by T. Choephel). Men-Tsee-Khang (Tibetan Medical & Astro Institute), Dharmashala, HP, India. Oguri K., Nishioka Y., Kobayashi Y. and Takahashi K. 2017. Taxonomic examination of longgu (Fossilia Ossis Mastodi, “dragon bone”) and a related crude drug, longchi (Dens Draconis, “dragon tooth”), from Japanese and Chinese crude drug markets. Journal of Natural Medicines, 71: 463–471. Ohba H., Iokawa Y. and Sharma L.R., eds. 2008. Flora of Mustang, Nepal. Kodansha Scientific Ltd., Tokyo, Japan. Olsen C.S. and Helles F. 1997a. Medicinal plants, markets, and margins in the Nepal Himalaya: Trouble in paradise. Mountain Research and Development, 17: 363–374. Olsen C.S. and Helles F. 1997b. Making the poorest poorer: policies, laws and trade in medicinal plants in Nepal. Journal of World Forest Resource Management, 8: 137–158. Olsen C.S. and Larsen H.O. 2003. Alpine medicinal plant trade and Himalayan mountain livelihood strategies. The Geographical Journal, 169: 243–254. Orrell T. and Nicolson D. 2020. ITIS global: The integrated taxonomic information system (version Jun 2017). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Paudel P.K., Acharya K.P., Baral H.S., Heinen J.T. and Jnawali S.R. 2020. Trends, patterns, and networks of illicit wildlife trade in Nepal: A national synthesis. Conservation Science and Practice, 2020, 2: e247. doi: 10.1111/csp2.247. Pandey M. R. 2006. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in upper Mustang. Our Nature, 4: 69–82. Polunin O. and Stainton A. 1984. Flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India. 369 Press J.R., Shrestha K.K. and Sutton D.A. 2000. Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. The Natural History Museum, London, UK. (updated version available online at efloras.org). Pyakurel D., Smith-Hall C., Bhattarai-Sharma I. and Ghimire S.K. 2019. Trade and conservation of Nepalese medicinal plants, fungi and lichen. Economic Botany, 73: 505–521. Rajbhandari K.R. and Rai S.K. 2017. A Handbook of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. Volume 1. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal. Rajbhandari K.R. and Rai S.K. 2019. A Handbook of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. Volume 2. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal. Rambold G. 2020. LIAS: A global information system for lichenized and non-lichenized Ascomycetes (version Dec 2015). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Rankou H. 2011a. Cephalanthera longifolia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T176001A7167753. Downloaded on 08 Sept. 2019. Rankou H. 2014. Cypripedium himalaicum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T43316627A43327664. doi: 1 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T43316627A43327664.en. Downloaded on 08 Sept. 2019. Rankou H. 2011b. Herminium monorchis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T176016A7171970. Downloaded on 24 Oct. 2019. Rhodes L. and Maxted N. 2016. Asparagus filicinus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T20680997A 20694886. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T20680997A20694886.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Rivers M.C. and Allen D.J. 2017. Juglans regia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T63495A61526700. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63495A61526700.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Rosen G.E. and Smith K.F. 2010. Summarizing the evidence on the international trade in illegal wildlife. EcoHealth, 7: 24–32. Rosengarten F. Jr. 1969. The Book of Spices. Jove Publ., Inc., New York, USA. Saha D., Ved D., Ravikuma, K. and Haridasan K. 2015. Saussurea costus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T50126641A50131430. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T50126641A50131430.en. Downloaded on 15 Aug. 2019. Sharma K., Wright B., Joseph T. and Desai N. 2014. Tiger poaching and trafficking in India: Estimating rates of occurrence and detection over four decades. Biological Conservation, 179: 33–39. Shaw K., Roy S. and Wilson B. 2014. Betula utilis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T194535A2346136. doi10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-3.RLTS.T194535A2346136.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Singh P.B., Khatiwada J.R., Saud P. and Jiang Z. 2019. mtDNA analysis confirms the endangered Kashmir musk deer extends its range to Nepal. Scientific Reports, 9:4895. doi.10.1038/s41598-019-41167-4 Singh P.B., Saud P., Cram D.,Mainali K., Thapa A., Chhetri N.B., Poudyal L.P., Baral H.S. and Jiang Z. 2018. Ecological correlates of Himalayan musk deer Moschus leucogaster. Ecology and Evolution, 1–15. doi: 10.1002/ece3.4435 Shrestha K. 1998. Dictionary of Nepalese Plant Names. Mandala Book Point, Kathmandu, Nepal. Shrestha K.K., Bhattarai S. and Bhandari P. 2018. Handbook of Flowering Plants of Nepal (Volume 1. Gymnosperms and Angiosperms: Cycadaceae–Betulaceae). Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. Shrestha R. and Baker I.A. 1997. The Tibetan Art of Healing. Chronicle Books, San Francisco, USA. Shrestha T.B. and Joshi R.M. 1996. Rare, Endemic and Endangered Plants of Nepal. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. Sivarajan V.V. and Balachandran I. 1994. Ayurvedic Drugs and their Plant Sources. Oxford & IBH Company, New Delhi, India. Stainton A. 1988. Flowers of the Himalaya: A Supplement. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India. Sung W. and Yi-Ming L. 1998. Illegal wildlife trade in the Himalaya. In: Ecoregional Cooperation for Biodiversity Conservation in the Himalaya. Report of the International Meeting on Himalaya Ecoregional Cooperation, pp. 187–211. United Nations Development Programme, New York, USA. Tandon V., Bhattarai N.K. and Karki M., eds. 2001. Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritization (CAMP) Report. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada and Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tardío J. and Pardo-De-Santayana M. 2008. Cultural importance indices: A comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of southern Cantabria (northern Spain). Economic Botany, 62: 24–39. 370 Thacker H. 2013. Allium fasciculatum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T44393228A44486714. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T44393228A44486714.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Thomas P. 2011. Taxus contorta. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T39147A10170545. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T39147A10170545.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Thomas P. and Farjon A. 2011. Taxus wallichiana. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T46171879A9730085. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T46171879A9730085.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Timmins R.J. and Duckworth J.W. 2015. Moschus leucogaster. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T13901A61977764. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T13901A61977764.en. Downloaded on 02 October 2020. Uetz P. and Hošek J. 2020. The Reptile database (version Dec 2015). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2019 Annual Checklist (Y. Roskov, G. Ower, T. Orrell, D. Nicolson, N. Bailly, P.M. Kirk, T. Bourgoin, R.E. DeWalt, W. Decock, E. van Nieukerken, J. Zarucchi and L. Penev, eds.). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Ved D., Saha D., Ravikumar K. and Haridasan K. 2015a. Aconitum heterophyllum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T50126560A79579556. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-3.RLTS.T50126560A79579556.en. Downloaded on 22 Nov. 2019. Ved D., Saha D., Ravikumar K. and Haridasan K. 2015b. Commiphora wightii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T31231A50131117. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T31231A50131117.en. Downloaded on 15 Aug. 2019. Ved D., Saha D., Ravikumar K. and Haridasan K. 2015c. Nardostachys jatamansi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T50126627A50131395. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T50126627A50131395.en. Downloaded on 15 Aug. 2019. Wangchuk P. and Samten. 2009. Low Altitude Medicinal Plants of Bhutan: An Illustrated Guide for Practical Use. Pharmaceutical and Research Unit, Institute of Traditional Medicine Services, Ministry of Health, Thimpu, Bhutan. Wangchuk P., Keller P.A., Pyne S.G., Taweechotipatr M., Tonsomboon A., Rattanajak R. and Kamchonwongpaisan S. 2011. Evaluation of an ethnopharmacologically selected Bhutanese medicinal plants for their major classes of phytochemicals and biological activities. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 137: 730–742. Wangchuk P., Namgay K., Gayleg K. and Dorji Y. 2016. Medicinal plants of Dagala region in Bhutan: Their diversity, distribution, uses and economic potential. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 12: 28. doi: 10.1186/s13002016-0098-7 Wangchuk P., Samten and Ugyen. 2009. High Altitude Medicinal Plants of Bhutan: An Illustrated Guide for Practical Use. Pharmaceutical and Research Unit, Institute of Traditional Medicine Services, Ministry of Health, Thimpu, Bhutan. Wangchuk P., Samten, Ugyen, Thinley J. and Afaq S.H. 2008. High altitude medicinal plants used in Bhutanese Sowarigpa medicine. Ethnobotany, 20: 54-64. Warrier P.K., Nambiar V.P.K. and Ramankutty C., eds. 1994–1996. Indian Medicinal Plants: A Compendium of 500 Species, Volume 1–5. Orient Longman Limited, Hyderabad, India. Watson M.F., Ikeda H., Rajbhandari K.R., Akiyama S., Pendry C.A. and Shrestha K.K., eds. 2011. Flora of Nepal. Volume 3. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. WCMC (World Conservation Monitoring Centre ). 1998. Ulmus wallichiana. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1998: e.T30410A9545816. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T30410A9545816.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Wu Z.Y., Raven P.H. and Hong D.Y., eds. 1994–2013. Flora of China. Science Press, Beijing, China and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, USA (available online at efloras.org). Yang, Z.-L. 2020. Ophiocordyceps sinensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T58514773A58514845. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T58514773A58514845.en. Downloaded on 19 August 2020. Yeshi K., Gyal Y., Sabernig K., Phuntsho J., Tidwell T., Jamtsho T., Dhondup R., Tokar E. and Wangchuk P. 2019. An integrated medicine of Bhutan: Sowa Rigpa concepts, botanical identification, and the recorded phytochemical and pharmacological properties of the eastern Himalayan medicinal plants. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 29: 100927. doi: 10.1016/j.eujim.2019.100927. Yeshi K., Morisco P. and Wangchuk P. 2017. Animal-derived natural products of Sowa Rigpa medicine: Their pharmacopoeial description, current utilization and zoological identification. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 207: 192–202. 371 Yeshi K., Wangdi T., Qusar N., Nettles J., Craig S.R., Scrempf M., Wangchuk P. and Tidwell T. 2018. Geopharmaceuticals of Himalayan Sowa Rigpa medicine: Ethnopharmacological uses, mineral diversity, chemical identification and current utilization in Bhutan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 223: 99–112. Yi-Ming L., Zenxiang G., Li Xinhai, Sung W. and Niemelä J. 2000. Illegal wildlife trade in the Himalayan region of China. Biodiversity and Conservation, 9: 901–918. Zhang D. and Christian T. 2013. Cupressus torulosa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T32131A2810351. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T32131A2810351.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Zhang D., Rushforth K. and Katsuki T. 2011. Abies spectabilis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T42300A10686224. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T42300A10686224.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Zhuang X. 2011. Drosera peltata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T168809A6539809. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T168809A6539809.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2019. Zschocke S., Rabe T., Taylor J.L.S., Jäger A.K., van Staden J. 2000. Plant part substitution – A way to conserve endangered medicinal plants? Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 71: 281–292. Zschocke S., van Staden J. 2000. Cryptocarya species: Substitute plants for Ocotea bullata? A pharmacological investigation in terms of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 inhibition. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 71: 473–478. Tibetan sources cited or consulted Deumar Tendzin Phuntsok (de'u dmar bstan 'dzin phun tshogs). dri med shel gong shel 'phreng (The Crystal Garland). (date of writing 17th or early 18th century. It was later published in 1993 with explanations and comments by Tibet People’s Publication House as sorig gches btus rinchen phreng ba shugs so). Deumar Tenzin Phuntsok (de'u dmar bstan 'dzin phun tshogs). so rig gches bstus rin chen phreng ba bzug so, tsab yig yongs kyi bchud bdus smen dbyul sel wa’i norbu. (date of writing 17th or early 18th century). Gawa Dorje (dga' ba rdo rje). 1995. ‘khrungs dpe dri med shel gyi me long (Clear and Pure Mirror). Chamdo Mentsikhang. Mirik Petum Khang, Chamdo. Karma Chöpel (kar ma chos 'phel). 1993. bdud rtsi sman gyi 'khrungs dpe legs bshad nor bu'i phreng mdzes. Bod Ijongs mi dmangs dpe skrum khang, Lhasa. Samten (bsam gtan). 2007. so rig snying bdus skya rengs gsar pa, bod ljong mi mang dpe skrun khang. Ten Druk. ngo la bzang drug rtsi sman gyi tsab stang tshab bzho nus pa yonten den pa'I ner kho bzhugs so (Medicinal substitutes of animal, plant and mineral resources used to cure cold and hot diseases and their effectiveness and efficacy). (date of writing probably in later part of the 16th century). Thupten Püntsok (thub bstan phun tshogs). gso byjed thabs ki rnam bshad bzhugs so (Methods of pharmacopoeia). (date of writing not known). Tönpa Shenrab Miboche (ston pa gshen rab mi bo che). chebu trished, gso rig bdud rtis bang mzod ‘bum bzhi bzugs so (The four tantras of Tibetan Yungdrung Bön tradition of ancient Tibet). (date of writing not known). Tsultrim Kalsang (tshul khrims skal bzang). 2008. bod kyi gso rig dang ayur veda krtun dgyi smen gzung bcas les bten pa’i skye dngos smen rzes kyi dpar ris dang lag len gche btus (The compilation book on integration of Materia Medica of traditional Tibetan Medicine, Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Chinese Medicine). Men Tsee Khang, Dharamsala, India. Urgen Tenzin (o rgyan bstan 'dzin). rtsi smen rnams kyi tshab yig dpal gyi dum bu’i phreng ba zhe bya wa sugs so (Medicines from odorous plants and animal parts and their medicinal substitution). (date of writing not known). Yutok Yönten Gönpo (g.yu thog yon tan mgon po). dpal den rgyud bzhi (Four Medical Tantra of Tibetan Buddhism). (date of writing not known). Further readings Adams V. 2001. The sacred in the scientific: ambiguous practices of science in Tibetan Medicine. Cultural Anthropology, 16(4): 542–575. Adams V. 2002. Randomized controlled crime: Postcolonial sciences in alternative medicine research. Social Studies of Science, 32(5-6): 659–690. 372 Adams V., Schrempf M. and Craig S.R., eds. 2011. Medicine Between Science and Religion: Exploration on Tibetan Grounds. Berghahn Books, London, UK and New York, USA. Antonio R.L., Kozasa E.H., Galduróz J.C.F., Dawa, Dorjee Y., Kalsang T., Norbu T., Tenzin T. and Rodrigues E. 2013. Formulas used by Tibetan doctors at men-tsee-khang in India for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders and their correlation with pharmacological data. Phytotherapy Research, 27: 552–563. Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y., Karki M., Gurung K. and Parajuli D., eds. 2002. Himalayan Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Balancing Use and Conservation. Proceeding of the Regional Workshop on Wise Practices and Experiential Learning in Conservation and Management of Himalayan Medicinal Plants. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ballabh B. andChaurasia O.P. 2007. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh used in treatment of cold, cough and fever. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 112: 341–349. Ballabh B. andChaurasia O.P., Ahmed Z. and Singh S.B. 2008. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh used against kidney and urinary disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 118: 331–339. Bhattarai S., Chaudhary R.P., Quave C.L. and Taylor R.S.L. 2010. The use of medicinal plants in the transhimalayan arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 6: 14. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-6-14 Bhattarai S., Chaudhary R.P. and Taylor R.S.L. 2006. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, central Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2: 41. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-2-41 Bista T. and Bista G. 2005. Himalayan Doctors and Healing Herbs: The Amchi Tradition and Medicinal Plants of Mustang. Lo Kunphen Mentseekhang, Mustang, Nepal Blaikie C. 2011. Critically endangered? Medicinal plant cultivation and the reconfiguration of Sowa Rigpa in Ladakh. Asian Medicine, 5: 243–272. Blaikie C. 2013. Currents of tradition in Sowa Rigpa pharmacy. East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, 7(3): 426–451. Blaikie C. 2013. Making Medicine: Materia Medica, Pharmacy and the Production of Sowa Rigpa in Ladakh. PhD dissertation, University of Kent. Blaikie C. 2015. Wish-fulfilling jewel pills: Tibetan Medicines from exclusivity to ubiquity. Anthropology and Medicine, 22(1): 7–22. Blaikie C. 2018. Absence, abundance and excess: Substances and Sowa Rigpa in Ladakh since the 1960s. In: Locating the Medical: Explorations in South Asian History (D.R. Roy and G.N.A Attewell, eds.), pp. 169–199. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India. Blaikie C. and S. Craig, in press. Tibetan medicine production in Nepal: Industrial aspirations, cooperative relations, and the limits of production. In: Asian Medical Industries: Contemporary Perspectives on Traditional Pharmaceuticals (S. Kloos and C. Blaikie, eds.). Routledge, London, UK. ISBN 9781032110226 Boesi A. 2007. The nature of Tibetan Plant nomenclature. The Tibet Journal 32(1): 3–28. Cardi F. 2005–2006. Principles and methods of assembling Tibetan medicaments. The Tibet Journal 30 & 31(4 & 1): 91–108. Chudakova T. 2015. Contingent efficacies in Buryat Tibetan Medicine. Asian Medicine, 10(1–2): 249–272. Chudakova, T. 2017. Plant matters: Buddhist Medicine and economies of attention in postsocialist Siberia. American Ethnologist, 44(2): 341–354. Clark B. 1995. The Quintessence Tantras of Tibetan Medicine. Snow Lion Publications, New York, USA. Craig S.R. 2002. Place, work, and identity between Mustang, Nepal and New York city. Studies in Nepali History and Society, 7(2): 355–403. Craig S.R. 2008a. Place and professionalization: Navigating Amchi identity in Nepal. In: Tibetan Medicine in the Contemporary World: Global Politics of Medical Knowledge and Practice (L. Pordié, ed.), pp. 62–90. Routledge, London, UK. Craig S.R. 2011. From empowerments to power calculations: Notes on efficacy, value and method. In: Medicine Between Science and Religion: Explorations on Tibetan Grounds (V. Adams, M. Schrempf and S.R. Craig, eds.), pp. 215–244. Berghahn Books, Oxford, UK. Craig S.R. 2012. Healing Elements: Efficacy and the Social Ecologies of Tibetan Medicine. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA. Craig S.R. 2016. The efficacy of collaboration. Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity, 10(1): 152–175. 373 Craig S.R. and Adams V. 2008. Global pharma in the land of snows: Tibetan Medicines, SARS, and identity politics across nations. Asian Medicine, 4: 1–28. Craig S.R. and Gerke B. 2016. Naming and forgetting: Sowa Rigpa and the territory of Asian medical systems. Medicine Anthropology Theory, 3(2): 87–122. Craig S.R. and Glover D., eds. 2011. Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity 5(2). Special issue on Medicinal Plant Cultivation, Conservation and Commoditization in the Himalaya and Tibet. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands. Craig S.R., Chase L. and Lama T.N. 2010. Taking the MINI to Mustang, Nepal: Methodological and epistemological translations of an illness narrative interview tool. Anthropology and Medicine, 17(1): 1–26. Craig S.R., Cuomu M., Garrett F. and Schrempf M., eds. 2010. Studies of Medical Pluralism in Tibetan History and Society: Proceedings from the XIth International Association of Tibetan Studies Meetings. International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, Contributions to Research on Central Asia series, Bonn, Germany. Czaja O. 2013. Tibetan medicinal plants and their healing potentials. In: Nepalica-Tibetica: Festgabe for Christoph Cüppers Volume 1 (F.–K. Ehrhard and P. Maurer, eds.), pp. 89–117. International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, Andiast, Switzerland. Dawa D. 1999. Clear Mirror of Tibetan Medicinal Plants. Tibet Domani, Rome, Italy. (edited by Linda Moore). Dhungel R. 2002. The Kingdom of Lo (Mustang): A Historical Study. Gyalpo Jigme Foundation, Kathmandu, Nepal. Gerke B. 2013. The social life of Tsotel. Asian Medicine, 8(1): 120–152. Gerke B. 2015. Biographies and knowledge transmission of mercury processing in twentieth century Tibet. Asiatische Studien/Etudes Asiatiques, 69(4): 867–899. Gerke B. 2015. Moving from efficacy to safety: A changing focus in the study of Asian medical system. Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford, 7(3): 370–384. Gerke B. 2016. When ngülchu is not mercury: Tibetan taxonomies of metals. In: Soulless Matter, Seats of Energy: Metals, Gems and Minerals in South Asian Religions and Culture (M.F. Fabrizio and D. Thomas, eds.), 116–140. Equinox, Sheffield, UK. Gerke B. 2018. The signature of recipes: Authorship, intertextuality and the epistemic genre of Tibetan formulas. Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines, 45: 178–220. Gerke B. and Ploberger F. 2017. Jewels in medicines: On the processing and efficacy of precious pills according to the Four Treatises. In: Buddhism and Medicine: An Anthology (P. Salguero, ed.), pp. 583–592. Columbia University Press, New York, USA. Gerke B. and Valk van der J., eds. 2019. Approaching potent substances in medicine and ritual across Asia. HIMALAYA (special issue), 39(1): 69–73. Gerke B. 2019. The potency of tradition: Turquoise, coral, and pearl in Sowa Rigpa. HIMALAYA, 39(1): 91–109. Ghimire S.K., McKey D. and Aummeeruddy-Thomas Y. 2004. Heterogeneity in ethnoecological knowledge and management of medicinal plants in the Himalayas of Nepal: Implications for conservation. Ecology and Society, 9(3): 6. Gyatso J. 2015. Being Human in a Buddhist World: An Intellectual History of Medicine in Early Modern Tibet. Columbia University Press, New York, USA. HAA (Himalayan Amchi Assiciation). 2002. Third Booklet. Himalayan Amchi Assiciation Nepal, Boudha, Kathmandu, Nepal. HAA (Himalayan Amchi Assiciation). 2003. Fourth Booklet. Himalayan Amchi Assiciation Nepal, Boudha, Kathmandu, Nepal. HAA (Himalayan Amchi Assiciation). 2004. Fifth Booklet. Himalayan Amchi Assiciation Nepal, Boudha, Kathmandu, Nepal. HAA (Himalayan Amchi Assiciation). 2006. Final Report on Primary Amchi Health Training Program: 17 January to 15 February 2006. Himalayan Amchi Assiciation Nepal, Boudha, Kathmandu, Nepal. Hao D.-C., Xiao P.-G. and Liu C. 2018. Traditional Tibetan medicinal plants: A highlighted resource for novel therapeutic compounds. Future Medicinal Chemistry, 10(21): 2537–2555. Hofer T., ed. 2014. Bodies in Balance: The Art of Tibetan Medicine. University of Washington Press, Seattle, USA. Hofer T. 2008a. Socio-economic dimensions of Tibetan Medicine in the Tibet Autonomous Region, China (Part One). Asian Medicine, 4: 174–200. Hofer T. 2008b. Socio-economic dimensions of Tibetan Medicine in the Tibet Autonomous Region, China (Part Two), Asian Medicine, 4: 492–514. Hofer T. 2014. Foundations of pharmacology, and the compounding of Tibetan Medicines. In: Bodies in Balance: The Art of Tibetan Medicine (T. Hofer, ed.), pp. 46–64. Rubin Museum of Art, New York, USA. 374 Hofer T. 2018. Medicine and Memory in Tibet: Amchi Physicians in an Age of Reform. University of Washington Press, Seattle, USA. Janes C. 2002. Buddhism, science, and market: The globalization of Tibetan Medicine. Anthropology and Medicine, 9(3): 267–289. Janes C.R. and Hilliard C. 2008. Inventing tradition: Tibetan Medicine in the post-socialist contexts of China and Mongolia. In: Tibetan Medicine in the Contemporary World: Global Politics of Medical Knowledge and Practice (L. Pordié, ed.), pp. 35–61. Routledge, New York, USA. Kala C.P. 2003. Medicinal Plants of Indian Trans-Himalaya: Focus on Tibetan Use of Medicinal Resources. Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. Kala C.P. 2005. Health traditions of Buddhist community and role of amchis in trans-Himalayan region of India. Current Science, 89(8): 1331–1338. Karmay S. 1998. The Arrow and the Spindle: Studies in History, Myths, Rituals and Beliefs in Tibet. Mandala Book Point, Kathmandu, Nepal. Khroru Tse rNam Rinpoche. n.d. Gso rig rGyud bzhi ‘gdrel chen drang song zhal lung , So Khron. People Minority Publishing House, China. (in Tibetan). Khyungtrul Jigme Namkha Dorje. 1897–1956. Tse rig rgyud ‘bum ner mkho dpag bsam ljon shing las mngo sman gyi sde (The wish- fulfilling Tree; the medicinal plants chapter according to the sorig bum zhi). (in Tibetan). Kind M. 2002. Mendrup: A Bonpo Ritual for the Benefit of all Living Beings and for the Empowerment of Medicine Performed in Tsho, Dolpo. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. Kloos S. 2015. (Im-)Potent knowledges. Preserving ‘traditional’ Tibetan Medicine through modern science. In: Fugitive Knowledges: The Preservation and Loss of Knowledge in Cultural Contact Zones (A. Beer and G. Mackenthun, eds.), pp. 123–142. Waxmann, Münster & New York. Kloos S. 2017. The pharmaceutical assemblage: Rethinking Sowa Rigpa and the herbal pharmaceutical industry in Asia. Current Anthropology, 58(6): 693–717. Kloos S. 2020. Humanitarianism from below: Sowa Rigpa, the traditional pharmaceutical industry, and global health. Medical Anthropology, 39(2): 167–181. doi: 10.1080/01459740.2019.1587423. Lhamo N. and Nebel S. 2011. Perceptions and attitudes of Bhutanese people on Sowa Rigpa, traditional Bhutanese medicine: a preliminary study from Thimphu. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 7: 3. doi: 10.1186/17464269-7-3 Liu Y., Dao Z., Yang C., Liu Y. and Long C. 2009. Medicinal plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la, Yunnan, China. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 5: 15. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-5-15 Martin D. 2004. Bon bibliography: An annotated list of recent publications. Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines, 4: 61–77. McGrath W.A. 2017. Buddhism and Medicine in Tibet: Origins, Ethics and Tradition. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Religious Studies, University of Virginia. Meyer F. 1987. Gso-ba rig-pa–le Système Medical Tibetain. Editions CNRS, Paris, France. Namgyal G. and Phuntsog S.T. 1990. Amchi Pharmaco-Therapeutics. Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, New Delhi, India. Nikolayev S. 1998. Traditional principles of pharmacotherapy in Tibetan Medicine. In: Tibetan Medicine: The History, Methodology of Studies and Prospects of Use (E. Bazaron, ed.), pp. 81–92. Buryat Scientific Centre, The Biology Institute, Ulan-Ude, Russia. Norbu Namkhai. 1995. Drung, Deu and Bon Narration, Symbolic Languages and the Bon Tradition in Ancient Tibet. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, India. Parfionovitch Y., Dorje G. and Meyer F., eds. 1992. Tibetan Medical Paintings: Illustrations to the Blue Beryl Treatise of Sangye Gyamtso (1653-1705). Vol. I plates, Vol. II text. Serindia Publications, London, UK. Pohle P. 1990. Useful Plants of Manang District: A Contribution to the Ethnobotany of the Nepal-Himalaya. Nepal Research Centre Publications No. 16. Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GMBH, Stuttgart, Germany. Pordié L., ed. 2008. Tibetan Medicine in the Contemporary World: Global Politics of Medical Knowledge and Practice. Routledge, Abingdon, UK. Pordié L. and Hardon A. 2015. Drugs' stories and itineraries. On the making of Asian industrial medicines. Anthropology and Medicine, 22(1): 1–6. 375 Ramble C. 2008. The Navel of the Demoness: Tibetan Buddhism and Civil Religion in Highland Nepal. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Sabernig K. 2011. The substitution of rare ingredients in traditional Tibetan Medicine on the basis of classical Tibetan texts, their use in modern formularies, and a case study from Amdo/Qinghai. Curare, 34(1,2): 83–96. Salick J., Byg A., Amend A., Gunn B., Law W. and Schmidt H. 2006. Tibetan medicine plurality. Economic Botany, 60(3): 227–253. Salick J., Zhendong F., and Byg A. 2009. Eastern Himalayan alpine plant ecology, Tibetan ethnobotany, and climate change. Global Environmental Change, 19(2): 147–155. Samuel G. 1993. Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies. Mandala Book Point, Kathmandu, Nepal. Samuel G. 2013. Introduction: Medicine and healing in Tibetan Societies. East Asian Science, Technology and Society, 7(3): 335–351. Sangye Gyatso. 2007. Vaidurya Ngon po. Mentseekhang Publication, Dharamsala, India. (in Tibetan). Sangye Gyatso. 2010. Mirror of Beryl: A Historical Introduction to Tibetan Medicine. Wisdom Publications, Boston, USA. Saxer, M. 2009. Herbs and traders in transit: Border regimes and the contemporary trans-Himalayan Trade in Tibetan medicinal plants. Asian Medicine, 5: 317–339. Saxer, M. 2013. Manufacturing Tibetan Medicine: The Creation of an Industry and the Moral Economy of Tibetanness.: Berghahn Books, Oxford, UK and New York, USA. Schrempf M. 2015. Contested issues of efficacy and safety between transnational formulation regimes of Tibetan Medicines in China and Europe. Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity, 10: 273–315. Schwabl H. 2009. It is modern to be traditional: Tradition and Tibetan Medicine in the European context. Asian Medicine, 5(2): 373–384. Schwabl H. and van der Valk J. 2019. Challenging the biomedical notion of ‘active substance’: The botanical plasticity of Tibetan medical formulas. HIMALAYA, 39(1): 208–218. Schwabl H. and Vennos C. 2015. From medical tradition to traditional medicine: A Tibetan formula in the European framework. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 167: 108–114. Sehnalova A. 2018. The Bonpo Mendrup (sMan sgrub) Ritual: Its Medicine, Texts, Traceable History, and Current Practice. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of South and Central Asia, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic. Sehnalova A. 2019. Medicinal Mandala: potency in spatiality. HIMALAYA, 39(1): 164–188. Snellgrove D.L. 1967. The Nine Ways of Bon – Excerpts from gZi-brjid. Oxford University Press, London, UK. Snellgrove D.L. 1988. Himalayan Pilgrimage. Shambhala, Boston, USA. Snellgrove D.L. 1992. Four Lamas of Dolpo: Tibetan Biographies. Himalayan Bookseller, Kathmandu, Nepal. Sonam Dolma. 2013. Understanding ideas of toxicity in Tibetan medical processing of mercury. Asian Medicine, 8: 106–119. Tidwell T. L. 2017. Imbibing the Text, Transforming the Body, Perceiving the Patient: Cultivating Embodied Knowledge for Tibetan Medical Diagnosis. Ph.D. Dissertation, Anthropology, James T. Laney School of Graduate Studies of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Tidwell T. L. and Nettles J. H. 2019. Conceptions of potency, purity, and synergy-by-design: Toward developing a Sowa Rigpa medical theory-based approach to pharmaceutical research. HIMALAYA, 39(1): 129–149. van der Valk J. 2017. Alternative Pharmaceuticals: The Technoscientific Becomings of Tibetan Medicines in-between Indian and Switzerland. Ph.D. dissertation, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK. van der Valk J. 2019. Garuda 5 (khyung lnga): Ecologies of potency and the poison-medicine spectrum of Sowa Rigpa’s renowned ‘black aconite’ formula. HIMALAYA, 39(1): 111–128. Witt C., Craig S.R. and Cuomu M., eds. 2012. Clinical Research on Tibetan Medicine: Challenges and Points of Consensus. CVC/Essen, Berlin, Germany. Yang G. 2010. The Sources for the Writing of the Rgyud bzhi, Tibetan Medical Classic. Ph.D. Dissertation, Inner Asian and Altaic Studies, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA. Yang Y.C. 1991. Annals of Tibetan Medicines. Qinghai People Press, Xining, China. Yoeli-Tlalim, R. 2019. The Silk-Roads as a model for exploring Eurasian transmissions of medical knowledge: Views from the Tibetan medical manuscripts of Dunhuang. In: Entangled Itineraries of Materials, Practices, and Knowledge: Eurasian Nodes of Convergence and Transformation (P.H. Smith, ed.), pp. 47–62. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, USA. 376 Index to Botanical Names ______________________________________________________ Entries in bold type refer to names described in the text as main citations; roman type refer to alternate family names in Part III, generic or specific names mentioned in the text in Part I and II only, and specific names mentioned in ‘notes’ in Part III; and italic type refer to synonyms. A Abelmoschus manihot, 211 Abelmoschus moschatus, 53, 210 Abies spectabilis, 36, 65, 122 Abrus pauciflorus, 181 Abrus precatorius, 86, 159, 181 Acacia catechu, 188 Acacia catechuoides, 188 Acacia wallichiana, 188 ACANTHACEAE, 124 Acanthocalyx nepalensis, 169 Acomastylis elata, 254 Aconitum atees, 242 Aconitum bhutanicum, 242 Aconitum bisma, 243 Aconitum cordatum, 242 Aconitum dissectum, 242 Aconitum ferox, 241 subsp. palmatum, 243 var. naviculare, 242 var. spicata, 243 Aconitum gammiei, 49, 242 Aconitum heterophyllum, 47, 48, 55, 63, 65, 242 Aconitum heterophylloides var. leucanthum, 47, 243 Aconitum luridum, 242 Aconitum napellus L. var. rigidum, 242 Aconitum naviculare, 28, 44, 47, 48, 55, 108, 242 var. leiocarpum, 242 Aconitum novoluridum, 52, 242 Aconitum orochryseum, 47, 48, 55, 243 Aconitum palmatum, 52, 243 Aconitum petiolare, 242 Aconitum spicatum, 65, 243 Aconitum virosum, 241 Aconitum wallichianum, 242 Aconogonon molle, 235 Aconogonon polystachyum, 235 Aconogonon rumicifolium, 235 Aconogonon tortuosum, 236 ACORACEAE, 53, 124 Acorus calamus, 47, 53, 124 Actaea frigida, 244 Actinospora frigida, 244 Adhatoda vasica, 124 Adhatoda zeylanica, 124 ADOXACEAE, 124 Aegle marmelos, 53, 57, 259 Agallochum grandiflorum, 271 Agallochum malaccense, 270 Agallochum sinense, 271 AGARICACEAE, 116 Aglaomorpha propinqua, 57, 119 Agrostis maxima, 232 Ajania khartensis, 52, 139 Ajania nubigena, 139 Ajuga alba, 200 Ajuga bracteosa, 200 var. densiflora, 200 Ajuga densiflora, 200 Ajuga integrifolia, 200 Ajuga lupulina, 200 Ajuga remota, 200 Alcea rosea, 211 Aleuritia macrophylla, 240 Aleuritia rotundifolia, 241 Aleuritia sikkimensis, 241 Aliopsis moorcroftiana, 193 Allardia glabra, 139 Allionia himalaica, 215 Allium, 28 Allium carolinianum, 47, 52, 125 Allium fasciculatum, 47, 125 Allium hypsistum, 126 Allium prattii, 125 var. ellipticum, 125 Allium przewalskianum, 50, 65, 126 Allium sativum, 126 Allium sikkimense, 126 Allium tuberosum, 47, 126 Allium wallichii, 50, 126 Aloitis moorcroftiana, 193 Althaea coromandeliana, 211 Althaea rosea, 211 var. sinensis, 211 Althaea sinensis, 211 Althaea verticillata, 212 AMARANTHACEAE, 124 AMARYLLIDACEAE, 50, 52, 65, 125 Amblytropis uniflora, 189 Ambrina botrys, 125 Amesia royleana, 219 Amomum cardamomum, 274 Amomum subulatum, 44, 47, 53, 57, 86, 129, 130, 274 Amomum zingiber, 274 Ampelygonum molle, 235 Amphicome arguta, 159 Amphicome diffusa, 159 Amphirhaphis albescens, 145 Amygdalus davidiana, 255 Amygdalus mira, 255 Amygdalus persica, 255 ANACARDIACEAE, 53, 127 Anagyris barbata, 189 Anaphalis busua, 140 Anaphalis contorta, 140 Anaphalis cuneifolia, 140 Anaphalis falconeri, 140 Anaphalis intermedia, 140 Anaphalis mairei, 140 Anaphalis monocephala, 141 Anaphalis mucronata, 141 Anaphalis nepalensis, 140 var. monocephala, 141 Anaphalis nubigena, 141 var. monocephala, 141 Anaphalis tenella, 140 Anaphalis triplinervis, 141 var. intermedia, 140 var. monocephala, 141 Anaphalis xylorhiza, 141 Anchusopsis longiflora, 162 Andromeda cupressiformis, 179 Andromeda fastigiata, 179 Andropogon muricatus, 232 Androsace densa, 239 Androsace gustavii, 239 Androsace jacquemontii var. robusta, 238 Androsace muscoidea f. longiscapa, 238 Androsace robusta, 238 subsp. jacquemontii, 238 var. gracilis, 238 Androsace sarmentosa, 239 var. grandifolia, 239 Androsace sessiliflora, 239 Androsace strigillosa, 239 var. canescens, 239 Androsace tapete, 239 Androsace villosa f. longiscapa, 238 var. robusta, 238 Anemonastrum, 45 Anemonastrum obtusilobum, 244 Anemonastrum polyanthes, 244 Anemone batangensis, 248 Anemone discolor, 244 Anemone narcissiflora var. polyanthes, 244 Anemone obtusiloba, 244 var. leiocarpa, 244 Anemone polyanthes, 244 Anemone rivularis, 248 377 var. parviflora, 248 Anemone rupicola, 248 subsp. reniformis, 248 subsp. sericea, 248 var. glabriuscula, 248 var. sericea, 248 Anemone scaposa, 244 Anemone villosa, 238, 244 Anemone wightiana, 248 Anemonidium obtusilobum, 244 Anemonidium rivulare, 248 Angelica cyclocarpa, 128 ANGIOSPERMS, 44, 113, 124 Anisodus anomalus, 267 Anisodus caulescens, 268 Anisodus humilis, 268 Anisodus luridus, 50, 267 Anisodus mairei, 267 Anisodus mariae, 268 Anisodus stramonifolius, 267 Anisodus tanguticus, 50, 267 var. viridulus, 267 Antennaria contorta, 140 Antennaria triplinervis, 141 Anthriscus boissieui, 130 Aphanochilus eriostachyus, 202 Aphanochilus fruticosus, 202 Apiaceae, 44, 51, 68, 113, 128 Aplotaxis auriculata, 149 Aplotaxis denticulata, 155 Aplotaxis fastuosa, 155 Aplotaxis gossypina var. minor, 155 Aplotaxis leontodontoides, 154 Aplotaxis nepalensis, 154 Aplotaxis obvallata, 155 Aplotaxis simpsoniana, 155 APOCYNACEAE, 50, 53, 82, 134 Aquilaria agallocha, 270 Aquilaria grandiflora, 271 Aquilaria malaccensis, 54, 57, 63, 65, 80, 85, 121, 270 Aquilaria ophispermum, 271 Aquilaria secundaria, 270 Aquilaria sinensis, 47, 54, 57, 63, 65, 80, 85, 145, 271 Aquilariella malaccensis, 270 Arabidopsis himalaica, 164 Arabis himalaica, 164 ARACEAE, 51, 135 Archangelica cyclocarpa, 128 Arctium lappa, 141 Arctium majus, 141 Arctium vulgare, 141 Ardisia tsjeriam-cottam, 239 Areca catechu, 86, 136, 166 ARECACEAE, 136 Arenaria festucoides, 171 Arenaria globiflora, 171 Arenaria kansuensis, 171 var. acropetala, 171 Arenaria roylei, 171 378 Argentina anserina, 251 Argentina microphylla, 251 Argentina peduncularis, 252 Arisaema cornutum, 135 Arisaema exile, 135 Arisaema flavum, 46, 135 Arisaema jacquemontii, 47, 135 Arisaema tortuosum, 46, 135 Arisaema wightii, 135 Aristolochia griffithii, 86, 137, 196 ARISTOLOCHIACEAE, 137 Arnebia benthamii, 46, 49, 63, 65, 77, 83, 160, 163, 175 Arnica nivea, 153 Artemisia, 51, 55, 57, 84 Artemisia asiatica, 143 Artemisia capillaris, 142 Artemisia cuneifolia, 143 Artemisia dubia, 142 var. grata, 143 Artemisia edgeworthii, 144 Artemisia falconeri, 144 Artemisia gmelinii, 55, 142 var. intermedia, 142 Artemisia hedinii, 94, 100, 142 Artemisia indica, 143 var. nepalensis, 143 var. orientalis, 143 Artemisia japonica, 143 var. lanata, 143 Artemisia leptophylla, 143 Artemisia roxburghiana, 52, 143 Artemisia rutifolia, 144 Artemisia sacrorum, 142 var. intermedia, 142 Artemisia salsoloides var. wellbyi, 144 Artemisia sieversiana, 52, 144 Artemisia stricta, 144 Artemisia turczaninoviana, 144 Artemisia vestita, 55, 79, 80, 84, 85, 94, 100, 144 Artemisia vulgaris var. indica, 143 Artemisia wallichiana, 143 Artemisia wellbyi, 144 Arthrochilium royleanum, 219 Arum flavum, 135 Arum tortuosum, 135 Asclepias canescens, 135 Aspalathus gerardianus, 184 Aspalathus jubatus, 184 ASPARAGACEAE, 49, 53, 65, 137 Asparagus filicinus, 137 Asparagus racemosus, 47, 53, 57, 65, 137 Aspidium squarrosum, 118 Aster albescens, 145 Aster diplostephioides, 46, 145 Aster flaccidus, 49, 145 Aster himalaicus, 46, 49, 145, 146 Aster stracheyi, 46, 146 ASTERACEAE, 44, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 65, 66, 113, 139 Astragalus, 46 Astragalus candolleanus, 182 Astragalus donianus, 187 Astragalus floridulus, 182 Astragalus floridus, 182 Astragalus macrorhizus, 187 Astragalus microphyllus, 186 Astragalus moorcroftianus, 188 Astragalus rhizanthus subsp. candolleanus, 182 Astragalus royleanus, 182 Astragalus tatsienensis, 182 Astragalus yunnanensis, 182 Athamanta depressa, 130 ATHYRIACEAE, 117 Athyrium wallichianum, 117 Aucklandia costus, 47, 54, 57, 63, 65, 77, 84, 146, 149, 150 Azadirachta indica, 213 Azalea campanulata, 179 Azalea lepidota, 180 Azalea nivalis, 180 B Baimo cirrhosa, 208 Balsamodendrum wightii, 166 Bambusa, 43, 359 Bamia abelmoschus, 210 Bassecoia hookeri, 47, 48, 168 Belenia praealta, 268 Berberidaceae, 48, 52, 67, 157 Berberis angulosa, 157 var. fasciculata, 157 Berberis aristata, 48, 55, 82, 83, 88, 89, 93, 96, 98, 158 Berberis mucrifolia, 158 Berberis parisepala, 157 Bergenia ciliata, 52, 233, 263 f. ligulata, 263 Bergenia delavayi, 263 Bergenia himalaica, 263 Bergenia ligulata, 263 var. ciliata, 263 Bergenia pacumbis, 52, 263 Bergenia purpurascens, 52, 77, 83, 233, 263 var. delavayi, 263 Betula bhojpattra, 159 var. latifolia, 159 Betula utilis, 159 BETULACEAE, 159 Bignonia indica, 160 BIGNONIACEAE, 46, 50, 67, 159 Bistorta affinis, 233 Bistorta amplexicaulis, 233 Bistorta bulbifera, 234 Bistorta macrophylla, 52, 77, 83, 233 Bistorta sphaerostachya, 233 Boerhavia diffusa, 58, 215 Bombax ceiba, 53, 57, 83, 86, 90, 211, 226 Bombax malabaricum, 211 BORAGINACEAE, 49, 51, 65, 77, 113, 160 Boschniakia handelii, 223 Boschniakia himalaica, 223 Boschniakia kawakamii, 223 Botrydium botrys, 125 BRASSICACEAE, 49, 50, 113, 163 Bryonia pedunculosa, 176 Brucea javanica, 89, 127, 200 Buddleja crispa, 266 Buddleja farreri, 266 Buddleja tibetica, 266 var. glandulifera, 266 Bulbocodium serotinum, 209 Bupleurum candollei, 88, 128 Bupleurum falcatum subsp. marginatum, 129 var. gracillimum, 128 var. marginatum, 129 var. nigrocarpa, 128 Bupleurum gracillimum, 87, 129 Bupleurum longicaule, 88, 129 Bupleurum marginatum, 87, 129 BURSERACEAE, 65, 166 Butea frondosa, 182 Butea monosperma, 65, 79, 84, 144, 182 C Caesalpinia bonduc, 183 Caesalpinia bonducella, 183 Callista amoena, 218 Callista densiflora, 218 Callista longicornis, 219 Caltha bisma, 243 Caltha palustris, 244 Camellia sinensis, 270 Campanula viridis, 167 CAMPANULACEAE, 50, 167 Camphora parthenoxylon, 208 Campylus sinensis, 213 Canavalia ensiformis, 58, 86, 183, 187 CANNABACEAE, 53, 168 Cannabis sativa, 47, 53, 78, 85, 168 Capnoides juncea, 225 Capnoides meifolia, 225 Capnoides cachemiriana, 223 Capnoides govaniana, 224 CAPRIFOLIACEAE, 48, 50, 66, 68, 113, 168 Caprifolium rupicolum, 169 Caprifolium spinosum, 169 Capsella bursa-pastoris, 50, 78, 84, 163 Caragana, 46, 57 Caragana brevifolia, 183 Caragana brevispina, 183 Caragana gerardiana, 51, 81, 85, 184 Caragana jubata, 51, 81, 85, 184 Caragana moorcroftiana, 188 Caragana pygmaea, 184 Caragana triflora, 183 Caragana versicolor, 80, 85, 184 Caragana williamsii, 183 Cardamine macrophylla, 163 subsp. polyphylla, 163 var. foliosa, 163 var. polyphylla, 163 Cardamomum subulatum, 274 Carduus, 46 Carduus edelbergii, 146 subsp. lanatus, 146 Carduus nepalensis, 149 Carduus nutans var. lucidus, 146 Carex, 51, 52, 55 Carex atrata, 177 Carpopogon monospermus, 186 Carthamus tinctorius, 47, 48, 54, 57, 58, 82, 86, 94, 96, 99, 101, 146, 201, 204, 206, 207 Carum ajawain, 133 Carum ammi, 133 Carum carvi, 51, 86, 129, 130 CARYOPHYLLACEAE, 52, 171 Caryophyllus aromaticus, 214 Cassia fistula, 184 Cassia fistuloides, 184 Cassia rhombifolia, 184 Cassia tora, 188 var. borneensis, 188 Cassiope fastigiata, 179 Cautleya spicata, 275 CELASTRACEAE, 173 Cenchrus flaccidus, 232 Cephalanthera acuminata, 216 Cephalanthera longifolia, 65, 77, 216 Cephalanthera royleana, 219 Ceropegia erecta, 134 Ceropegia wallichii, 134 Chaenomeles lagenaria, 252 Chaenomeles speciosa, 87, 237, 252 Chaerophyllum gracillimum, 133 Chaerophyllum villosum, 130 Chamaejasme stelleriana, 271 Chamaenerion angustifolium subsp. circumvagum, 216 var. platyphyllum, 216 Chamaerhodiola himalensis, 175 Chamerion angustifolium subsp. circumvagum, 216 Chamerion speciosum, 216 Chelidonium dicranostigma, 225 Chelidonium lactucoides, 225 Chenopodium album, 124 Chenopodium botrydium, 125 Chenopodium botrys, 125 Choerospondias axillaris, 53, 57, 87, 92, 93, 96, 97, 99, 100, 127, 169, 212 Chrysopogon zizanioides, 78, 84, 232 Chrysosplenium carnosulum, 264 Chrysosplenium carnosum, 50, 264 Chrysosplenium forrestii, 264 Chrysosplenium nudicaule, 50, 264 Chrysosplenium tibeticum, 264 Chusua donii, 220 Chusua nana, 220 Chusua pauciflora, 220 Cicerbita macrorhiza, 152 Cimicifuga foetida, 244 var. bifida, 244 Cimicifuga frigida, 244 Cinnamomum, 108 Cinnamomum camphora, 44, 54, 57, 87, 207, 224 Cinnamomum glanduliferum, 208 Cinnamomum parthenoxylon, 57, 208 Cinnamomum tamala, 53, 208 Cinnamomum verum, 208 Cinnamomum zeylanicum, 208 Cirsium, 46 Cirsium verutum, 147 Cirsium wallichii var. glabratum, 147 Cissampelos glabra, 213 Cleistanthium nepalense, 150 Clematis anemoniflora, 245 Clematis barbellata, 46, 51, 55, 245 Clematis chrysantha var. brevipes, 245 Clematis montana, 46, 52, 87, 93, 96, 99, 102, 245 var. grandiflora, 245 Clematis nepalensis, 245 Clematis punduana, 245 Clematis tibetana, 46, 245 subsp. brevipes, 245 subsp. vernayi, 246 var. vernayi, 46, 246 Clematis vernayi, 246 Clypea rotunda, 213 Cnicus lucidus, 146 Cnicus verutus, 147 Cnicus wallichii var. glabrata, 147 Cochlearia scapiflora, 165 Codonopsis convolvulacea subsp. grey-wilsonii, 167 Codonopsis grey-wilsonii, 167 Codonopsis thalictrifolia, 50, 167 Codonopsis viridis, 167 Coelogyne, 65, 78 Coelogyne corymbosa, 65, 84, 217 Coelogyne cristata, 65, 84, 217 Coelogyne spp., 163, 227, 230, 232 Coleus barbatus, 200 Coleus coerulescens, 200 Coleus forskohlii var. adoensis, 200 Combretaceae, 53, 173 Commiphora mukul, 166 Commiphora wightii, 63, 65, 80, 85, 166, 186, 226 Compositae, 139 Conium nepalense, 133 Convallaria cirrhifolia, 138 Convallaria oppositifolia, 138 Convallaria verticillata, 139 379 CONVOLVULACEAE, 174 Corallodiscus lanuginosus, 51, 89, 175, 198 Cordyceps sinensis, 116 Coriandrum sativum, 58, 130 Cortia depressa, 51, 92, 97, 130 Cortia lindleyi, 130 Cortia nepalensis, 130 Corydalis cashmeriana, 52, 87, 223, 224, 225 Corydalis denticulato-bracteata, 224 Corydalis govaniana, 224 Corydalis hendersonii, 49, 79, 85, 224 Corydalis hookeri, 88, 224 Corydalis juncea, 225 Corydalis megacalyx, 49, 65, 225 Corydalis meifolia, 225 var. sikkimensis, 225 Corydalis nepalensis, 224 Corydalis paniculata, 224 Cosmiusa repens, 187 Cotoneaster acuminatus, 252 Cotoneaster buxifolia f. cochleata, 253 Cotoneaster frigidus, 252 Cotoneaster gamblei, 252 Cotoneaster himalaiensis, 252 Cotoneaster microphyllus, 253 var. cochleatus, 253 var. glacialis, 253 var. nivalis, 253 Cotoneaster nepalensis, 252 Cotyledon oreades, 176 Cotyledon spathulata, 176 CRASSULACEAE, 77, 174 Crataegus acuminata, 252 Crateva marmelos, 259 Cremanthodium arnicoides, 147 Cremanthodium decaisnei, 148 f. clarkei, 148 f. sinense, 148 Cremanthodium ellisii, 148 Cremanthodium nakaoi, 148 Cremanthodium nepalense, 148 Cremanthodium oblongatum, 148 Cremanthodium plantaginifolium, 152 Cremanthodium reniforme, 148 Cremanthodium virgaurea, 152 Crepis bhutanica, 149 Crepis dubyaea, 149 Crepis gracilipes, 157 Crepis hookeriana, 156 Crocus sativus, 44, 48, 54, 82, 87, 95, 96, 99, 102, 198, 201, 205, 206 Cruciferae, 163 Crucihimalaya himalaica, 164 Cucurbita siceraria, 176 CUCURBITACEAE, 49, 176 Cuminum cyminum, 87, 129, 130 CUPRESSACEAE, 50, 120 Cupressus austrotibetica, 120 Cupressus karnaliensis, 120 380 var. mustangensis, 120 Cupressus pakistanensis, 120 Cupressus torulosa, 120 subsp. karnaliensis, 120 Curcuma angustifolia, 274 Curcuma aromatica, 274 Curcuma domestica, 274 Curcuma longa, 54, 274 Cuscuta europaea var. indica, 174 Cuscuta hookeri, 174 Cuscuta indica, 174 Cuscuta macrantha, 174 Cuscuta reflexa, 174 var. grandiflora, 174 Cyananthus lobatus, 167 Cydonia speciosa, 252 Cymbidium speciosissimum, 217 Cynanchum auriculatum, 50, 55, 82, 88, 134 Cynanchum canescens, 135 Cynanchum glaucum, 135 Cynoglossum denticulatum, 161 Cynoglossum edgeworthii, 161 Cynoglossum furcatum, 161 Cynoglossum glochidiatum, 161 Cynoglossum longiflorum, 162 Cynoglossum uncinatum, 162 Cynoglossum wallichii, 161 var. glochidiatum, 161 Cynoglossum zeylanicum, 161 CYPERACEAE, 51, 177 Cypripedium himalaicum, 63, 65, 77, 83, 118, 217 Cypripedium macranthos var. himalaicum, 217 D Dactylorhiza hatagirea, 36, 46, 49, 63, 66, 76, 83, 217, 218, 219, 220 var. doniana, 218 Daiswa polyphylla, 212 Daphne canescens, 271 Daphne inamoena, 271 Dasiphora arbuscula, 253 Dasiphora rigida, 253 Datura stramonium, 267 Delphinastrum grandiflorum, 247 Delphinium bonatii, 247 Delphinium brunonianum, 47, 48, 94, 95, 100, 246 var. densum, 247 var. jacquemontianum, 246 Delphinium caeruleum, 52, 246 f. album, 246 Delphinium chinense, 247 Delphinium densiflorum, 52, 247 var. platycentrum, 247 Delphinium glaciale, 246 Delphinium grandiflorum, 52, 247 var. chinense, 247 var. kamaonense, 247 var. kunawarensis, 246 var. tsangense, 246 Delphinium himalayae, 52, 66, 247 Delphinium himalayense, 247 Delphinium jacquemontianum, 246 Delphinium kamaonense, 51, 247 var. glabrescens, 247 Delphinium minjanense, 246 Delphinium moschatum, 246 Delphinium pseudograndiflorum, 247 Delphinium sinense, 247 Dendranthema mutellinum, 139 Dendranthema nubigenum, 139 Dendrobium, 66, 78 Dendrobium amoenum, 66, 84, 218 Dendrobium bulleyi, 219 Dendrobium clavatum, 218 Dendrobium densiflorum, 66, 84, 218 Dendrobium egertoniae, 218 Dendrobium flexuosum, 219 Dendrobium hirsutum, 219 Dendrobium longicornu, 66, 84, 219 Dendrobium mesochlorum, 218 Dendrobium spp., 163, 227, 230, 232 Descurainia sophia, 164 Devendraea myrtillus, 168 Dicranostigma lactucoides, 225 Didissandra lanuginosa, 198 Didymocarpus lanuginosus, 198 Diplomorpha canescens, 271 DIPTEROCARPACEAE, 53, 67, 177 Dolichos ensiformis, 183 Dolichousnea longissima, 66, 77, 84, 117, 132 Dolomiaea, 57, 66, 84 Dolomiaea baltalensis, 149 Dolomiaea macrocephala, 77, 149 Dolophragma globiflorum, 171 Dracocephalum acanthoides, 201 Dracocephalum coerulescens, 204 Dracocephalum heterophyllum, 201 Dracocephalum hookeri, 201 Dracocephalum speciosum, 201 Dracocephalum tanguticum, 28, 55, 44, 47, 48, 55, 77, 82, 84, 86, 87, 201, 204, 206, 207 Dracocephalum wallichii, 201 Drosera lunata, 178 Drosera peltata, 178 var. lunata, 178 DROSERACEAE, 178 Drynaria prolifera, 119 Drynaria propinqua, 119 var. mesosora, 119 Dryobalanops robusta, 177 DRYOPTERIDACEAE, 118 Dubyaea bhutanica, 149 Dubyaea hispida, 149 Dubyaea lanceolata, 149 Dysphania botrys, 125 E Echinospermum canum, 161 Echinospermum myosotiflorum, 161 Echium benthami, 160 Edgaria darjeelingensis, 176 var. clarkiana, 176 ELAEAGNACEAE, 51, 178 Elettaria cardamomum, 44, 47, 54, 57, 87, 166, 274 Elsholtzia calycocarpa, 202 Elsholtzia ciliata, 87, 201, 202 Elsholtzia cristata, 201 Elsholtzia densa, 202 var. calycocarpa, 202 Elsholtzia eriostachya, 51, 202 var. pusilla, 202 Elsholtzia fruticosa, 202 Elsholtzia hoffmeisteri, 202 Elsholtzia patrinii, 201 Elsholtzia polystachya, 202 Elsholtzia pusilla, 202 Elsholtzia tristis, 202 Embelia ferruginea, 239 Embelia ribes, 240 Embelia robusta, 239 Embelia tsjeriam-cottam, 87, 202, 239, 245 Emblica officinalis, 228 Entada phaseoloides, 185 Entada scandens, 185 Ephedra gerardiana, 51, 88, 121, 122 Ephedra pachyclada, 51, 122 EPHEDRACEAE, 51, 121 Epilobium angustifolium subsp. circumvagum, 216 Epilobium conspersum, 216 Epilobium latifolium, 216 subsp. speciosum, 216 Epilobium speciosum, 216 Epipactis monorchis, 220 Epipactis royleana, 66, 77, 219 EQUISETACEAE, 118 Equisetum alpestre, 118 Equisetum arvense, 77, 83, 118 subsp. diffusum, 118 Equisetum boreale, 118 Equisetum diffusum, 118 Equisetum wallichianum, 118 Eremogone festucoides, 46, 52, 171 Eremogone kansuensis, 46, 52, 171 ERICACEAE, 48, 179 Ericala capitata, 190 Eriocapitella, 45 Eriocapitella rivularis, 248 Eriocapitella rupicola, 248 Eriophyton wallichii, 203 Eriostemon taraxacifolius, 154 Eritrichium canum, 161 Eritrichium jacquemontii, 161 Eritrichium strictum var. thomsonii, 161 Eritrichium uncinatum, 162 Erodium stephanianum, 196 Erysimum bhutanicum, 164 Erysimum dolpoense, 164 Erysimum longisiliquum, 164 Erysimum pachycarpum, 164 Erysimum patens, 164 Erysimum robustum, 164 Erysimum sikkimense, 164 Erysimum thomsonii, 164 Erythrina monosperma, 182 Eugenia aromatica, 214 Eugenia cumini, 214 Eugenia jambolana, 214 Euphorbia donii, 180 Euphorbia himalayensis, 181 Euphorbia longifolia, 180 Euphorbia mairei, 181 Euphorbia pseudosikkimensis, 180 Euphorbia stracheyi, 50, 181 Euphorbia wallichii, 89, 181 EUPHORBIACEAE, 50, 180 Eutrema scapiflorum, 49, 103, 165 Evansia nepalensis, 198 Eyrythalia canaliculata, 193 Eyrythalia carinata, 190 F FABACEAE, 44, 49, 51, 54, 65, 67, 113, 181 FAGACEAE, 190 Fagopyrum acutatum, 234 Fagopyrum cymosum, 234 Fagopyrum dentatum, 234 Fagopyrum dibotrys, 234 Fagopyrum emarginatum, 234 Fagopyrum esculentum, 234 Fagopyrum tataricum, 234 Fagopyrum triangulare, 234 Fedtschenkiella hookeri, 201 Ferula assa-foetida, 131 Foeniculum capillaceum, 131 Foeniculum officinale, 131 Foeniculum vulgare, 58, 131 Fragaria nubicola, 49, 55, 94, 95, 96, 101, 102, 253, 254 Fragaria vesca var. nubicola, 253 Fritillaria cirrhosa, 46, 66, 77, 84, 208, 209 subsp. roylei, 208 Fritillaria gardneriana, 209 Fritillaria roylei, 208 Fritillaria stracheyi, 209 Froscula hispida, 219 FUNGI, 43, 44, 45, 48, 96, 103, 105, 113, 114, 116 G Gagea pulchella, 209 Gagea serotina, 51, 55, 98, 209 Galedupa macrocarpa, 186 Galeobdolon amplexicaule, 203 Galium aparine, 258 Galium ciliatum, 259 Galium hirtiflorum, 259 var. hirsutum, 259 Gentiana, 27, 47, 48, 50, 55, 57 Gentiana algida var. nubigena, 191 var. przewalskii, 191 Gentiana amoena var. major, 192 Gentiana brevidens, 192 Gentiana capitata, 27, 190 Gentiana carinata, 190 var. marginata, 190 Gentiana carinthiaca, 193 Gentiana cephalodes, 190 Gentiana chirayita, 194 Gentiana depressa, 47, 48, 55, 190 Gentiana lhakangensis, 191 Gentiana marginata, 190 Gentiana membranulifera, 190 Gentiana moorcroftiana, 193 Gentiana nubigena, 47, 48, 55, 191 Gentiana ornata, 47, 48, 55, 191 Gentiana pharica, 191 Gentiana phyllocalyx, 47, 48, 55, 191 Gentiana przewalskii, 191 Gentiana robusta, 50, 80, 86, 191 Gentiana stipitata, 81, 86, 192 Gentiana straminea, 50, 80, 86, 192 Gentiana tibetica, 192 var. robusta, 191 Gentiana urnula, 192 GENTIANACEAE, 44, 48, 49, 50, 51, 67, 113, 190 Gentianella carinthiaca, 193 Gentianella moorcroftiana, 193 Gentianella paludosa, 193 Gentianodes algida var. nubigena, 191 Gentianodes ornata, 191 Gentianodes stipitata, 192 Gentianodes urnula, 192 Gentianopsis paludosa, 49, 55, 193 GERANIACEAE, 49, 196 Geranium donianum, 49, 86, 196 Geranium forrestii, 196 Geranium multifidum, 196 Geranium nepalense, 197 var. oliganthum, 197 Geranium oliganthum, 197 Geranium patens, 197 Geranium polyanthes, 49, 197 Geranium pratense, 28, 197 Geranium quinquenerve, 197 Geranium radicans, 197 Geranium stapfianum, 196 381 Geranium stenorrhizum, 196 Geranium stephanianum, 196 Geranium wallichianum, 197 Gerbera kunzeana, 150 Gerbera nepalensis, 150 Gerbera nivea, 153 GESNERIACEAE, 51, 198 Geum elatum, 254 var. leiocarpum, 254 Girardinia diversifolia, 272 Girardinia heterophylla, 272 Glaucium lactucoides, 225 Glechoma nivalis, 204 Glechoma thomsonii, 204 Glycine abrus, 181 Glycyrrhiza glabra, 87, 185, 229 Glycyrrhiza glandulifera, 185 Gnaphalium affine, 153 Gnaphalium busua, 140 Gnaphalium contortum, 140 Gnaphalium luteoalbum subsp. affine, 153 Gnaphalium stracheyi, 151 Granatum punicum, 210 Gueldenstaedtia diversifolia, 189 Gueldenstaedtia himalaica, 189 Gueldenstaedtia santapaui, 189 Gueldenstaedtia uniflora, 189 Guilandina bonduc, 183 Guilandina bonducella, 183 Gymnadenia calcicola, 220 Gymnadenia cylindrostachya, 219 Gymnadenia himalayica, 219 Gymnadenia orchidis, 66, 77, 83, 219 Gymnadenia pauciflora, 220 Gymnandra kunawurensis, 229 GYMNOSPERMS, 44, 113, 120 H Habenaria chusua, 220 Habenaria orchidis, 219 Hackelia uncinata, 162 Halenia elliptica, 193 Halerpestes tricuspis, 52, 248 Hedychium gardnerianum, 275 Hedychium spicatum, 275 Helenium hookeri, 150 Helenium racemosum, 150 Helichrysum nepalense, 140 Helleborine royleana, 219 Hemiphragma heterophyllum, 229 Hemipilia calcicola, 66, 77, 83, 220 Hemipilia chusua, 67, 77, 83, 220 Heracleum candicans, 132 Heracleum lallii, 133 Heracleum nepalense, 133 Herminium haridasanii, 220 Herminium monorchis, 66, 77, 84, 220 Herpetospermum darjeelingense, 176 Herpetospermum grandiflorum, 176 382 Herpetospermum pedunculosum, 49, 55, 176, 266 Heterochaeta diplostephioides, 145 Heterostalis diversifolia, 136 Hibiscus abelmoschus, 210 Hibiscus moschatus, 210 Hieracium hispidum, 149 Himalaiella auriculata, 149 Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. salicifolia, 178 subsp. tibetana, 178 Hippophae salicifolia, 55, 178 Hippophae tibetana, 51, 55, 178 Hippuris eschscholtzii, 229 Hippuris spiralis, 229 Hippuris vulgaris, 87, 229 Hirculus diversifolius, 265 Hirculus lychnitis, 265 Hirculus nutans, 265 Hirsutella sinensis, 116 Holarrhena antidysenterica, 134 Holarrhena pubescens, 53, 57, 81, 82, 88, 134, 135 Hylotelephium ewersii, 174 Hymenidium apiolens, 132 Hymenidium benthamii, 131 Hymenidium brunonis, 51, 131 Hymenidium dentatum, 131 Hymenidium hookeri, 51, 77, 84, 88, 92, 97, 131 Hymenolaena angelicoides, 132 Hymenolaena benthamii, 131 Hymenolaena brunonis, 131 Hyoscyamus agrestis, 268 Hyoscyamus niger, 268 subsp. agrestis, 268 var. chinensis, 268 Hyoscyamus praealtus, 268 Hypecoum alpinum, 226 Hypecoum chinense, 226 Hypecoum leptocarpum, 49, 80, 85, 226 var. chinense, 226 I ICMADOPHILACEAE, 68, 116 Incarvillea, 44, 46 Incarvillea arguta, 159 var. daochengensis, 159 var. longipedicellata, 159 Incarvillea diffusa, 46, 50, 159 Incarvillea grandiflora, 160 Incarvillea mairei, 44, 46, 50, 108, 160 var. multifoliolata, 160 Incarvillea younghusbandii, 46, 50, 160 Inula, 27, 44, 49, 55, 57 Inula hookeri, 150 Inula racemosa, 28, 44, 49, 55, 77, 84, 150 IRIDACEAE, 54, 198 Iris decora, 198 Iris duthiei, 199 Iris goniocarpa, 198 var. tenella, 198 Iris gracilis, 198 Iris kemaonensis, 199 Iris kingiana, 199 Iris nepalensis, 198 Iris tigrina, 199 Iris yunnanensis, 198 Isodon plectranthoides, 203 Isodon rugosus, 203 Isopyrum grandiflorum var. microphyllum, 249 Isopyrum microphyllum, 249 Ixeridium gracile, 95, 102, 150 Ixeris gracilis, 150 J JUGLANDACEAE, 66, 199 Juglans duclouxiana, 199 Juglans fallax, 199 Juglans kamaonia, 199 Juglans orientis, 199 Juglans regia, 36, 66, 199 var. kamaonia, 199 var. sinensis, 199 Juglans salicifolia, 199 Juglans sinensis, 199 JUNCAGINACEAE, 52, 200 Juniperus, 50, 57, 79 Juniperus alpina, 120 Juniperus communis L. var. saxatilis, 120 Juniperus densa, 121 Juniperus indica, 50, 78, 80, 85, 120, 121 Juniperus nana, 120 Juniperus pygmaea, 120 Juniperus recurva, 121 var. squamata, 121 Juniperus squamata, 121 Juniperus wallichiana, 120 Junopsis decora, 198 Jurinea dolomiaea, 149 var. tibetica, 149 Jurinea himalaica, 149 var. tibetica, 149 Jurinella macrocephala, 149 Justicia adhatoda, 57, 88, 124, 224, 230 K Kaempferia rotunda, 275 Koenigia mollis, 235 Koenigia polystachya, 235 Koenigia rumicifolia, 235, 236 Koenigia tortuosa, 236 L Labiatae, 200 Lactuca deasyi, 156 Lactuca dubyaea, 149 Lactuca gracilis, 150 Lactuca lessertiana, 152 Lactuca macrorhiza, 152 Lagenaria siceraria, 176 Lagenaria vulgaris, 176 Lagotis glauca var. kunawurensis, 229 var. sikkimensis, 229 Lagotis kunawurensis, 28, 47, 48, 55, 77, 78, 84, 88, 229 var. sikkimensis, 229 LAMIACEAE, 44, 45, 48, 51, 113, 200 Lamiophlomis rotata, 205 subsp. bhutanica, 205 var. subglabra, 205 Eriophyton wallichii, 203 Lamium album, 203 Lamium amplexicaule, 203 Lancea tibetica, 51, 87, 212 f. albiflora, 212 Lappa vulgaris, 141 LAURACEAE, 53, 54, 207 Laureola fragrans, 259 Laurus camphora, 207 Laurus cinnamomum, 208 Laurus parthenoxylon, 208 Laurus tamala, 208 Leguminosae, 181 Leibnitzia nepalensis, 150 Lens phaseoloides, 185 Leontodon eriopodum, 156 Leontopodium alpinum var. stracheyi, 151 Leontopodium anaphaloides, 151 Leontopodium himalayanum, 151 Leontopodium jacotianum, 151 Leontopodium monocephalum, 151 Leontopodium sinense var. stracheyi, 151 Leontopodium stracheyi, 151 Lepidium apetalum, 165 Lepisorus clathratus, 119 Lepisorus nepalensis, 119 Lepisorus pseudoclathratus, 119 Lepisorus soulieanus, 119 Lichen vermicularis, 116 LICHENS, 36, 43, 44, 45, 47, 113, 114, 116 Ligularia amplexicaulis, 152 Ligularia arnicoides, 147 Ligularia corymbosa, 152 Ligularia petelotii, 153 Ligularia plantaginifolia, 152 Ligularia reniformis, 148 Ligularia virgaurea, 152 Ligularia yakla, 152 Ligusticopsis wallichiana, 132 Ligusticum ajouan, 133 LILIACEAE, 52, 66, 208 Lilium nanum, 46, 77, 84, 209 Limodorum royleanum, 219 Limonia laureola, 259 Lindelofia longiflora, 162 Lindelofia spectabilis, 162 Lingoum santalinum, 187 Lithospermum benthami, 160 Lloydia alpina, 209 Lloydia longiscapa, 51, 98, 209, 210 Lloydia serotina, 209 var. parva, 209 LOGANIACEAE, 210 Lomatogonium carinthiacum, 193 Lonicera angustifolia var. myrtillus, 168 Lonicera hypoleuca, 87, 168, 169 Lonicera myrtillus, 168 var. depressa, 168 Lonicera parvifolia var. myrtillus, 168 Lonicera rupicola, 169 Lonicera spinosa, 169 Lonicera thibetica, 169 Luffa aegyptiaca, 177 Luffa cordifolia, 177 Luffa cylindrica, 177 Luffa racemosa, 177 Lychnis ciliata, 172 Lychnis indica, 172 Lychnis nigrescens, 172 Lychnis tristis, 172 Lycoperdon perlatum, 116 Lycopodioides pulvinata, 119 Lycopodium pulvinatum, 119 LYTHRACEAE, 54, 210 M Macrotomia benthami, 160 Maharanga emodi, 162 Maharanga wallichiana, 162 Maianthemum purpureum, 96, 137 Malus domestica, 254 Malus pashia, 256 Malus pumila, 254 var. domestica, 254 Malva microcarpa, 211 Malva neilgherrensis, 212 Malva parviflora, 211 Malva pulchella, 212 Malva trionoides, 211 Malva verticillata, 55, 212 MALVACEAE, 53, 65, 210 Mandragora caulescens, 268 subsp. flavida, 268 subsp. purpurascens, 268 Mandragora tibetica, 268 Mangifera indica, 57, 88, 127, 215 Marmoritis nivalis, 204 Marsdenia roylei, 134 MAZACEAE, 51, 212 Meconopsis grandis, 28, 47, 48, 83, 86, 226 subsp. grandis, 226 subsp. jumlaensis, 226 Meconopsis horridula, 50, 226 Meconopsis longipetiolata, 226 Meconopsis paniculata, 78, 85, 226, 227 var. elata, 226 Meconopsis punicea, 44, 57, 108, 227 Medicago falcata, 51, 185 Medicago lupulina, 51, 88, 185 Medicago sativa subsp. falcata, 185 Megacarpaea polyandra, 165 Megasea ciliata, 263 Melandrium apetalum var. himalayense, 171 Melandrium himalayense, 171 Melandrium indicum, 172 Melandrium nigrescens, 172 Melanoseris lessertiana, 152 Melanoseris lyrata, 152 Melanoseris macrorhiza, 152 MELANTHIACEAE, 67, 212 Melia azadirachta, 213 Melia indica, 213 MELIACEAE, 213 Melica latifolia, 232 Melorima cirrhosa, 208 MENISPERMACEAE, 53, 68, 213 Mentha cristata, 201 Mentha patrinii, 201 Micranthes melanocentra, 264, 265 Micranthes pallida, 264 Micranthes pseudopallida, 265 Mimosa catechu, 188 Mimosa catechuoides, 188 Mirabilis himalaica, 50, 58, 88, 90, 215 var. chinensis, 215 Momordica cylindrica, 177 Monorchis herminium, 220 MORACEAE, 213 Morina, 46 Morina betonicoides, 169 Morina nana, 169 Morina nepalensis, 169 Morina polyphylla, 169 Morus alba L. var. serrata, 213 Morus serrata, 213 Mucuna castanea, 186 Mucuna cristata, 186 Mucuna ferruginea, 186 Mucuna irukanda, 186 Mucuna macrocarpa, 186 Mucuna monosperma, 88, 122, 186 Mucuna subferruginea, 186 Mucuna wangii, 186 Mulgedium lessertianum, 152 Mulgedium macrorhizum, 152 Myosotis zeylanica, 161 Myricaria germanica var. squamosa, 270 Myricaria hoffmeisteri, 270 Myricaria rosea, 47, 48, 55, 81, 89, 99, 269 Myricaria squamosa, 47, 48, 55, 81, 89, 270 Myricaria wardii, 47, 48, 55, 81, 89, 270 Myristica aromatica, 214 383 Myristica fragrans, 44, 47, 54, 57, 88, 108, 132, 214 Myristica laurella, 214 Myristica moschata, 214 Myristica philippinensis, 214 MYRISTICACEAE, 54, 214 Myrobalanus bellirica, 173 Myrobalanus chebula, 173 MYRTACEAE, 54, 214 Myrtus chinensis, 269 Myrtus cumini, 214 N Nardosmia himalaica, 153 Nardostachys chinensis, 170 Nardostachys gracilis, 170 Nardostachys grandiflora, 170 Nardostachys jatamansi, 36, 50, 63, 66, 170 Nasturtium heterophyllum, 166 Nasturtium indicum, 166 Nasturtium montanum, 166 Nelumbium nelumbo, 215 Nelumbium speciosum, 215 Nelumbo indica, 215 Nelumbo nucifera, 215 Nelumbo speciosa, 215 NELUMBONACEAE, 215 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, 230 Neottianthe calcicola, 220 Neottianthe cucullata var. calcicola, 220 Nepeta coerulescens, 204 Nepeta discolor, 204 Nepeta laevigata, 204 Nepeta nivalis, 204 Nepeta staintonii, 48, 77, 82, 84, 86, 87, 204 Nepeta thomsonii, 204 Nigella indica, 249 Nigella sativa, 54, 88, 128, 129, 249 Nirbisia bisma, 243 Nomocharis nana, 209 NYCTAGINACEAE, 50, 215 Nymphaea nelumbo, 215 O Ocimum asperum, 200 Omphalodes longiflora, 162 ONAGRACEAE, 216 Onosma, 46 Onosma bracteatum, 49, 77, 83, 162 Onosma emodi, 162 Onosma hookeri var. longiflorum, 49, 163 Onosma longiflorum, 163 Onosma macrocephala, 162 Onosma vestitum, 162 Onosma wallichianum, 162 Ophelia angustifolia, 194 Ophelia chirayita, 194 384 Ophelia ciliata, 194 Ophelia paniculata, 195 Ophelia purpurascens, 194 Ophelia racemosa, 196 Ophelia wallichii, 195 OPHIOCORDYCIPITACEAE, 49, 66, 116 Ophiocordyceps sinensis, 49, 66, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 99, 116 Ophispermum sinense, 271 Ophrys monorchis, 220 ORCHIDACEAE, 49, 65, 66, 67, 113, 216 Orchis chusua, 220 var. nana, 220 Orchis hatagirea, 218 Orchis latifolia L. var. indica, 218 Orchis monorchis, 220 Oreoseris nivea, 153 Oreosolen schaeferi, 266 Oreosolen wattii, 266 Origanum laxiflorum, 205 Origanum normale, 205 Origanum vulgare, 205 Ornithogalum serotinum, 209 OROBANCHACEAE, 49, 50, 51, 113, 221 Orobanche solmsii, 221 Oroxylum indicum, 67, 160 Oxybaphus himalaicus, 215 var. chinensis, 215 Oxytropis, 44, 85, 108 Oxytropis microphylla, 49, 80, 94, 95, 100, 108, 186 Oxytropis tibetica, 186 Oxytropis williamsii, 86, 187 P Palala fragrans, 214 Papaver grande, 226 Papaver horridulum, 226 Papaver paniculatum, 226 Papaver puniceum, 227 Papaver rhoeas, 227 Papaver somniferum, 227 PAPAVERACEAE, 48, 49, 50, 52, 65, 113, 223 Paracaryum longiflorum, 162 Paracynoglossum furcatum, 161 Paraquilegia microphylla, 52, 96, 98, 101, 249 Paris polyphylla, 67, 212 Parmelia tinctorum, 117 PARMELIACEAE, 66, 67, 117 Parmotrema tinctorum, 67, 117 Parnassia nubicola, 95, 102, 173 Parochetus communis, 187 Parochetus maculata, 187 Parochetus major, 187 Parochetus oxalidifolius, 187 Patrinia jatamansi, 170 PEDALIACEAE, 54, 227 Pedicularis, 45 Pedicularis dolichosiphon, 223 Pedicularis gracilis, 221 Pedicularis hoffmeisteri, 50, 93, 99, 221, 222 Pedicularis integrifolia, 221 Pedicularis longiflora, 100 subsp. tubiformis, 222 var. tubiformis, 49, 93, 95, 99, 222 Pedicularis megalantha var. hoffmeisteri, 221 Pedicularis oederi, 222 Pedicularis pectinata, 222 Pedicularis scullyana, 50, 223 Pedicularis siphonantha, 51, 55, 223 Pedicularis trichoglossa, 223 Pedicularis tubiformis, 222 Pedicularis versicolor, 222 Pegaeophyton scapiflorum, 165 Pennisetum flaccidum, 232 var. interruptum, 232 Pennisetum sinense, 232 Pentaphylloides arbuscula, 253 Perdicium niveum, 153 Pergularia roylei, 134 Perilla fruticosa, 202 Perilla polystachya, 201 Persea tamala, 208 Persica davidiana, 255 Persica domestica, 255 Persica laevis, 255 Persica mira, 255 subsp. nepalensis, 255 Persica vulgaris, 255 Persicaria affinis, 233 Persicaria amplexicaulis, 233 Persicaria macrophylla, 233 Persicaria mollis, 235 Persicaria polystachya, 235 Persicaria vivipara, 234 Persicaria wallichii, 235 Petasites himalaicus, 153 Petasites mairei, 153 Petasites petelotii, 153 Petasites tricholobus, 153 Peucedanum wallichianum, 132 Phaca microphylla, 186 Phalaris zizanioides, 232 Phlomis bracteosa, 205 var. longifolia, 205 Phlomis cordata, 205 Phlomis lamiifolia, 205 Phlomis latifolia, 205 Phlomis macrophylla, 205 Phlomis rotata, 205 subsp. bhutanica, 205 Phlomis setigera, 205 Phlomis simplex, 205 Phlomoides bracteosa, 205 Phlomoides lamiifolia, 205 Phlomoides macrophylla, 205 Phlomoides rotata, 205 Phlomoides setigera, 205 Phoenix dactylifera, 136 PHYLLANTHACEAE, 53, 228 Phyllanthus emblica, 47, 53, 56, 82, 88, 108, 158, 228, 230 Phyllanthus taxifolius, 228 Phyllolobium donianum, 187 Phyllophyton nivale, 204 Phymatodes propinqua, 119 Physalis somnifera, 269 Physalis stramonifolia, 267 Physochlaina grandiflora, 268 Physochlaina praealta, 268 Phytolacca acinosa, 228 Phytolacca esculenta, 228 Phytolacca pekinensis, 228 PHYTOLACCACEAE, 228 Picris hieracioides subsp. kaimaensis, 153 Picris kaimaensis, 153 Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora, 28, 47, 48, 55, 63, 67, 77, 78, 84, 85, 229, 230 Pillera macrocarpa, 186 PINACEAE, 65, 122 Pinus excelsa, 122 Pinus griffithii, 122 Pinus nepalensis, 122 Pinus spectabilis, 122 Pinus wallichiana, 122 Piper longum, 48, 54, 67, 88, 228, 249 Piper nigrum, 228 PIPERACEAE, 54, 67, 228 PLANTAGINACEAE, 48, 51, 67, 113, 229 Plantago asiatica subsp. erosa, 51, 230 Plantago brachyphylla, 231 Plantago centralis, 230 Plantago depressa, 51, 230 Plantago erosa, 230 Plantago gentianoides, 231 Plantago himalaica, 51, 231 Plantago major, 231 Plantago sibirica, 230 Plantago tibetica, 230 Platyelasma densum, 202 Platyelasma eriostachyum, 202 Plectranthus asper, 200 Plectranthus barbatus, 200 Plectranthus coerulescens, 200 Plectranthus comosus, 200 Plectranthus pseudobarbatus, 200 Plectranthus rugosus, 203 Pleione corymbosa, 217 Pleione speciosissima, 217 Pleopeltis clathrata, 119 Pleurogyne carinata, 193 Pleuropteropyrum polystachyum, 235 Pleuropteropyrum rumicifolium, 235 Pleuropteropyrum tortuosum, 236 Pleurospermum angelicoides, 132 Pleurospermum benthamii, 131 Pleurospermum brunonis, 131 Pleurospermum hookeri, 132 Pneumonanthe ornata, 191 POACEAE, 232 Podophyllum emodi, 158 Podophyllum hexandrum, 52, 63, 67, 86, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 158 POLYGONACEAE, 49, 50, 52, 67, 113, 233 Polygonatum cirrhifolium, 49, 55, 89, 92, 96, 97, 138 Polygonatum hookeri, 138 Polygonatum oppositifolium, 138 Polygonatum pumilum, 138 Polygonatum verticillatum, 49, 55, 96, 139 Polygonum acutatum, 234 Polygonum affine, 233 Polygonum amplexicaule, 233 Polygonum brunonis, 233 Polygonum bulbiferum, 234 Polygonum cymosum, 234 Polygonum dibotrys, 234 Polygonum donianum, 233 Polygonum emarginatum, 234 Polygonum fagopyrum, 234 Polygonum macrophyllum, 233 Polygonum molle, 235 Polygonum petiolatum, 233 Polygonum polystachyum, 235 Polygonum rumicifolium, 235 Polygonum sphaerostachyum, 233 Polygonum tataricum, 234 Polygonum tortuosum, 236 Polygonum viviparum, 234 POLYPODIACEAE, 119 Polypodium clathratum, 119 Polypodium propinquum, 119 Polystichum squarrosum, 118 Ponerorchis chusua, 220 Ponerorchis cucullata var. calcicola, 220 Populus ciliata, 261 Populus pyriformis, 261 Potentilla anserina, 251 Potentilla arbuscula, 253 Potentilla argyrophylla, 254 var. atrosanguinea, 255 var. leucochroa, 254 Potentilla atrosanguinea, 255 Potentilla candolleana, 254 Potentilla cautleyana, 255 Potentilla fruticosa var. arbuscula, 253 var. ochreata, 253 var. rigida, 253 Potentilla insignis, 254 Potentilla jacquemontiana, 254 Potentilla microphylla, 251 var. caespitosa, 251 var. depressa, 251 var. glabriuscula, 251 var. latiloba, 251 Potentilla nivea var. himalaica, 254 Potentilla nubicola, 253 Potentilla peduncularis, 252 var. abbreviata, 252 var. elongata, 252 var. subcontigua, 252 Potentilla rigida, 253 Primula, 46, 57 Primula atroviolacea, 240 Primula cardiophylla, 241 Primula involucrata, 240 Primula macrophylla, 240 var. macrophylla, 240 var. moorcroftiana, 240 Primula munroi, 240 Primula nivalis var. macrophylla, 240 Primula odontophylla, 241 Primula pseudosikkimensis, 241 Primula pudibunda, 241 Primula purpurea, 240 Primula reidii, 240 var. williamsii, 240 Primula rotundifolia, 241 Primula roxburghii, 241 Primula sikkimensis, 51, 81, 86, 241 Primula stuartii var. purpurea, 240 Primula tapete, 239 PRIMULACEAE, 51, 52, 113, 238 Prunus davidiana, 255 Prunus mira, 255 subsp. nepalensis, 255 Prunus paniculata, 269 Prunus persica, 255 var. davidiana, 255 Prunus sibirica L. var. davidiana, 255 Pseudocodon grey-wilsonii, 167 Pseudognaphalium affine, 153 Pseudolophanthus nivalis, 204 Pseudoyoungia gracilipes, 157 PTERIDOPHYTES, 44, 113, 117 Pterocarpus santalinus, 47, 54, 57, 67, 81, 85, 184, 187 Pterocephalodes hookeri, 168 Pterocephalus hookeri, 168 Pterocyclus angelicoides, 132 Pulsatilloides obtusiloba, 244 Punica granatum, 48, 54, 57, 82, 89, 158, 210 Punica nana, 210 Pyrus acuminata, 252 Pyrus frigida, 252 Pyrus kumaoni, 256 Pyrus malus, 254 Pyrus nepalensis, 256 Pyrus pashia, 256 Pyrus speciosa, 252 Pyrus variolosa, 256 Q Quercus cassura, 190 Quercus obtusifolia, 190 Quercus semecarpifolia, 190 385 R Rabdosia rugosa, 203 RANUNCULACEAE, 44, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 65, 66, 113, 241 Ranunculus adoxifolius, 250 Ranunculus affinis var. tanguticus, 250 Ranunculus attenuatus, 250 Ranunculus brotherusii, 88, 249 subsp. latisectus, 249 var. dasycarpus, 249 var. tanguticus, 250 Ranunculus distans, 250 Ranunculus glabellus, 250 Ranunculus glabratus, 250 Ranunculus hirtellus, 250 Ranunculus nervosus, 250 Ranunculus pulchellus, 250 Ranunculus tanguticus, 250 Ranunculus tricuspis, 248 Raphanus sativus, 165 Reynoutria polystachya, 235 Rheum acuminatum, 49, 55, 236 Rheum australe, 28, 49, 55, 63, 67, 87, 237 Rheum emodi, 237 Rheum moorcroftianum, 55, 67, 237, 238 Rheum nobile, 67, 237 Rheum palmatum, 50, 238 Rheum reticulatum, 238 Rheum scaberrimum, 238 Rheum spiciforme, 238 Rheum webbianum, 50, 238 Rhodiola bupleuroides, 174 Rhodiola crenulata, 77, 83, 103, 175 Rhodiola discolor, 175 Rhodiola fastigiata, 175 Rhodiola himalensis, 103, 175 Rhodiola prainii, 175 Rhodiola rotundata, 175 Rhodiola tibetica, 175 Rhododendron, 221 Rhododendron anthopogon, 48, 55, 82, 89, 179, 180, 261 subsp. hypenanthum, 179 var. album, 179 var. hypenanthum, 179 Rhododendron batemanii, 179 Rhododendron campanulatum, 179 Rhododendron elaeagnoides, 180 Rhododendron haemonium, 179 Rhododendron hypenanthum, 48, 55, 179 Rhododendron lepidotum, 180 Rhododendron nivale, 180 Rhododendron obovatum, 180 Rhododendron paludosum, 180 Rhododendron salignum, 180 Rhododendron sinolepidotum, 180 Rhus chinensis, 89, 127, 200 386 Rhus japonica, 127 Rhus javanica, 127 var. chinensis, 127 Rhus semialata, 127 Rhus succedanea, 128 Rhus vernicifera, 128 Rhus verniciflua, 128 Robinia jubata, 184 Rorippa indica, 166 Rosa brunonii, 256 Rosa clavigera, 256 Rosa macrophylla, 256 var. hookeriana, 256 Rosa moschata var. nepalensis, 256 Rosa pubescens, 256 Rosa sericea, 49, 55, 82, 89, 257 var. hookeri, 257 Rosa tetrapetala, 257 Rosa torulosa, 256 Rosa wallichii, 257 ROSACEAE, 44, 49, 51, 113, 251 Rubia aparine, 258 Rubia cordifolia var. khasiana, 259 var. munjista, 259 Rubia manjith, 53, 57, 63, 67, 79, 85, 224, 259 Rubia mungith, 259 Rubia munjista, 259 RUBIACEAE, 53, 67, 258 Rubrivena polystachya, 235 Rubus bonatii, 257 Rubus distans, 257 Rubus ellipticus, 257 Rubus flavus, 257 Rubus foliolosus, 257, 258 var. incanus, 257 Rubus gowreephul, 257 Rubus hypargyrus, 258 var. concolor, 258 var. niveus, 258 Rubus incanus, 257 Rubus lasiocarpus, 257 Rubus micranthus, 257 Rubus niveus, 51, 55, 80, 85, 257, 258 var. concolor, 258 var. micranthus, 257 Rubus pauciflorus, 257 Rubus pedunculosus, 51, 55, 258 var. concolor, 258 var. hypargyrus, 258 Rubus rotundifolius, 257 Rubus wallichianus, 257 Rumex esquirolii, 238 Rumex nepalensis, 238 Rumex ramulosus, 238 Rumex tuberosus, 238 RUTACEAE, 53, 259 Sabina recurva, 121 Sabina squamata, 121 Sabina wallichiana, 120 Sabinella recurva, 121 SALICACEAE, 261 Salix babylonica, 261 Salix calyculata, 261, 262 Salix chinensis, 261 Salix fruticulosa, 262 Salix hylematica, 262 var. scopulicola, 262 Salix japonica, 261 Salix lindleyana, 261 Salix pendula, 261 Salix propendens, 261 Salix sclerophylla, 262 Salix scopulicola, 262 Salix serpyllum, 262 Salmalia malabarica, 211 Salvia campanulata, 206 var. codonantha, 206 var. nepalensis, 206 Salvia codonantha, 206 Salvia feddei, 206 Salvia glutinosa subsp. nubicola, 206 Salvia hians, 77, 82, 84, 86, 87, 206 Salvia himalaica, 206 Salvia labellifera, 206 Salvia mandarinorum, 206 Salvia nubicola, 206 Salvia przewalskii, 206, 207 f. albiflora, 206 var. alba, 206 var. rubrobrunnea, 206 Salvia roborowskii, 207 Salvia tatsienensis, 206 Salvia thibetica, 206 Salvia transhimalaica, 207 Sambucus adnata, 124 Sambucus gautschii, 124 Sambucus schweriniana, 124 SANTALACEAE, 54, 67, 262 Santalum album, 47, 54, 57, 63, 67, 80, 86, 191, 192, 241, 262 Santalum myrtifolium, 262 Santalum ovata, 262 SAPINDACEAE, 262 Sapindus abruptus, 262 Sapindus detergens, 262 Sapindus indicus, 262 Sapindus mukorossi, 262 Sarcoca acinosa, 228 Sarcoca esculenta, 228 Satyrium monorchis, 220 Sauromatum diversifolium, 136 Saussurea auriculata, 149 Saussurea costus, 146 S Saussurea denticulata, 155 Saussurea eriostemon, 154, 155 Saussurea fastuosa, 155 Sabina indica, 120 Saussurea gossipiphora, 51, 154 Saussurea gossypina, 154 Saussurea graminifolia, 154 Saussurea kunthiana, 154 Saussurea lappa, 146 Saussurea leontodontoides, 154 Saussurea nepalensis, 154 Saussurea obvallata, 155 Saussurea sacra, 155 Saussurea simpsoniana, 51, 155 Saussurea tridactyla, 51, 155 Saussurea yushuensis, 155 Saxifraga ciliata, 263 Saxifraga delavayi, 263 Saxifraga diversifolia, 265 var. parnassifolia, 266 Saxifraga himalaica, 264 Saxifraga ligulata, 263 var. ciliata, 263 Saxifraga lychnitis, 265 Saxifraga melanocentra, 264 Saxifraga micrantha, 264 Saxifraga nigroglandulifera, 265 Saxifraga nutans, 265 Saxifraga pacumbis, 263 Saxifraga pallida, 264 Saxifraga parnassifolia, 266 Saxifraga pseudopallida, 265 Saxifraga purpurascens, 263 SAXIFRAGACEAE, 50, 52, 113, 263 Scabiosa hookeri, 168 Scopolia lurida, 267 Scopolia mairei, 267 Scopolia praealta, 268 Scopolia stramonifolia, 267 Scopolia tangutica, 267 Scopolina tangutica, 267 Scrophularia decomposita, 266 Scrophularia wattii, 266 SCROPHULARIACEAE, 266 Sedum bupleuroides, 174 Sedum cooperi, 174 Sedum crenulatum, 175 Sedum ewersii, 174 Sedum filicaule, 176 Sedum gorisii, 174 Sedum himalense, 175 Sedum oreades, 176 Sedum prainii, 175 Sedum rotundatum, 175 Sedum squarrosum, 176 Selaginella pulvinata, 94, 100, 119 Selaginella tamariscina var. pulvinata, 119 SELAGINELLACEAE, 119 Selinum copticum, 133 Selinum tenuifolium, 132 Selinum wallichianum, 132 Semecarpus anacardium, 127 Senecio amplexicaulis, 152 Senecio arnicoides, 147 Senecio renatus, 148 Senecio virgaureus, 152 Senegalia catechu, 83, 89, 158, 188 Senna tora, 78, 85, 188 Serapias helleborine var. longifolia, 216 Sesamum indicum, 54, 227 Sesamum orientale, 227 Shangwua, 46 Shangwua denticulata, 155 Shorea robusta, 53, 57, 67, 78, 85, 121, 168, 173, 177, 188 Sideritis ciliata, 201 Sieversia elata, 254 Silene gonosperma subsp. himalayensis, 171 var. himalayensis, 171 Silene himalayensis, 171 Silene indica, 172 Silene nigrescens, 172 Silene vautierae, 172 Simaroubaceae, 127 Sinopodophyllum emodi, 158 Sinopodophyllum hexandrum, 158 Sison ammi, 133 Sisymbrium brassiciforme, 166 Sisymbrium indicum, 166 Sisymbrium sophia, 164 Skimmia laureola, 57, 259 Smilacina pallida, 137 Smilacina purpurea, 137 SOLANACEAE, 50, 267 Sophia parviflora, 164 Sophora moorcroftiana, 188 Sorbus malus, 254 Sorbus variolosa, 256 Soroseris gillii, 156 Soroseris deasyi, 156 Soroseris hookeriana, 50, 154, 156 Soroseris pumila, 49, 50, 156 Sphaeria sinensis, 116 Spiraea arcuata, 258 Spiraea canescens var. glabra, 258 Spondias axillaris, 127 Stellera chamaejasme, 51, 271 Stellera himalayensis, 271 Stephania glabra, 213 Stephania rotunda, 53, 57, 213 Stizolobium monospermum, 186 Strychnos nux-vomica, 89, 198, 210 Strychnos ovalifolia, 210 Strychnos spireana, 210 Stylophorum lactucoides, 225 Swertia angustifolia, 194 var. hamiltoniana, 194 Swertia carinthiaca, 193 Swertia chirata, 194 Swertia chirayita, 28, 51, 55, 63, 67, 95, 102, 194 Swertia ciliata, 194 Swertia cuneata, 49, 55, 194 Swertia dilatata, 195 Swertia griffithii, 195 Swertia hugelii, 194 Swertia kachinensis, 194 Swertia kingii, 49, 195 Swertia lahulensis, 195 Swertia multicaulis, 49, 55, 195 Swertia paniculata, 49, 195 Swertia peloria, 193 Swertia perfoliata, 196 Swertia petiolata, 195 Swertia purpurascens, 194 Swertia racemosa, 196 Swertia speciosa, 49, 196 Swertia tongluensis, 194 SYMPLOCACEAE, 269 Symplocos chinensis, 269 Symplocos crataegoides, 269 Symplocos paniculata, 57, 89, 158, 269 Symplocos sinica, 269 Syringa emodi, 89, 216 Syzygium, 108 Syzygium aromaticum, 47, 54, 57, 82, 89, 179, 214 Syzygium cumini, 57, 89, 138, 214 Syzygium jambolanum, 214 T TAMARICACEAE, 48, 269 Tanacetum khartense, 139 Tanacetum mutellinum, 139 Tanacetum nubigenum, 139 Taraxacum eriopodum, 50, 156 Taraxacum officinale var. eriopoda, 156 Taraxacum sikkimense, 50, 157 Taraxacum tibetanum, 50, 157 TAXACEAE, 68, 123 Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana, 123 Taxus contorta, 63, 68, 123 Taxus fauna, 123 Taxus wallichiana, 63, 68, 123 subsp. contorta, 123 Tecoma mairei, 160 Terminalia bellirica, 47, 53, 56, 82, 89, 108, 173, 216, 257 Terminalia chebula, 47, 53, 56, 81, 89, 108, 173, 269, 270 Tetrataenium candicans, 132 Tetrataenium lallii, 68, 133 Tetrataenium nepalense, 133 Thalictrum, 45 Thalictrum acutilobum, 250 Thalictrum chelidonii var. cultratum, 250 var. reniforme, 251 Thalictrum cultratum, 250 Thalictrum dalingo, 251 Thalictrum fistulosum, 250 Thalictrum foetidum, 250 Thalictrum foliolosum, 251 Thalictrum minus var. foetidum, 250 Thalictrum neurocarpum, 251 387 Thalictrum reniforme, 251 Thalictrum vaginatum, 250 Thamnolia vermicularis, 68, 116 Thea sinensis, 270 THEACEAE, 270 Theodorea sacra, 155 Theodorea tridactyla, 155 Thermopsis atrata, 189 Thermopsis barbata, 189 Thermopsis lanceolata, 189 Thermopsis sibirica, 189 Thladiantha cordifolia, 177 Thlaspi arvense, 86, 87, 166 Thlaspi bursa-pastoris, 163 THYMELAEACEAE, 51, 54, 65, 270 Thymus afghanicus, 207 Thymus baluchistanicus, 207 Thymus himalayicus, 207 Thymus linearis, 207 subsp. hedgei, 207 Thymus pseudalbanus, 207 Thysanolaena latifolia, 232 Thysanolaena maxima, 232 Tibetia himalaica, 100, 189 Tinospora cordifolia, 213 Tinospora sinensis, 47, 53, 57, 63, 68, 79, 80, 85, 184, 213, 258 Tithymalus himalayensis, 181 Tithymalus longifolius, 180 Tithymalus pseudosikkimensis, 180 Tithymalus stracheyi, 181 Tithymalus wallichii, 181 Tovaria purpurea, 137 Toxicodendron succedaneum, 89, 128, 181 Toxicodendron verniciferum, 128 Toxicodendron vernicifluum, 89, 128, 181 Trachyspermum ammi, 133 Trachyspermum copticum, 133 Tragacantha candolleana, 182 Tretorhiza straminea, 192 Tretorhiza tibetica, 192 Tribulus terrestris, 53, 57, 275 Triglochin maritima, 52, 89, 200 Trigonella emodi, 186 Trigonella foenum-graecum, 58, 189 Typhonium alpinum, 136 Typhonium diversifolium, 136 388 U ULMACEAE, 68, 272 Ulmus brandisiana, 272 Ulmus laevigata, 272 Ulmus wallichiana, 63, 68, 272 Umbelliferae, 128 Umbilicus oreades, 176 Urtica dioica, 272, 273 subsp. hispida, 272 var. vulgaris, 272 Urtica diversifolia, 272 Urtica hispida, 272 Urtica hyperborea, 273 Urtica palmata, 272 Urtica tibetica, 272 URTICACEAE, 272 Usnea barbata var. longissima, 117 Usnea longissima, 117 Viola biflora, 273 Viola manaslensis, 273 Viola reniformis, 273 Viola wallichiana, 273 VIOLACEAE, 273 VITACEAE, 54, 273 Vitis vinifera, 48, 54, 273 W Waldheimia glabra, 139 Werneria ellisii, 148 Whitleya tangutica, 267 Wikstroemia canescens, 271 Wikstroemia chamaejasme, 271 Wikstroemia chinensis, 271 Wikstroemia inamoena, 271 Wikstroemia virgata, 271 Withania somnifera, 57, 90, 215, 269 V X Valeriana acuminata, 170 Valeriana elata, 170 Valeriana hardwickei, 170 Valeriana jatamansi, 36, 68, 170 Valeriana wallichii, 170 Varasia capitata, 190 Verbascum indicum, 267 Verbascum thapsus, 267 var. albiflora, 267 Veronica cephaloides, 231 Veronica chingii, 231 Veronica ciliata, 47, 48, 95, 102, 231, 232 subsp. cephaloides, 47, 48, 95, 103, 231, 232 Veronica himalensis, 47, 48, 95, 103, 231, 232 Veronica lindleyana, 230 Vetiveria zizanioides, 232 Vicatia coniifolia, 133 Vicatia millefolia, 133 Vincetoxicum auriculatum, 134 Vincetoxicum canescens, 50, 55, 81, 82, 88, 135 Vincetoxicum glaucum, 135 Vincetoxicum hirundinaria subsp. glaucum, 135 Xylanche himalaica, 223 Xylanche kawakamii, 223 Xylosteum spinosum, 169 Y Youngia gracilipes, 157 Z Zanthoxylum acanthopodium, 260 var. timbor, 260 Zanthoxylum alatum, 260 Zanthoxylum armatum, 53, 260, 261 Zanthoxylum bungeanum, 260 Zanthoxylum bungei, 260 var. imperforatum, 260 Zanthoxylum nepalense, 260 Zanthoxylum planispinum, 260 Zanthoxylum timbor, 260 Zingiber officinale, 48, 54, 57, 58, 274 ZINGIBERACEAE, 53, 54, 274 ZYGOPHYLLACEAE, 53, 275 Index to Animal Names (Latin and common English names) ______________________________________________________ A ACCIPITRIDAE, 354 Accipitriformes, 354 Aegypius monachus, 69, 91, 92, 93, 96, 97, 127, 159, 354 Alpine musk deer, 69, 94, 143, 145, 186, 246, 356 Amphibia, 58, 353 Animal bezoar, 93 Animal fossil, 358 Arachnida, 58, 352 Argali, 70, 96, 101, 355 Arthropoda, 58, 352 Artiodactyla, 351, 352, 355, 356 Asian black bear, 70, 357 Asian elephant, 69, 93, 147, 158, 221, 222, 270, 358 Aves, 58, 354 Axis axis, 69, 96, 97, 356 B Barasingha, 63, 64, 70, 95, 96, 102, 159, 254, 356 Barking deer, 69, 94, 96, 100, 101, 356 Batrachuperus pinchonii, 63, 69, 92, 95, 97, 116, 138, 353 Bear, 35, 64, 70, 95, 102, 355 Bear bile, 35, 58, 60, 61, 74, 94, 95, 96, 107, 108 Bearded vulture, 69, 93, 96, 99, 127, 159, 354 Bezoar, 58, 60, 61, 93, 95, 96, 98, 147, 158, 198, 221, 222, 270, 351, 358, 363, 364 Bharal, 70, 356 Black bear, 35, 64, 70, 95, 102, 355 Black vulture, 69, 354 Blattodea, 353 Blister beetle, 189, 353 Blue sheep, 70, 96, 101, 356 Bos grunniens, 61, 92, 96, 97, 99, 102, 351 Bos grunniens mutus, 355 Bos mutus, 60, 61, 63, 69, 91, 92, 96, 97, 130, 132, 355 Bos taurus, 61, 351 BOVIDAE, 351, 355 Bungarus multicinctus, 58, 98, 209, 210, 354 BUTHIDAE, 352 Buthus, 58, 352 C CANIDAE, 357 Canis lupus, 69, 92, 98, 158, 357 Capra hircus, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 351 Capricornis thar, 69, 96, 98, 249, 355 Carnivora, 58, 357, 358 Caudata, 353 CERVIDAE, 356 Cervus elaphus, 60, 61, 96, 102, 159, 254, 356 Charybdis, 58, 352 Chinese francolin, 354 Chinese krait, 98, 209, 210, 354 Chinese medicinal cockroach, 353 Chinese mountain salamander, 63, 69, 92, 95, 97, 116, 138, 353 Chinese pangolin, 61, 63, 69, 93, 100, 119, 358 Chiru, 70, 355 Chittal, 356 Chordata, 58, 351, 353 Cinereous vulture, 64, 69, 92, 93, 96, 97, 127, 159, 354 Coleoptera, 353 COLUBRIDAE, 354 Common leopard, 63, 70, 357 Corallium, 58, 360 CORYDIIDAE, 353 Cow urine, 61 Crab, 352 CYPRAEIDAE, 353 D Decapoda, 352 Deer horn, 60, 61 Domestic cat, 94 Domestic cow, 351 Domestic goat, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 351 Domestic pig, 352 Domestic sheep, 94, 96, 97, 100, 101, 351 Domestic yak, 61, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 351 Domestic yak blood, 61 Donkey, 352 Dragon, 358 Dragon bone, 58, 358 E Elaphe, 354 ELAPIDAE, 354 Elephant, 45, 58, 60, 63, 64, 69, 93, 95, 98, 147, 158, 222, 270, 358 Elephant bezoar, 58, 61, 93, 96 ELEPHANTIDAE, 358 Elephas maximus, 60, 63, 69, 91, 93, 98, 147, 158, 221, 222, 270, 358 EQUIDAE, 352 Equus africanus asinus, 352 Eupolyphaga sinensis, 58, 353 Eurasian otter, 69, 100, 222, 357 F FELIDAE, 357 Felis catus, 94, 101 Fossil bone, 358 Fossilia Ossis Mastodi, 358 Fossilized bone, 358 Francolinus pintadeanus, 354 Freshwater crab, 61, 69, 99, 116, 352 G Galliformes, 354 Gastropoda, 58, 353 Greater one-horned rhinoceros, 63, 94, 96, 254, 358 Grey wolf, 64, 69, 92, 98, 158, 357 Gypaetus barbatus, 69, 91, 93, 96, 99, 127, 159, 354 Gyps himalayensis, 69, 93, 99, 245, 354 H Hemitragus jemlahicus, 69, 96, 99, 355 Hepialus, 116 Himalayan black bear, 63, 70, 96, 173, 194, 231, 232, 357 Himalayan ghoral, 69, 96, 100, 355 389 Himalayan griffon vulture, 69, 93, 99, 245, 354 Himalayan marmot, 69, 358 Himalayan serow, 69, 96, 98, 249, 355 Himalayan snowcock, 70, 96, 102, 159, 245, 355 Himalayan tahr, 69, 96, 99, 353 Himalayapotamon atkinsonianum, 58, 61, 69, 99, 116, 352 HYNOBIIDAE, 353 I Indian muntjak, 356 Insecta, 58, 353 J Musk pod, 58, 60, 61, 94, 95, 100, 143, 145, 246, 356 MUSTELIDAE, 357 Mylabris, 58, 100, 189, 353 N Naemorhedus goral, 69, 96, 100, 353 Neogastropoda, 353 O Ossified bone, 358 Ovis ammon, 70, 96, 101, 355 Ovis aries, 94, 96, 97, 100, 101, 351 Ox bezoar, 93 Oysters, 58, 362 Jharal, 69, 99, 353 P L Panthera pardus, 63, 70, 357 Panthera tigris subsp. tigris, 63, 70, 94, 101, 357 Pantholops hodgsonii, 70, 355 Perissodactyla, 352, 358 PHASIANIDAE, 354 Pholidota, 358 Pig blood, 61 PORTUNIDAE, 352 POTAMIDAE, 352 Proboscidea, 358 Procapra picticaudata, 70, 356 Pseudois nayaur, 70, 96, 101, 356 Pteria spp., 58, 362 Lagomorpha, 357 Lammergeier, 69, 354 LEPORIDAE, 357 Lepus oiostolus, 69, 100, 127, 357 Littorinimorpha, 353 Longgu, 58, 356 Lutra lutra, 69, 100, 222, 357 M Malacostraca, 58, 352 Mammalia, 58, 351, 355 MANIDAE, 358 Manis pentadactyla, 61, 63, 69, 93, 100, 119, 358 Many-banded krait, 98, 354 Marmota himalayana, 69, 358 MELOIDAE, 353 Mollusca, 353 Monetaria moneta, 353 Money cowry, 353 MOSCHIDAE, 356 Moschus chrysogaster, 60, 63, 69, 91, 94, 100, 143, 145, 186, 246, 356, 358 Muntiacus muntjak subsp. vaginalis, 69, 91, 94, 96, 100, 101, 356 Murex snails, 61, 353 MURICIDAE, 353 Musk, 35, 60, 63, 74, 95, 108 Musk deer, 60, 64, 94, 186, 246, 354, 356 390 S SCIURIDAE, 358 Scorpion, 352 Scorpion toxins, 362 Scorpiones, 352 Spotted deer, 69, 96, 97, 356 Squamata, 354 Stream salamander, 92, 353 SUIDAE, 352, 356 Sus scrofa, 61, 96, 102, 356 Sus scrofa domesticus, 61, 352 Swamp deer, 95, 96, 356 T Tetraogallus himalayensis, 70, 96, 102, 159, 245, 355 Tetraogallus tibetanus, 70, 96, 102, 159, 245, 355 Thar, 69, 355 Tibetan antelope, 70, 355 Tibetan gazelle, 70, 356 Tibetan snowcock, 64, 70, 96, 102, 159, 245, 355 Tiger, 15, 35, 63, 70, 94, 101, 107, 357 Tiger bone, 35 U URSIDAE, 357 Ursus thibetanus, 60, 63, 70, 91, 95, 96, 102, 173, 194, 231, 232, 357 V R Rapana bezoar, 61, 353 Rat snake, 354 Red deer, 96, 102, 159, 254, 356 Red fox, 64, 70, 96, 103, 165, 175, 357 Reptilia, 58, 354 Rhino horn, 91, 107, 254 Rhinoceros, 35, 63, 64, 70, 94, 96, 101, 254, 356 Rhinoceros horn, 35, 94, 96 Rhinoceros unicornis, 63, 70, 91, 94, 96, 101, 254, 358 RHINOCEROTIDAE, 358 Rock snails, 353 Rodentia, 358 Royal Bengal tiger, 94 Rucervus duvaucelii, 60, 61, 63, 70, 95, 96, 102, 159, 254, 356 Vulpes vulpes, 70, 91, 96, 103, 165, 175, 357 W Wild boar, 96, 102, 356 Wild yak, 60, 61, 63, 69, 92, 96, 97, 130, 132, 355 Wild yak blood, 60, 61 Wooly hare, 69, 100, 127, 357 Y Yak, 61, 63, 69, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 130, 133, 351, 353 Yak blood, 61 Yak milk, 81, 354 Index to English Names (Plants and minerals) ______________________________________________________ A Aaron's-rod, 267 Achates, 359 Acuminate-leaved cotoneaster, 252 Agar, 270 Agarwood, 270, 271 Agate, 359 Aguru, 270 Ajowan caraway, 133 Ajwain, 133 Aloewood, 270 Alpine bistort, 234 Alpine juniper, 120 Alpine knotweed, 234 Alpine mountainsorrel, 236 Alpine yellow violet, 273 Aluminium silicate, 361 Aluminosilicate, 361 Amber, 359 Amla, 228 Angular-fruit iris, 198 Apple, 254 Arching spirea, 258 Arctic yellow violet, 273 Areca palm, 136 Argentite, 359 Asafoetida, 131 Asian broom grass, 232 Asian dwarf elder, 124 Asian meadow-rue, 251 Asian wild raspberry, 257 Asiatic sweetleaf, 269 Atis root, 242 Auripigmentum, 362 Aurum, 360 B Babylon willow, 261 Bamboo cilica, 62, 93, 96, 98, 103, 359 Bamboo pitch, 16 Barbellate clematis, 245 Bastard saffron, 146 Bastard teak, 182 Bedstraw, 258 Bel tree, 259 Belleric myrobalan, 173 Bell-flowered rhododendron, 179 Bengal cardamom, 274 Bengal quince, 259 Betel palm, 136 Big-hip rose, 256 Birthwort, 137 Bishop's weed, 133 Bitter buckwheat, 234 Bitter calabash gourd, 176 Black alpine sedge, 177 Black caraway, 249 Black cardamom, 16 Black catechu, 188 Black cumin, 249 Black cutch, 188 Black henbane, 268 Black juniper, 120 Black medic, 185 Black salt, 361 Black pepper, 228 Blue asbestos, 360 Blue bugleweed, 200 Blue clover, 187 Blue Himalayan anemone, 244 Blue Himalayan corydalis, 223 Blue oxalis, 187 Bonduc nut, 183 Borax, 359 Bottle gourd, 176 Box bean, 185 Bracted bugleweed, 200 Broad-leaf gentian, 191 Bronze, 359 Broom grass, 232 Brown chiretta, 194 Buckwheat, 234 C Calamine, 359 Calamus root, 124 Calciosinter, 62 Calcite, 62, 359 Calcium bicarbonate, 363 Calcium carbonate, 359, 360, 361, 362 Caltrop, 275 Camphor tree, 207 Candolle's milk-vetch, 182 Capillary artemisia, 142 Capillary wormwood, 142 Caraway, 129 Cardamom, 274 Catchweed bedstraw, 258 Caterpillar fungus, 116 Ceylon cinnamon, 208 Ceylon forget-me-not, 161 Ceylon hound's tongue, 161 Ceylon raspberry, 257 Chalcedony, 359 Chalcopyrite, 360 Chebulic myrobalan, 173 Cheeseweed mallow, 211 Chinese caterpillar fungus, 116 Chinese chives, 126 Chinese delphinium, 247 Chinese gall, 127 Chinese lacquer tree, 128 Chinese mallow, 212 Chinese quince, 252 Chinese sumac, 127 Chinese tinospora, 213 Chinese wild peach, 255 Chirata, 194 Chirayita, 194 Chrysotile, 62, 360 Cleavers, 258 Cliff anemone, 248 Clove, 16 Clove tree, 214 Cluster mallow, 212 Clustered gentian, 190 Coal, 360 Coiled-leaf solomon seal, 138 Common alplily, 209 Common buckwheat, 234 Common burdock, 141 Common field sorrel, 238 Common grape vine, 273 Common henbit, 203 Common Himalayan rhodiola, 175 Common hollyhock, 211 Common horsetail, 118 Common lamb's quarters, 124 Common mare's-tail, 229 Common mullein, 267 Common poppy, 227 Common puffball, 116 Common salt, 361 Common thornapple, 267 Common walnut, 199 Common wild anemone, 248 Conessi, 134 391 Copper, 360 Copper metal, 360 Copper-tin alloy, 359 Coral, 58, 62, 360 Coriander, 130 Corn poppy, 227 Costus, 146, 299 Cowflock, 244 Crenulate-leaved Himalayan rhodiola, 175 Crested coelogyne, 217 Crested late-summer-mint, 202 Crocidolite, 62, 360 Cryptocrystalline silica, 359 Cumin, 130 Cuprite, 360 Cuprous oxide, 360 Curly butterfly bush, 266 Cuscus grass, 232 Cutch tree, 188 D Darjeeling bitter gourd, 176 Dark crimson Himalayan cinquefoil, 255 Date palm, 136 David's peach, 255 Densely flowered dendrobium, 218 Depressed plantain, 230 Devil’s apple, 267 Devils trumpet, 267 Diamond, 360 Diverse-leaved saxifrage, 265 Dock-leaf knotweed, 235 Drooping juniper, 121 Dwarf lily, 209 Dwarf snow rhododendron, 180 Dwarf solomon seal, 138 E Eaglewood, 270 East Himalayan elderberry, 124 East Himalayan yew, 123 Egyptian cucumber, 177 Egyptian Mallow, 211 Emblic myrobalan, 228 F False saffron, 146 Feather geranium, 125 Fennel, 131 Fenugreek, 189 Fern asparagus, 137 Fever nut, 183 Fever pod, 134 Fibroferrite, 360 Fibroferritum, 360 Field horsetail, 118 Field pennycress, 166 392 Field poppy, 227 Flixweed, 164 Flaccid grass, 232 Flaky juniper, 121 Flame of the forest, 182 Flowering quince, 252 Foetid bugbane, 244 Foetid cassia, 188 Foetid meadow-rue, 250 Foetid senna, 188 Frenchweed, 166 Frigid cotoneaster, 252 G Garlic, 126 Gemstone, 357 Giant dodder, 174 Ginger, 275 Gmelin's wormwood, 142 Goethite, 360 Gold, 62, 74, 75, 360 Golden shower, 184 Golden Himalayan poppy, 226 Goosefoot, 124 Graceful Himalayan iris, 198 Grape, 273 Great mullein, 267 Greater burdock, 141 Greater cardamom, 274 Greater dodder, 174 Greater henbit, 203 Green cardamom, 274 Grey-Wilson bonnet bellflower, 167 Guggul, 166 H Hairless tape vine, 213 Hairy bergenia, 263 Halite, 361 Halitum, 361 Halitum violaceum, 361 Halloysite, 361 Hematite, 62, 361 Hemimorphite, 359 Hemp, 168 Henbane, 268 Henbit dead-nettle, 203 Hill raspberry, 257 Himalayan arnebia, 160 Himalayan birch, 159 Himalayan bitter gourd, 176 Himalayan blue pine, 122 Himalayan butterfly bush, 266 Himalayan cinquefoil, 252, 255 Himalayan clematis, 245 Himalayan cowslip, 241 Himalayan creeping thyme, 207 Himalayan cypress, 120 Himalayan cypripedium, 217 Himalayan dwarf lily, 209 Himalayan elm, 272 Himalayan euphorbia, 180 Himalayan fountain grass, 232 Himalayan fritillary, 208 Himalayan gloxinia, 159 Himalayan goldencreeper, 177 Himalayan heather, 179 Himalayan hogweed, 132 Himalayan horsetail, 118 Himalayan knotweed, 233, 235 Himalayan lilac, 216 Himalayan mandrake, 268 Himalayan marsh orchid, 218 Himalayan may apple, 158 Himalayan mirabilis, 215 Himalayan mulberry, 213 Himalayan musk rose, 256 Himalayan nettle, 272 Himalayan plantain, 231 Himalayan poplar, 261 Himalayan prostrate spurge, 181 Himalayan rhubarb, 236, 237 Himalayan rose, 256 Himalayan scape flower, 165 Himalayan shrubby cinquefoil, 253 Himalayan silky rose, 257 Himalayan silver birch, 159 Himalayan silver fir, 122 Himalayan silver weed, 254 Himalayan skimmia, 260 Himalayan slipper orchid, 217 Himalayan strawberry, 253 Himalayan thimbleweed, 244 Himalayan thorowax, 128 Himalayan tuber-gourd, 177 Himalayan umbrellawort, 215 Himalayan white pine, 122 Himalayan white rose, 257 Himalayan wild garlic, 126 Himalayan wild pear, 256 Himalayan wild rose, 256 Himalayan yew, 123 Hooker’s inula, 150 Hop clover, 185 Horse bean, 183 Horsetail, 118 I Indian aconite, 241 Indian atis, 242 Indian bay leaf, 208 Indian bdellium-tree, 166 Indian campion, 172 Indian dodder, 174 Indian elecampane, 150 Indian field-cress, 166 Indian ginseng, 269 Indian gooseberry, 228 Indian laburnum, 184 Indian liquorice, 181 Indian long pepper, 228 Indian madder, 259 Indian mango, 127 Indian mugwort, 143 Indian poke, 228 Indian pokeberry, 228 Indian pokeweed, 228 Indian sandalwood, 262 Indian trumpet tree, 160 Indian winter cherry, 269 Iron, 360, 361 J Jack bean, 183 Jacquemont's cobra-lily, 47 Jambolan plum, 214 Jamestown weed, 267 Japanese camphor, 207 Japanese mugwort, 143 Japanese sumac, 128 Japanese wax-tree, 128 Japanese wormwood, 143 Java plum, 214 Jerusalem oak goosefoot, 125 Jimson weed, 267 K Kaolinite, 361 Kapok tree, 211 Kashmir corydalis, 223 Kharshu oak, 190 Kinnaur lagotis, 229 Kumaon iris, 199 Kuth, 146 L Lazurite, 359 Lesser meadow-rue, 250 Lilac flowered honeysuckle, 169 Limestone, 359, 361 Limonite, 62, 94, 96, 101, 361 Liquorice, 185 Lodestone, 362 Long pepper, 228 Long-horned dendrobium, 219 Lotus, 215 M Magnesium silicate, 360 Malabar embelia, 239 Malabar leaf, 208 Malabar nut, 124 Mango, 127 Marijuana, 168 Marking nut tree, 127 Marsh marigold, 244 Martaban camphor, 208 Meadow crane's-bill, 197 Mercury, 21, 362 Meridian fennel, 129 Methuselah’s beard lichen, 117 Mountain clematis, 245 Mountain fleece, 233 Mountain sedum, 176 Mugwort, 142, 143 Mukul myrrh tree, 166 Musk larkspur, 246 Musk mallow, 210 Musk orchid, 220 Muskroot, 170 Myrtle honeysuckle, 168 Mysore raspberry, 257 N Nardin, 170 Narrow-leaved helleborine, 216 Narrow-leaved swertia, 194 Natural salt, 361 Negro bean, 186 Nepal aconite, 243 Nepal cardamom, 274 Nepal cinnamon, 208 Nepal clematis, 245 Nepal dock, 238 Nepal hogweed, 133 Nepal hug plum, 127 Nepal iris, 198 Nepal peach, 255 Nepal pearly everlasting, 140 Nepal pepper, 260 Nepal saw-wort, 154 Nepalese crane's-bill, 197 Nepalese juniper, 121 Nepalese musk rose, 256 Nepali atis, 247 Nim tree, 213 Nutgall tree, 127 Nutmeg, 16, 214 Nux-vomica, 210 O Old man’s beard lichen, 117 One-flowered pearly everlasting, 141 Oregano, 205 Oriental cashew, 127 Ornamental rhubarb, 236 Orpiment, 362 P Pale sundew, 178 Panicled yellow poppy, 226 Peach, 256 Pearl, 58, 62, 75, 362 Pennycress-fan-weed, 166 Pepper weed, 165 Perennial buckwheat, 234 Persian cumin, 129 Persian walnut, 199 Physic nut, 183 Pineapple orchid, 218 Pink scaly rhododendron, 180 Pink sedum, 174 Pink stonecrop, 174 Poison-nut, 210 Pomegranate, 210 Prickly ash, 260 Prickly blue-poppy, 226 Prickly hound's tongue, 161 Puncture vine, 275 Purging cassia, 184 Purple bergenia, 263 Purple Jerusalem sage, 205 Purple lampwick plant, 205 Pyrite, 362 Pyritum, 362 Q Quartz, 359 R Radish, 165 Realgar, 362 Red bistort, 233 Red orpiment, 362 Red poppywort, 227 Red sandalwood, 187 Red sanders, 187 Red silk-cotton tree, 211 Red spiderling, 215 Riverside anemone, 248 Riverside windflower, 248 Robust gentian, 191 Rock anemone, 248 Rock exudate, 62, 362, 363 Rock salt, 361, 363 Rock-essence, 62, 93, 96, 98 Rocky juniper, 120 Roxburgh's wormwood, 143 Ruby, 75, 363 Ruby cinquefoil, 255 S Sacred lotus, 215 Safflower, 146 Saffrol laurel, 208 Saffron, 16, 74, 198 Sal ammoniac, 363 Sal lucidum, 363 Sal tree, 177 Sapphire, 363 Sapphireberry, 269 Sea buckthorn, 178 393 Seaside arrowgrass, 200 Selasian wood, 208 Sesame, 227 Shamrock pea, 187 Shandilya, 259 Sheathing groundel, 152 Shepherd's-purse, 163 Shield sundew, 178 Siberian larkspur, 247 Sickle senna, 188 Sikkim cowslip, 241 Silicon dioxide, 359 Silky rose, 257 Silver, 62, 74, 75, 363 Silver sulfide mineral, 359 Silver-leaved cinquefoil, 254 Silverweed cinquefoil, 251 Simal tree, 211 Small-leaved cotoneaster, 253 Small-leaved Himalayan cinquefoil, 251 Small-leaved locoweed, 186 Smithsonite, 359 Smoke carbon, 363 Smooth stone peach, 255 Smooth-pit peach, 255 Snake's-head fritillary, 208 Snowdon alplily, 209 Snowdon lily, 209 Sodium tetraborate decahydrate, 359 Soft knotweed, 235 Softly hairy buttercup, 250 Spikenard, 170 Spiny honeysuckle, 169 Sponge gourd, 177 Spreading hogweed, 215 Spreading horsetail, 118 St. Thomas bean, 185 Stalactite, 363 Stephen's stork's bill, 196 Sticky goosefoot, 125 Stinging nettle, 272 Stinking meadow-rue, 250 Stinking nightshade, 268 394 Sulphur, 62, 363 Sweet fennel, 131 Sweet flag, 124 Sword bean, 183 T Tall buckwheat, 234 Tansy mustard, 164 Tartary buckwheat, 234 Tarvine, 215 Tea plant, 270 Three-leaf raspberry, 258 Tibetan gentian, 192 Tibetan peach, 255 Tibetan sea buckthorn, 178 Triple-veined pearly everlasting, 141 Trona, 62, 364 True cinnamon, 208 Turmeric, 274 Turn-pike goosefoot, 125 Turquoise, 62, 364 Twinflower violet, 273 U Umbrella-like coelogyne, 217 Urn-shaped gentian, 192 Walnut, 199 Wandering fireweed, 216 Wax-tree, 128 Weeping willow, 261 West Himalayan yew, 123 Whipcord cobra lily, 46, 135 White aconite, 242 White asbestos, 360 White dead-nettle, 203 White nettle, 203 White sandalwood, 262 White-leaved hogweed, 132 Whiteworm lichen, 116 Whorled-leaf solomon’s seal, 139 Wild asparagus, 137 Wild liquorice, 181 Wild marjoram, 205 Wild strawberry, 253 Willow herb, 216 Willow-leaved sea buckthorn, 178 Wine grape, 273 Winged prickly-ash, 260 Winged thorn rose, 257 Winter cherry, 269 Wrinkled-leaf isodon, 203 Y Valerian, 170 Vermicular whiteworm lichen, 116 Vermiculite, 62, 99, 364 Vetiver grass, 232 Vietnamese balm, 202 Yellow cobra lily, 135 Yellow Himalayan avens, 254 Yellow Himalayan honeysuckle, 168 Yellow Himalayan raspberry, 257 Yellow marsh marigold, 244 Yellow myrobalan, 173 Yellow-flowered alfalfa, 185 Yellow-flowered silver weed, 254 W Z Wallich ceropegia, 134 Wallich milk parsley, 132 Wallich spurge, 181 Zinc carbonate, 359 Zinc silicate, 359 V Index to Nepali and Sanskrit Names ______________________________________________________ A B Abhayā, 173 Aduwā, 275 Agrāth, 177 Aguru, 270 Ainshelu, 257 Ajwain, 133 Aksha, 173 Akshota, 199 Akshotaka, 199 Alainchī, 274 Alle sisnu, 272 Allo, 272 Amalā, 228 Amaltāsh, 184 Ambuja, 215 Amile āru, 255 Amla, 228 Amlaparnī, 237 Amriso, 232 Amritā, 213 Amritvallī, 213 Anār, 210 Angūr, 273 Amliso, 232 Arushkara, 127 Ashuk, 178 Ashuka, 178 Ashvakarna, 177 Ashwagandhā, 269 Asishimvī, 183 Asuro, 124 Atirasa, 242 Ativishā, 242 Atīs, 242 Ãkāshavallī, 174 Ãkāshbelī, 174 Ãlābū, 176 Ãmalakī, 228 Amarvallī, 174 Ãmra, 127 Ãnkhā-tarī-phūl, 152 Ãnkhle-jhār, 118 Ãnkhe-phūl, 145, 152 Ãnp, 127 Ãragvada, 184 Ãrdraka, 275 Ãru, 256 Ãsne, 197 Ãte, 254 Badāme-jhār, 187 Bahuvīrya, 173 Bains, 261 Bajāriphūl, 130 Bajrabhāng, 268 Balaichan, 170 Baldhengrā, 186 Ban bhānde, 234 Ban chamsur, 164 Ban dudhe, 153 Ban jīrā, 129 Ban kapās, 210 Ban karelā, 176, 177 Ban khirro, 134 Ban kode, 233 Ban kurilo, 137 Ban lasun, 125, 126, 208 Ban mugrelo, 129 Ban phāpar, 234 Ban silām, 202 Ban timur, 260 Bansuli, 251 Barkulī-laharā, 213 Barme sallā, 123 Barro, 173 Bāghpāile, 248 Bānko, 135, 136 Bebalī-kāndā, 183 Bel, 259 Belochan, 254 Besār, 274 Bethe, 124 Bethu, 124 Bhainsī-kāndā, 256 Bhainsī-laharā, 137 Bhairung-dhūpī, 121 Bhairung-pāte, 253 Bhairung-pātī, 180 Bhangā, 168 Bhatrāsī, 216 Bhatteulā, 187 Bhāle chirāito, 194 Bhāle sunpātī, 180 Bhallātaka, 127 Bhālu ainshelu, 257 Bhālu-kāndā, 183 Bhālu-kelā, 217 Bhāng, 168 Bhāngo, 168 Bhede kurro, 161, 162 Bhojpatra, 159 Bhot gulāf, 257 Bhot jīrā, 129 Bhot pīpal, 261 Bhuin ainselu, 253 Bhuin dhūpī, 121 Bhuin kāphal, 253 Bhuinchuk, 178 Bhuinphūl, 212 Bhuj, 159 Bhuko, 141 Bhulte, 170 Bhūnimba, 194 Bhūrjapatra, 159 Bhūrjapatraka, 159 Bhūtkesh, 132, 154, 155, 224, 225 Bhūtkeshī, 224 Bhyāgute unyū, 118 Bikh, 241, 242, 243 Bikhmā, 243 Bilva, 259 Bish, 241, 242, 243 Bisha, 241, 243 Bīr bānko, 135 Bojho, 124 Boke, 236, 237, 238 Boke timur, 260 Boksi-kāndā, 183 Brahmakamal, 155 Brahmakāstha, 213 Brihadelā, 274 Bujo, 236 Bukīphūl, 140, 141, 153 C Chakramarda, 188 Chakravartinī, 170 Chandana, 262 Chari bānko, 135 Chālne, 163 Chāmlā, 212 Chāndīgābhā, 217 Chāthil, 176 Chāwanle, 235, 236 Chhohorā, 136 Chhortentāmbā, 200 Chidhchīde, 245 Chilletī, 146, 147, 169 Chimāl, 179 Chimphing, 133 Chirāito, 194, 195, 196 Chirata, 194 Chirayita, 194 Chitra seavatī, 211 Chivillikā, 200 Chiyā, 270 Chotto, 158 Chugo, 178 Chulthiamilo, 237 Chunetro-ghāns, 197 Chutro, 157, 158 Chyāp-lwā, 236 D Damanaka, 142, 143, 144 Damanā, 144 Dādim, 210 Dādima, 210 Dākh, 273 Dālchīnī, 208 Dālechuk, 178 Dāmpāte, 251 Dārim, 210 Dārimpāte, 257 Dārimpāte gulāf, 257 Dāruharidra, 158 Dārūsitā, 208 Deuralīphūl, 271 Devakusumam, 214 Dhalkephūl, 252 Dhaminā, 272 Dhaniyā, 130 Dhaturo, 267 Dhatūra, 267 Dhānaka, 130 Dhānyaka, 130 Dhātrī, 228 Dhengre sallā, 123 Dhūpī, 120, 121 Dhūpjadī, 149 Divyagandhā, 274 Dīpyaka, 133 Doiluphūl, 152 Dolu, 237 Drākshā, 273 Dudbukī, 181 Dudhe-laharā, 134 Dudhe-ghāns, 153 Dudhe-jhār, 135, 180, 181 Dudhe-sāg, 225 Dundu, 126 395 E Isābgol-jhār, 230, 231 Ekānkhle-phūl, 244 Elā, 274 J G Gainde-kāndā, 183 Ganāino, 131, 132 Gandhe, 139 Ganāune dāmpāte, 250 Ganjā, 168 Gau bānko, 135 Gānan, 131 Gānjā, 168 Ghiraunlā, 177 Ghodtīto, 191, 192 Ghodāmarchā, 207 Ghuins, 252 Gobare bikh, 243 Gobre, 206 Gobre sallā, 122 Gokchura, 275 Gokhur, 275 Guduchī, 213 Guggul, 166 Gunā-lānkuri, 267 Gunā-puchhare, 267 Gunjā, 181 Gunu-puchhu, 267 Gurjo, 213 Gurjo-laharā, 213 Guvāk, 136 H Haimatikta, 194 Haimavatī, 212 Hale, 238 Haledo, 274 Halhale, 238 Haridra, 274 Haridrā, 274 Harītakī, 173 Harro, 173 Hastikoshātakī, 177 Hattājadī, 218, 219 Hāde okhar, 199 Hānsphūl, 190 Hātpahāro, 119 Hātpusāro, 119 Hingu, 131 Hocho rains, 253 I Indrajau, 134 Indravachā, 134 Indrayava, 134 Istamī, 185 Iswarī, 137 396 Jambū, 214 Jangalī bhindī, 210 Jangalī gulāf, 256 Jangalī lasun, 125 Jaringe sāg, 228 Jaringo, 228 Jatāmānsī, 170 Jatāmasī, 170 Jāiphal, 214 Jāmun, 214 Jāmunū, 214 Jātī, 214 Jātīphala, 214 Jethīmadhu, 185 Jhankārā, 236 Jhāran, 271 Jhinge-jālo, 178 Jhule bhugo, 141 Jhulo, 140, 141, 150, 151, 153 Jhuse āru, 255, 256 Jhwānī, 172, 253 Jhyāu, 117 Jimbu, 126 Jimbu-ghāns, 126 Jīrā, 130 Jīrakā, 130 Jīvanbutī, 116 Jīvantī, 218 Junge-laharā, 245, 246 Jwānū, 133 K Kair, 205 Kairātatiktaka, 194 Kakreto, 197 Kalinga, 128, 134 Kamal, 215 Kamala, 215 Kammari, 119 Kangrāte-jhār, 248 Kanike kurro, 161 Kanwalphūl, 159, 160 Kapasephūl, 154 Kapūr, 207 Karkatshringī, 128 Karpūra, 207 Katukā, 230 Katutumbī, 176 Kaudephūl, 248 Kāg bhalāyo, 127 Kāgchāro, 121 Kākolī, 208 Kālīkāth, 239 Kālo ainshelu, 257, 258 Kālo bānko, 135 Kālo chhetāro, 132 Kālo jīra, 249 Kālo lokte, 271 Kāndāmāsi vultey, 169 Kānde dhūpī, 120, 121 Kānde lotī, 123 Kāngre-jhār, 244, 258 Kāns, 232 Kāraskar, 210 Kāuso, 186 Kenjo, 237 Kesar, 198 Kesara, 198 Keshar, 146 Khadga simī, 183 Khadira, 188 Kharamte, 254 Kharjura, 136 Kharshu, 190 Khaskhas, 232 Khasru, 190 Khayer, 188 Kheldār, 145, 226 Khiraunlā, 138, 139 Khiraunlo, 137, 138, 139 Kholme, 269 Kimbu, 213 Kinshuka, 182 Kismis, 273 Kogle-sāg, 225 Krishnaguru, 270 Krishnajīrakā, 249 Kritamāla, 184 Kuberākshi, 183 Kuchilā, 210 Kunkuma, 198 Kupīlu, 210 Kurkure-ghāns, 118 Kurkure-kānkro, 176 Kurro, 141 Kushtha, 146 Kusum, 146 Kusumba, 146 Kutaja, 134 Kuth, 146 Kuthal, 215 Kutkī, 230 L Laghupatra, 158 Laharejethī, 259 Langur, 226 Lapsi, 127 Lashuna, 126 Lasun, 126 Lasune-sāg, 125 Latākaranja, 183 Latākasturikā, 210 Latākastūrī, 210 Laukā, 176 Lauth sallā, 123 Lavangam, 214 Lālgedī, 181 Lāphe-sāg, 212 Lātīkoselī, 134, 135 Lek chimāl, 180 Lek jhulo, 151 Lek myākurī, 234 Lek sisnu, 273 Lek-ānkhle, 122 Lek-dhūp, 139 Linde, 126 Lodh, 269 Luinth, 123 Lwāng, 214 M Madakārinī, 268 Madhubish, 242 Madhuka, 185 Madhurikā, 131 Mahāgurū, 175 Mahā-medā, 138, 139 Mahāphala, 214 Mahārangī, 160, 162, 163 Majāino, 212 Majino, 212 Majitho, 259 Mangromulo, 246 Manjisthā, 259 Manjith, 259 Marich, 228 Maricham, 228 Masenā, 258 Masino dāmpāte, 250 Masino mūlā-jhār, 251 Mauromulo, 246 Mayal, 256 Māgadhī, 228 Māikopilā, 154, 155 Mākhe-jhār, 178 Mālā-jhār, 229 Māmīrā, 173 Mānsī, 170 Mānsinī, 170 Medā, 138, 139 Merrattī, 203 Methī, 189 Methījhār, 185 Methikā, 189 Mirechuk, 237 Mishreyā, 131 Mīthe phāpar, 234 Motiphūl, 124 Mugrelo, 249 Mulathī, 185 Munde, 258 Munjātaka, 218 Muse chimāl, 179 Muse chutro, 158 Muse kurro, 161 Mūlā, 165 Mūlaka, 165 Myākurī, 233 N Nakkalī chirāito, 195 Nakkalī jatāmasi, 170 Nakkalī kākolī, 209 Nakkalī pānchaunle, 219 Nāfo, 133 Nāru, 172 Nāsjhār, 229 Nepālnimba, 194 Nigāle-sāg, 130, 157 Nimba, 213 Nimī-laharā, 213 Nirmasī, 243 Nirvish, 173 Nirvishī, 173 Niskutī, 274 Nīlpāte, 200 Nīlo āsne, 197 Nīlo bhotpātī, 202 Nīlo chimāl, 179 Nīlo kheldār, 226 Nīlo bikh, 241 Nīm, 213 O Okhar, 199 P Padamachālnu, 238 Padamchāl, 236, 237, 238 Padma, 198, 215 Padmapatraka, 150 Padmapuskar, 198 Pahenlo ainselu, 257 Pahenlo bhotpātī, 202 Pahenlo ghattephūl, 273 Pahenlo junge-laharā, 245, 246 Pahenlo simjhār, 264 Palāsh, 182 Palāsha, 182 Pankaja, 215 Pathyā, 173 Pākhanved, 263 Pāmādhūp, 120 Pānchaunle, 218 Pāngrā, 185 Pārasīka-yavānī, 268 Pāshānavedaka, 263 Pātī, 140, 142, 143, 144 Phadīr, 214 Phāpar, 234 Phāran, 125 Phurkepatī, 271 Pillo, 169 Piperī, 198, 199 Piplā, 228 Pippalī, 228 Pītamūlī, 238 Pītamūlikā, 237, 238 Prabhadra, 213 Prativishā, 243 Pudkerains, 253 Pushkaramūl, 150 Pūga, 136 Pūgaphal, 136 R Rains, 252 Raktachandan, 187 Raktachandana, 187 Raktagunjā, 181 Raktapunarnava, 215 Raktasāra, 187 Raktyāmūl, 197 Raktyāmūlo, 233 Rasānjana, 158 Rasona, 126 Ratanjot, 244 Rāi sallā, 120 Rājbriksha, 184 Rāj sallo, 120 Rām sharshī, 164 Rām tulashī, 205 Rānī bhalāyo, 128 Rātigedī, 181 Rāto āsne, 196, 197 Rāto punarnavā, 215 Rāto chhetāro, 132 Rātopātejhār, 200 Rithā, 262 Rugo-sāg, 165 Ruis, 252 Rukh-pāngrā, 185 S Sakhuwā, 177 Sallejarī, 121 Samāyo, 170 Sanjanī, 200 Sanvidāmanjarī, 168 Satuwā, 212 Saunf, 131 Sāl, 177 Sāla, 177 Sālāpmisri, 218 Sāno kākolī, 209 Sāno khiraunlā, 138 Sāno lodh, 269 Sāno majino, 211 Sāno piplā, 228 Sāno silām, 202 Sāno tāpre, 188 Seto chhetāro, 132, 133 Seto dhaturo, 267 Seto junge-laharā, 245 Seto tiktā, 191 Sevya, 232 Shandilya, 259 Sharmaguru, 195 Shatāvarī, 137 Shālmali, 211 Shilāveda, 263 Shivapriyā, 168 Shrikhanda, 262 Shunthī, 275 Shutho, 275 Shyonāka, 160 Silajit, 62, 93, 96, 98, 362, 363 Simal, 211 Simauro, 233 Simtādī, 263 Sīmtāro, 266 Sinkedhūp, 116 Sisnno, 272 Sisnu, 272, 273 Somlata, 121 Somavallī, 122 Somā, 122 Sthūlailā, 274 Sthūlshimvī, 183 Sugandhavāl, 170 Sujino, 200 Sukumel, 274 Sungāvā, 218 Sungure-kāndā, 147 Sun-laharā, 174 Sunpātī, 179 Sup-ghāns, 225 Supāri, 136 Suryephūl, 145 Sushavi, 129 Suwānle-sāg, 166 Svadamstraka, 275 Swarnavarnī, 274 Swānle, 163 Swetakandā, 242 Swetchandana, 262 Syāu, 254 Syāulephūl, 241 T Tagara, 170 Talu, 136 Tamālaka, 208 Tamālapatra, 208 Tarwārsimī, 183 Tatelo, 160 Tākullyā, 168 Tālisapatra, 122 Tālisha, 122 Tāntarī, 237, 238 Tāpre, 188 Tejasvinī, 260 Tejovatī, 260 Tejpāt, 208 Thingre sallā, 122 Thokrā-jhār, 221 Thotne, 235 Thūlo chamsure-ghāns, 163 Thūlo mūlā-jhār, 252 Thūlo alainchī, 274 Til, 227 Timur, 260 Timurepātī, 143, 144 Tinchu, 135 Tine, 141 Tinekurro, 141 Tīntale bānko, 212 Tīte, 190, 193, 194, 195, 196 Tīte phāpar, 234 Tītekānkrī, 158 Tītepātī, 142, 143 Tītephūl, 250 Tītesāg, 166 Tītotumbā, 176 Torī-jhār, 164 Triputā, 274 Trutī, 274 Tukīphūl, 156, 157 Tumburu, 260 Tūda, 213 Tūta, 213 Tvak, 208 U Ugragandhā, 124 Unyū, 117 Upakunchikā, 129 Ushīra, 232 V Vachā, 124 Vatsanābha, 241 Vāshā, 124 Vāshaka, 124 Vāstuka, 124 Vāyuvidang, 239 Vibhītaka, 173 Vidang, 239 Y Yastīmadhu, 185 Yavānī, 133 Yavānikā, 133 Yārsāgunbu, 116 Yojanvallika, 259 अ अंगूर, 273 397 अक्ष, 173 अक्षोटः, 199 अक्षोटकः, 199 अगर, 270 अगुरु, 270 अगर्ाठ, 177 अितरस, 242 अितिवषा, 242 अितस, 247 अतीस, 242 अदुवा, 275 अनार, 210 अभया, 173 अमरवल्ली, 174 अमलतास, 184 अमलपण , 237 अमला, 228 अिमले आरु, 255 अमृतवल्ली, 213 अमृता, 213 अम्बुज, 215 अिमर्सो, 232 अिम्लसो, 232 अरुष्कर, 127 ँ ी, 274 अलैच अल्ले िस ु, 272 अल्लो, 272 अशुक, 178 अशुकः, 178 अ कणर्ः, 177 अ गन्धा, 269 अिसिशम्वी, 183 असुरो, 124 आ आँखा-तरी-फू ल, 152 आँखेफूल, 145, 152 आँख्ले-झार, 118 आँप, 127 आकाशबेली, 174 आकाशवल्ली, 174 आते, 254 आदर्र्क, 275 आमलकी, 228 आमर्, 127 आरग्वध, 184 आरु, 256 आलाबू, 176 आ े, 197 इ इन्दर्जौ, 134 इन्दर्यव, 134 इन्दर्वचा, 134 398 इ मी, 185 इसाबगोल-झार, 230, 231 ई ई री, 137 उ उगर्गन्धा, 124 उन्यू, 117, 118 उपकु ि का, 129 उशीर, 232 ए एकआँख्ले-फू ल, 244 एला, 274 ऐ ऐँशेलु, 257 ओ ओखर, 199 क कँ वलफू ल, 159, 160 कउडेफूल, 248 कएर्, 205 ककर्ेटो, 197 कङ्गर्ाते-झार, 248 कटु का, 230 कटु तम्ु बी, 176 किनके कु र , 161 कपासे-फू ल, 154 कपूर, 207 कमल, 215 कम्मरी, 119 ककर् टिशर्ङ्गी, 128 कपूर्रः, 207 किलङ्ग, 128, 134 काँडामािस भुल्त्ये, 169 काँडे धूपी, 120, 121 काँडे लोटी, 123 काँस, 232 काउसो, 186 काकोली, 208 काग भलायो, 127 कागचारो, 121 काङ्गर्े-झार, 244, 258 कारस्करः, 210 कालीकाठ, 239 कालो ऐँशेल,ु 257, 258 कालो छेतारो, 132 कालो जीरा, 249 कालो बाँको, 135 कालो लोक्ते , 271 िकशुकः, 182 िकम्बु, 213 िकसिमस, 273 कु ङ्कु म, 198 कु िचला, 210 कु टज, 134 कु ट्की, 230 कु थ, 146 कु थल, 215 कु पीलु, 210 कु रकु रे -काँकर्ो, 176 कु रकु रे -घाँस, 118 कु र , 141 कु वेराक्षी, 183 कु ः, 146 कु सुम, 146 कु सुम्बः, 146 कृ तमाल, 184 कृ ष्णजीरक, 129 कृ ष्णजीरका, 249 के ो, 237 के शर, 146 के सर, 198 कै रातितक्तकः, 194 कोग्ले-साग, 225 ख खड्ग िसमी, 183 खिदरः, 188 खयर, 188 खरम्ते, 254 खजुर्र, 136 खसखस, 232 खसर्ु, 190 ँ ा, 138, 139 िखरौल ँ ो, 137, 138, 139 िखरौल खेलदार, 145, 226 खोल्मे, 269 ग ग ा, 168 गनाइनो, 131, 132 गनाउने दाम्पाते, 250 गन्धे, 139 गाँजा, 168 गानन्, 131 गुग्गुल, 166 गु ा, 181 गुडूची, 213 गुना-पुच्छरे , 267 गुना-लाँकुरी, 267 गुनुपुछु, 267 गुज , 213 गुज -लहरा, 213 गुवाक, 136 गैडँ े-काँडा, 183 गोक्षुर, 275 गोखुर, 275 गोबरे िवख, 243 गोबर्े सल्ला, 122 गौ बाँको, 135 घ ँ ा, 177 िघरौल घुइँस, 252 घोडतीतो, 191, 192 घोडामचार्, 207 च चकर्मदर्, 188 चकर्वितनी, 170 चन्दन, 262 चरी बाँको, 135 चाँदीगाभा, 217 चािथल, 176 चाम्ला, 212 चाल्ने, 163 चावँले, 235, 236 िचढ्चीडे, 245 िचतर् सेवती, 211 िचमाल, 179 िचिम्फङ् , 133 िचया, 270 िचराईतो, 194, 195, 196 िचल्लेटी, 146, 147, 169 िचिविल्लका, 200 चुगो, 178 चुतर्ो, 157, 158 चुनेतर्ो-घाँस, 197 चुिल्ठअिमलो, 237 चो ो, 158 च्याप्ल्वा, 236 छ छोतनताम्बा, 200 छोहोरा, 136 ज जङ्गली गुलाफ, 256 जङ्गली िभडी, 210 जङ्गली लसुन, 125 जटामसी, 170 जटामांसी, 170 जम्बू, 214 जिरङ्गे-साग, 228 जिरङ्गो, 228 जाइफल, 214 जाती, 214 जातीफलः, 214 जामुन, 214 जामुनू, 214 िजम्बु, 126 िजम्बु-घाँस, 126 जीरका, 130 जीरा, 130 जीवनबुटी, 116 जीवन्ती, 218 जुङ्गे-लहरा, 245, 246 जेठीमधु, 185 ज्वानू, 133 झ झंकारा, 236 झारन्, 271 िझङ्गे-जालो, 178 झुलेभग ु ो, 141 झुलो, 140, 141, 150, 151, 153 झुसे आरु, 255, 256 झ्याउ, 117 झ्वानी, 172, 253 ट टटेलो, 160 टाँटरी, 237, 238 टाकु ल्या, 168 िटमुर, 260 िटमुरेपाती, 143, 144 टु कीफू ल, 156, 157 ठ िठङ्गर्े सल्ला, 122 ठू लो चम्सुरे-घाँस, 163 ठू लो मूला-झार, 252 ँ ी, 274 ठू लो अलैच ठोकर्ा-झार, 221 ठोट्ने, 235 ड डालेचुक, 178 डु न्डु , 126 डोइलुफूल, 152 डोलु, 237 ढ ढल्के फू ल, 252 ढेङ्गर्े सल्ला, 123 त तगर, 170 तमालक, 208 तमालपतर्, 208 तरवार िसमी, 183 तलु, 136 तापर्े, 188 तािलश, 122 तािलशपतर्, 122 ितने, 141 ितनेकुर , 141 ितन्चु, 135 ितल, 227 तीते, 142, 190, 193, 194, 195, 196 तीते फापर, 234 तीतेकाँकर्ी, 158 तीतेपाती, 142, 143 तीतेफूल, 250 तीते-साग, 166 तीतोतुम्बा, 176 तीनतले बाँको, 212 तुम्बरु, 260 तूत, 213 तूद, 213 तेजपात, 208 तेजिस्वनी, 260 तेजोवती, 260 तोरी-घाँस, 163, 166 तोरी-झार, 164 ितर्पुटा, 274 तर्ुटी, 274 त्वक् , 208 द दनु, 126 दमनक, 142, 143, 144 दमना, 144 दाख, 273 दािडम, 210 दािडमः, 210 दाम्पाते, 251 दािरम, 210 दािरमपाते, 257 दािरमपाते गुलाफ, 257 दारुहिरदर्, 158 दारूिसता, 208 दालचीनी, 208 िद गन्धा, 274 दीप्यक, 133 दुद-बुकी, 181 दुधे-साग, 225 दुधे-झार, 135, 180, 181 दुधे-लहरा, 134 दुधे-घाँस, 153 देउराली-फू ल, 271 दर्ाक्षा, 273 ध धतुरो, 267 धतूर, 267 धिनया, 130 धिमना, 272 धातर्ी, 228 धानक, 130 धान्यक, 130 धूपजडी, 149 धूपी, 120, 121 न नक्कली काकोली, 209 नक्कली िचराईतो, 195 नक्कली जटामसी, 170 ँ ,े 219 नक्कली पाचऔल नाफो, 133 नारु, 172 नासझार, 229 िनगाले-साग, 130, 157 िनमी-लहरा, 213 िनम्ब, 213 िनमर्सी, 243 िनिवष, 173 िनिवषी, 173 िनष्कु टी, 274 नीम, 213 नीलपाते, 200 नीलो आ े, 197 नीलो खेलदार, 226 नीलो िचमाल, 179 नीलो भोटपाती, 202 नीलो िवख, 241, 247 नेपालिनम्ब, 194 प पङ्कज, 215 पथ्या, 173 पदमचाल, 236, 237, 238 पदमचाल्नु, 238 प , 215 प पतर्क, 150 प पुष्कर, 198 पलाश, 182 ँ ो घ ेफूल, 273 पहेल ँ ो जुङ्गे-लहरा, 245, 246 पहेल ँ ो भोटपाती, 202 पहेल ँ ो िसमझार, 264 पहेल ँ ो ऐँशेलु, 257 पहेल ँ ,े 218 पाँचऔल पाखनभेद, 263 पाङ्गर्ा, 185 पाती, 140, 142, 143, 144 पामाधूप, 120 पारसीक यवानी, 268 पाषाणभेदक, 263 िपण्डीतगरक, 170 िपपेरी, 198, 199 िपप्पली, 228 िपप्ला, 228 िपल्लो, 169 पीतमूिलका, 237, 238 पीतमूली, 238 पुड्के रइँ स, 253 पुस्करमूल, 150 पूग, 136 पूगफल, 136 पर्ितिवषा, 243 पर्भदर्, 213 फ फणीर, 214 फाफर, 234 फारन, 125 फु कपाती, 271 ब बजारीफू ल, 130 बजर्भाङ् , 268 बदामे-झार, 187 बकुर् ली-लहरा, 213 बम सल्ला, 123 बर , 173 बलइचन, 170 बलढेङ्गर्ा, 186 बहुवीयर्, 173 बाँको, 135, 136 बाघपाइले, 248 िबल्व, 259 बुकीफू ल, 140, 141, 153 बुजो, 236 बृहदेला, 274 बेथ,ु 124 बेथ,े 124 बेबली-काँडा, 183 बेल, 259 399 बेसार, 274 बस, 261 बोके , 236, 237, 238 बोके िटमुर, 260 बोक्सी-काँडा, 183 बोजो, 236 बोझो, 124 बर् कमल, 155 बर् का , 213 भ भङ्गा, 168 भ ेउला, 187 भतर्ासी, 216 भल्लातक, 127 भाङ्ग, 168 भाङ्गो, 168 भालु ऐँशेलु, 257 भालु-काँडा, 183 भालु-के ला, 217 भाले िचराईतो, 194 भाले सुनपाती, 180 िभडेित, 263 ँ ूपी, 121 भुईध ँ ुक, 178 भुईच भुईंफू ल, 212 भुको, 141 भुज, 159 भुल्ते, 170 भूतके श, 132, 154, 155, 224, 225 भूतके शी, 224 भूिनम्ब, 194 भूजर्पतर्, 159 भूजर्पतर्क, 159 भेडेकुर , 161, 162 ँ ी-लहरा, 137 भैस भसी-काँडा, 256 भैरुङ-धूपी, 121 भैरुङ-पाती, 180 भैरुङ-पाते, 253 भोजपतर्, 159 भोट गुलाफ, 257 भोट जीरा, 129 भोट पीपल, 261 भ्यागुते उन्यू, 118 म मंिज ा, 259 मङ्गर्ोमुलो, 246 मजाइनो, 212 मिजठो, 259 मिजनो, 212 मदकािरणी, 268 400 मधुकः, 185 मधुिरका, 131 मधुिवष, 242 मयल, 256 मिरच, 228 मिरचम्, 228 मिसनो दाम्पाते, 250 मिसनो मूला-झार, 251 मसेना, 258 महागुरू, 175 महाफल, 214 महामेदा, 138, 139 महारङ्गी, 160, 162, 163 मांिसनी, 170 मांसी, 170 माईकोिपला, 154, 155 माखे-झार, 178 मागधी, 228 मामीरा, 173 माला-झार, 229 िमरे चुक, 237 िमशर्ेया, 131 मीठे फापर, 234 मुगर्ल े ो, 249 मुञ्जातक, 218 मुण्डे, 258 मुलठी, 185 मुसे कु र , 161 मुसे िचमाल, 179 मुसे चुतर्ो, 158 मूलक, 165 मूला, 165 मेिथका, 189 मेथी, 189 मेथी-झार, 185 मेदा, 138, 139 मेरर् ी, 203 मोतीफू ल, 124 मौरोमुलो, 246 म्याकु री, 233 य यवािनका, 133 यवानी, 133 य ीमधु, 185 यासार्गन्ु बु, 116 योजनविल्लका, 259 र रइँ स, 252 रक्तगु ा, 181 रक्तचन्दन, 187 रक्तचन्दनः, 187 रक्तपुननर्वा, 215 रक्तसारः, 187 रक्त्यामूल, 197 रक्त्यामूलो, 233 रतनजोत, 244 रसा न, 158 रसोन, 126 राइ सल्ला, 120 राजवृक्ष, 184 राज सल्लो, 120 राितगेडी, 181 रातो आ े, 196, 197 रातो पुननर्वा, 215 रातो छेतारो, 132 रातोपाते-झार, 200 रानी भलायो, 128 राम तुलशी, 205 राम शश , 164 िर ा, 262 रुइस, 252 रुख-पाङ्गर्ा, 185 रूगो-साग, 165 ल लघुपतर्, 158 लङ्गुर, 226 लताकर ः, 183 लताकस्तूिरका, 210 लताकस्तूरी, 210 लप्सी, 127 लशुन, 126 लसुन, 126 लसुने-साग, 125 लहरे जेठी, 259 लाटीकोशेली, 134, 135 लाफे -साग, 212 लालगेडी, 181 िलन्डे, 126 लुइँठ, 123 लेक िचमाल, 180 लेक झुलो, 151 लेक म्याकु री, 234 लेक िस ,ु 273 लेक-आँख्ले, 122 लेक-धूप, 139 लोध, 269 लौका, 176 लौठ सल्ला, 123 ल्वाङ् , 214 व वचा, 124 वन कपास, 210 वन करे ला, 176, 177 वन कु िरलो, 137 वन कोदे, 233 वन िखर , 134 वन चम्सुर, 164 वन जीरा, 129 वन िटमुर, 260 वन दुध,े 153 वन फापर, 234 वन भाँडे, 234 वन मुगरे लो, 129 वन लसुन, 125, 126, 208 वन िसलाम, 202 वनसुिल, 251 वायुिवडङ्ग, 239 वाशक, 124 वाशा, 124 वास्तुक, 124 िवख, 241, 242, 243 िवख्मा, 243 िवडङ्ग, 239 िवभीतक, 173 िवष, 241, 242, 243 वीर बाँको, 135 श शतावरी, 137 शमर्गुरु, 195 शािण्डल्य, 259 शाल्मिल, 211 िशलाभेद, 263 िशविपर्या, 168 शुठो, 275 शुण्ठी, 275 श्योनाक, 160 शर्ीखण्ड, 262 दं क, 275 ेतकन्दा, 242 ेतचन्दन, 262 स संिवदाम री, 168 सखुवा, 177 स नी, 200 सतुवा, 212 समायो, 170 सपर्को मकै , 135 सल्लेजरी, 121 सानो काकोली, 209 ँ ा, 138 सानो िखरौल सानो तापर्े, 188 सानो िपप्ला, 228 सानो मिजनो, 211 सानो लोध, 269 सानो िसलाम, 202 साल, 177 सालः, 177 सालापिमिसर्, 218 िसन्के धूप, 116 िसम्ताडी, 263 िसमल, 211 िसमौरो, 233 िस ,ु 272, 273 िस ो, 272 सीमतारो, 266 सुँगुरे-काँडा, 147 सुकुमेल, 274 सुगन्धवाल, 170 सुिजनो, 200 सुनगाभा, 218 सुनपाती, 179 सुन-लहरा, 174 सुप-घाँस, 225 सुपारी, 136 सुयफू ल, 145 सुवाँले-साग, 166 सुशिभ, 129 सेतो छेतारो, 132, 133 सेतो जुङ्गे-लहरा, 245 सेतो ितक्ता, 191 सेतो धतुरो, 267 से , 232 सोमलता, 121 सोमवल्ली, 122 सोमा, 122 ँ , 131 सौफ स्थूलिशम्वी, 183 स्थूलैला, 274 स्याउ, 254 स्याउलेफूल, 241 स्वणर्वण , 274 स्वाँले, 163 ह ह ाजडी, 218, 219 हिरदर्, 274 हिरदर्ा, 274 हरीतकी, 173 हर , 173 हलहले, 238 हले, 238 हलेदो, 274 हिस्तकोशातकी, 177 हाँसफू ल, 190 हाडेओखर, 199 हातपहारो, 119 हातपुसारो, 119 िहङ् , 131 िहङ्गु, 131 हैमितक्तः, 194 हैमवती, 212 होचो रइँ स, 253 401 Index to Sowa Rigpa Names ______________________________________________________ Entries in bold italic type refer to plant names commonly cited by amchi, italic type refers either to synonyms (plants), minerals or animal names. A a bi sha, 46, 66, 84, 208 a bi sha dman pa, 46, 84, 209 a bi sha mchog, 46 a 'bi ra, 229 a 'bras, 88, 127, 215 a byag tsher sngon, 50, 226 a gar go sngod, 208 a ga ru dkar po, 47, 54, 57, 65, 80, 85, 145, 271 a ga ru dmar po, 57, 208 a ga ru nag po, 54, 57, 65, 80, 85, 121, 270 a krong dkar po, 171 a ru, 42, 47, 53, 56, 81, 89, 173, 269, 270 a ru ra, 173 a sho gan dha, 90, 215, 269 a ti mu ye, 247 a tig, 247 ain gra ni la, 363 ar dkar, 271 ar dmar, 208 ar nag, 270 a'u rtsi, 208 B ba, 351 ba bla, 362 ba gan, 165 ba glang lca ba, 128, 132 ba le ka, 86, 137, 196 ba lu dkar po, 48, 55, 82, 89, 179 ba lu dmar po, 180 ba lu nag po, 180 ba nu, 363 ba ru, 47, 53, 56, 82, 89, 173, 216, 257 ba ru 'bras bu, 173 ba ru ra, 173 ba ru shing, 173 ba sha ka, 57, 88, 124 ba spru, 50, 88, 90, 215 bal po gur gum, 54, 82, 86, 94, 99, 101, 146 bal tig, 194 bca'a sga, 274 bdud rtsi a wa, 209 bdud rtsi gangs sham pa, 203 402 bdud rtsi lo ma, 242 bdud rtsi rtag ngu, 178 be ljang re ral, 57, 119 be shing, 190 bel snabs, 359 bil ba, 53, 57, 259 blon po re ral, 119 bod kham, 255 bod kyi gur gum, 201 bod lcam, 212 bod skyes zi ra nag po, 88, 128 bod sne, 124 bong bu, 352 bong dkar, 28, 44, 47, 48, 55, 65, 144, 242, 243 bong dmar, 52, 242, 243, 247 bong nag, 65, 241, 243 bong nga dkar po, 242, 243 bong nga dmar po, 242, 243, 247 bong nga nag po, 241, 243 bra bo dkar po, 234 bra bo nag po, 234 'bra go, 136 bra ma, 80, 85, 183, 184 bra ma shing, 183 bra rgod, 234 bra tsher, 183 brag lcam chen po, 241 brag lcam dmar po, 174 brag mtshe, 121, 122 brag skya ha bo, 51, 89, 175, 198 brag spos, 119 brag tshan dmar po, 175 brag zhun, 93, 96, 98, 362 brag zhun rig gnas, 362 'bras nad, 234, 235 bre ga, 86, 87, 166 bre gu gser thig, 119 bre gu ser thig, 176 'bri mog, 46, 49, 65, 160, 162, 163 'bri mog che ba, 77, 83, 162 'bri mog chung ba, 163 'bri mog dkar po, 162 'bri mog ri skyes, 51, 77, 83, 160, 163, 175 'bri ta sa 'dzin, 49, 55, 94, 95, 96, 101, 102, 253 'bri ta sa 'dzin mchog, 253 ‘brong, 60, 69, 92, 96, 97, 130, 132, 355 ‘brug, 358 bse ru, 70, 94, 96, 101, 254, 358 bse ru ra, 94, 96 bse shing, 127 bse shing dkar po, 127 bse yab, 87, 237, 252 btab pa’i bra bo, 234 btsod, 53, 57, 67, 79, 85, 224, 259 btsong sgog ri skyes, 125 bul tog, 364 'bu su hang, 51, 88, 185 'bu su hang dman pa, 185 ‘bu su hang mo, 185 bum bzhi, 7, 10, 74 bya pho tsi tsi, 205, 225 bya pho tsi tsi sngon po, 200 bya rgod, 47, 48, 51, 69, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 127, 154, 155, 159, 245, 246, 354 bya rgod spos, 47, 48, 94, 95, 100, 246 bya rgod sug pa, 51, 154, 155 bya rkang, 52, 66, 246, 247 byan pa, 100, 189, 353 byar pan chu rtsi, 216 bye lce lag pa, 66, 83, 220 byi bzung, 141 byi la, 94, 101 byi ru, 360 byi rug nag po, 87, 201, 202 byi rug rgod pa, 202 byi rug ser po, 51, 202 byi rug ser po rgod pa, 202 byi rug smug po, 202 byi shang dkar mo, 171 byi tang ga, 87, 202, 239, 245 byi'u la phug, 164 byi'u sgog, 126 byu ru, 360 C chu chung ba, 238 chu dkar me tog, 237 chu gi wang, 93, 96, 98, 100, 222, 364 chu ma rtsi, 236, 237 chu mtshe, 83, 118 chu rtsa, 28, 49, 55, 67, 87, 236, 237 chu rtsa chung ba, 238 chu rug, 248 chu rug pa, 163 chu rug sbal lag, 52, 248 chu sdig, 352 chu snying, 359 chu srin sder mo, 69, 93, 94, 100, 119, 358 cong zhi, 359 cu gang, 43, 93, 96, 98, 103, 359 D da byid smug po, 69, 92, 97, 116, 138, 353 da trig, 89, 127, 200 'dam bu ka ra, 87, 229 dar shing, 213 dbang lag, 45, 46, 66, 67, 76, 83, 217, 218 dbang lag dkar po, 83, 219 dbang lag dman pa, 46, 66, 67, 76, 83, 219, 220 dbang lag mchog, 46, 76, 217, 218, 219, 220 dbang po lag pa, 45, 49, 66, 76, 218 dbang ril, 46, 65, 66, 77, 216, 219, 220 dbyar pa, 261 dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu, 49, 66, 92, 95, 96, 97, 99, 116, 354 dbyi mong, 46, 96 dbyi mong dkar po, 46, 52, 87, 93, 96, 99, 102, 245 dbyi mong khra bo, 46, 51, 55, 245 dbyi mong nag po, 46, 245, 246 dewa g.yu chung, 162 dgo ba, 70, 356 dkar po sbal rgyab, 363 dmar ril mgo nag, 181 dmar ru mgo nag, 181 dngul, 363 dngul chu, 362 dngul rdo, 359 dngul skud, 68, 116 dngul tig, 95, 102, 173, 194 dngul tig dman pa, 193 dom, 47, 48, 58, 60, 70, 95, 96, 102, 357 dom mkhris, 58, 95, 150, 173, 194, 198, 231, 232 dom nag zil pa, 223 dong ga, 184 dpa' bo dkar po, 228 drak zhun, 62 dre shug, 120 druk, 58 dug mo nyung, 53, 57, 134 dug thang phrom, 267 dung skar, 353 dur byid, 180 dur wa, 232 dwa ba, 135 dwa ba chung, 136 dwa g.yung, 46, 51, 135 dwa li dkar po, 179 dwa li dmar po, 180 dwa li nag po, 180 dwa rgod, 46, 135 dza ti, 44, 47, 54, 88, 132, 214 'dzim bu, 28 'dzim nag, 50, 65, 126 'dzin pa, 49, 242 G g.ya' kyi ma, 50, 264 g.yer ma, 53, 260 g.yer shing pa, 266 g’yu, 364 ga bra, 257 ga bur, 44, 54, 87, 207, 224 ga bur zil gnon, 52, 87, 223, 225 ga dur, 263 ga dur ser po, 254 ga dur smug po, 263 ga tigs smug po, 52, 84, 263 gab chung, 154 gandha bha dra, 140 gandha bha dra ser po, 153 gang da byid, 92, 97, 116, 138, 353 gang ga chung, 28, 190, 192 gang sbal, 69, 92, 95, 97, 353 gangs lha me tog, 154 gangs lha me tog chung, 155 gangs ri gser rdo, 360 gangs sham me tog, 203 gangs sung me tog, 203 gangs thig, 359 gi wang, 58, 60, 93, 95, 96, 147, 158, 198, 221, 222, 270, 361, 362, 364 gim jo, 100, 222 gla ba, 60, 69, 94, 100, 143, 145, 186, 187, 189, 246, 356 gla ba srad ma, 189 gla ba sren chung, 187 gla gor zho sha, 88, 122, 186 gla rtsi, 58, 60, 94, 95 gla sgang, 233 gla sgang dman pa, 233 glang byar, 261 glang chen, 60, 69, 93, 98, 147, 158, 222, 270, 358 glang ma chung, 261 glang ma chung ba, 261 glang ma nag po, 262 glang ma nag po chung, 261, 262 glang po, 69, 358 glang sna, 45, 221, 222 glo ba, 165 gna' ba, 70, 96, 101, 356 gnyan, 70, 96, 101, 355 gnyan 'dul ba, 203, 204 go bo, 93, 96, 99, 127, 159, 354 go bye, 127, 128 go snyod, 51, 86, 129 go snyod dman pa, 133 go ta, 92, 97 go yu, 136, 166 gol tog, 93, 354 gong ma sreg, 354 gong mo, 70, 96, 102, 159, 245, 355 gres ma, 198 gres ma pho, 199 gro lo sa 'dzin, 251 gro lo sa 'dzin che ba, 252 gro lo sa 'dzin chung ba, 251 gro ma, 251, 252 gro shang rtse, 221 ‘gron bu, 353 gru gu ras na, 179 gser, 360 gser bye, 99, 364 gser gyi bye ma, 364 gser gyi me tog, 49, 55, 176, 266 gser gyi me tog dman pa, 176 gser gyi phud bu, 177 gser gyi phud bu dman pa, 177 gser mkhris, 150 gser rdo, 360 gser skud, 66, 84, 117, 132 gser thal, 360 gser tig, 164, 265 gser tig dman pa, 265, 266 gser zhun, 98, 363 gser zil, 362 gso ba rig pa, 7, 12 gtsod, 70, 355 gu gu sa 'dzin dkar po, 174 gu gu sa 'dzin dmar po, 174 gu gul, 65, 80, 85, 166, 186, 226 gub li 'bras bu, 256 gur gum, 44, 47, 54, 82, 86, 87, 93, 94, 96, 99, 101, 146, 198, 201, 204, 206, 207 gur gum ser po, 254 gur tig, 265 gya' kyi ser chung, 176 gyag, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 351 g.yu 'brug 'khyil ba, 117, 118 g.yu chung, 161 g.yu lo, 162 gza' bdud dkar po, 189 gza' bdud mug po, 189 gza'a bdud rgya smug, 189 gza'a dug nag po, 155 gze ma, 53, 57, 275 gze ma ra mgo, 275 gzig, 70, 357 H ha lo, 211, 227 ha lo dkar po, 211 hong len, 28, 47, 48, 55, 67, 78, 84, 85, 230 hong len dman pa, 229 hong len mchog, 229, 230 J ja shing, 270 'jam 'bras, 183 'jam dbyangs rtag ngu, 264 jhin jhing thu lu, 353 'jib dkar, 201 'jib rtsi chen po, 201, 206 'jib rtsi dkar po, 201, 206 ‘jib rtsi dkar po dman pa, 206 'jib rtsi nag po, 82, 84, 86, 87, 201, 206 'jib rtsi smug po, 207 'jib rtsi sngon po, 206 'jib rtsi, 45 K ka bed, 176 ka ko la, 44, 47, 53, 86, 130, 274 kan da ka ri, 51, 55, 80, 85, 257, 258 kan da ka ri smug po, 257, 258 ker khan da, 93 kha che gur gum, 54, 82, 87, 95, 96, 102, 198 kha ru tshva, 361 kha sha, 69, 94, 96, 97, 100, 101, 356 kha sur, 136 khab len, 362 khal sral smug po, 189 kham bu, 255, 256 khams kyi ru rta, 66, 77, 84, 149 khan chung ser mgo, 52, 139 khang su me tog, 200 'khar ba, 359 khrag khrog pa, 165 khril skyes me tog, 167 khrog chen dman pa, 149 khrog chung, 150, 154 khron bu, 50, 181 khu byug pa, 65, 77, 83, 118, 217 khu byug rtsa ljang dman pa, 118 khur dkar, 157 khur mang, 50, 156, 157 khur nag, 157 khyi shing, 169 klu bdud rdo rje dkar po, 167 klu bdud rdo rje dman pa, 167 klu bdud rdo rje nag po, 50, 167, 208 klu mo gur gum, 201, 204 klung kham, 255 klung sgog, 47, 125 klung sho, 238 ko byi la, 89, 198, 210 kon pa gab skyes chung, 150, 154 kon pa gab skyes chung ba, 150 ku byi la, 210 ku sha, 232 ku shu, 254 kyi lce dkar po, 50, 80, 81, 86, 191, 192 kyi lce nag po, 192 L la la phud, 131, 133 la la phud dkar po, 131 la phug, 165 lang thab, 353 lang thang rtse, 268 lang thang rtse g.yung ba, 268 lca ba, 128, 130, 132 lca rgod, 132 lcags, 361 lcags kyu, 45, 250, 251 lcags sbrul, 98, 209, 210, 354 lcags tig, 193 403 lcags tig dkar po, 49, 195, 196 lcags tig nag po, 49, 55, 193 lcags tig nag po chen, 194 lcags tig nag po chung, 195 lcags tig ra mgo ma, 193 lcam pa, 211, 212 lcang ma, 261 lce myang tshva, 361 lce tsha, 88, 249, 250 lcum dkar, 67, 237 lcum dmar, 238 lcum rtsa, 50, 238 lcum rtsa chung ba, 67, 237 ldong ros, 362 ldum ba sha ka, 88, 224, 231 ldum bu re ral, 119 ldum bu stag sha, 186 ldum nag dom mkhris, 47, 48, 95, 102, 103, 231 lha glang, 222 lha shug, 50, 78, 80, 85, 120 lhaje, 7 li ga dur, 49, 86, 196, 197 li ga dur dman pa, 197 li ga dur mchog, 197 li ga dur sngon po, 28, 197 li shi, 47, 54, 82, 89, 179, 214 lig bu mig, 359 lo ma bdun can dwa ba, 67, 212 lo thog gi sman, 43 long bu, 362 lug, 94, 96, 97, 100, 101, 351 lug chen, 145 lug chung, 146 lug mig, 45, 46 lug mig che ba, 46, 145 lug mig chung ba, 46, 145, 146 lug mnye dmar po, 137 lug mnye rgod pa, 138 lug mo shag, 138 lug mtshe, 121 lug mur, 205 lug mur che ba, 205 lug ru, 45 lug ru dkar po, 50, 93, 99, 221, 223 lug ru dmar po, 51, 223 lug ru ser po, 49, 93, 95, 99, 100, 222 lug ru ser po dman pa, 221, 222 lug ru smug po, 223 lug sho, 153, 236 lug sug, 172 lug thug po, 94, 96, 100, 101, 351 lung skyes na chen, 165 lung thang, 262 lung thang mig, 262 404 lung tong, 262 M ma gal, 261 ma ning glang sna, 221 ma ning gres ma, 198 ma ning lcam pa, 212 ma nu, 28, 44, 49, 55, 77, 84, 136, 150 ma nu rta skam, 136 ma ru rtse, 65, 79, 84, 144, 182 mcher tshad, 88, 122, 186 mchin pa nag po, 185 mchin pa zho sha, 185 mchong, 359 mda' rgyus, 86, 159, 181 mdzo mo shing, 46, 51, 81, 85, 184 mdzo mo shing che ba, 184 mdzo mo shing chung ba, 81, 85, 182 mdzo mo shing dman pa, 183 mdzo tsher, 184 me tog dar ya kan, 165 me tog glang sna, 221, 222 me tog lug chung, 146 me tog lug mig, 49, 145 me tog lug mig g’yung ba, 145 me tog ser chen, 265, 266 men tsee khang, 108 mig sman sang rgyas, 196 ming can dkar po, 152 ming can nag po, 147, 148, 149 ming can ser po, 145, 150 mkhal ma zho sha, 86, 183, 187 mkhal ma zho sha dkar po, 183 mkhan a krong, 139 mkhan dkar, 139 mkhan nag, 142, 143 mkhan pa, 143 mkhan pa a krong, 139 mkhan pa dkar po, 139, 143, 144 mkhan pa nag po, 142, 143 mkhan skya, 52, 143, 144 mo lcam, 211 mo ldum sha la yu ring, 148 mon bu, 233 mon cha ra, 190 mon lug gla sgang, 233 mthing rgyus, 360 mtshan dmar, 175 mtshan jung pa, 174, 175 mtshe ldum, 51, 88, 121, 122 mu men, 359 mu tig, 362 mu zi nag po, 363 mu zi ser po, 363 N na ga ge sar, 53, 57, 83, 86, 90, 211, 226 na gi, 69, 358 na le sham, 228 na ram, 52, 89, 200 na tha ram, 230 nad ma 'byar ma, 161 nad ma g.yu chung, 161 nad ma g.yu lo, 162 nadma snun ma, 162 nag mtshur, 360 nags spos, 68, 170 nags zhun, 269 nim pa, 213 no pa'i pad dkar, 223 nus pa, 15, 43, 75, 104, 108 nye shing, 137 nye shing tser me, 47, 53, 57, 65, 137 nyes pa gsum, 9, 12, 13 nyi dga'a, 212 O 'o se'i 'bras bu, 256 'od ldan dkar po chung ba, 265 'od ldan dkar po dman pa, 264 'od ldan dkar po mchog, 264 'ol mo se, 52, 67, 86, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 158 'om bu, 47, 48, 55, 81, 99, 269, 270 'om bu che ba, 89, 270 'om bu chung ba, 89, 269 P pad ma, 215 pad ma ge sar, 215 pad ma ra ga, 363 pad rtsa, 215 par pa ta, 49, 80, 85, 226 pha ba dgo dgo, 116 pha lam, 360 pha wang, 362 pha wang sgo ti, 116 phag mgo, 362 phag pa, 352 phag rdo, 362 phag rgod, 96, 102, 356 phan nus, 15 phang ma dkar po, 87, 168 phang ma nag po, 168 pho ba ris, 228 pho glang, 221 pho gres, 199 pho lcam, 211 pho lcam ha lo dkar po, 211 phur mong nag po, 142, 144 phur nag, 55, 79, 80, 84, 85, 94, 100, 142, 144 phur smug, 202 'phyi ba, 69, 358 pi pi ling, 54, 67, 88, 228, 249 pri yang ku, 28, 44, 47, 48, 55, 82, 84, 86, 87, 201, 204, 206, 207 pri yang ku dman pa, 82, 84, 87, 204 pu shel dkar po, 217, 219 pu shel gser po, 218 pu shel rtse, 65, 66, 78, 84, 163, 217, 218, 219, 227, 230, 232 pu shud mig sman dmar po, 205 R ra, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 351 ra gan, 169 ra gze, 275 ra mnye, 49, 55, 89, 92, 97, 138, 139 ra mnye rgod pa, 139 ra mo shag, 138, 139 ra rgod, 69, 96, 99, 100, 355 ra sug, 172 ram bu rgod pa, 234 rdo ba nu, 363 rdo dreg, 43, 67, 117 rdo gi wang, 93, 98, 364 rdo klad, 361 rdo rgyus, 360 rdo rje pha lam, 360 rdo sman, 43, 62 rdo sol, 360 rdo thal, 361 rdo'i sman, 74 rdza skyes srol gong, 156 re lcag pa, 51, 271 re skon, 49, 65, 224, 225 re skon rtsi dmar, 79, 85, 224 re skon sngon po, 223 rgu drus, 152 rgu drus ser po, 147 rgun 'brum, 54, 273, 342 rgya kham, 255 rgya khur, 153 rgya khur sngon po, 152 rgya lang thang, 267 rgya lcam, 211 rgya lcam dkar po, 211 rgya lcang, 261 rgya men me tog, 227 rgya nag, 363 rgya nag tsa, 363 rgya ra, 69, 96, 98, 249, 355 rgya rtsi, 244 rgya rtsi dug lo, 244 rgya rtsi rgod pa, 244 rgya sgog, 47, 52, 125 rgya shug, 120 rgya so ser po, 185 rgya spos dkar po, 170 rgya thang khrom, 267 rgya tig, 28, 51, 55, 67, 95, 102, 194 rgya tig dman pa, 196 rgya tshad, 160 rgya tshva, 363 rgyam tshva, 363 rgyu mkhris ser po, 254 rgyu mkhris ser po dman pa, 254 rgyu mkhris smug po, 255 rgyud bzhi, 7, 10, 35, 74, 109 ri bong, 69, 100, 127, 357 ri kham, 255 ri phag, 96, 102, 356 ri sgog, 47, 125, 126 ri sho, 152 ri skyes bra bo, 234 ri skyes gur gum, 254 ri skyes sgog pa, 125 ri skyes zi ra ser po, 129 rin po che sman, 43, 58, 62 rin po che'i sman, 74 rkyal pa chu thub, 189 ro, 15, 43, 104, 108 rta lpags, 205 rta lpags dkar po, 266 rta lpags nag po, 205 rta rmig che ba, 244 rta rmig dkar po, 273 rtag ngu, 178 'rtag ngu 'od ldan, 264 rtsa a krong, 46, 52, 171 rtsa a wa, 51, 52, 55, 98, 209 rtsa a wa rgod pa, 98, 209 rtsa dug mo nyung, 159 rtsa dur nag po, 177 rtsa mkhris, 95, 102, 150, 152 rtsa mkhris ba mo kha, 154 rtsa mkhris chung, 157 rtsa mkhris dman pa, 149 rtsa mkhris gser po, 150 rtsa mkhris mchog, 152 rtsa mkhris nag po dman pa, 149 rtsa mkhris zhing skyes, 150 rtsa thag, 225 rtsad, 131 rtsad g.yung, 131 rtsad rgod, 131 rtsi dmar zil pa, 224 rtsi sman, 43, 58, 62, 74, 75 rtswa a wa, 209 rtswa a wa rgod pa, 209 rtswa da byid, 92, 97, 116 rtswa ku sha, 232 rtswa pu shel rtse, 78, 84, 232 rtswa ram pa, 232 ru rta, 146, 149 rug sgog, 125, 126 S sa 'bras, 57, 89, 138, 214 sa gi wang, 93, 98, 100, 222, 364 sa ru, 60 sa sman, 43, 62 sa'i sman, 74 sang shing, 68, 123 sbal pa lag pa, 119 sbrul zhags, 174 sbur len, 43, 359 sdig pa nag po, 352 sdig srin, 69, 99, 116, 352 sdig srin dkar po, 69, 352 se ba, 49, 55, 82, 89, 257 se ba ’bras bu, 82, 257 se ba'i me tog, 257 se 'bru, 42, 48, 54, 57, 82, 89, 158, 210, 342 se rgod, 89, 216, 256 se rgod mo, 256 se rgod pho, 256 seng ldeng, 83, 89, 158, 188 seng ldeng khan da, 188 ser g.ya' kyi ma, 264 ser mtshur, 360 sga ser, 54, 274 sga sho, 148 sga skya, 54, 274 sga smug, 274 sga tig khra bo, 239 sga tig nag po, 239 sga tig smug po, 239 sga tsha, 249, 250 sgangs spos, 139 sgog pa rug pa, 125 sgog skya, 126 sgong thog pa, 164, 166 sgro ba shing, 266 sgro dkar, 266 sgron ma shing, 122 sgron shing, 122 sha ba, 60, 70, 95, 96, 102, 356 sha la yu ring, 148 sha la yu ring dman pa, 148 sha pho ru rta, 47, 54, 57, 65, 77, 84, 146, 149, 150 sha ru, 96, 102, 159, 254, 356 shang dril, 45 shang dril dkar po, 240 shang dril nag po, 240 shang dril ser po, 51, 81, 86, 241 shang dril smug po, 240 shang dril sngon po, 240 shang len smug po, 203 shang tshe, 164 shing a krong, 266 shing ba sha ka, 88, 124, 224, 230 shing bal, 117 shing dug mo nyung, 53, 57, 81, 82, 88, 134, 135 shing gyi gser bye, 267 shing kun, 131 shing mngar, 87, 185, 229 shing sman, 43, 74 shing tsha, 53, 208 sho mang, 238 shog shing, 271 shog shing ar nag, 271 shri khan da, 89, 128, 181 shu dag nag po, 47, 53, 124 shu mo za, 189 shug pa, 78, 80, 85, 120, 121 shug pa tsher can, 120, 121 shug tsher, 120, 121 sin dhu ra, 94, 96, 101, 361 ske tshe, 166 skra bzang zil pa, 88, 224 skrag pa shing, 256 skran nad, 154, 236 skyer dkar, 158 skyer nag, 157, 158 skyer pa, 93, 158 skyer pa dkar po, 48, 55, 82, 83, 88, 89, 98, 158 skyer pa ker shun, 83 skyer pa nag po, 157, 158 skyer pa shing, 158 skyer pa’i drebu, 82 skyer pa’i me tog, 82 skyi ba, 188 skyi tsher, 188 skyu ru, 42, 47, 53, 56, 82, 88, 158, 228, 230, 343 skyu ru ra, 228 sle tres, 47, 53, 57, 68, 79, 80, 85, 184, 213, 258 smag shad, 258 smag tog pa, 205, 207 sman sga, 54, 275 smug cu gang, 218 smug po chig thub, 360 smug po mdung rtse, 360 smug po sbal rgyab, 361 smug rtsi, 160, 162 sne dmar, 125 sne rgod, 124 sne'u, 124, 125 sngo ba sha ka, 28, 47, 48, 55, 78, 84, 88, 224, 229 sngo bong mar, 223 sngo chu srin sder mo, 94, 100, 119 sngo dug mo nyung, 50, 55, 81, 82, 88, 134, 135 sngo dug mo nyung chung, 134 sngo ga tigs smug po, 83, 233, 263 sngo gi wang, 222 sngo gser bye, 267 sngo lcags kyu, 250, 251 sngo rta lpags dkar po, 266 sngo rta rmig, 273 sngo rta rmig chung, 273 sngo sga, 148 sngo sga sha la yu ring, 148 sngo sman, 43, 74 sngo sprin, 250, 251 sngo sprin lcags kyu, 250, 251 sngo sprin lo ma che ba, 251 sngo sprin lo ma chung ba, 250 sngo stag sha, 186 sngo zi ra nag po, 88, 129 sngo zi ra ser po, 87, 129, 129 sngon bu, 167 sngon bu mchog, 167 snya lo, 235, 236 snyi ba, 167 snying zho sha, 53, 87, 92, 93, 96, 97, 99, 100, 127, 169, 212 so ma ra dza, 53, 210 sog ka pa, 50, 78, 84, 163 sog ka pa rgod pa, 164 spa ma, 120 spa ma shug tsher, 121 spa yag pa, 212 spa yag rtsa ba, 51, 87, 212 spang a krong dkar po, 116, 239 spang a krong dmar po, 238 spang gi ra mnye, 138 spang mtshan spu ru, 203 spang mtshe, 121 spang ram, 52, 83, 233 spang rgyan dkar po, 80, 81, 86, 192 spang rgyan, 48 spang rgyan khra bo, 47, 191 spang rgyan nag po, 191 spang rgyan sngon po, 48, 55, 190, 191 spang rtsi do bo, 47, 48, 168 spang ru spu mtshan, 203 spang sga tig, 239 spang skyes bong dkar, 242 spang spos, 50, 66, 170 405 spang tsam pa ka, 141 spang zhun, 260 spen ma nag po, 253 spen nag, 253 spor chung, 197 spos dkar, 53, 57, 67, 78, 85, 121, 168, 177, 188, 343 spos shel, 43, 359 spra ba, 140, 150, 151, 153 spra ba thog dkar g'yung ba, 151 spra ba thog dkar mchog, 151 spra ba thog dkar rgod pa, 151 spra dkar po, 140 spra g'yung, 140, 141 spra rgod, 141, 151 spra thog, 140, 151 spra thog pa, 141 spru dkar, 68, 132, 133 spru nag, 132 spru nag g.yung ba, 130 spyan gzigs rtag ngu, 264, 265 spyang ki, 69, 92, 98, 158, 357 spyang tsher, 45, 147 spyang tsher dkar po, 169 spyang tsher g.yung ba, 155, 169 spyang tsher nag po, 147 spyang tsher nag po rgod pa, 146 spyang tsher rgod pa, 169 sra 'bras, 214 srad dkar, 182 srad nag, 86, 187 srad ser, 51, 182 srad smug, 100, 189 srad sngon, 187 sram, 69, 100, 222, 357 sreg pa, 354 srin, 119, 125, 127, 128, 131, 143, 189, 198, 199, 201, 202, 205, 206, 260, 266, 268, 269, 361 srin shing, 89, 216 sro lo dkar po, 49, 103, 165 sro lo dmar po, 77, 83, 103, 174, 175 sro lo smug po, 103, 175 sro ma nag po, 47, 53, 78, 85, 168 sro ma ra dza, 168 sro ma ras rgyu, 85, 168 srog chag las byung ba'i sman, 74, 75 srog chags sman, 43 srol gong dman pa, 154 srol gong pa, 156 srol gong ser po, 50, 154, 156 406 srol gong ser po dman pa, 154 srub ka, 45, 244, 248 srub ka dkar po, 248 srub ka dmar po, 244 srub ka sngon po, 244 srub sngon, 244 stag, 44, 49, 70, 85, 94, 100, 101, 147, 357 stag ma shing, 179 stag ma zing skya, 179 stag ma'i yung rdog, 223 stag pa, 159 stag pa shing, 159 stag sha, 44, 49, 80, 85, 94, 95, 100, 186 stag sha dkar po, 186 star bu, 178 star bu gnam star, 55, 178 star bu sa star, 51, 55, 178 star ga, 66, 199 stong ri zil pa, 225 stong zil, 224, 225 stong zil sngon po, 223 su gu, 172 su lu, 180 sug pa, 171, 172 sug smel, 44, 47, 54, 87, 166, 274 sum cu tig, 195 sur dkar, 179 sur nag, 180 T tang kun, 51 tang kun dkar po, 84, 88, 92, 97, 131 tang kun dkar po chung ba, 131 tang kun nag po, 92, 97, 130 tang ma, 212 tang tsher, 188 tha ram, 51, 230, 231 thal ka rdo rje, 78, 85, 188 thal sman, 74 thang khrom dkar po g.yung ba, 268 thang khrom lang thang rtse, 268 thang nag, 65, 122 thang phrom dkar po, 268 thang phrom khra bo, 267 thang phrom nag po, 50, 267 thang phrom ser po, 268 thang shing, 122, 123 thang sman, 43 thar chen, 180, 181 thar chung, 181 thar nu, 89, 181 thom tsa, 187 thrag tshab, 249 ti mu sa, 246, 247 tig ta, 28, 42, 193, 194, 196, 343 til dkar, 54, 227 til nag, 54, 227 tsam pa ka, 67, 160 tsan dan dkar po, 47, 54, 57, 67, 80, 81, 86, 191, 192, 241, 262 tsan dan dmar po, 47, 54, 57, 67, 81, 85, 184, 187 tsap, 8 tsha la, 359 tshab, 3, 8, 27, 37, 74, 75, 109 tshang pa lha'i me tog, 139 tshar bong dkar po, 144 tshar bong smug po, 142, 143, 144 tshar dkar, 252 tshar leb, 253 tshar pa dkar po, 252 tshar pa shing, 252 tsher sngon, 226 tsho byed, 7 U 'u su, 130 ug chos dman pa, 46, 159 ug chos dmar po, 44, 50, 159, 160 ug chos dmar po mchog, 160 ug chos mchog, 46 ut pal, 193 ut pal dmar po, 44, 227 ut pal ser po, 78, 85, 226 ut pal sngon po, 28, 47, 48, 83, 86, 226 W wa mo, 70, 96, 165, 357 wa mo glo ba, 165, 175 Y yo 'bog, 68, 272 yog chen, 144 yog chung, 142 yog mo, 144, 203 yu gu shing nag po, 124, 145 yu gu shing ser po, 267 yu mo mde'u 'byin, 52, 96, 98, 101, 249 yugs, 361 yung ba, 54, 274 Z zangs, 360 zangs rtsi dkar po, 258, 259 zangs rtsi nag po, 94, 100, 142 zangs tig, 193 zhim thig, 204 zhim thig dkar po, 203, 206 zhim thig dmar chung, 203 zhim thig dmar po, 203 zhim thig nag po, 200, 203 zhim thig ser po, 207 zhim thig sngon po, 204 zhu mkhan, 57, 89, 158, 259, 269 zhu rjed, 15, 43, 104 zi ra dkar po, 87, 129, 130 zi ra nag po, 54, 88, 128, 129, 249 zi ra rgod pa, 133 zi ra ser po, 129 zin tig, 200 zin tig chung ba, 200 zin tig rgod pa, 200 zwa ’brum, 272, 273 zwa 'brum dkar po, 203 zwa pho, 272 zwa phyi a ya, 272 zwa rgod, 272, 273 zwa skyes bong dkar, 242 ཀ་ ཀ་ཀོ་ལ་, 274 ཀ་བེད་, 176 ཀ ྜ་ཀ་རི་, 257, 258 ཀ ྜ་ཀ་རི་ ག་པོ་, 257, 258 ཀུ་ ི་ལ་, 210 ཀུ་ཤ་, 232 ཀུ་ ་, 254 ཀོ་ ི་ལ་, 210 ཀོན་པ་གབ་ ེས་ ང་, 150, 154 ཀོན་པ་གབ་ ེས་ ང་བ་, 150 ཀྱི་ ེ་དཀར་པོ་, 191, 192 ཀྱི་ ེ་ནག་པོ་, 192 ་བ ད་ ོ་ ེ་དཀར་པོ་, 167 ་བ ད་ ོ་ ེ་དམན་པ་, 167 ་བ ད་ ོ་ ེ་ནག་པོ་, 167, 208 ་མོ་གུར་གུམ་, 201, 204 ང་ཁམ་, 255 ང་ཤོ་, 238 ང་ ོག་, 125 ཁ་ ཁ་ཆེ་གུར་གུམ་, 198 ཁ་ ར་, 136 ཁང་ ་མེ་ཏོག་, 200 ཁན་ ང་སེར་མགོ་, 139 ཁམ་ ་, 255, 256 ཁམས་ཀྱི་ ་ ་, 149 ཁལ་ ལ་ ག་པོ་, 189 ཁུ་ ག་པ་, 217 ཁུ་ ག་ ་ ང་དམན་པ་, 118 ཁུར་དཀར་, 157 ཁུར་ནག་, 157 ཁུར་མང་, 156, 157 ཁྱི་ཤིང་, 169 ཁྲག་ཁྲོག་པ་, 165 ཁྲིལ་ ེས་མེ་ཏོག་, 167 ཁྲོག་ ང་, 150, 154 ཁྲོག་ཆེན་དམན་པ་, 149 ཁྲོན་ ་, 181 ག་ ག་ཏིག་ ག་པོ་, 263 ག་ ར་, 263 ག་ ར་མཆོག་, 263 ག་ ར་སེར་པོ་, 254 ག་ ར་ ག་པོ་, 263 ག་ ར་, 207 ག་ ར་ཟིལ་གནོན་, 223 ག་ ་, 257 གང་ག་ ང་, 190, 192 གངས་ ་མེ་ཏོག་, 154 གངས་ ་མེ་ཏོག་ ང་, 155 གངས་ཤམ་མེ་ཏོག་, 203 གངས་ ང་མེ་ཏོག་, 203 གཉན་འ ལ་བ་, 203, 204 གནདྷ་བྷ་ ་, 140 གནདྷ་བྷ་ ་སེར་པོ་, 153 གབ་ ང་, 154 གཟའ་ ག་ནག་པོ་, 155 གཟའ་བ ད་དཀར་པོ་, 189 གཟའ་བ ད་ ག་པོ་, 189 གཟའ་བ ད་ ་ ག་, 189 གཟེ་མ་, 275 གཟེ་མ་ར་མགོ་, 275 གཡའ་ཀྱི་མ་, 264 གཡའ་ཀྱི་སེར་ ང་, 176 ག ་ ང་, 161 ག ་འ ག་འཁྱིལ་བ་, 117, 118 ག ་ལོ་, 162 གཡེར་མ་, 260 གཡེར་ཤིང་པ་, 266 གསེར་གྱི་མེ་ཏོག་, 176 གསེར་གྱི་མེ་ཏོག་དམན་པ་, 176 གསེར་ཏིག་, 164, 265 གསེར་ཏིག་དམན་པ་, 265, 266 གསེར་ ད་, 117 གུ་གུ་ས་འཛིན་དཀར་པོ་, 174 གུ་གུ་ས་འཛིན་དམར་པོ་, 174 གུ་གུལ་, 166 གུབ་ལི་འ ས་ ་, 256 གུར་གུམ་, 146, 198 གུར་གུམ་སེར་པོ་, 254 གུར་ཏིག་, 265 གོ་ ་, 136 གོ་ ོད་, 129, 133 གོ་ ོད་དམན་པ་, 133 ་གུ་རས་ན་, 179 གྲེས་མ་, 198 གྲེས་མ་ཕོ་, 199 གྲོ་མ་, 251, 252 གྲོ་ལོ་ས་འཛིན་, 251 གྲོ་ལོ་ས་འཛིན་ ང་བ་, 251 གྲོ་ལོ་ས་འཛིན་ཆེ་བ་, 252 གྲོ་ཤང་ ེ་, 221 གླ་གོར་ཞོ་ཤ་, 186 གླ་བ་ ད་མ་, 189 གླ་བ་ ེན་ ང་, 187 གླ་ ང་, 233 གླ་ ང་དམན་པ་, 233 གླང་ ར་, 261 གླང་མ་ ང་བ་, 261 གླང་མ་ནག་པོ་, 262 གླང་མ་ནག་པོ་ ང་, 261, 262 གླང་ ་, 221, 222, 223 ཆ་ ་ ང་བ་, 238 ་དཀར་མེ་ཏོག་, 237 ་མ་ ི་, 236, 237 ་མཚ་, 118 ་ ག་, 248 ་ ག་པ་, 163 ་ ག་ ལ་ལག་, 248 ་ ་, 236, 237 ་ ་ ང་བ་, 238 ་ ིན་ ེར་མོ་, 119 ཇ་ ཇ་ཤིང་, 270 ཉ་ ཉི་དགའ་, 212 ཉེ་ཤིང་, 137 ཉེ་ཤིང་ཙར་མེ་, 137 ཏ་ ཏང་ཀུན་དཀར་པོ་, 131 ཏང་ཀུན་དཀར་པོ་ ང་བ་, 131 ཏང་ཀུན་ནག་པོ་, 130 ཏང་མ་, 212 ཏང་ཚར་, 188 ཏི་ ་ས་, 246, 247 ཏིག་ཏ་, 193, 194, 196 ཏིལ་དཀར་, 227 ཏིལ་ནག་, 227 ཐ་ ཐ་རམ་, 230, 231 ཐང་ཁྲོམ་དཀར་པོ་ག ང་བ་, 268 ཐང་ཁྲོམ་ལང་ཐང་ ེ་, 268 ཐང་ནག་, 122 ཐང་ ོམ་ཁྲ་བོ་, 267 ཐང་ ོམ་དཀར་པོ་, 268 ཐང་ ོམ་ནག་པོ་, 267 ཐང་ ོམ་སེར་པོ་, 268 ཐང་ཤིང་, 122, 123 ཐར་ ང་, 181 ཐར་ཆེན་, 180, 181 ཐར་ ་, 181 ཐལ་ཀ་ ོ་ ེ་, 188 ཐོམ་ཙ་, 187 ད་ ད་ ིག་, 127 ད ལ་ཏིག་, 173, 194 ད ལ་ཏིག་དམན་པ་, 193 ད ལ་ ད་, 116 དཔའ་བོ་དཀར་པོ་, 228 དབང་པོ་ལག་པ་, 218 དབང་རིལ་, 216, 219, 220 དབང་ལག་, 218 དབང་ལག་དཀར་པོ་, 219 དབང་ལག་དམན་པ་, 219, 220 དབང་ལག་མཆོག་, 218 ད ར་པ་, 261 ད ར་ ་དགུན་འ ་, 116 ད ི་མོང་ཁྲ་བོ་, 245 ད ི་མོང་དཀར་པོ་, 245 ད ི་མོང་ནག་པོ་, 245, 246 དམར་རིལ་མགོ་ནག་, 181 དམར་ ་མགོ་ནག་, 181 དར་ཤིང་, 213 ག་ཐང་ ོམ་, 267 ག་མོ་ ང་, 134 ར་ དི ་, 180 ར་ཝ་, 232 དེཝ་ག ་ ང་, 162 དོང་ག་, 184 དོམ་ནག་ཟིལ་པ་, 223 ་ག ང་, 135 ་བ་, 135 ་བ་ ང་, 136 ་ ོད་, 135 ་ལི་དཀར་པོ་, 179 ་ལི་དམར་པོ་, 180 ་ལི་ནག་པོ་, 180 ེ་ ག་, 120 ན་ ན་ག་གེ་སར་, 211 ན་ཐ་རམ་, 230 ན་རམ་, 200 ན་ལེ་ཤམ་, 228 ནགས་ ན་, 269 ནགས་ ོས་, 170 ནད་མ་ག ་ ང་, 161 ནད་མ་ག ་ལོ་, 162 ནད་མ་འ ར་མ་, 161 ནདམ་ ན་མ་, 162 ནིམ་པ་, 213 ནོ་པའི་པད་དཀར་, 223 པ་ པ ྨ་, 215 པར་པ་ཏ་, 226 པི་པི་ལིང་, 228 ་ ད་མིག་ ན་དམར་པོ་, 205 ་ཤེལ་གསེར་པོ་, 218 ་ཤེལ་དཀར་པོ་, 217, 219 ་ཤེལ་ ེ་, 217, 218, 219, 232 ་ི ཡང་ཀུ་, 201, 204 ་ི ཡང་ཀུ་དམན་པ་, 204 ཕ་ ཕ་ཝང་ ོ་ཏི་, 116 ཕང་མ་དཀར་པོ་, 168 ཕང་མ་ནག་པོ་, 168 ར་ནག་, 142, 144 ར་མོང་ནག་པོ་, 142, 144 ར་ ག་, 202 ཕོ་གྲེས་, 199 ཕོ་གླང་, 222 ཕོ་བ་རིས་, 228 ཕོ་ མ་, 211 ཕོ་ མ་ཧ་ལོ་དཀར་པོ་, 211 407 བ་ བ་གན་, 165 བ་གླང་ ་བ་, 128, 132 བ་ ་, 173 བ་ ་ར་, 173 བ་ ་དཀར་པོ་, 179 བ་ ་དམར་པོ་, 180 བ་ ་ནག་པོ་, 180 བ་ལེ་ཀ་, 137 བ་ ་, 215 བཅའ་ ་, 274 བཏབ་པའི་ ་བོ་, 234 བ ད་ ི་གངས་ཤམ་པ་, 203 བ ད་ ི་ ག་ ་, 178 བ ད་ ི་ལོ་མ་, 242 བ ད་ ི་ཨ་ཝ་, 209 བཙང་ ོག་རི་ ེས་, 125 བཙད་, 259 བལ་ཏིག་, 194 བལ་པོ་གུར་གུམ་, 146 བསེ་ཡབ་, 252 བསེ་ཤིང་, 127 བསེ་ཤིང་དཀར་པོ་, 127 བིལ་བ་, 259 ་ ་ཧང་མོ་, 185 བེ་ ང་རེ་རལ་, 119 བེ་ཤིང་, 190 བོང་ང་དཀར་པོ་, 242, 243 བོང་ང་དམར་པོ་, 242, 243, 247 བོང་ང་ནག་པོ་, 241, 243 བོང་དཀར་, 144, 242, 243 བོང་དམར་, 242, 243, 247 བོང་ནག་, 241, 243 བོད་ཀྱི་གུར་གུམ་, 201 བོད་ཁམ་, 255 བོད་ མ་, 212 བོད་ ེས་ཟི་ར་ནག་པོ་, 128 བོད་ ེ་, 124 ་ཕོ་ཙི་ཙི་, 205, 225 ་ཕོ་ཙི་ཙི་ ོན་པོ་, 200 ་ ང་, 246, 247 ་ ོད་ ག་པ་, 154, 155 ་ ོད་ ོས་, 246 ར་པན་ ་ ི་, 216 ་ི ཏང་ག་, 239 ་ི བ ང་, 141 ་ི ག་ ོད་པ་, 202 ་ི ག་ནག་པོ་, 201, 202 ་ི ག་ ག་པོ་, 202 ་ི ག་སེར་པོ་, 202 ་ི ག་སེར་པོ་ ོད་པ་, 202 408 ་ི ཤང་དཀར་མོ་, 171 ི ་ལ་ ག་, 164 ི ་ ོག་, 126 ་ེ ེ་ལག་པ་, 220 ་བོ་དཀར་པོ་, 234 ་མ་, 183, 184 ་མ་ཤིང་, 183 ་ཚར་, 183 ་ ོད་, 234 ག་མཚ་, 121, 122 ག་ཚན་དམར་པོ་, 175 ག་ མ་ཆེན་པོ་, 241 ག་ མ་དམར་པོ་, 174 ག་ ་ཧ་བོ་, 175, 198 ག་ ོས་, 119 ་ེ ག་, 166 ་ེ གུ་གསེར་ཐིག་, 119 ་ེ གུ་སེར་ཐིག་, 176 ནོ ་པོ་རེ་རལ་, 119 མ་ མ་གལ་, 261 མ་ནིང་གྲེས་མ་, 198 མ་ནིང་གླང་ ་, 221 མ་ནིང་ མ་པ་, 212 མ་ ་, 136, 150 མ་ ་ ་ མ་, 136 མ་ ་ ེ་, 182 མཁན་དཀར་, 139 མཁན་ནག་, 142, 143 མཁན་པ་, 143 མཁན་པ་དཀར་པོ་, 139, 143, 144 མཁན་པ་ནག་པོ་, 142, 143 མཁན་པ་ཨ་ཀྲོང་, 139 མཁན་ ་, 143, 144 མཁན་ཨ་ཀྲོང་, 139 མཁལ་མ་ཞོ་ཤ་, 183 མཁལ་མ་ཞོ་ཤ་དཀར་པོ་, 183 མཆིན་པ་ནག་པོ་, 185 མཆིན་པ་ཞོ་ཤ་, 185 མདའ་ ས་, 181 མཚན་ ང་པ་, 174, 175 མཚན་དམར་, 175 མཚ་ མ་, 121, 122 མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་, 184 མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་ ང་བ་, 182 མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་ཆེ་བ་, 184 མཛ་མོ་ཤིང་དམན་པ་, 183 མཛ་ཚར་, 184 མིག་ ན་སང་ ས་, 196 མིང་ཅན་གསེར་པོ་, 150 མིང་ཅན་དཀར་པོ་, 152 མིང་ཅན་ནག་པོ་, 147, 148, 149 མིང་ཅན་སེར་པོ་, 145 མེ་ཏོག་གླང་ ་, 221, 222 མེ་ཏོག་དར་ཡ་ཀན་, 165 མེ་ཏོག་ ག་ ང་, 146 མེ་ཏོག་ ག་མིག་, 145 མེ་ཏོག་ ག་མིག་ག ང་བ་, 145 མེ་ཏོག་སེར་ཆེན་, 265, 266 མོ་ མ་, 211 མོ་ མ་ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་, 148 མོན་ཆ་ར་, 190 མོན་ ་, 233 མོན་ ག་གླ་ ང་, 233 ཟི་ར་ ོད་པ་, 133 ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་, 128, 129 ཟིན་ཏིག་, 200 ཟིན་ཏིག་ ང་བ་, 200 ཟིན་ཏིག་ དོ ་པ་, 200 ་ཕོ་, 272 ་ ི་ཨ་ཡ་, 272 ་འ མ་, 272, 273 ་འ མ་དཀར་པོ་, 203 ་ ོད་, 272, 273 ་ ེས་བོང་དཀར་, 242 འ་ ཞིམ་ཐིག་, 204 ཞིམ་ཐིག་དཀར་པོ་, 203, 206 ཞིམ་ཐིག་དམར་ ང་, 203 ཞིམ་ཐིག་དམར་པོ་, 203 ཞིམ་ཐིག་ནག་པོ་, 200, 203 ཞིམ་ཐིག་སེར་པོ་, 207 ཞིམ་ཐིག་ ོན་པོ་, 204 ་མཁན་, 259, 269 འཇམ་ད ངས་ ག་ ་, 264 འཇམ་འ ས་, 183 འཇིབ་དཀར་, 201 འཇིབ་ ི་ཆེན་པོ་, 201, 206 འཇིབ་ ི་དཀར་པོ་, 201, 206 འཇིབ་ ི་དཀར་པོ་དམན་པ་, 206 འཇིབ་ ི་ནག་པོ་, 201, 206, 207 འཇིབ་ ི་ ོན་པོ་, 206 འཇིབ་ ི་ ག་པོ་, 207 འདམ་ ་ཀ་ར་, 229 འ ་ ་ཧང་, 185 འ ་ ་ཧང་དམན་པ་, 185 འ ་གོ་, 136 འ ི་ཏ་ས་འཛིན་, 253 འ ི་ཏ་ས་འཛིན་མཆོག་, 253 འ ི་མོག་, 160, 162, 163 འ ི་མོག་དཀར་པོ་, 162 འ ི་མོག་ ང་བ་, 163 འ ི་མོག་ཆེ་བ་, 162 འ ི་མོག་རི་ ེས་, 160 འཛིན་པ་, 242 འཛིམ་ནག་, 126 འ ག་ ་འོད་ ན་, 264 འོ་སེའི་འ ས་ ་, 256 འོད་ ན་དཀར་པོ་ ང་བ་, 265 འོད་ ན་དཀར་པོ་དམན་པ་, 264 འོད་ ན་དཀར་པོ་མཆོག་, 264 འོམ་ ་, 269, 270 འོམ་ ་ ང་བ་, 269 འོམ་ ་ཆེ་བ་, 270 འོལ་མོ་སེ་, 158 ཟ་ ཡ་ ཟངས་ཏིག་, 193 ཟངས་ ི་དཀར་པོ་, 258, 259 ཟངས་ ི་ནག་པོ་, 142 ཟི་ར་དཀར་པོ་, 130 ཟི་ར་ནག་པོ་, 129, 249 ་གུ་ཤིང་ནག་པོ་, 124, 145 ་གུ་ཤིང་སེར་པོ་, 267 ་མོ་མདེ ་འ ིན་, 249 ང་བ་, 274 ཡོ་འབོག་, 272 ཙ་ ཙན་དན་དཀར་པོ་, 262 ཙན་དན་དམར་པོ་, 187 ཙམ་པ་ཀ་, 160 ཚ་ ཚང་པ་ འི་མེ་ཏོག་, 139 ཚར་དཀར་, 252 ཚར་པ་དཀར་པོ་, 252 ཚར་པ་ཤིང་, 252 ཚར་བོང་དཀར་པོ་, 144 ཚར་བོང་ ག་པོ་, 142, 143, 144 ཚར་ལེབ་, 253 ཚར་ ོན་, 226 ཛ་ ཛ་ཏི་, 214 ཞ་ ཡོག་ ང་, 142 ཡོག་ཆེན་, 144 ཡོག་མོ་, 144, 203 ར་ ར་གཟེ་, 275 ར་མཉེ་, 138 ར་མཉེ་ ོད་པ་, 139 ར་མོ་ཤག་, 138, 139 ར་ ག་, 172 རམ་ ་ ོད་པ་, 234 རི་ཁམ་, 255 རི་ཤོ་, 152 རི་ ེས་གུར་གུམ་, 254 རི་ ེས་ ་བོ་, 234 རི་ ེས་ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་, 128 རི་ ེས་ ོག་པ་, 125 རི་ ོག་, 125, 126 ་ ་, 146, 149 ག་ ོག་, 125, 126 རེ་ ག་པ་, 271 རེ་ ོན་, 224, 225 རེ་ ོན་ ི་དམར་, 224 རེ་ ོན་ ོན་པོ་, 223 ལ་པ་ ་ བ་, 189 ་ ས་, 147, 152 ་ ས་སེར་པོ་, 147 ན་འ མ་, 273 ་ཁམ་, 255 ་ཁུར་, 153 ་ཁུར་ ོན་པོ་, 152 ་ཏིག་, 194 ་ཏིག་དམན་པ་, 196 ་ཐང་ཁྲོམ་, 267 ་མེན་མེ་ཏོག་, 227 ་ ི་, 244 ་ ི་ ག་ལོ་, 244 ་ ི་ ོད་པ་, 244 ་ལང་ཐང་, 267 ་ ང་, 261 ་ མ་, 211 ་ མ་དཀར་པོ་, 211 ་ ག་, 120 ་སོ་སེར་པོ་, 185 ་ ོག་, 125 ་ ོས་དཀར་པོ་, 170 ་མཁྲིས་སེར་པོ་, 254 ་མཁྲིས་སེར་པོ་དམན་པ་, 254 ་མཁྲིས་ ག་པོ་, 255 ་ ིག་ཆེ་བ་, 244 ་ ིག་དཀར་པོ་, 273 ་ གས་, 205 ་ གས་དཀར་པོ་, 266 ་ གས་ནག་པོ་, 205 ག་ ་, 178 ་ོ ེག་, 117 ་ཐག་, 225 ་ ག་མོ་ ང་, 159 ་ ར་ནག་པོ་, 177 ་མཁྲིས་, 150, 152 ་མཁྲིས་གསེར་པོ་, 150 ་མཁྲིས་ ང་, 157 ་མཁྲིས་དམན་པ་, 149 ་མཁྲིས་ནག་པོ་དམན་པ་, 149 ་མཁྲིས་བ་མོ་ཁ་, 154 ་མཁྲིས་མཆོག་, 152 ་མཁྲིས་ཞིང་ ེས་, 150 ་མཁྲིས་སེར་པོ་, 150 ་ཨ་ཀྲོང་, 171 ་ཨ་ཝ་, 209 ་ཨ་ཝ་ ོད་པ་, 209 ད་, 131 ད་ག ང་, 131 ད་ ོད་, 131 ་ི དམར་ཟིལ་པ་, 224 ་ཀུ་ཤ་, 232 ་ད་ ིད་, 116 ་ ་ཤེལ་ ེ་, 232 ་རམ་པ་, 232 ་ཨ་ཝ་, 209 ་ཨ་ཝ་ ོད་པ་, 209 ་ ེས་ ོལ་གོང་, 156 ལ་ ལ་ ག་, 165 ལ་ལ་ ད་, 131, 133 ལ་ལ་ ད་དཀར་པོ་, 131 ལང་ཐང་ ེ་, 268 ལང་ཐང་ ེ་ག ང་བ་, 268 ལི་ག་ ར་, 196, 197 ལི་ག་ ར་དམན་པ་, 197 ལི་ག་ ར་མཆོག་, 197 ལི་ག་ ར་ ོན་པོ་, 197 ལི་ཤི་, 214 ག་ ང་, 146 ག་ཆེན་, 145 ག་མཉེ་དམར་པོ་, 137 ག་མཉེ་ ོད་པ་, 138 ག་མཚ་, 121 ག་མིག་ ང་བ་, 145, 146 ག་མིག་ཆེ་བ་, 145 ག་ ར་, 205 ག་ ར་ཆེ་བ་, 205 ག་མོ་ཤག་, 138 ག་ ་དཀར་པོ་, 221, 223 ག་ ་དམར་པོ་, 223 ག་ ་སེར་པོ་, 221, 222 ག་ ་སེར་པོ་དམན་པ་, 221, 222 ག་ ་ ག་པོ་, 223 ག་ཤོ་, 153, 236 ག་ ག་, 172 ང་ཏོང་, 262 ང་ཐང་, 262 ང་ཐང་མིག་, 262 ང་ ེས་ན་ཆེན་, 165 ལོ་མ་བ ན་ཅན་ ་བ་, 212 ་བ་, 130, 132 ་ ོད་, 132 གས་ ་, 250, 251 གས་ཏིག་, 193 གས་ཏིག་དཀར་པོ་, 195, 196 གས་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་, 193 གས་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་ ང་, 195 གས་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་ཆེན་, 194 གས་ཏིག་ར་མགོ་མ་, 193 ང་མ་, 261 མ་པ་, 211, 212 མ་དཀར་, 237 མ་དམར་, 238 མ་ ་, 238 མ་ ་ ང་བ་, 237 ེ་ཚ་, 249, 250 མ་ནག་དོམ་མཁྲིས་, 231 མ་བ་ཤ་ཀ་, 224 མ་ ་རེ་རལ་, 119 ་གླང་, 222 ་ ག་, 120 ཤ་ ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་, 148 ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་དམན་པ་, 148 ཤང་ ིལ་དཀར་པོ་, 240 ཤང་ ིལ་ནག་པོ་, 240 ཤང་ ིལ་སེར་པོ་, 241 ཤང་ ིལ་ ོན་པོ་, 240 ཤང་ ིལ་ ག་པོ་, 240 ཤང་ཚ་, 164 ཤང་ལེན་ ག་པོ་, 203 ཤིང་ཀུན་, 131 ཤིང་གྱི་གསེར་ ེ་, 267 ཤིང་ ག་མོ་ ང་, 134 ཤིང་བ་ཤ་ཀ་, 124 ཤིང་བལ་, 117 ཤིང་མངར་, 185 ཤིང་ཚ་, 208 ཤིང་ཨ་ཀྲོང་, 266 ་དག་ནག་པོ་, 124 ་མོ་ཟ་, 189 ག་པ་, 120, 121 ག་པ་ཚར་ཅན་, 120, 121 ག་ཚར་, 120, 121 ཤོ་མང་, 238 ཤོག་ཤིང་, 271 ཤོག་ཤིང་ཨར་ནག་, 271 ི་ཱ ཁ ྜ་, 128 ས་ ས་འ ས་, 214 སང་ཤིང་, 123 ་གུ་, 172 ་ ་, 180 ག་པ་, 171, 172 ག་ ེལ་, 274 མ་ ་ཏིག་, 195 ར་དཀར་, 179 ར་ནག་, 180 སེ་བ་, 257 སེ་བའི་མེ་ཏོག་, 257 སེ་འ ་, 210 སེ་ ོད་, 216, 256 སེ་ ོད་ཕོ་, 256 སེ་ ོད་མོ་, 256 སེང་ ེང་, 188 སེང་ ེང་ཁ ྜ་, 188 སེར་གཡའ་ཀྱི་མ་, 264 སེར་གྱི་ ད་ ་, 177 སེར་གྱི་ ད་ ་དམན་པ་, 177 སོ་མ་ར་ཛ་, 210 སོག་ཀ་པ་, 163 སོག་ཀ་པ་ ོད་པ་, 164 ་ི བ་, 188 ་ི ཚར་, 188 ་ ་, 228 ་ ་ར་, 228 རེ ་དཀར་, 158 རེ ་ནག་, 157, 158 རེ ་པ་, 158 རེ ་པ་དཀར་པོ་, 158 རེ ་པ་ནག་པོ་, 157, 158 རེ ་པ་ཤིང་, 158 ་བཟང་ཟིལ་པ་, 224 ག་པ་ཤིང་, 256 ་ཏིག་ཁྲ་བོ་, 239 ་ཏིག་ནག་པོ་, 239 409 ་ཏིག་ ག་པོ་, 239 ་ཚ་, 249, 250 ་ཤོ་, 148 ་སེར་, 274 ་ ་, 274 ངས་ ོས་, 139 གོ ་པ་ ག་པ་, 125 གོ ་ ་, 126 ངོ ་ཐོག་པ་, 164, 166 ་ོ དཀར་, 266 ་ོ བ་ཤིང་, 266 ནོ ་མ་ཤིང་, 122 ནོ ་ཤིང་, 122 ་ོ ག་ཏིགས་ ག་པོ་, 263 ་ོ གསེར་ ེ་, 267 ་ོ གི་ཝང་, 222 ་ོ ་ ིན་ ེར་མོ་, 119 ་ོ ག་མོ་ ང་, 134, 135 ་ོ ག་མོ་ ང་ ང་, 134 ་ོ བ་ཤ་ཀ་, 224, 229 ་ོ བོང་མར་, 223 ་ོ ཟི་ར་སེར་པོ་, 128, 129 ་ོ ་ ིག་, 273 ་ོ ་ ིག་ ང་, 273 ་ོ ་ གས་དཀར་པོ་, 266 ་ོ གས་ , 250, 251 ་ོ ་ཤ་ལ་ ་རིང་, 148 ་ོ ིན་, 250, 251 ་ོ ིན་ལོ་མ་ ང་བ་, 250 ་ོ ིན་ལོ་མ་ཆེ་བ་, 251 ་ོ ིན་ གས་ ་, 250, 251 ནོ ་ ་མཆོག་, 167 ་ལོ་, 235, 236 ་ི བ་, 167 ངི ་ཞོ་ཤ་, 127 ག་པ་, 159 ག་པ་ཤིང་, 159 ག་མ་ཟིང་ ་, 179 ག་མ་ཤིང་, 179 ག་མའི་ ང་ ོག་, 223 ག་ཤ་, 186 410 ག་ཤ་དཀར་པོ་, 186 ར་ག་, 199 ར་ ་, 178 ར་ ་གནམ་ ར་, 178 ར་ ་ས་ ར་, 178 ངོ ་ཟིལ་, 224, 225 ངོ ་ཟིལ་ ོན་པོ་, 223 ངོ ་རི་ཟིལ་པ་, 225 ་ེ དམར་, 125 ་ེ ོད་, 124 ེ ་, 124, 125 ་མ་, 120, 121 ་མ་ ག་ཚར་, 121 ་ཡག་པ་, 212 ་ཡག་ ་བ་, 212 ང་གི་ར་མཉེ་, 138 ང་མཚན་ ་ ་, 203 ང་མཚ་, 121 ང་ ན་, 260 ང་རམ་, 233 ང་ ་ ་མཚན་, 203 ང་ ན་ཁྲ་བོ་, 191 ང་ ན་དཀར་པོ་, 192 ང་ ན་ནག་པོ་, 191 ང་ ན་ ོན་པོ་, 190, 191 ང་ ི་དོ་བོ་, 168 ང་ ེས་བོང་དཀར་, 242 ང་ ་ཏིག་, 239 ང་ ོས་, 170 ང་ཨ་ཀྲོང་དཀར་པོ་, 116, 239 ང་ཨ་ཀྲོང་དམར་པོ་, 238 ངས་ཙམ་པ་ཀ་, 141 ནེ ་ནག་, 253 ནེ ་མ་ནག་པོ་, 253 རོ ་ ང་, 197 སོ ་དཀར་, 170, 177 ང་ཚར་, 147, 169 ང་ཚར་ག ང་བ་, 155, 169 ང་ཚར་དཀར་པོ་, 169 ང་ཚར་ནག་པོ་, 147 ང་ཚར་ནག་པོ་ ོད་པ་, 146 ང་ཚར་ ོད་པ་, 169 ན་གཟིགས་ ག་ ་, 264, 265 ་ག ང་, 140, 141 ་ཐོག་, 140, 151 ་ཐོག་པ་, 141 ་དཀར་པོ་, 140 ་བ་, 140, 150, 151, 153 ་བ་ཐོག་དཀར་ག ང་བ་, 151 ་བ་ཐོག་དཀར་མཆོག་, 151 ་བ་ཐོག་དཀར་ ོད་པ་, 151 ་ ོད་, 141, 151 ་དཀར་, 132, 133 ་ནག་, 132 ་ནག་ག ང་བ་, 130 ལ་པ་ལག་པ་, 119 ལ་ཞགས་, 174 ག་ཏོག་པ་, 205, 207 ག་ཤད་, 258 ན་ ་, 274 ག་ ་གང་, 218 ག་ ི་, 160, 162 ་འ ས་, 214 ད་དཀར་, 182 ད་ནག་, 187 ད་སེར་, 182 ད་ ོན་, 187 ད་ ག་, 189 ནི ་ཤིང་, 216 བ་ཀ་, 244, 248 བ་ཀ་དཀར་པོ་, 248 བ་ཀ་དམར་པོ་, 244 བ་ཀ་ ོན་པོ་, 244 བ་ ོན་, 244 ་ོ མ་ར་ཛ་, 168 ་ོ མ་རས་ ་, 168 ་ོ ལོ་དཀར་པོ་, 165 ་ོ ལོ་དམར་པོ་, 175 ་ོ ལོ་ ག་པོ་, 175 ལོ ་གོང་དམན་པ་, 154 ལོ ་གོང་པ་, 156 ལོ ་གོང་སེར་པོ་, 154, 156 ལོ ་གོང་སེར་པོ་དམན་པ་, 154 ་ེ ེས་, 213 ཧ་ ཧ་ལོ་, 211, 227 ཧ་ལོ་དཀར་པོ་, 211 ཧོང་ལེན་, 230 ཧོང་ལེན་དམན་པ་, 229 ཧོང་ལེན་མཆོག་, 230 ཨ་ ཨ་ཀྲོང་དཀར་པོ་, 171 ཨ་ག་ ་དཀར་པོ་, 271 ཨ་ག་ ་ནག་པོ་, 270 ཨ་ག་ ་དམར་པོ་, 208 ཨ་གར་གོ་ ོད་, 208 ཨ་ཏི་ ་ཡེ་, 247 ཨ་བི་ཁ་, 208 ཨ་ ག་ཚར་ ོན་, 226 ་ཱ བྷི་ཁ་དམན་པ་, 209 ཨ་འབི་ར་, 229 ཨ་འ ས་, 127 ཨ་ ་, 173 ཨ་ ་ར་, 173 ཨ་ཤོ་ག ་, 269 ཨགར་ཤིང་ཚ་, 208 ཨ ་ ི་, 208 ཨར་དཀར་, 271 ཨར་དམར་, 208 ཨར་ནག་, 270 ག་ཆོས་དམན་པ་, 159 ག་ཆོས་དམར་པོ་, 159, 160 ག་ཆོས་དམར་པོ་མཆོག་, 160 ཏ་པལ་དམར་པོ་, 227 ྤལ་, 193 ྤལ་སེར་པོ་, 226 ྤལ་ ོན་པོ་, 226 About the Authors Suresh Kumar Ghimire Suresh K. Ghimire is Professor of Botany at Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. He received his M.Sc. in 1992 from Tribhuvan University and his Ph.D. in 2005 from Université Montpellier II, France. His major fields of interest are systematic botany, ethnoecology/applied ethnobotany and conservation biology, with focus on Himalayan plants. He has supervised about 50 graduate students, and published over 60 articles in peer reviewed journals, and as book chapters. He is the co-author of 6 books/manuals, including Medicinal Plants of Dolpo: Amchis’ Knowledge and Conservation (WWF Nepal, 2001). Email: sk.ghimire@cdbtu.edu.np; suresh.ghimire@cdb.tu.edu.np Amchi Gyatso Bista Amchi Gyatso Bista is the Chairman of the Kathmandu-based Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA) and founder and director of Lo Kunphen Mentseekhang, Mustang, Nepal. He was born into a long patrilinease (rgyud) – a descent of rug pa known as tro nag. He received secondary level education from the public school in Lo Monthang. He studied Sowa Rigpa and astrology from teachers in Nepal, India and the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. In addition to his role as a practitioner of Sowa Rigpa, Amchi Gyatso worked at the local government veterinary hospital in Mustang for ten years, and has travelled to the US, Japan, France, and Russia in his capacity as a Sowa Rigpa practitioner. He is the author of Himalayan Doctors and Healing Herbs: The Amchi Tradition and Medicinal Plants of Mustang (Lo Kunphen Mentseekhang, Nepal, 2005). Email: amchiassociationnepal@gmail.com Norbu Sangpo Lama Norbu Sangpo Lama was born in Torpa Village, Humla District, Nepal into a lineage of Bön and Nyingmapa practitioners, shaman-priest, village headmen, and Himalayan caravan traders. He studied at Central School for Tibetans in Dolanji, India, and the Central University for Tibetan Studies (CUTS) in Sarnath, Varanasi, India. He has had the opportunity to study 'bum bzhi medicine in Northern India and at the medical college of Sorig Bhumzhi Menriling, Dolanji. He studied astrology, medicine and pharmacy in the Bön tradition. His main interest lies Nepal and Himalayan studies, especially on the topic of Sowa Rigpa and Himalayan medicinal plant cultivation and conservation. He served as a Programme Officer and Research Coordinator (2000-2010) for the Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA), including Manager for UNDP/GEF-SGP-funded ‘Sowa Rigpa Conservation project’ (2007-2010) and for CEPF-SGP/WWF Nepal-funded project (2010-2011) on which this book is based. He served as a board member of HAA from 2010 to 2013. He has been elected as General Secretary of the HAA in 2017. Email: lamanorbusangpo@gmail.com Sienna R. Craig Sienna R. Craig is Associate Professor of Anthropology at Dartmouth College (USA). She received her BA from Brown University (Religious Studies, 1995) and her PhD from Cornell University (Anthropology, 2006). Craig is the author of The Ends of Kinship: Connecting Himalayan Lives between Nepal and New York (University of Washington Press, forthcoming 2020), Mustang in Black and White (with Kevin Bubriski, Vajra Publications, 2018), Healing Elements: Efficacy and the Social Ecologies of Tibetan Medicine (UC Press, 2012), Horses Like Lightning: A Story of Passage through the Himalaya (Wisdom Publications, 2008), and the co-editor of Medicine Between Science and Religion: Explorations on Tibetan Grounds (Berghahn Books, 2010), and Studies of Medical Pluralism in Tibetan 411 History and Society (IITBS, 2010). Her scholarship has appeared in Current Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, Anthropology and Humanism, Journal of the American Medical Association, Hastings Review, HIMALAYA, Contributions to Nepalese Studies, Studies in Nepali History and Society, and Social Science and Medicine, among other peer reviewed journals. Her research has been supported by grants from the Guggenheim Foundation, the National Science Foundation, the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, the Fulbright Commission, and the Social Science Research Council, among other sources. She has worked on collaborative, applied global health projects funded by the Gates Foundation, the World Health Organization, the National Institutes of Health, the Global Environmental Facility Small Grants Programme, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Craig enjoys writing across genres, from literary ethnography and interdisciplinary social science research to creative nonfiction, fiction, children’s literature, and poetry. From 2012-2017 Craig was the co-editor of HIMALAYA, flagship peer-reviewed Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies. Since 2009, she has served as a member of the Executive Council of the International Association for the Study of Traditional Asian Medicine (IASTAM). Craig has been an advisor and collaborator to the Himalayan Amchi Association since 1998. She is also a co-founder of DROKPA, a nonprofit organization that partners with Himalayan communities to support projects in education, community health, and social entrepreneurship. Email: sienna.r.craig@dartmouth.edu 412

RELATED PAPERS

RELATED TOPICS

Log In

Without the Plants, We Have No Medicine: Sowa Rigpa, Ethnobotany, and Conservation of Threatened Species in Nepal

Without the Plants, We Have No Medicine: Sowa Rigpa, Ethnobotany, and Conservation of Threatened Species in Nepal

Related Papers

RELATED PAPERS

RELATED TOPICS