-
Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
(http://jwb.araku.ac.ir/)
DOI: 10.22120/jwb.2019.115501.1096
Review paper
A review of the biodiversity conservation status of Nigeria
Odoligie
Imarhiagbe*1,
Wisdom
Oghenevwogaga
Egboduku2,
Beluchukwu Joseph Nwankwo3
1*
Department of Biological Science, Edo
University Iyamho, Edo State, Nigeria
2
Department of Botany, Delta State University,
Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria
3
Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology,
University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
email: imarhiagbe.odoligie@edouniversity.edu.ng
Received: 8 October 2019 / Revised: 9 November 2019 / Accepted:
9 November 2019 / Published online: 11 November 2019. Ministry
of Sciences, Research and Technology, Arak University, Iran.
Abstract
Despite a plethora of policies that address issues
of conservation of nature’s resources,
biodiversity continues to face a series of threats
in Nigeria. The study aimed at a critical
appraisal of the status of biodiversity
conservation and utilization pattern in Nigeria.
The review was carried out using published
materials and personal interactions with
knowledgeable individuals. Poverty, population
growth, invasive alien species, habitat
fragmentation were identified as core factors
depleting biodiversity in Nigeria. Although no
reliable record yet exists for assessing the rate of
biodiversity loss in Nigeria, substantial evidence
shows that biodiversity is being lost at a
disturbing rate. The IUCN Red list assessment
reports that 141 native animal and 168 native
plant species of Nigeria are currently classified
in different threat categories. With these
assessments been carried out on the global level,
we hypothesized that such global assessment
might be biased based on the various identified
peculiar threats faced by different species in
their local environment. To properly monitor
and reduce the current state of biodiversity,
reliable data on biodiversity is necessary. The
development of a red List for Nigerian flora and
fauna is recommended.
Keywords: Biodiversity, conservation, IUCN,
Nigeria, red List.
Introduction
Biodiversity is the variability among living
organisms from all sources including, inter alia,
terrestrial, aquatic and the ecological complexes
of which they are part, this includes diversity
within species, between species and of an
ecosystem. Biodiversity provides valuable
bioresources that support the existence of man
on earth (Aguilera 2019). In addition,
biodiversity also provides unquantifiable
services to humans. These services include
nutrient and water cycling, soil formation and
retention, resistance against invasive species,
pollination of plants, and regulation of climates
as well as pest and pollution control by
ecosystems.
The strategic position of Nigeria in West Africa
that lies between longitudes 3°E and 15°E and
latitudes 4°N and 14°N has endowed it with very
rich biodiversity, distributed within different
ecological zones, comprising: mangrove,
rainforest, montane, and the savanna- Guinea,
Sudan and Sahel (Federal Government of
Nigeria 2015). These different eco-geographical
zones support different plants and animal
species, including endemic ones.
Unfortunately, Information on the status of
biodiversity conservation in Nigeria is currently
lacking. Although many estimated data on the
status of biodiversity exist, none of these have
proved convincing in the face of current reality.
According to a relatively recent survey on
biodiversity assessment, Nigeria has over 7,895
plant species, identified into 338 families and
2215 genera, including a significant number of
them being endemic species (Borokini 2014).
However, there exist a lot of factors militating
against the conservation of these resources,
triggering alterations at different ecosystems
that make up biodiversity (Anadu 1987). In as
much as humans cannot live without
developmental activities which to a great extent
are dependent on resources from biodiversity
74 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
pool, lack of prudent use can result in total loss
or extinction of some valuable portion of it.
Therefore, the need to harmonize developmental
activities in such a way that the impact on
biodiversity would be least must be advocated
(Adewumi et al. 2018; Akande et al. 2019).
The primary goal of biodiversity conservation is
to maintain all species and populations of
species for present and future use. Conservation
of biodiversity can either be carried out in-situ
which implies the on-site conservation or the
conservation of genetic resources in natural
populations of plant or animal species or ex-situ
(entails protecting an endangered species of
plant or animal outside its natural habitat
(Okorodudu 1998, Ajayi 2019). The effective
conservation of biodiversity in Nigeria has been
hampered by factors, such as population growth,
habitat fragmentation, high poverty index
perception, overexploitation, and pollution.
Also, the lack of biodiversity data has hindered
conservation efforts, making it almost
impossible to track species extinction.
Consequently, there is a need to reassess the
level of biodiversity conservation in Nigeria.
Hence, the current review, therefore,
investigates the current status of biodiversity,
factors
militating
against
biodiversity
conservation and management in Nigeria and
proffer recommendations for its sustainable
conservation.
Measurement of biodiversity
Biodiversity is vital to the continued survival of
man on earth. Its benefits are enormous and
many of these are hard to quantify in monetary
terms. However, bioresources, which are
directly sourced from biodiversity, contribute
significantly to the economy of many
developing nations of the world, including
Nigeria. Considering its importance to
livelihood, documentation of biodiversity and
identifying threat factors becomes paramount.
Nigeria has relatively rich and diverse
biodiversity owing to the varieties of habitats
types it habours, including savannas, tropical
forests, wetlands, lakes, rivers, coastal areas, etc.
these different ecosystems support a diversity of
flora and fauna, including endemic ones.
According to the USAID report on Nigeria
biodiversity and tropical forestry assessment
(2008), among 42 African countries, Nigeria is
ranked eleventh and ninth in terms of plant
species diversity and endemic species
respectively. Unfortunately, Biodiversity in
Nigeria is currently under threat from several
global and local factors (Aguilera 2019).
Although no reliable record yet exists for
assessing the rate of biodiversity loss in Nigeria,
substantial evidence shows that biodiversity is
being a loss at a disturbing rate. This has
necessitated an urgent need to generate reliable
data that can be used to monitor the loss of
biodiversity. Such an up-to-date checklist will
not only proffer insights into which species
require urgent conservation need, but also
stimulate technological innovation and
providing the framework for sustainable
development (NBSAPs 2015).
In designing an up-to-date threat assessment list
for native plant and animal species in Nigeria,
there is a need to conduct a thorough ecological
survey on these species within the country’s
territory. The use of the global IUCN red list
assessment for compiling such a list can be
misleading. And because the IUCN red list
categories and criteria were developed to assess
risk at the global level, the outcome of such an
assessment can either be overestimated or
underestimated at the local level. For instance,
species with a wide range of distribution may
have a low risk of becoming extinct globally and
hence may be listed as Least Concern (LC) on
the Red List. But it may locally be declining in
parts of its range as a result of different local
threats. If this trend is not recognized and
reversed, the species could disappear from the
locality. Cases such as this have necessitated the
need to device a local assessment guideline that
can take into cognizance native species and the
local threats faced.
To mitigate this challenge, the International
Union for Conservation of Nature developed
criteria to enable assessment at the regional and
national levels. The guidelines for applying the
Red list criteria at the national and regional level
are available to download from the IUCN web
site: www.iucnredlist.org. With the availability
of such guidelines, it is hoped that Nigeria can
now be able to generate threat categories and
produce up-to-date information on the national
conservation status of Nigerian native plant and
75 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
animal species. An updated record of the
conservation status of some selected indeginous
plant and animal species is represented in Table
1 and 2 respectively.
Conservation of biodiversity
Conservation of biodiversity in Nigeria has gone
through several phases over the years. Before
the creation of the forestry administration by the
British, the indigenous people have traditionally
conserve biodiversity through cultural processes
and religious beliefs (Martin 1991). The forest
was highly revered by the people. The majority
of people believed that the forest has spirits
living within them and that one must be fortified
spiritually before you can venture into the forest.
Consequently, only the brave hunters and native
doctors attempted entering into the high forest
(Aigbokhan
2016).
An
ethnobotanical
investigation from knowledgeable respondents
in southern Nigeria shows that it was a serious
crime to cut certain tree species, for example, the
Iroko (Milicia excelsa) which was perceived as
the king’s tree and many more. Plants species
used as fuel woods were carefully selected that
only abundant species and fell trees were mostly
used. In the case of animals, hunting of animals
was not carried at random. Only does recognize
as village hunters engaged in the practice.
Clearly, the people had an idea of biodiversity
conservation and even though at that time the
farming practices were largely characterized by
slash and burn, the locals, customarily allow
certain important tree species on the farmland, a
system otherwise known as Agroforestry.
The advent of civilization brought about by the
Europeans resulted in adulteration and
deterioration of some of the beliefs and customs
which primarily assisted in biodiversity
preservation. The Europeans demand for
tropical timbers, conversion of forest lands into
rubber and oil plantations and the mechanization
of forest operations were highly significant in
the loss of biodiversity in most West African
countries,
including
Nigeria.
These
encroachment process was further exacerbated
the rapidly rising population for agricultural
land for food production, the establishment of
settlements and the provision of various types of
infrastructure and most of these previously
revered areas have lost protection (USAID
report on Nigeria Biodiversity and Tropical
Forestry Assessment 2008).
In the face of current reality, two major
approaches have now been used to conserve
biodiversity in Nigeria; these include in-situ and
ex-situ methods.
In situ conservation
In situ conservation is on-site conservation or
the conservation of genetic resources in natural
populations of plant or animal species such as
forest genetic resources in natural populations of
tree species (Ajayi 2019). In situ conservation
maintains not only the genetic diversity of
species but also the evolutionary adaptations
that enable them to adapt continually to shifting
environmental conditions, such as changes in
past populations and climate. It ensures that
along with target species, hosts of other
interlinked species are also preserved as a byproduct. It is generally cheaper than ex-situ
methods (although not cheap). It may often be
the only conservation option, for example for
species of plants with recalcitrant seeds. In
Nigeria, areas habouring a considerable amount
of biodiversity are mapped as protected areas
and conserved (Ejidike and Ajayi 2013). The
natural tranquility of these protected areas along
with communities of plants, animals, and birds
in them, combine to make each a niche
destination (Sawe 2019). National parks, Forest
and game reserves, and sacred grooves
constitute the major hallmark of In situ
conservation of biodiversity in Nigeria.
National Parks
Table 3, (appendix) shows the size, locations
and period of establishment of National Parks in
Nigeria. There are currently has 7 national
parks, strategically located represent major
Nigerian ecosystems, including rainforest,
montane forests, freshwater wetlands/lakes,
guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and, Sahel
savanna. These parks are monitored by the
Federal Government of Nigeria, but under the
jurisdiction of the Nigeria National Park Service
(NNPS). The Gashaka-Gumti national park
(GGNP) is located in Taraba and Adamawa state
and it the largest National Park in Nigeria,
covering a total land area of 6.402 km,
comprising savanna grassland in the northern
76 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
part and a montane forest in the southern part.
The GGNP is home to a wide range of fauna
species such as Mountain reedbuck (Redunca
fulvorufula), the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana), the West African wild dog (Lycaon
pictus), and the world largest antelope
(Taurotragus derbianus). Also included are
various plant species, notably, the red sunbird
bush plant (Metarungia pubinervia), an afro
tropical species with an isolated population in
eastern Africa, South Africa and Nigeria
(Darbyshire et al. 2009). The Kainji National
Park is the second largest after Gashaka Gumti
and it is located in Niger and Kwara state,
Nigeria. it consists of three distinct sections; the
Borgu game reserves which constitute the
savanna forest part of the Park, the Kainji lake,
a 136 km long reservoir that divides the Borgu
game reserve into two parts and the Zugurma
sector which is highly inaccessible due to lack
of adequate roads.
The Cross River National Park is made up of two
divisions, the Okwango and Oban, both located
in Cross River state. The park falls under the
Guinea-Congolian region, comprising of lots of
endemic flora and fauna species (Terborgh
2002). The Cross River National Park habours
one of the oldest rain forests in Africa and it is
the most notable biodiversity hot spot in Nigeria.
Recent reports indicate that both divisions of the
park are currently threatened by illegal logging,
slash and burn farming and poaching activities.
The old Oyo national park is located in Oyo
State and cut across the southern part of Kwara
State, Nigeria. The Park is home to plant and
animal species of both the rainforest and
savanna origin. However, recent developments
indicate that the Park has been extremely
encroached due to the expanding human
population. Consequently, many species that
were previously widely distributed in the Park
are now being rare. For example, the endangered
West African wild dog (Lycaon pictus
manguensis).
The Chad Basin National Park is located in
northeastern Nigeria, in the Chad Basin, with a
total area of about 2,258 km2. The park is made
up of three sectors. The Chingurmi-Duguma
sector is in Borno State and has a Sudanian
savanna zone while the Bade-Nguru Wetlands
and Bulatura sectors are in Yobe State with a
Sahel ecological zone. Despite its strategic
location, there has been a low turnout of tourist
visitors due to the limited number of spectacular
wildlife in the Park. Other factors militating
against the success of the Park include security
challenges,
climate
change,
increasing
population, and environmental degradation.
Also present in the northern part of the country
is the Kamuku National Park, which is located
in Kaduna State. It has Guinea -Sudan Savanna
vegetation and protects the most diverse form of
this vegetation type in the country. The park is
important for species such as the secretary bird
(Sagittarius serpentarius), Denham's bustard
(Neotis denhami) and the Abyssinian groundhornbill (Bucorvus abyssinicus) which are rare
in other parts of Nigeria.
In the southern part of Nigeria, the Okomu
National Park in Edo State holds a remnant of
the Nigerian lowland forests that once formed a
continuous 50–100 km wide belt from the Niger
River west to the Dahomey Gap in Benin. To the
south and southeast, the forest was separated
from the coast by mangrove and swamp forests,
while to the north it merged into the Guinean
Forest-Savanna Mosaic ecoregion. However,
the park has witness shrinkage in size due to
immediate community encroachment on it and
is now less than one-third of its original size
(Williams 2008) .
Forest and game reserves
Table 4, shows the size and location of forest
reserves in Nigeria. Forest reserves are portions
of lands, controlled by the state government,
where commercial harvesting of wood products
is prohibited in order to capture elements of
biodiversity that can be missing from
sustainably harvested sites. Initially, the system
was designed in a way that deforestation rates
due to logging activities are balanced with a
recurrent afforestation plan. But a different
scenario exists. According to the USAID’s
report on Nigeria Biodiversity and Tropical
Forestry Assessment (2008), Nearly 1,000 forest
reserves included in the IUCN World Database
on Protected Areas are currently not in
existence. The few remaining ones, such as the
Idanre Forest Reserve, Akure Ofosu Forest
Reserve, and Oban Hills Forest Reserve have
lost a significant portion of their original to
77 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
encroachment
and
subsequent
forest
conversation to plantations and farmlands.
A game reserve comprises a large area of land
where animals live safely. In Nigeria, the
majority of the games reserves have been
cleared off and used for other developmental
purposes and as such now only exist in the
paper. Game and forest reverse in the country
have faced serious managerial crises as a result
of the incapability of the State governments to
properly handle the affairs of these protected
areas. For instance, the Yankari game reserves,
now under state control, provide an illustration
of how things can change under new
management. The game reserve is now a shadow
of its original self.
Sacred groves
Sacred grooves are relics forest patches
preserved in the name of religion and culture
(Agarwal 2016). Sacred groves comprise stands
of trees that are of special religious importance
to a particular culture and based on its relevance,
the conservation of species in the grove is
guaranteed. Scared groves are well distributed
among various cultures in Nigeria owing to the
fact that a preponderance of the Nigerian
population still practices traditional religion. For
example, the Osun-Osogbo sacred grove, Osun
State, a registered UNESCO World Heritage
Site, is highly revered by the local people and in
so doing helps to protect and conserve the biotic
species that are inherent in it.
Ex-situ conservation in Nigeria
Ex-situ conservation entails protecting an
endangered species of plant or animal outside its
natural habitat, through colony relocation where
part of the population is taken to a less
threatened location or human care methods such
as zoos and botanical gardens (Okorodudu
1998). Ex-situ conservation, while helpful in
man's efforts to sustain and protect our
environment, is rarely enough to save a species
from extinction. It is mostly used as the last
resort or as a supplement to in-situ conservation
because it cannot recreate the habitat as a whole,
protect the entire genetic variation of a species,
its symbiotic counterparts, or those elements
which, over time, might help a species adapt to
its changing surroundings. Home garden, seed
bank, botanic and zoological garden constitute
the major hallmark of ex-situ conservation of
biodiversity in Nigeria.
Home gardens
A home garden is an agricultural production
system that involves the cultivation of a small
portion of land which may be around the
household or within walking distance from the
family home. It offers a steady harvest of fresh
produce all year round, with low input and high
output. In addition to biodiversity conservation
(Castineiras 2000, Osawaru and Dania-Ogbe
2012) home gardens could also serve as
important sites for on-farm experiments (DaniaOgbe et al. 1992, Osawaru et al. 2015). Home
gardens are normally located adjacent to homes,
close association with family activities and a
wide diversity of crop and livestock species to
meet family needs. In the rural parts of Nigeria,
home gardens play a central role in household
security for food, fuel, fibre, materials, and even
land ownership. However, in the urban
environment, population pressures and
increased demand for housing has reduced the
potentially available lands required for home
garden cultivation. The practice of home garden
systems has contributed immensely to the
stability and sustainability of the ecosystem
especially in the rural parts of Nigeria, where
home gardens are a customary practice.
Seed banks
Seed banks are ex-situ storage facilities use to
store seeds in order to forestall the loss of
genetic diversity in rare and threatened plant
species (Imarhiagbe et al. 2016). In seed banks,
seed collections are stored at constant low
temperatures and low moisture to guard against
loss of genetic resources that are otherwise
maintained in situ or in field collections, which
could be damaged by disease outbreaks or as a
result of any other natural disasters. Ex-situ
conservation of biodiversity is carried out by
different research institutions in Nigeria. some
78 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
of which include the International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA), National Centre for
Genetic
Resources
and
Biotechnology
(NACGRAB), and National Horticultural
Research Institute (NHRI). Collections held in
these facilities are made available for plant
breeders and researchers for crop improvement
and food security.
Botanical and zoological gardens
Living collections of plant and animal species
are housed in botanical and zoological gardens
respectively. There are approximately a total of
16 botanical gardens in Nigeria with an
approximate 10, 000 - 20, 000 living plant
accessions. In addition, there are several notable
zoological gardens in Nigeria, such as the Abuja
Zoo Abuja, Audu Bako zoo, Kano; Enugu zoo,
Enugu; Ibadan University zoo, Ibadan; Jos
Wildlife Park, Jos; Port Harcourt zoo, Port
Harcourt, Ogba zoo, Benin; Sanda kyarimi zoo,
Maiduguri. Botanic and zoologic gardens do
not only conservation of the living specimens of
plants and animal species, but they also serve as
resort centers for Nigerians and foreign tourists,
thereby generating income for the country.
Some benefits of biodiversity conservation
Biological resources
Biological resources are those products that we
harvest from nature. These resources fall into
several categories: food, medicine, fibers, wood
products, and more. A significant proportion of
the population in rural areas depends on plants
for medicine. Plants such as Alstonia boonei,
Morinda lucida, and Enantia chlorantha are
used to cure Malaria. Fibers for clothing, ropes,
sacking, webbing, netting, and other materials
are provided by a large number of plants,
including cotton plants, flax plants (linen), hemp
(cordage and sail canvas), Agave plants (sisal),
Corchorus plants (jute), bamboo and palms.
Trees provide wood products used in making
homes, furniture, and paper products. In
addition, living organisms provide inspiration
for engineers seeking better and more efficient
products.
Ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are processes provided by
nature that support human life. These services
include the decomposition of waste, pollination,
water purification, moderation of floods, and
renewal of soil fertility. Often time, these
ecosystem processes are often overlooked and
are not valued as part of the economy. When the
economic value is assigned to these services, it
is often startlingly high. For example, insect
pollinators help produce many commercially
important fruits such as almonds, melons,
blueberries, and apples (Gallai and Sales 2009) .
Social and spiritual benefits
Some specific plant and animal species are
useful in different traditional events like
festivals.
Throughout
human
history,
conservation has involved protecting nature for
the spiritual gifts it provides and protecting
sacred places in the local landscape. Stories of
indigenous people incorporate detailed
knowledge of the animals and plants that make
up their world. The heterogeneity of the world’s
mythology, folk art, and folk dances show the
effects of biodiversity on cultural development
and contribute to the richness of global arts and
literature. Different cultures developed in
different landscapes that influenced activities,
occupations, diet, language, and architecture.
Intrinsic value
Biodiversity has an intrinsic value that is worth
protecting regardless of its value to humans. The
first argument for the intrinsic value of
biodiversity is the idea that humans are part of
nature. The argument for conservation of
biodiversity often emphasizes the need to
facilitate the continued evolution of evolution as
humans are and were part of nature, they
benefited from the evolutionary process. The
tenet that humans are part of nature questions
whether humans should endanger their own
milieu and the process from which they stem.
Major causes of biodiversity loss in Nigeria
Although biodiversity, in essence, has to do with
genes, species, and ecosystems, it is also related
to issues far beyond the confines of biology.
79 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
Understanding the threats to biodiversity and
offering solutions to them necessitates insights
from the socio-economic and applied sciences.
The effectiveness and success of protection in
any part of the world normally depend on many
local factors of economic, social and political
nature (Jianguo et al. 2003). Some of the main
factors
militating
against
biodiversity
conservation in Nigeria include:
Population growth
Population growth is recognized as an indirect
driver of biodiversity loss, as human demands
for bioresources, such as food and fuel play a
key role in driving biodiversity degradation. It
exacerbates every other factor having an impact
on the ecosystem (UN 2019). The Nigeria
National Bureau of Statistics, 2012, estimated
the population of the citizens in Nigeria to
average around 166.2 million people and it is
projected that by 2050, the population of Nigeria
is expected to surpass that of the US; thereby
making it the world’s third most populous
(Stewart 2005). The high rate of population
increase in Nigeria has led to an unceasing
search for more arable land for food production
and livestock grazing, and for wood for fuel,
construction, and energy. Humans have tended
to settle in areas of high biodiversity, which
often have relatively rich soils and other
attractions for human activities. This constitutes
a great threat to biodiversity, especially since
many of these areas have numerous endemic
species (Audu and Ayuba 2016). The
consequence of such high population pressure
has resulted in the high intensity of logging,
poaching, illegal exploitation, agricultural
expansion and collection of fuelwood has
continued to pose serious threats to the country’s
forest resources (Perrings et al. 2010).
Habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation refers to the discontinuity
or ‘break down’ of large contiguous habitats into
smaller, isolated patches of habitats. The
consequences of such fragmentation impact
negatively the species interactions, community
structure and the general ecosystem of those
fragments. In Nigeria, habitat fragmentation is
currently the main threat to terrestrial
biodiversity. The Federal Government of
Nigeria (2015) report indicates that 90 percent
of agricultural produce in Nigeria are gotten
from the activities of peasant farmers who
arbitrarily carry out the shifting cultivation
farming method. This system unlike other
modern agricultural systems leads to forest
depletion and subsequent loss of endangered
species. When large habitats are broken up into
small fragments due to various human activities,
mammals and birds requiring large territories
and certain animals with migratory habits are
badly affected, leading to population declines. In
Nigeria, habitat degradation or forest
degradation occurs in an immeasurable and
uncontrollable rate. Government agencies
saddled with the responsibility of checking these
menaces are either complacent or are simply just
corrupt.
Alien invasive species
According to IUCN definition of ‘alien species’:
An alien species is a species which becomes
established in natural or semi-natural
ecosystems or habitat, is an agent of change, and
threatens native biological diversity (IUCN
2000). These species can cause damage to the
environment by modifying ecosystem processes
which could potentially lead to the extinction of
native species. A species is invasive if it can
successfully establish and spread to new habitats
after its introduction, seemingly without further
assistance from humans. Invasive species can
spread into new areas already occupied by
native flora and displace those species (Lowe
2013). Such invasions from the intentional or
Unintentional transport of plants to new regions
now seriously threaten the Biodiversity,
structure, and function of many of the world’s
ecosystems.
The problems caused by invasive species have
potentially large economic consequences.
Threats from invasive alien species include
direct predation of native wildlife, competition
for resources and ecosystem damage (e.g.
through the removal of a key species such as a
pollinator). Apart from the impact on wildlife,
80 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
invasive species can have a huge economic
impact if they target commercial crop species, or
indirectly influence them through effects such as
soil destabilization (Global Invasive Species
Programme 2001). The problems that invasive
alien species cause have been shown to cost the
global economy hundreds of billions of dollars a
year and the environmental harm caused is
considered one of the greatest threats to the
ecological well-being of the planet (Ibimilua
2011). In Nigeria, much work needs to prevent
and control the impact of invasive alien species.
Preliminary studies to ascertain the number of
alien species competing with the native species
of plants in Nigeria is a major prerequisite to
controlling the occurrence of invasive alien
species.
Poverty and over-exploitation
Poverty remains a big threat to Biodiversity
conservation in Nigeria. When people who
reside in a rural environment which habours a
large chunk of its biodiversity, are extremely
poor, Biodiversity becomes their resort.
Ibimilua (2011) reported a significant direct
relationship between poverty and environmental
degradation. The potentials for Nigeria to
become one of the leading economies in the
world is not in dispute. This is so due to the
abundant human capital and natural resources
the country is blessed with. But it is shocking to
note that, reality conveys the opposite. Nigeria
has overtaken India as the country with the
largest number of people living in extreme
poverty, with an estimated 87 million Nigerians,
or around half of the country's population,
thought to be living on less than $1.90 a day.
Therefore in order to ensure a proper system of
biodiversity conservation, the level of poverty
needs to be reduced.
In Africa, there has been an over-reliance on
herbal medicine as a way of seeking primary
health care. It is estimated that about 80 percent
of the population of Nigeria uses traditional
medicine and of which 85% of traditional
medicine involves the use of plant extracts
(Falodun, 2010). The use of plants for herbal
medicines requires the collection of plant parts
such as root for herbaceous plants and stem bark
for trees. The excessive peeling of stem bark
affects the phloem which could harmful to the
plant. Such practices can lead to the death of the
plant and for more vulnerable species; it could
even result in extinction. In addition,
biodiversity also provides materials used for
cultural practices during festivals. The
likelihood of the survival of such dependent is
linked to its continuous exploitation which
further depletes biodiversity.
According to the National Biodiversity Strategy
and Action Plan, more than 80 % of forest cover
in Nigeria has been lost since 1990, with only
5.04 % now remaining. Most protected areas
lack adequate protection because illegal logging,
encroachment by farmers and cattle herders,
firewood gatherers and poaching still continue
in most areas. The continuous exploitation of
tree species to the international market has
significantly impacted negatively on the
biodiversity of Nigeria. Hence, tree species such
as the mahoganies, Nauclea diderrichii (opepe),
Terminalia ivorensis (Odigbo), Terminalia
superba(Afara), Triplochiton sceleroxylon (Ob
eche) are now endangered. High intensity of
logging and illegal exploitation of these and
other species has continued to pose serious
threats to the country’s forest resources (the
Federal Republic of Nigeria 2015). Other
Lesser-known causes of overexploitation of
forest resources are due to “knock-on” effects
which occur when species that are co-evolved
with another, such as plants with specialized
insect pollinators. A negative impact on one of
such species will have a negative ripple effect on
the other go. For example, Moabi (Baillonella
toxisperma) used to be a common tree in WestAfrica. The fruits are eaten, cooking oil is
extracted from the seeds (karite) and the bark is
used for medicinal purposes. For its
reproduction, the plant depends on the
gastrointestinal tract of elephants to disperse and
help initiate germination of the Moabi seeds.
The impressive reduction of elephants has
impacted negatively on the distribution of
Moabi. The locals in some instances have
rendered little assistance to conserving species
especially the very rare ones. Recently,
Odiegwu (2019) reported the activities of some
81 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
local inhabitants of the Brass community,
Bayelsa State, Nigeria, about the butchering a
stranded whale on the seashore (Figure 1). These
actions militate against the sustainable
conservation of wild species of plants and
animals.
Genetic erosion and pollution
The use of improved varieties of crops and
complete neglect of local varieties and the landraces lead to loss of biodiversity. Farmers now
rely on a few high yielding varieties of a plant at
the expense of maintaining previously available
genetic diversity. As a result, many local
varieties of plants have been lost-the use of
improved dwarf okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
in the place of the native material of the tall okra.
Some other the local plant varieties like sword
bean (Canavalia ensiformis), African yam
bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) and lima beans
(Phaseolus lunatus ) are now becoming
extremely rare as only improved cowpea ( Vigna
unguiculata ) is being cultivated in many farms.
Similarly, Dioscorea dumetorum, Dioscorea
bulbfera, Trichosanthus species (Snake tomato)
and Digitaria exiles are no longer in popular
cultivation as they were replaced by
commercially driven improved varieties thereby
causing the loss of important gene resources of
all the above plant species (Emma et al. 2009).
The production of toxic chemicals in the
environment constitutes a major threat to
biodiversity worldwide. Humans have been the
major culprit of environmental pollution.
Emissions from refineries through gas flaring,
industrial processes, plastic waste, burning of
liquid and solid waste, oil spillage, Pesticides
and inorganic fertilizers from agricultural
activities are released into the air, soil and water.
And because some of these released chemicals
do not degrade easily, they accumulate to a toxic
level and affect organisms at the different levels
of the food chain. This results in disruption of
the ecosystem, affecting the adaptation of
species (Egboduku and Olorunfemi 2016) and
ultimately resulting in species extinctions. The
greatest impact on aquatic biodiversity in
Nigeria is attributed to pollination (Emma et al.
2009). Lethal pollutants such as polychlorinated
biphenyls, dioxins, and DDT that are
nonbiodegradable get into water bodies and
result in a drastic loss of aquatic species.
Therefore proper understanding the many
aspects of human influences on biodiversity, and
their underlying driving forces, is of crucial
importance for setting priorities and
counteracting the current negative trends
imposed by environmental pollution (Agbogidi
et al. 2016).
Administrative factor
In Nigeria, various factors militates are against
the effective implementation of conservation
policies. However, the lack of adequate data on
the status of biodiversity still remains a
fundamental issue. The convention on
biological diversity requires its member states to
report regularly on the status of biodiversity
within their countries and implement
conservation actions and policies to maintain
healthy populations of species within their
jurisdiction. Regarding the above mandate,
CBD recommends the development of the Red
List assessment process to effectively assess and
maintain the status of species at the country
level. This deficiency has made it difficult to
design adequate conservation programs for
species facing high risks of extinction in
Nigeria. In addition, policies are mostly made on
the hoof without proper consultation of
specialists. Just recently, Vanguard (2019)
published a report stating how the Edo State
Government and the Police Command, in an
effort to check incessant incidents of kidnapping
in the state, mandated all local government
authorities to cut trees and bushes along federal
highways in their domains to flush out
kidnappers hiding in the bush. Bulldozers were
deployed for this purpose. However, why the
fight against bandits is important, it is
detrimental to biodiversity to destroy the forest
in the process.
Recommendation
1.
To ensure sustainable biodiversity
utilization and conservation, two key payers
82 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4 (1): 73-83 (2020)
must show leadership, first, the Government
must integrate principles of sustainable
developments into its policies and programs.
Second, ecologists must seek to make
comprehensive data on biodiversity available
for policymakers to use.
2.
There must be mass awareness about the
importance of biodiversity conservation,
especially in rural areas, where a preponderance
of our biodiversity still exists. Conservation
programme that enables indigenous people to
secure their biodiversity in order to give them a
sense of belonging should be encouraged. Local
people should be trained as guides and in
administration, so they could run a profitable
ecotourism operation. Also, monies realized
from tourism should enable the local economy
to develop, provides the incentive to maintain
the habitat, and provides funds for the local
health clinic and scholarships for local students.
3.
Economic activities are primarily
responsible for the depletion of biodiversity and
destabilize the natural system, therefore, such
biodiversity depletion activities should carry
financial penalties and conservation should
carry financial incentives. In this way, economic
activities that do not destabilize the natural
system will be favoured.
4.
Lastly, the majority of degree programs
in the management sciences should incorporate
courses in Bioresource management most
especially in the aspect of conservation. This can
best enlighten future graduands on the
consciousness to conserve biodiversity.
Conclusion
This study has documented the status of
biodiversity utilization and conservation in
Nigeria. It identifies the current efforts to
conserve biodiversity as well as unmask grey
areas that need urgent conservation attention.
The study will guide scientists, the government
and other policymakers to identify and mark out
more protected areas in the country and proffer
urgent conservation strategies to threatened
species. Thus, we advocate for a National Red
List of threatened species in Nigeria.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the management of
their respective institutions for the time resource
to carry out this research.
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ODOLIGIE IMARHIAGBE
Egboduku Oghenevwogaga