Macaronesia&#39;s Ecosystem Profile 2016.pdf

Luisa Madruga

The ecosystem profiles are a rapid assessment of a biodiversity hotspot or priority area within a hotspot. They provide an overview of biodiversity importance, overall conservation targets or “outcomes,” major threats and the policy, civil society and socioeconomic context, as well as funding gaps and opportunities. The information is used to create an investment strategy. Donors and governmental and nongovernmental partners alike use the findings and the strategy to determine priorities for funding and action.

EUROPEAN OVERSEAS REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM PROFILE Macaronesia Azores Madeira Canary Islands This document has been developed as part of the project ‘Measures towards Sustaining the BEST Preparatory Action to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services in EU Outermost EU Outermost Regions and Overseas Countries and Territories’. The document does not represent an oficial, formal position of the European Commission. Service contract 07.0307.2013/666363/SER/B2 JUNE 2016 2016 Prepared by: FRCT – Fundo Regional para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Açores) With the technical support of: Pierre Carret - Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund BEST Consortium. Drafted by the BEST III team of the Macaronesian Hub: Luisa MADRUGA - FRCT Francisco WALLENSTEIN - FRCT José Manuel N. AZEVEDO - FRCT Assisted by individual experts and contributors and in collaboration with: Public sector Name Ana Moreira Carolina Santos Dília Menezes Dinarte Teixeira Emanuel Verissimo Esther Martín González Isabel Santana López Joana Pombo Jorge Alfredo Reyes Betancort Juan Martínez Barrio Juan Silva Luís Freitas Mafalda Freitas Mafalda Sousa Moniz Marco Santos Maria Conceição Rodrigues Maria Nieves Zurita Pérez Ricardo Araújo Rosa Maria Cordeiro Pires Rúben Faria da Paz Sara Freitas Silvia Fajardo Gonzaléz Ysabel Gonçalves Affiliation Azores Government - Regional Secretariat of Agriculture and Environment Planning Office Government of Madeira - Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation Government of Madeira - Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation Government of Madeira - Regional Directorate of Forestry and Nature Conservation Government of the Azores - Regional Environment Directorate Museum of Natural Science of Tenerife Government of the Canary Islands - Biodiversity Service Azores Government - Regional Secretariat of Agriculture and Environment Planning Office Government of the Canary Islands - Canarian Institute of Agricultural Research Government of the Canary Islands - Biodiversity Service Museum of Natural History of Funchal (Municipality of Funchal) Madeira Whale Museum Marine Biology Station of Funchal Government of the Azores - AZORINA (Environmental management and Nature Conservation Society Government of the Azores - Regional Directorate for the Environment and the Sea Government of the Azores - AZORINA (Environmental management and Nature Conservation Society) Government of the Canary Islands – Biodiversity Service Museum of Natural History of Funchal Government of Madeira - Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation Museum of Natural History of Funchal Government of Madeira - Service of Madeira Nature Park Government of the Canary Islands – Biodiversity Service Museum of Natural History of Funchal Research centres Name Agustín Naranjo Cigala Alberto Brito Hernández Amélia Fonseca Ana Dinis Ana Margarida Salgueiro Rodrigues Ana Rainho António Frias Martins Anunciação Ventura Artur Gil Cândida Mendes Carlos Sangil Hernández Cláudia Ribeiro Diana Pereira Eduardo Dias Enésima Pereira Mendonça Fátima Melo Filipe Alves Francisco Otero-Ferrer ii Affiliation University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria University of La Laguna University of the Azores Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMAR-Madeira) CIERL-University of Madeira, Research Centre on Regional and Local Studies University of Lisbon-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Change University of the Azores - Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources (CIBIO) University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores - GEVA University of La Laguna Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMAR-Madeira); Oceanic Observatory of Madeira (OOM) University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMAR-Madeira); Madeira Nature Park University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Name Giuseppe Nerilli Humberto Nóbrega José Jesus José Luis Martin Esquivel José María Fernández-Palacios Juan Ramón Acebes Ginovés Juana María Gonzalez-Mancebo Laura Martín Manfred Kaufmann Marcelino José Del Arco Aguilar Maria João Pereira Maria Teresa Ferreira Marta Sansón Acedo Marta Vergílio Mónica Moura Mónica Moura Mónica Silva Natacha Aguilar de Soto Nuno Vaz Álvaro Pablo Manent Patrícia Salgueiro Paulo Borges Paulo Borges Ricardo Haroun Rui Bento Elias Verónica Neves Affiliation University of La Laguna ISOPlexis – University of Madeira University of Madeira University of La Laguna University of La Laguna University of La Laguna University of La Laguna University of La Laguna University of Madeira; Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMAR-Madeira) University of La Laguna University of the Azores University of the Azores University of La Laguna University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores, Institute of Marine Research University of La Laguna University of the Azores University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria New University of Lisbon - Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (IHMT) University of the Azores - Azorean Biodiversity Group University of the Azores University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria University of the Azores University of the Azores – DOP, Institute of Marine Research Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other associations Name Alejandro Escárez Pérez Ana Crespo Torres Cátia Gouveia Diogo Caetano Jacopo Marrero Pérez Joaquim Teodósio Sandra Hervías Parejo Affiliation Asociación Toniña, Tenerife Asociación Toniña, Tenerife SPEA Madeira – Portuguese Society for the Study of Birds Amigos dos Açores Asociación Toniña, Tenerife SPEA Açores – Portuguese Society for the Study of Birds SPEA Madeira – Portuguese Society for the Study of Birds Private sector Name Sérgio Teixeira Affiliation Madeira Fauna & Flora Citation: Regional ecosystem profile–Macaronesian Region. 2016. EU Outermost Regions and Overseas Countries and Territories, Luisa Madruga, Francisco Wallenstein, José Manuel N. Azevedo. BEST, Service contract 07.0307.2013/666363/SER/B2, European Commission, 233 p + 10 Appendices The European BEST initiative is a joint effort by the BEST III Consortium: http://ec.europa.eu/best Disclaimer: The Regional Ecosystem Profile is a technical document with input from regional and local experts and other stakeholders, obtained in a participatory consultation process. The results of this background document were used to elaborate a Regional Investment Strategy in the same participatory manner, which may serve as a guiding document for future national and regional strategies. Neither document is politically binding or replaces a national or regional strategy authorized by the respective decision makers. iii CONTENTS Abbreviations and acronyms ............................................................................................ ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................... xi BEST – an initiative to promote conservation in the European overseas ....................... xi Ecosystem Profiling Process ........................................................................................ xii Biological importance of the Macaronesian region ....................................................... xiii Conservation outcomes ............................................................................................... xiv Threats ........................................................................................................................ xiv Current investments...................................................................................................... xv Priority areas for actions ............................................................................................... xv Conclusions ................................................................................................................. xvi 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 17 2. BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................... 21 3. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE AREA......................................................... 26 Geography ...................................................................................................................... 26 Azores ......................................................................................................................... 27 Madeira ....................................................................................................................... 28 Canary Islands............................................................................................................. 29 Geology ........................................................................................................................... 30 Azores ......................................................................................................................... 32 Madeira ....................................................................................................................... 32 Canary Islands............................................................................................................. 33 Climate ............................................................................................................................ 33 Azores ......................................................................................................................... 34 Madeira ....................................................................................................................... 34 Canary Islands............................................................................................................. 34 Ecoregions, habitats and ecosystems.............................................................................. 35 Terrestrial ecoregions and ecosystems........................................................................ 35 Marine Ecoregion ........................................................................................................ 40 Species Diversity and Endemism .................................................................................... 40 Terrestrial biodiversity.................................................................................................. 41 Marine biodiversity ....................................................................................................... 55 4. CONSERVATION OUTCOMES .............................................................................. 60 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 60 Species outcomes ........................................................................................................... 60 Arthropods ................................................................................................................... 65 Birds ............................................................................................................................ 65 iv Crustaceans ................................................................................................................ 66 Fish ............................................................................................................................. 66 Mammals ..................................................................................................................... 67 Molluscs ...................................................................................................................... 67 Plants .......................................................................................................................... 68 Reptiles ....................................................................................................................... 68 Site outcomes.................................................................................................................. 68 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 68 Challenges and data constraints .................................................................................. 72 Results ........................................................................................................................ 75 Corridor outcomes ........................................................................................................... 82 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT............................................................................... 83 Historical Context ............................................................................................................ 83 Demographic and social trends ....................................................................................... 84 Economic trends .............................................................................................................. 85 Azores ......................................................................................................................... 86 Madeira ....................................................................................................................... 87 Canary Islands............................................................................................................. 88 6. LEGAL AND POLITICAL CONTEXT ...................................................................... 90 Overview of the Regional and National Political Situation ................................................ 90 Global and Regional Agreements .................................................................................... 91 Global agreements ...................................................................................................... 91 European agreements ................................................................................................. 97 European Union strategies and policy instruments .................................................... 100 Local Policies and Legislation ........................................................................................ 104 Protected Areas Network ........................................................................................... 105 Mainstreaming of Environment into other sectors ...................................................... 109 7. CURRENT STATUS OF THE CONSERVATION COMMUNITY ............................ 115 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 115 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) .................................................................... 116 Private Sector ................................................................................................................ 118 Public participation ........................................................................................................ 121 Research Institutions and Universities ........................................................................... 122 8. THREATS AND PRESSURES ON BIODIVERSITY .............................................. 125 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 125 Overexploitation of natural resources ............................................................................ 128 Invasive Alien Species (IAS) .......................................................................................... 129 v Azores ....................................................................................................................... 131 Madeira ..................................................................................................................... 131 Canary Islands........................................................................................................... 132 Urban and tourism development .................................................................................... 133 Agriculture and forestry ................................................................................................. 134 Azores ....................................................................................................................... 134 Madeira ..................................................................................................................... 135 Canary Islands........................................................................................................... 136 Marine traffic and ship-strikes ........................................................................................ 136 Fisheries by-catch and entanglements in fishing gear ................................................... 137 Climate change ............................................................................................................. 138 9. ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT INVESTMENTS .................................................... 141 EU financing instruments ............................................................................................... 141 European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Interreg Programme ........... 141 LIFE Programme ....................................................................................................... 143 Natural Capital Financing Facility............................................................................... 148 Other key funding sources ......................................................................................... 148 Government expenditure ............................................................................................... 149 Azores ....................................................................................................................... 150 Madeira ..................................................................................................................... 151 Canary Islands........................................................................................................... 152 Funds, Trusts and Foundations ..................................................................................... 153 Financing needs and gaps............................................................................................. 154 10. PRIORITY AREAS FOR ACTION ......................................................................... 157 Priority Key Biodiversity Areas ....................................................................................... 157 Description of priority KBAs ........................................................................................... 159 AZORES.................................................................................................................... 159 FAI3 - Great crater of Faial - Azores .......................................................................... 159 PIC4 - Pico mountain crater – Azores ........................................................................ 160 SJG3 - Pico da Esperança – Azores .......................................................................... 161 SMA7 - Pico Alto – Azores......................................................................................... 162 SMA8 - São Lourenço – Azores................................................................................. 164 SMG4 - Pico da Vara – Azores .................................................................................. 165 MADEIRA .................................................................................................................. 166 DES1 - Desertas Islands, Madeira ............................................................................. 166 MAD1 - Madeira Nature Park - Madeira ..................................................................... 168 MAD4 - Coastal cliffs of Madeira island - Madeira ..................................................... 173 vi MAD8 - São João creek - Santa Luzia creek - João Gomes creek - Madeira ............. 175 PSA2 - Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo – Madeira ....................... 176 PSA4 - Northeast area of Porto Santo – Madeira ...................................................... 177 SEL1 - Selvagens Islands – Madeira ......................................................................... 178 CANARY ISLANDS ................................................................................................... 180 FUE1 - Jandía Peninsula - Canary Is. ........................................................................ 180 FUE6 - North area of Fuerteventura - Canary Is. ....................................................... 182 FUE8 - Island of Lobos - Canary Is. ........................................................................... 183 GCA1 - La Solana - Canary Is. .................................................................................. 184 GCA2 - Los Marteles - Canary Is. .............................................................................. 186 GCA4 - Tamadaba - south - Canary Is....................................................................... 187 GCA5 - Tamadaba north - Canary Is. ........................................................................ 189 GCA7 - Santo Andrés - Valle Seco - Canary Is. ......................................................... 190 GCA8 - Cruz de Pineda - Barranco del Pino - Canary Is. ........................................... 193 GCA9 - Pino Santo - Canary Is. ................................................................................. 194 GCA13 - Jinámar - Canary Is..................................................................................... 195 GCA18 - Las Palmas - Canary Is. .............................................................................. 196 GOM1 - Garajonay- Chejelipes - Canary Is. .............................................................. 197 GOM7 - Los Chapines - Canary Is. ............................................................................ 199 GOM11 - Epina - Canary Is. ...................................................................................... 200 GOM13 - Taguluche - Canary Is. ............................................................................... 202 GOM15 - Garajonay - Central - Canary Is.................................................................. 203 HIE1 - Frontera - central area - Canary Is. ................................................................. 205 HIE2 - Echedo - Canary Is. ........................................................................................ 206 HIE6 - Valverde - Canary Is. ...................................................................................... 207 LAN3 - Plains of Corona - La Hondura - Tegala Grande and Famara crag - Canary Is. .................................................................................................................................. 208 PAL1 - La Palma Central-northeast - Canary Is. ........................................................ 210 PAL12 - Teneguia Vucanos - Canary Is. .................................................................... 212 PAL15 - Coast of Garafía - Canary Is. ....................................................................... 213 TEN1 - El Teíde - Canary Is....................................................................................... 214 TEN2 - Anága - Canary Is.......................................................................................... 215 TEN3 - Northern Buenavista - Canary Is.................................................................... 218 TEN4 - Los Carrizales - Canary Is. ............................................................................ 221 TEN6 – Adeje, Canary Is. .......................................................................................... 223 TEN16 - Guimar - La Esperanza - Canary Is. ............................................................ 224 TEN19 - La Viuda - Añaza - Canary Is. ...................................................................... 225 vii TEN21 - Garachico - La Montañeta - Canary Is. ........................................................ 227 TEN24 - San Cristoval de La Laguna - Canary Is. ..................................................... 228 KBAs and the Natura 2000 network ............................................................................... 229 Thematic Priorities ......................................................................................................... 230 1. Baseline data collection & species assessment ..................................................... 230 2. Mapping of marine habitats and redesign of MPAs ................................................ 231 3. Improving Biodiversity Databanks .......................................................................... 231 4. Species conservation and recovery plans .............................................................. 231 5. Invasive Alien Species control and eradication ...................................................... 233 6. Creation of Micro-Reserves in areas of severely fragmented habitats.................... 234 7. Mapping and assessment of ecosystems and their services .................................. 234 8. Information and environmental awareness campaigns .......................................... 234 11. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 235 12. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 236 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 260 Appendix 1. List of participants on the first workshops (November 2014) ...................... 260 Appendix 2. Feedback from evaluation forms of the first round of workshops (November 2014) ............................................................................................................................. 265 Appendix 3. List of participants on the second round of workshops (October 2015: Madeira and Canary Islands; February 2016: Azores)................................................................. 267 Appendix 4. Species outcomes: globally threatened, restricted-range and congregatory species in the Macaronesian region .............................................................................. 270 Arthropods ................................................................................................................. 270 Birds .......................................................................................................................... 271 Fuerteventura Stonechat ........................................................................................... 272 Fishes ........................................................................................................................ 272 Crustaceans .............................................................................................................. 273 Mammals ................................................................................................................... 273 Molluscs .................................................................................................................... 273 Plants ........................................................................................................................ 276 Reptiles ..................................................................................................................... 284 Appendix 5. Key Biodiversity Areas in the Macaronesian region.................................... 286 Appendix 6. KBAs qualifying as AZE Sites in Macaronesia ........................................... 295 Appendix 7. List of Natura 2000 sites in Macaronesia ................................................... 299 Appendix 8. List of Protected Areas in Macaronesia ...................................................... 306 Appendix 9. List of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Macaronesia .................................... 320 viii Abbreviations and acronyms ABNJ ACAP ACCOBAMS AEWA ASCI ASCOBANS AZE BEST CAP CBD CEPF CITES CMS CR CSO DOM EASIN EIA EAP EBA EC EEC ECS EES EEZ EIA EIB EN EP ERDF EU EUROBATS FRCT GVA IAS IBA IFCN, IP-RAM IPCC Area beyond national jurisdiction Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic area Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds Areas of Special Conservation Interest Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas Alliance for Zero Extinction Voluntary Scheme for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in EU Outermost Regions and Overseas Countries and Territories Common Agriculture Policy Convention on Biological Diversity Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention) Critically endangered (species) Civil Society Organizations Département d'outre-mer European Alien Species Information Network Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Action Programme Endemic Bird Area European Commission European Economic Community Extended Continental Shelf European Economic Space Exclusive Economic Zone Environmental Impact Assessment European Investment Bank Endangered (species) Ecosystem Profile European Regional Development Fund European Union Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats Fundo Regional para a Ciência e Tecnologia Gross Value Added Invasive Alien Species Important Bird Area Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation of Madeira Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ix IUCN KBA MAB MMA MNP MPA NBSAP NGO NOS NT OCT OSPAR OR PA PAF PMR PORBIOTA POSEI PRESAA REDBIOS RR SAC SCF SCI SPA SPEA TFEU UN CLCS UNESCO VU WWF International Union for Conservation of Nature Key Biodiversity Area UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme Micro Marine Reserve Madeira Nature Park Marine Protected Area National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Non-Governmental Organization national Ocean Strategy (Portugal) Near threatened (species) Overseas Countries and Territories Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment in the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) Outermost Regions Protected Area Prioritised Action Framework Plant Micro-Reserves Portuguese E-Infrastructure for Information and Research on Biodiversity Programme d'Options Spécifiques à l'Éloignement et l'Insularité Plan for Education and Environmental Awareness of Azores East Atlantic Biosphere Reserve Network Restricted-range (species) Special Area of Conservation Structural and Cohesion Funds Site of Community Importance Special Protection Area for birds Portuguese Society for the Study of Birds Treaty on the Functioning of the EU UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Vulnerable (species) World Wide Fund for Nature x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Macaronesian region comprises one of the seven regions in the world, in which European Union (EU) Overseas entities are located: from the Arctic to the Antarctic, in the Atlantic, the Pacific, and Indian Ocean, and even in parts of the Amazon. Combined their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) make the largest marine area worldwide, covering 15% of the ocean. They are home to 20% of coral reefs and lagoons, provide the last refuge to 6% of globally threatened and endangered species and are acknowledged as biodiversity hotspots for their immense diversity of species, ecosystems and landscapes. Together, the 9 EU Outermost Regions (ORs) and 25 Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs) host more than 70% of Europe’s biodiversity. The global importance of the rich, unique and valuable biodiversity in these regions as well as the ecosystems it depends on has been recognized internationally. Moreover, there is increasing awareness of the value of healthy ecosystems providing critical services that not only support local, regional economies and livelihoods but also offer cost-efficient climate change solutions. However, these ecosystems as well as the biodiversity are vulnerable and already affected by the impacts of climate change and other threats, as demonstrated in this ecosystem profile elaborated in a participatory approach with local and regional stakeholders under the European BEST Initiative 1. Figure 1: Map showing the 34 Overseas entities of the European Union, located in 7 regions of the world (Credit: Imre Sebestyén/UNITgraphics © IUCN) BEST – an initiative to promote conservation in the European overseas The European BEST Initiative aims to strengthen biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation in the 7 European Overseas regions by raising awareness, profiling the 1 BEST – Voluntary scheme for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Territories of European Overseas. For more information visit: http://ec.europa.eu//best/ xi key biodiversity areas as priority areas for actions, supporting actions on the ground. To achieve these objectives knowledge hubs were established in the 7 EU Overseas regions and tasked to develop a regional ecosystem profile by assessing the current situation of the region’s biodiversity, habitats and their threats based on the most recent scientific data and observation and present them in the socio-economic and political context. Each regional knowledge hub has mobilized during 3 years local and regional actors and authorities in order to compile and discuss in a very participatory manner the latest available data feeding into the analysis before agreeing on priority areas for action for the region based on the outcomes of the species and ecosystems and threats assessments. Each ecosystem profile also includes an analysis of current conservation activities and relevant investments in the region. The Macaronesian hub is co-ordinated by the “Fundo Regional para a Ciência e Tecnologia” (FRCT), a science-funding agency of the Regional Government of the Azores with administrative and financial autonomy and project coordinating skills that makes the link with other departments within the Regional Administration and establishes the link with the regional scientific community. Ecosystem Profiling Process The profiling process follows the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) approach, adapted to the particular situation and needs of the EU Overseas. It uses a process of developing “Ecosystem Profiles” with the help of local actors to efficiently guide on the ground actions as well as to identify and articulate an investment strategy for each region to be funded. The regional participation process assures that the final outcome is owned and used by stakeholders in the region. In 2010, an Ecosystem Profile was developed by CEPF for the extensive Mediterranean basin, including the three Macaronesian archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean. However, the present EP – dedicated only on the Macaronesian region - allowed for much more in-depth stakeholder consultations and thus should not be understood as an "update" of the relevant parts within the 2010 CEPF document. The Macaronesian ecosystem profile has been developed through a combination of a desk study and consultation and input from over 83 regional stakeholders, including government organizations, scientific community and NGOs. Seventeen workshops organized in two phases were undertaken in five cities of the three archipelagos. These workshops were supplemented by expert consultancies and specific interviews held by the profiling team. The accompanying regional investment strategy to the ecosystem profile includes in detail the elaborated conservation priorities, niches for investment, funding opportunities and the recommended strategy - a critical step toward ensuring the future vitality of the natural values of the region. By clearly outlining the challenges and needs of the region, this profile aims to increase awareness of European overseas biodiversity, as a foundation for further create support for development and implementation of mechanisms to improve policy and future investment strategies. xii Biological importance of the Macaronesian region The Macaronesian 2 biogeographical region is composed of 3 European Overseas Regions – the Portuguese archipelagos of Azores and Madeira and the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. The three volcanic archipelagos are located on the northeast Atlantic, extending from the Azores (9 islands), in the northwest extreme, south to Madeira (2 islands) and the Canary Islands (7 islands), near the African coast. Macaronesia is one of Europe’s most prominent biodiversity hotspots and the most important centre of biodiversity in the Mediterranean bioclimatic region 3 , one of the 35 biodiversity hotspots recognized on the planet. Due to its geographical situation and the buffering influence of the Atlantic Ocean, this region was not affected by the Pleistocene glaciations. Large parts of the bryoflora of the Tertiary could survive here, especially in the laurel forest (Laurisilva). Because the Macaronesian archipelagos were never attached to any continent, they display particularly high levels of terrestrial animal and plant endemism - more than 5,600 endemic species among 23,000 marine and terrestrial species are known at present, in about 10,600 km2 that make up the 18 islands and several islets of these three archipelagos. Their complex and long geological history enabled a mix of colonization and speciation events, which led to the present blend of biological elements affiliated with those from the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean and Africa. Figure 1 - European Macaronesia The region is home to three Natural World Heritages sites (UNESCO, 1999): • • 2 Laurisilva of Madeira is an outstanding relict of a previously widespread laurel forest type. It is the largest surviving area of laurel forest and is believed to be 90% primary forest. It contains a unique suite of plants and animals, including many endemic species such as the Madeiran long-toed pigeon. Next to the Laurisilva of Madeira (Portugal), Garajonay National Park, situated in the middle of the island of La Gomera in the Canary Islands archipelago, preserves an outstanding example of this unique vegetation that covers some 70% of the park’s area. From the Greek words for blessed or fortunate islands. 3 Martín, J. L., Arechavaleta, M., Borges, P. A. V., & Faria, B. (2008). Top 100. Las 100 especies amenazadas prioritarias de gestión en la región europea biogeográfica de la Macaronesia: Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación Territorial, Gobierno de Canarias. xiii • Teide National Park, situated on the island of Tenerife, features the Teide-Pico Viejo stratovolcano that, at 3,718 m, is the highest peak on Spanish soil. Rising 7,500 m above the ocean floor, it is regarded as the world’s third-tallest volcanic structure and stands in a spectacular environment. Teide is of global importance in providing evidence of the geological processes that underpin the evolution of oceanic islands. The Macaronesian region is also home to 12 UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserves, of which 8 are whole islands. Additionally, the Desertas Islands (Madeira) have been granted a European Diploma for Protected Areas by the Council of Europe in 2014. This recognition acknowledges the European significance of the area, which harbours a large number of endemic, threatened or vulnerable species of flora and fauna and has unique and remarkable landscapes. Conservation outcomes The ecosystem profile defines a suite of measurable conservation outcomes - targets against which the success of investments can be measured - as the scientific basis for guiding conservation investments. These are framed by a situational analysis, including reviews of the policy, socioeconomic and civil society contexts in which conservation takes place. It also includes an assessment of patterns and trends in current conservation investment, which captures lessons learned from past investments in the region, as well as an overview of threats and drivers of biodiversity loss. The profile also identifies priorities for conservation investment within conservation outcomes. Conservation outcomes can be defined at three scales - species, site, and landscape, reflecting a simplification of a complex hierarchical continuum of ecological scale. The three scales interlock geographically through the presence of species in sites and of sites in landscapes. Species outcomes identified in the Macaronesia include all those species and subspecies that are globally threatened according to the IUCN Red List (389 taxa) or subglobal lists following IUCN guidelines (164 taxa). In addition, restricted range taxa (endemics) listed as threatened in regional Red Lists (97 taxa) and congregatory taxa (6) are also included as species outcomes. Site outcomes were determined by identifying the sites that contain populations of at least one globally Critically Endangered (CR) and Endangered (EN) species; 5% of vulnerable or restricted range species; and 1% of congregatory species. In total, 194 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) and one corridor were identified in the region. These KBAs were then prioritized based on irreplaceability (whether the site contains taxa found in no other site); and vulnerability criteria in addition to site-based vulnerability. Threats Direct destruction of habitats, over-exploitation of resources and the introduction of exotic species have been appointed as the main threats to biodiversity and causes of species extinctions. Causes of habitat degradation, and in extreme cases of total loss, are of various kinds, such as the development of infrastructures, changes in land use, agricultural practises, urban development and pollution, among others. In the marine environment, main threats to biodiversity are associated to fisheries practices (e.g. bottom-set longline, by-catch), fastgrowing tourism, shipping, pollution, and climate change. xiv As a result of cumulative threats over the years, the native laurel forest in Macaronesia occupies presently only 12.5% of its primitive range 4, having been nearly wiped out from the Azores and the Canaries. In addition, several species became extinct and many others are currently threatened and restricted to small areas in declining numbers. The region’s reliance on revenue from tourism and livestock production, in addition to expansion of invasive alien species is expected to continue to seriously threat species and their habitats, making the region and its biodiversity more susceptible to negative impacts from anticipated climatic changes. Current investments Most of the financial resources used for nature conservation and biodiversity are provided by the regional authorities, and there is also a long and effective tradition in the use of cofinancing from European programmes such as LIFE, INTERREG and MAC. INTERREG IIIB and PCT-Mac are excellent demonstrations of cooperative projects involving Madeira, the Azores (Portugal) and the Canary Islands (Spain) dealing with nature conservation and biodiversity at a regional (Macaronesian) level, including in some cases the Cape Verde Islands in these projects. This cooperation has led to the establishment of common strategies and the use of common methods in the management of biodiversity in these islands. Exotic and invasive species, joint management and conservation of marine mammals, and a common database of endangered and endemic species are among the most visible results obtained. But while there have been some successes in species conservation, the populations of many taxonomic groups continue to decline, and the status of most threatened species has not improved. The main positive results have been achieved within the boundaries of protected areas, but a significant proportion of native and endemic species remains endangered, with populations still in decline. Despite the EU efforts to address species and habitats of Natura 2000 Network, a large number of globally threatened species do not occur in these sites as they are not listed as ‘priority species’ under the Birds and Habitats Directives (and many priority species are not globally threatened), and therefore are not considered as priorities for conservation at the EU level. This highlights the need for financing beyond for the Natura 2000 to tackle further biodiversity loss in the Macaronesian region. Priority areas for actions The geographic priorities for investment in Macaronesia are defined in terms of priority sites. These were selected from among the full list of 194 KBAs in the region based on an initial biological prioritization, followed by the application of expert opinion to identify sites where investment could be expected to have the greatest impact. The list of priority sites contains 46 KBAs, comprising six in the Azores, 7 in Madeira, and 33 in the Canary Islands. These sites are the highest biological priorities for conservation in the region: they 4 Fernández ‐Palacios, J. M Arévalo, J. R., & Whittaker, R. J. (2011). A reconstruction of Palaeo ‐Macaronesia, reference to the long ‐term ic island biogeography laurel forests. of Journal the Atlant of Biogeography, 38(2), pp. 226-246 xv are the only known sites (globally) for one or more endemic CR or EN species and the loss of any of them would result in the global extinction of at least one species. Yet, from the 46 priority KBAs, eight are not covered by any protection figure and 16 are only partially protected. The thematic priorities for conservation investment in the region were based upon an analysis of the main threats to biodiversity in the hotspot and their root causes. Lack of species threat assessment, alien invasive species, habitat destruction due to urbanization, tourism expansion and agriculture (including livestock grazing), were ranked as the highest threats by stakeholders consulted during the ecosystem profiling process. Thus, critical areas for action in the Macaronesian region include: • • • Baseline data collection & species threat assessment Improving Biodiversity Databanks • Invasive Alien Species control and eradication • Creation of Plant Micro-Reserves in areas of severely fragmented habitats • Information and environmental awareness campaigns • • Conservation and recovery plans for native species Mapping and assessment of ecosystems and their services Priority conservation actions addressing specific taxonomic groups and taxa Conclusions The ecosystem profile highlights that there are various opportunities for funders to support biodiversity conservation in ways that deliver significant and meaningful benefits to the region. Despite some progress in conservation, the profile identified a large number of globally threatened species (553) in addition to a number of restricted range (97) and important congregations (6) in the region; 90% of these species are endemic to the region. Yet, conservation activities are, in many cases, under funded and protected areas currently insufficient to protect all identified globally threatened species. The results of this inclusive and comprehensive ecosystem profile serve as the basis for the elaboration of the accompanying regional BEST strategy, which aims to give strategic directions as well as concrete suggestions for activities and projects in the region, which are in synergy with relevant ongoing activities. Taking into account the current and past investments as well as the capacity for the implementation of conservation projects in the region, the strategy includes in detail the elaborated conservation priorities, niches for investment over the next 5 years, funding opportunities and recommended strategy - a critical step toward ensuring the future vitality of the natural values of the Macaronesian region. Building on this intense analysis, consultation and discussion with over 83 regional stakeholders, including government organizations, scientific community and NGOs, the regional ecosystem profile and investment strategy aim to inform local, national, regional, European and international decision makers, politicians and investors when planning future developments and prioritizing sustainable investments. xvi 1. INTRODUCTION The European Union (EU) includes 34 overseas territories: 9 Outermost Regions (ORs) and 25 Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs). They are linked to 6 Member States: Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom. Found in every ocean, from polar to tropical latitudes, they are home to a unique diversity of species and ecosystems of global significance, around 70% of Europe’s species (EEA, 2014), which are highly vulnerable to human impacts and increasingly the impacts of climate change. Figure 2 – The 34 EU Overseas entities in the 7 regional BEST knowledge hubs The BEST Initiative During the first conference on biodiversity and climate change in the EU overseas entities that took place on Reunion Island in July 2008, the need for a specific initiative to promote conservation of EU Overseas’ biodiversity and ecosystems as well as to develop a political strategy has been recognized. T he European Union’s BEST Initiative (Voluntary scheme for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Territories of European Overseas) is a tangible follow‐ up to concluding Message from Reunion Island (2008), stressing the urgency for the European Union and its Overseas Entities to counter climate change and biodiversity loss. The Message from the conference (“Message from Reunion Island”), adopted by conference participants, contains 21 proposals aimed at the ORs, the OCTs, and their regions of the world (Message from Reunion Island, 2008). It is strengthened by a portfolio of recommended actions and measures resulting from the 11 roundtables and workshops, in which more than 400 people participated. Following-up to the recommendations of the Message from Reunion Island, the European Parliament adopted the BEST Preparatory Action in 2010 to address these challenges by promoting conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services in EU ORs and OCTs and supporting local actors committing to relevant conservation measures on the ground, drawing on the experience gained with EU nature conservation legislation and programmes. 17 Implementing the BEST Preparatory Action (2011-2013), the European Commission had launched two open calls for proposals in 2011 and 2012, respectively, and selected 16 of the 84 submitted projects in the EU Overseas regions for funding. Among these was one Macaronesian project - “ECOSUBVEG-Changes in submersed vegetation: assessing loss in ecosystem services from frondose to depauperate systems dominated by opportunistic vegetation” (2013-2016). A first partnership with the French Agency for Development (AfD) allowed financing of two additional projects. The overwhelming demand for financial support – exceeding six times the available budget – and the high quality of project proposals demonstrated the need for funding directed to projects aimed at protecting EU Overseas biodiversity. In 2013, the third and last year of the BEST Preparatory Action, it was decided by the European Commission to open a call for tender for optimizing the last year and undertaking measures for sustaining this European initiative. In this context, IUCN and partners (UICN France, TAAF, SAERI, WWF France, SPAW-RAC and FRCT) submitted a successful offer to the open call for tender for “Measures towards sustaining the BEST preparatory action to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services in EU outermost regions and overseas countries and territories”, through which the European Commission implemented the third year of the BEST Preparatory Action. The contract for this 4-year project was signed in December 2013. The overarching aim of the BEST III project is to implement useful and critical measures for the future of BEST and sustaining the EU’s BEST initiative. More specifically, the project aims to strengthen biodiversity conservation and climate change adaption in Europe overseas by raising Europe overseas’ profile and generating support for action and proposing mechanisms to enhance biodiversity and climate change policies and programmes targeted at Europe overseas. Seven knowledge hubs (Figure 2) coordinated by project partners (UICN France, TAAF, SAERI, WWF France, SPAW-RAC and FRCT) that are anchored and well established in the respective regions developed regional ecosystem profiles and investment strategies in cooperation with local actors. These regional ecosystem profiles and strategies provide a comprehensive overview of the threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services as well as current conservation activities and investment but also outline the challenges and needs in the ORs and OCTs. The Ecosystem Profile The ecosystem profiling process follows a methodology, established by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), adapted to the particular situation and needs of the EU Overseas. At the heart of this profiling process is a field-based, participatory and scientific approach: using a combination of desktop review of existing information and a series of consultations with local actors and authorities each ecosystem profile is developed to efficiently guide actions on the ground as well as to identify thematic conservation priorities and future projects to be considered for funding. The regional participation process assures that the final outcome is owned and used by stakeholders in the region to allow focussing research and management efforts and directing future funds to where their application can have the highest positive impact. Using a field based and participatory approach, these regional ecosystem profiles provide a rapid assessment of biological priorities and the underlying causes of biodiversity loss within particular ecosystems. The profile couples these two elements with an inventory of conservation 18 related investment taking place within the region and other key information to identify how donors funding can provide the greatest incremental value. The results of this Ecosystem Profile are the basis for the elaboration of the accompanying regional investment strategy, which aims to give strategic directions as well as concrete suggestions for activities and projects in the region, which are in synergy with relevant ongoing activities. This Investment Strategy provides a clear picture of what the conservation priorities are, identifying the niche where investment can provide the greatest incremental value for conservation, enabling donors and programmes to effectively target their efforts. This ecosystem profile, coordinated by Fundo Regional para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FRCT), presents an overview of the Macaronesian region in terms of its biodiversity conservation importance, major threats to and root causes of biodiversity loss, and the socioeconomic, policy and civil society context in which conservation takes place. The profile also presents assessments of patterns of conservation investment in the Macaronesian region over the last decade. It defines a comprehensive suite of measurable conservation outcomes at species, site and corridor scales and identifies conservation priorities. This report follows the above discussed main principles of ecosystem profiling and presents the biological and thematic basis for conservation investments in the Macaronesian biogeographical region composed of 3 European Overseas Regions - the Portuguese archipelagos of Azores and Madeira and the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (Figure 2). Although Cape Verde is also part of the Macaronesian region, the area considered in this project is the European Macaronesian region for political consistency, to include only archipelagoes that are outermost regions (ORs) of the European Union, linked to Portugal and Spain. Figure 3 –European Macaronesia 19 These three archipelagos are the most important centres of biodiversity in the Mediterranean bioclimatic region (Martín et al., 2008), one of the 35 biodiversity hotspots recognized on the planet. As a result of their isolation and geological history, these islands shelter a large number of endemic taxa. In fact, more than 5,300 endemic species are known at present, in about 10,600 km2 that make up the 18 islands and several islets of these three archipelagos (Martín et al., 2008). However, species populations in the region have become increasingly fragmented and isolated as a result of pressures caused by human activities. High population density and mountainous landscapes, originated by the volcanic origin of the islands, lead inhabitants to colonize all the available plains to the detriment of the wooden areas; coastal and low elevation ecosystems have been the subject of intensive urban development and agriculture and livestock breeding activities. In addition, many alien species have been introduced. Currently, the predominant economic model based on tourism involving an intensive use of natural resources, still represent a clear threat to the biodiversity of the islands. The Ecosystem Profile allows a crucial assessment of priorities in biodiversity conservation in the region, highlighting its value in global terms. Simultaneously, the strategies developed are essential to focus research and management efforts and to direct funds to where their application can have the highest positive impact. 20 2. BACKGROUND In 2010, an Ecosystem Profile was developed by CEPF for the extensive Mediterranean basin, including the three Macaronesian archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean. However, the present EP – dedicated only on the Macaronesian region - allowed for much more in-depth stakeholder consultations and thus should not be understood as an "update" of the relevant parts within the 2010 CEPF document. Regional expert workshops are crucial for consolidating, synthesizing and, especially reviewing and interpreting data-driven conservation planning. The Macaronesia Ecosystem Profile was coordinated by “Fundo Regional para a Ciência e Tecnologia”, an autonomous body of the Azores Government with project coordination skills and management of financial resources in scientific research and technological development, in collaboration with the BEST Central team, CEPF experts and supported by a process of local stakeholders consultation. The EP presents an overview of the Macaronesian biogeographical region in terms of its biodiversity conservation importance, major threats to and root causes of biodiversity loss, and the socioeconomic, policy and civil society context in which conservation takes place. The profile also presents assessments of patterns of conservation investment over the last decade. It defines a comprehensive suite of measurable conservation outcomes at species, site and corridor scales, and identifies priorities for conservation investment within these. The profiling process took place between 2014 and 2016. An overview of the main stages of the development of the EP is described on Table 1. Table 1. Main phases in the development of the Ecosystem profile for the Macaronesian region Phase - Description Preparatory work (Jun-Aug 2014) - Preparation of work plans and reference lists for the profiling process - Compiling list of stakeholders - Desk review of data information for the Macaronesian entities; - List of Macaronesian threatened species - List of all Macaronesian areas under different protection status; - Gathering of geographic information on threatened species distribution First contacting and - Information on the BEST III initiative sent to local stakeholders promotion of BEST and published in local newspapers III (Jul-Oct 2015) - List of threatened species made available online (at http://goo.gl/CahYZT) and circulated for review by all stakeholders - List of all sites under different protection status made available online (at https://goo.gl/r9JhbZ). - Development of website (http://www.azores.gov.pt/Gra/BEST_III_Macaronesia/) to First round of - Public presentation of BEST III and Macaronesian Hub workshops and - First workshop with local stakeholders: species distribution consultations (Nov and protected areas - lists and mapping reviewed with local 2014) actors 21 Phase - Description Consolidation of - Review of list of threatened species threatened species - Addition of geographic information on threatened species and their distribution distribution Analysis and KBA - Species and sites analysis and preliminary KBA delineation - Development of the Macaronesian KBA geoportal delineation (AprSep2015) (http://servicos-sraa.azores.gov.pt/best iii macaronesia/) Second round of - KBAs identification and mapping reviewed with local actors in workshops and Madeira, the Canary Islands (October 2015) and the Azores (February 2016) consultations (Oct2015 & - Discussion on the methodology to identify site vulnerability, necessary for KBA priorization Feb2016) Promotion of BEST - Presentation of the Regional Ecosystem profile draft for the III in Brussels Macaronesian region at the European Commission in Brussels; (Oct2015) - Internship (October 19-31) at the European Commission and in Brussels sessions on the EP methodology Consolidation and -IUCN Consolidation andTechnical priorization of KBAs validation of KBAs - Validation of final KBAs with stakeholders (Nov2015-Feb2016) Development of EP (Dec2014-Apr2016) Validation and review of EP (MayJun 2016) Final Macaronesian EP (Jun 2016) - First draft of the EP (December 2015) - Final draft of the EP (April 2016) - EP draft shared with stakeholders for final validation - Integration of stakeholders’ comments and suggestions - CEPF and IUCN review - Final Regional Ecosystem profile for the Macaronesian region Promotion of Macaronesian EP results (Jul2016) - Presentation of Macaronesian EP and its results on the International Conference Island Biology 2016 (Azores) The preparation work was undertaken as a desk study during the first months of the ecosystem profiling process and included the compilation of an extensive list of references, relevant stakeholders for the consultation process, comprehensive databases on globally threatened species and sites under protection status in Macaronesia, and collection of distribution data of target species. At the same time, the project was disseminated to stakeholders by email and in local newspapers for a broader acknowledgment of BEST III in Macaronesia. The consultation process included two main rounds of workshops. The public presentation of the BEST initiative and the first technical workshops of the BEST III project were carried out during November 2014 in five cities from the three Macaronesian archipelagos. In each place the work consisted of a session for the public presentation of the project and a technical workshop where the KBA definition methodology and the current state of data collection and analysis were presented, followed by a structured discussion around the workshop’s objectives. In total the workshops brought together 80 people (Table 2), covering the public and research sectors (25% and 68% respectively), as well as the civil society (7%). From these, 33 people attended the public session and participated in the workshops, nine only participated in the workshops and the remaining 38 only attended the public presentation. The full list of participants is given in Appendix 1. 22 In each location the work consisted of a 30-minute general presentation of the project, followed by a period of discussion. The technical workshop consisted of a 30-minute presentation to introduce the methodology of KBA definition and to present the work done by the Macaronesian Hub and the objectives of the workshop, followed by a structured discussion around each of these objectives. Evaluation sheets were provided in all sessions. The overall rating exceeded 4/5 (see Appendix 2). The opportunity for cooperation between institutions, the identification of knowledge gaps and the potential funding were some of the positive comments received. On the negative side, participants pointed out the low dissemination of the event and the reduced previous information received, and many questioned particulars of the KBA methodology used. Table 2 – Public presentation and first round of workshops: locations, dates and attendance NGO Public/Gov. organization 10-11 Nov 2014 Azores 31 18 27 2 7 0 36 18-19 Nov 2014 Canary Is. 26 14 20 2 6 1 29 24 Nov 2014 Madeira 14 10 7 1 7 0 15 Total Macaronesia 71 42 54 5 20 1 80 Total Location Private sector Date Public session Technical session Know./research institution Number of participants The main highlights of this series of meetings were: • • • Consolidation of the visibility of the project, and of the stakeholder engagement with it. In particular, regional governments in all the 3 archipelagos became aware and supported BEST III. Perceived need to reinforce the buy-in of stakeholders (mainly researchers) who have invested in previous compilations of research and conservation needs and who may see this process as a redundancy, or even a menace to what was built previously. Secured access to distribution data and to maps of protected areas. The outcome of this first consultation process was very positive. The key actors in biodiversity conservation were involved and became aware of the BEST III goals and of the methodology involved. Workshop participants have provided important information and suggestions, and have shown their motivation to continue collaboration with the project. From these actors it was possible to reach others, whose different competences and knowledge were needed for the subsequent phases of the project. The second round of workshops, carried out between late 2015 and early 2016, was organized on 14 different sessions, each focused on one specific taxonomic group of each archipelago. The main objective was to assure that the proposed KBAs covered all important areas for all threatened species from each taxonomic group. 23 In total, the stakeholders consultation of this second phase mobilized 41 persons, well distributed by the three archipelagos: 14 in Madeira and in the Azores and 13 in the Canary Islands ( Table 3). Participants from knowledge/research institutions accounted for 53% of attendants, governmental representatives for 32% and civil society for 15%. The full list of participants is given in (Appendix 3). Participants generally approved the KBA delineation but offered suggestions and additional data, which have contributed to improve the KBA results. Although no specific objections to the KBas have been put forward, stakeholders warned that the information base used does not accurately reflect all species distribution. In particular, comprehensive distribution data for marine species is lacking, most existing information resulting from studies focused on limited areas. In this case, the agreed strategy was to consider MPAs as KBAs as long as records exist to fulfil the definition criteria. An effort to collect and analyse this scattered information was therefore carried out, with the help of stakeholders. Some participants were surprised by the large extension of the area covered by KBAs. A more conservative drawing of the KBAs, however, is dependent on improving the accuracy of the species distribution areas and on crossing that information with soil use and vegetation maps. This should be a priority for later versions of the EP if the information base is improved and is available. Table 3 – Second round of workshops: locations, dates and attendance Private sector Know./research institution Number of participants Madeira 6 1 6 1 14 8-9, 13 Oct 2015 Canary Is. 7 3 3 0 13 2-5 Feb 2016 Azores 9 1 4 0 14 22 5 13 1 41 Total Total 5-6 Oct 2015 Public/Gov. organization Location NGO Date Major steps were given in the assessment of the vulnerability of the KBA sites necessary for KBA priorization. A general methodology was put forward: given the large number of KBAs and that the implementation of major threats depend on the protection of the sites, it was agreed to define site vulnerability according to the protection level of each KBA. Besides the discussion on proposed KBAs and priorization, threats, priority actions and financing needs were also discussed during the workshops. Globally, the 20 workshops carried out in five Macaronesian cities during the profiling process mobilized 83 people (42 in the first round and 41 in the second) from the conservation community, including NGOs, scientists, public authorities and local governments and the private sector. 24 Besides bringing together the conservation community around the common goal of making a shared diagnosis to establish priorities and identify investment priorities, the consultation workshops allowed sharing data and knowledge. This was illustrated, for example, by the exchange among some scientists and the managers of online biodiversity databases in the Canaries: not only some stakeholders became aware of this biodiversity database, but also they could share some of their knowledge, thus contributing to the enrichments of the database after the workshops. The consultations on workshops were supplemented by small group skype meetings with stakeholders, one-to-one interviews and email correspondence with local actors and experts. Moreover, a webpage on the FRCT website was created not only to promote the BEST III project but also to facilitate information sharing and communication with stakeholders (http://www.azores.gov.pt/Gra/BEST_III_Macaronesia/). In addition, regular consortium meetings and bilateral meetings were conducted between the BEST central team, CEPF experts and the regional hubs to provide information and support on regional workplans, EP methodology and progress. Figure 4. Snapshots from the stakeholder consultation workshop held in Macaronesia The final stakeholders consultation was made on the draft version of the present Ecosystem Profile, circulated in May 2016. Comments received were integrated into a final draft, which was then reviewed internally by the CEPF and IUCN coordination team. 25 3. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE AREA Geography Macaronesia, which comprises in the volcanic archipelagos in the North Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Europe and Africa - Azores, Madeira, including the tiny archipelago of Salvages, and Canary Islands – (Figure 3), as well as Cape Verde (not belonging to the European Union), is a biogeographical rather than a political entity, based on the existence of many shared elements in the floras and faunas of the constituent archipelagos. From now on our comments will be referred only to the three northernmost (belonging to the European Union) archipelagos, living aside Cape Verde. This configuration has also been called European Macaronesia. The region (Table 4) comprises 18 inhabited main islands (Azores: S. Miguel, Sta. Maria, Terceira, Graciosa, S. Jorge, Pico, Faial, Flores and Corvo; Madeira: Madeira, Porto Santo; Canaries: Lanzarote, La Gaciosa, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro). Furthermore, seven non-permanent inhabited islands larger than 1 km2 (Ilheu da Cal, Deserta Grande, Bugio, and Selvagem Grande in Madeira, as well as Alegranza, Montaña Clara and Lobos in the Canaries) and more than one hundred islets and rocks that do not reach that size. The archipelagos range across a considerable latitudinal range: between 27º N (El Hierro, Canarias) and 39º N (Corvo, Azores), and between 13º W (Roque del Este, Canaries) and 31º W (Flores, Azores). Moreover, the distances from the African and European mainlands vary hugely: Fuerteventura is only 96 km away from the African coast (Stafford point, Western Sahara), whereas São Miguel lies 1,369 km away from Cabo da Roca in continental Portugal. On the other hand, Corvo is virtually equidistant from Cape Race in Newfoundland, Canada and Lisbon, Portugal (about 1,900 km away from both). 26 Table 4. Geographic parameters of the Macaronesian archipelagos. Parameter Country Azores Portugal Madeira Portugal Canaries Spain Macaronesia Portugal and Spain 9 2 7 18 2,322 802 7,447 10,571 926,149 442,316 456,237 1,824,702 2,351 (Pico) 1,862 (Madeira) 3,718 (Tenerife) 3,718 Continental isolation (km) 1,369 (São Miguel) 630 (P. Santo) 96 (Fuerteventura) 96 Mean intraarchipelago isolation (km) 220 32 196 - Age of the oldest emerged island (My) Last subaerial volcanic eruption Latitude (°) Colonization date 8 (Sta. Maria) 1957 (Faial) 37- 39 N 1432 AD 14 (P. Santo) 25 Ky BP (Madeira) 33 N 1420 AD 21 (Fuerteventura) 1971 (La Palma) 27 - 29 N ca. 2,500 BP 27 27 - 39 N - 0.25 0.26 2.1 2.6 Nº of main islands Land Area (km2) EEZ (km2) Maximum elevation (m) Human population (M) 1995 Sources: J.M. Fernández-Palacios (2010); SREA (2015a); DREM (2015); ISTAC (2015c); Ministério da Defesa Nacional-Marinha (s.d); Suárez de Vivero (2011); ISTAC (2015a). Azores The Azores archipelago is an autonomous region of the Republic of Portugal and is formed by nine islands: Santa Maria, São Miguel (that make up the Eastern Group), Terceira, Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico, Faial (Central Group), Flores and Corvo (Western Group), including also some uninhabited islets. The three island groups are separated by 1000-2000 m deep sea channels, except for Faial and Pico islands, between which the channel is, in many parts, only 20 to 50 m deep. 27 Figure 5 – Map of the Azores The Azores archipelago lies in the far out in the Atlantic Ocean between parallels 36°5 5' and 39°43' latitude North and meridians 20°00' and 31°16 ' longitude West. Their location gives them the distinction of being the most remote group of islands in the North Atlantic. The islands are distributed diagonally over approximately 66,000 km², with a marked Northwest - Southwest orientation along a length of approximately 600 km. At the Western end of the Archipelago is Flores Island (at a distance of approximately 1,900 km from Newfoundland, in the NorthAmerican subcontinent) and at the Eastern end is the Island of Santa Maria (at a distance of approximately 1,570 km from the West coast of the continent of Europe). Its strategic location midway between North America and Europe contributed to a historical role in trans-Atlantic navigation. Today, the maritime and oceanic dimension of the Azores, with a Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) of nearly one million km² (60% of the Portuguese EEZ), and its location at a crossroads between ocean routes and the European, African and American continents place the archipelago and Portugal in a position with important comparative advantages, as a platform and hub to mobilise and create value associated with the sea. The Azores archipelago has quite varied dimensions (between 17 km² of Corvo and 745 km² of São Miguel), with a total surface area of 2,322 km². Pico Island holds the highest mountain of Portugal, at 2,351 metres above sea level. The total length of the coastline of the nine islands is around 943 km and the region includes an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 926,149 km². This surface area accounts for about 30 % of the European EEZ (Government of the Azores, 2014). Madeira The Madeira archipelago is also an autonomous region of the Republic of Portugal situated in the Atlantic Ocean to the west of Morocco. It consists of 2 main islands, Madeira (742 km², 90% 28 of the archipelago area) and Porto Santo (43 km²), surrounded by six inhabited islets (Ilheus da Cal, Cenouras, Cima, Fora, Ferro and Fonte de Areia) which form a nature reserve, three small islets known as Desertas (Ilhéu Chão, Deserta Grande and Bugio, uninhabited nature reserve of 14 km²) and the small sub-archipelago of Selvagens (uninhabited nature reserve of 3.6 km²), with its two small islands (Selvagem Grande and Selvagem Pequena) and several small islets (Ilhéu de Fora, Ilhéu Comprido, Ilhéus do Norte).The archipelago lies in the far out in the Atlantic Ocean between parallels 30°01' and 33°07' latitude North and meridians 17°15' and 15°51' longitude West. The capital of the archipelago, Funchal, is about 660 kilome tres from the African coast and 980 kilometres from Lisbon. Like the Azores, the Madeira archipelago was uninhabited at the time of its discovery by the Portuguese: the current population is descended from the colonizers, and mainly Portuguese. Figure 6 – Map of Madeira archipelago Canary Islands The Canary Islands, an autonomous region of Spain, are located in the Atlantic Ocean, between parallels 27º37’ and 29º25’ latitude North and 13º20’ and 18º10’ longitude West, lying off the Northwest coast of Africa at a distance of 96 km at their nearest point, this being Punta de La Entallada, situated on the Eastern coast of Fuerteventura. 29 Figure 7 – Map of the Canary Islands The region consists of seven major islands divided into two administrative provinces: the Province of Las Palmas, formed by the islands Gran Canaria (1560 km2), Fuerteventura (1655 km2) and Lanzarote (807 km2), and the Province of Sta. Cruz de Tenerife with the islands of Tenerife (2038 km2), La Gomera (370 km2), La Palma (708 km2) and El Hierro (269 km2). There are also 4 minor islands larger than 1 km2, La Graciosa, Alegranza, Montaña Clara and Lobos, the first being the only inhabited one and lying to the North of Lanzarote. In addition there are a great number of small islets and rocks spread over the whole archipelago.The archipelago is nearly three times the area of the Azores, and 10 times larger than the Madeiran group (see Table 4). It occupies a total surface area of 7,447 km², unequally distributed over its 7 islands, these varying between the 287 km² of El Hierro and the 2,036 km² of Tenerife, and where only four islands exceed 1 km². It is the Spanish region with the longest coastline, 1,583 km. The El Teide volcano on the island of Tenerife, which culminates at 3,718 m, is the highest summit in Spain. Unlike Azores and Madeira, which were uninhabited until the early 15th century, the Canary Islands have a relatively long history of human occupation. Although the precise timing of human colonization from northwest Africa is uncertain, the sparse archaeological evidence suggests a date of around 2500 BP by the Guanche people, an ethnic group related to the Berbers (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). Castilian Conquest and settlement followed in the 15th century, and today more than 2 million people inhabit the islands. Geology All Macaronesian islands share a number of common features, such as being oceanic and of volcanic origin, having formed over oceanic crust, and never having been connected to 30 continental landmasses. Additionally, the Macaronesian islands present peculiar geological characteristics, such as some being formed by the merging of palaeo-islands, and islands within an archipelago not geographically arranged in chronological order of emergence. However, the mechanisms forming the different islands vary greatly from group to group, resulting in a highly dynamic and complex set of archipelagos. The Macaronesian volcanic islands are formed from the ocean floor either in association with mantle-plume hotspots (Madeira and the Canaries, Geldmacher et al. 2005) or the spreading of the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Azores, França et al. 2005). The Canary Islands, in particular, differs markedly from the “typical” archipelagos of the Pacific, such as Hawaii and Galapagos, in that most of the islands are relatively close to continental source areas. For example, the easternmost Canary Island, Fuerteventura, is currently less than 100 km from the west coast of Morocco, and has been within 65 km during the sea level minima associated with the most extreme Pleistocene glacial stages (Fernández‐Palacios et al., 2011). The islands exhibit a comparatively old and broad range of geological ages, from 0.25 million years for Pico (Azores) to 27 My for Selvagens. However, if the seamount configuration and geological history is taken into consideration, the so-called Paleo-Macaronesia extends back to 60 Ma, at the start of the Tertiary (Fernández‐Palacios et al., 2011). In addition to the differences in their patterns of emergence from the oceanic crust, the geological complexity of the Macaronesian system is also apparent in the process of island construction. The location of the Macaronesian islands in zones with long active volcanic histories determines their rock substrata and has a great influence on their geomorphology. It also means that these environments are cyclically subjected to radical transformations associated with eruptions, involving the complete destruction of life followed by slow recolonisation. Consequently, the landscapes of the islands are very heterogeneous. There are zones of ancient rock formations, unaffected by these phenomena, where erosive processes have had time to act and where living things have had a chance to evolve together, which has given rise to complex, diverse and stable ecosystems. Along with these, are zones affected by recent volcanic activity, lava flows that have completely altered the original topography and which are starting to be colonised by the vegetation (Triantis, Borges, Hortal, & Whittaker, 2010). The most recent additions to islands from volcanic activity are the ones resulting from the Capelinhos eruption of 1957-1958 in the Azores, and the Teneguía eruption of 1971 in La Palma, Canary Islands, when that island grew 4 km2. This is a particularly important feature of the Macaronesian Islands, since most of them (if not all) have suffered repeated volcanic episodes, some of them potentially capable of extinguishing multiple lineages while putting new terrain in place, thus replenishing area and habitat. Consequently, although the maximum age of each of the islands (i.e., their age of emergence from the sea) is more or less agreed upon, it is not always clear which estimate is most appropriate to describe the time available for the establishment, evolution and extinction of lineages and species, particularly when different taxa are considered (see e.g. Borges & Hortal, 2009; Whittaker & Fernández-Palacios, 2007) These two described features - detachment from continental source areas and old and broad range of geological ages - contribute to several unusual patterns of colonization and diversification and to relatively high levels of genetic variation compared to other oceanic archipelagos. 31 Azores Geologically, the Azores comprise a 20-36-million-year-old volcanic plateau; the oldest rocks (composing Santa Maria Island) emerged 8.120 million years ago, whereas the youngest (forming Pico Island) are about 250,000 years old. Some 50 Ky ago the volcanic activity merged together the palaeoislands of Sete Cidades and Nordeste-Povoação-Furnas to form today’s São Miguel (Forjaz, 2002, in Borges et al., 2009). Finally, in the last glaciation sea-level fall Faial and Pico have merged together and some rocks (Formigas) and submarine banks (João Castro) emerged forming stepping-stones which enhanced intra-archipelago dispersal (Kämmer, 1982, in J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). Located on both sides of the Central Atlantic Submarine Ridge, the western and eastern extremes of the archipelago are actually drifting away. The geostructural environment of the Azores Plateau, defined by the 2000-m bathymetric contour line, is dominated by the confluence of the American, Eurasian, and African lithospheric plates. Thus the Azores archipelago is characterized by high volcanic activity typical of a ridge-hotspot interaction (i.e., a hotspot on a slow-moving plate). As opposed to the Hawaiian Islands, which are chronologically arranged, the Azorean islands do not show any correlation between their distances to the hotspot and their individual ages of emergence. The eastern parts of all Azorean islands are geologically the oldest, which is the result of the particular seism-volcanic mechanisms of this archipelago. This tectonic feature is responsible for many volcanic eruptions (e.g., Capelinhos, Faial Island, 1957-1958) and tectonic earthquakes (e.g., Terceira and S. Jorge islands, 1980; Faial and Pico islands, 1998). As a result of several recent historical lava flows, there is a great concentration of lava tube caves and pits in the Azores. A total of 250 underground cavities, including lava tubes, volcanic pits, pit-caves, and sea-erosion caves, are known to exist on the Azores, creating many kilometres of cave passages, extraordinary geological formations, and unique fauna adapted to caves. The recognition of the international significance of the Azorean geological heritage comes up with the establishment of the Azores Geopark in 2010 and its integration into the European and Global Geoparks Network in 2013, being the first archipelagic geopark. With the approval of the Programme for International Geoscience and Geoparks of UNESCO in November 2015, the Azores Geopark became a UNESCO territory, along with the World Heritage sites and Biosphere Reserves. There are 121 geosites in the Azores scattered throughout the nine islands and surrounding seabed. Madeira The Madeira archipelago comprises only one volcanic complex (the Madeira-Porto Santo) that is interpreted as being a long-lived “hotspot” rising from the mantle (Carvalho & Brandão 1991, in Borges et al., 2008). Porto Santo (14 My) is the oldest island of the archipelago and is in an advanced destruction stage, whereas Madeira, which experienced its last volcanic activity some 25 ky ago (Prada & Serralheiro, 2000, in J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010), is still high and full of cliffs and ravines, a feature that actually has served to enhance the conservation stage of its nature. The Madeira Island properly is composed of seven geological units. The Pico Ruivo (1,861 m above sea level) is the highest point of the corresponding volcanic relief and rises to about 5,300 m above the Madeira abyssal plain from which this entire complex volcanic group has been built. The emerged part of the Madeira island dates back to the Post-Miocene, <5,6 Ma 32 (Geldmacher et al., 2000, in Borges et al., 2008) and the more recent volcanic activity took place 6,000-7,000 years BP (Ribeiro et al., 2005, in Borges et al., 2008). Porto Santo is much older with an estimated age of 14 million years. The volcanic activity in Porto Santo stopped 8 Ma. Whereas the older Porto Santo is in advanced destruction stage, Madeira island is still high and full of cliffs and ravines, a feature that actually has served to enhance the conservation of its nature (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). The Selvagens islands have an estimated age of 27 My and were originated by the same hotspot of the Canary Islands. Today these islands are almost completely eroded back to sea level. Canary Islands The Canaries are the product of a mantel plume hotspot, which has been active for more than 60 million years, producing due to the slightly counterclockwise rotation of the Africa Plate an array of islands ordered in increasing geological age from West to East. The same hotspot has produced as well older seamounts (Palaeocanaries) that were former islands but are nowadays drowned beneath the sea level due to the erosion north to Lanzarote, forming together with the extant islands the Canarian Volcanic Province. The present location of the hotspot is between La Palma and El Hierro, the two westernmost and youngest islands of the archipelago (Carracedo, 2011). Despite its age (21 My for Fuerteventura), the Canary Islands remain volcanically active, as proves the fact that four of its seven main islands have experienced historic volcanic activity (from the Castilian Conquest of the islands which happen between 1402 and 1496, to the present). Those are: i) Lanzarote, with the largest eruption we do know for the Canaries lasting from 1730 to 1736 and destroying one fourth of the island; ii) Tenerife with seven different eruptions in these last 6 centuries, the latest Volcán de Chinyero in 1909; iii) La Palma, with ten volcanic eruptions, the latest Volcán de Teneguía in 1971, by which the island increased its area in ca. 4 km2, and finally, iv) El Hierro with the latest volcanic episode of the archipelago, the submarine eruption of La Restinga, which happen in 2014. Gran Canaria has had a large Holocene activity, with Caldera de Bandama, its latest eruption, some 2000 years ago. Fuerteventura has also recent volcanism, although not in the Holocene and finally, La Gomera is experiencing a hiatus that has already lasted ca. 3 million years During their formation the islands also experienced catastrophic erosive events, with several huge landslides that have destroyed large parts of them in a very short time period, provoking tsunamis that affected nearby islands and the mainland. Although the archipelago has never been connected to the mainland, the Pleistocene glaciation cycles have largely transformed their geographic configuration, for instance, reiteratively doubling and halving the archipelago area, with consequences as the fusion of nearby islands (Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and satellite islets) in a single landmass (today called Mahan), as well as the emersion of several submarine banks (Amanay, Dacia, Concepción), or the diminution of the distance to the African mainland (García Talavera, 1999, in J.M. FernándezPalacios, 2010), all of which facilitating dispersal processes. Climate The climate of Macaronesia is influenced by the semi-permanent Azores high-pressure system, prevailing north-easterly trade winds, and the surrounding ocean, including the Azores and 33 Canary Current (Cropper & Hanna, 2014). The latitudinal spread and the morphology of the islands add further variability. Therefore, the climate is classified (Climate Atlas, 2012) as dry in many of the islands in the Canaries and also on Porto Santo and as Mediterranean (fresh, humid winters and warm, dry summers) in the remaining islands of the Canaries and in Madeira. An oceanic temperate climate (cool, wet) prevails throughout the year in the Azores. In the highest elevations the climate is cold (Teide, Canaries, 3,718 m) or even polar (Pico, Azores, 2,351 m). Azores The Azores’ climate, heavily influenced by the Gulf Stream, is categorised as temperate maritime and is characterised by its mildness and its small thermal range (the average values vary between 14 ºC and 18 ºC in coastal areas and between 6 °C and 12 °C in the areas o f higher altitude, except at Pico Mountain, where the temperature is below 2 °C ), high levels of air humidity (with an annual average value of around 80%) and persistent winds (Climate Atlas, 2012; WWF, 2015d). The precipitation is more abundant in the Azores in November, December and January, registering on average during these months, amounts greater than 500 mm (up to 1 665.6 mm on the western group) (Climate Atlas, 2012). Madeira The general climate of the Madeira archipelago is greatly influenced by the subtropical anticyclone of the Azores and is mainly governed by the trade winds from the North and Northeast. The climate is temperate to sub-tropical, but the predominant winds lead to a clear north-south differentiation: the north slopes have high precipitation and a persistent cloud cover from 600–800 m up to 1600 m, while the south is dryer. Wind exposure and mountain peaks are prominent factors allowing the development of climax communities of native species and ever green forests by creating a cloud layer at ca. 1,000 m altitude by a combination of high dry winds and lower humid sea breezes. At higher altitudes, both frost and snow may occur. Canary Islands The Canary Islands span a transition zone between two climate types, temperate and subtropical, with mild temperatures in the coasts that vary between 18 and 21º C, and very small annual variations (WWF, 2015a). However, in function of altitude, exposition and orography, very different climates can be found. The values of annual average air temperature varies between 20 ºC and 21 ºC, for the areas located at sea level, while values below 4 °C are found on the “Pico de Teide” on the island of Tenerife (Climate Atlas, 2012). Areas with annual average temperatures below 10 °C in higher areas of the island of Palma are also found, while on the islands of El Hierro, in Gran Canaria and La Gomera, the average annual temperature values occur in the higher areas of the interior of the islands, around 12 ºC (Climate Atlas, 2012). In fact, despite their proximity to Africa (in latitudes similar to those of the Sahara, Egypt and Saudi Arabia), the Canaries show a wide range of different mesoclimates apart from subdesert landscapes. This is caused by several factors such as elevation and orientation, but especially because of the influence of northeast to southwest sea winds, called alisios (trade winds). These relatively hot winds become cooler and more humid as they pass over the sea surface. The seas surrounding the islands are cool because of a current flowing north past the islands from cold southern latitudes. Once the alisios reach the northern parts of the higher Canary Islands, this moisture is trapped by the dense laurisilva and fayal-brezal (heath) vegetation on the mountain slopes. This vegetation acts as a sponge, condensing moisture in drops as large as 3 mm3 and producing a phenomenon called horizontal rain (WWF, 2015a). 34 Most of the water is captured in the north, and the mountains function as natural barriers, so the southern parts of the islands are drier and have proportionally higher temperatures and lower humidity levels throughout the year. Low-lying islands with elevations under 750 m receive no rain from the passing alisios so that habitats and climate here are drier and similar to the southern parts of the higher islands (WWF, 2015a). Sometimes, the Archipelago experiences eastern dry winds from the Sahara. This phenomenon is locally called "calima" or "calina," and dust levels in the air become temporally high (Bacallado et al., González et al., Marzol, in WWF, 2015a). The average annual rainfall of the Archipelago of the Canary Islands presents a very uneven distribution in which the dominant factors are altitude and exposure to the prevailing trade winds. The highest values, exceeding 1,000 mm, are observed in higher altitudes of the island of La Palma, while the lowest values, less than 100 mm, occur on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura as well as on the south coast of the islands of Tenerife and Gran Canaria (Climate Atlas, 2012). The average monthly precipitation also varies throughout the year, with remarkable seasonality. The rainiest months throughout the Canary Islands are December and January. In these months in the highest altitude of the interior of the island of La Palma the monthly average rainfall exceeds 200 mm (Climate Atlas, 2012). While to the contrary, in the coastal areas of southern Tenerife and Gran Canaria and in the east o Fuerteventura the values are less than 20 mm (Climate Atlas, 2012). The driest months of the year are July and August. In most of the Canary Islands almost not precipitation is recorded in July and only in some areas in the north of the islands of Tenerife, La Palma and Gran Canaria, reaching values greater than 5 mm of precipitation in this month (Climate Atlas, 2012). Ecoregions, habitats and ecosystems The Macaronesia is part of the Mediterranean Basin Hotspot, the second largest hotspot in the world and the largest of the world’s five Mediterranean-climate regions (CEPF, 2015). Covering only 0.3 % of EU territory, the region is home to 19% of habitat types of EU concern (EEA, 2010). Terrestrial ecoregions and ecosystems The Macaronesian region integrates four Ecoregions as defined by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (Table 5). All four Ecoregions have a “Critical/Endangered” threat status. 35 Table 5 – Ecoregions in Macaronesia Ecoregion Ecoregion Ecosystems/Habitats Archipelago/islands category Canary Islands Palaearctic Xerophytic shrub Canaries: La dry woodlands (biome: Thermophilous forest Palma, Hierro, and forests Mediterranean Laurel forest Gomera, Tenerife, (PA1203) forests, Pine forest Gran Canaria woodlands and High mountain shrub scrub) Mediterranean Palaearctic Argania spinosa Canaries: acacia-argania dry (biome: forest Fuerteventura and woodlands and Mediterranean Lanzarote Euphorbia-dominant succulent thickets forests, succulent shrubland (PA1212) woodlands and scrub) Madeira Palaearctic Coastal vegetation Madeira evergreen forests (biome: Evergreen dry forest (PA0425) temperate Evergreen wet forest broadleaf and Upland vegetation mixed forests) Azores temperate Palaearctic Dark green shrub Azores mixed forests (biome: forest (PA0403) temperate broadleaf and mixed forests) Sources: WWF (2015a); WWF (2015b); WWF (2015c); WWF (2015d) The main terrestrial ecosystems that form these Ecoregions are described below and summarized on Table 6. Table 6. Distribution of Macaronesian main terrestrial ecosystems Ecosystem Coastal desert scrub Azores Thermophilous woodland Madeira X Canaries X X X X X Laurel forest Pine forest X X Summit heath X X X X Bogs X Lava fields X Dracaena, Sideroxylon, Olea, Juniperus turbinata Laurus, Picconia, Morella, Ilex Pinus Erica, Calluna Summit scrub Lakes Main floristic elements Euphorbia Spartocytisus, Adenocarpus Littorella, Potamogeton, Lemn, Juncus Sphagnum X Stereocaulon Source: J.M. Fernández-Palacios (2010) Coastal desert scrub Absent from the Azores, but present in the rest of the archipelagos, the sub-desert succulent coastal scrub characterized by the dominance of endemic spurge shrubs (Euphorbia piscatoria 36 in Madeira, E. anachoreta in Selvagens, E. balsamifera, E. obtusifolia, and E. lamarckii in the Canaries) is the African aspect of the Macaronesian islands. Due to their low altitude it is actually the unique ecosystem existing in the Selvagens, is well distributed on the Canaries and only close to the sea in Madeira. In the Canary Islands, this low elevation arid woodland is present in all the islands at low altitude (0 to 400 m on southern slopes, and a predominant coastal distribution on northern slopes) (Francisco-Ortega, Santos-Guerra, & Bacallado, 2010). This zone is devoid of large trees and is mostly filled with small shrubs and perennial plants with succulent leaves and stems (e.g., Euphorbia spp., Kleinia neriifolia, Ceropegia spp., Aeonium spp., Plocama pendula) or coriaceous leaves (e.g., Rubia fruticosa, Neochamaelea pulverulentum, Echium spp.). Annual rainfall in this zone is below 250 mm (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). In Madeira, the community of herbs and shrubs forming the coastal vegetation is found below 300 m across the archipelago and is dominated by Euphorbia piscatoria, Echium nervosum, and Globularia salicina, all endemic to Macaronesia (Aguin-Pombo & Carvalho, 2010). Thermophilous woodland Directly above the coastal desert scrub, but still absent from the Azores, an open thermophilous woodland exists, dominated by tree species of Mediterranean origin such as Olea, Dracaena, Sideroxylon, Phoenix, Pistacia (the latter two absent from Madeira), and Juniperus (J.M. Fernández-Palacios et al., 2008). In the Canary Islands, dry sclerophyllous forests (Rhamno crenulatae–Oleetea cerasiformis) occur between 400 and 600 m (on southern slopes) and between coastal areas and 600 m (on northern slopes) on all islands (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). This plant community receives an average annual rainfall of 400 mm and has strong floristic links to the Mediterranean Thermophile forests, with those on northern slopes being floristically richer than those on southern slopes (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). Other than the already mentioned indicator plants for this ecosystem include trees such Visnea mocanera and small shrubs such as Cheirolophus spp., Crambe spp., Echium spp., Rhamnus crenulata, and Sideritis spp. Laurel forest Despite the differences in Ecoregions, the largest support for the European Macaronesia biotic relations is based on the existence in those archipelagos of the Atlantic laurel forest (“laurisilva”). This forest is actually an impoverished version of the Palaeotropical Laurisilva that occurred in Central and Southern Europe, as well as North Africa, from the Palaeocene until the late Pliocene glaciations (Barrón & Peyrot, 2006). These ancient forests have disappeared to a large extent but can still be found on all these archipelagos thanks to the thermoregulatory capacity of the surrounding ocean (Petit & Prudent, 2010). This is exactly one of the distinguishing features of Macaronesia, the persistence of species that are extinct on the continents. Thanks to the remaining coverage of laurel forest in Macaronesia, two sites have been declared a UNESCO Natural World Heritage: the “Laurisilva of Madeira” (in Madeira island) and the “Garajonay National Park” (La Gomera, Canary Islands). The Laurisilva of Madeira, within the Madeira Natural Park, is the largest surviving area of laurel forest and is believed to be 90% primary forest (UNESCO, 1999). These forests display a wealth of ecological niches, intact ecosystem processes, and play a predominant role in maintaining the hydrological balance on the Island of Madeira. The property has great importance for biodiversity conservation with at least 76 vascular plant species endemic to Madeira occurring in the property, together with a 37 high number of endemic invertebrates and two endemic birds. Next to the Laurisilva of Madeira (Portugal), Garajonay National Park preserves an outstanding example of this unique vegetation that covers some 70% of the park’s area. The laurel forest is a dense cloud forest, with a low canopy (5-10 m) in the Azores, but an important one (> 30 m) in Madeira and the Canaries (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). Laurisilva is extremely biodiverse, comprising mainly arboreal and perennial shrubs with dark green coloured leaves associated with a complex community of trees, bushes, ferns, mosses, lichens, mushrooms and fungi that thrive in damp conditions where water is abundant and the sub tropical climate results in high humidity levels and a relatively high average temperature. The name “Laurisilva” derives from the fact that four Lauraceous species predominate: Barbusano (Apollonias barbujana), Til (Ocotea foetens), Laurel (Laurus novocanariensis, Laurus azorica) and Vinhático (Persea indica), all endemic to Macaronesia. The Azorean laurisilva differs from that found on Madeira and on the Canary Islands, as it includes a single species of Lauraceae, several species of sclerophyllous and microphyllous trees and shrubs, and luxuriant bryophyte communities, covering all available substrata. The dominant trees shared by the three archipelagos include genera such as Picconia, Laurus, Ilex, Prunus and Morella, whereas Juniperus brevifolia is exclusive from Azores and Apollonias, Persea and Ocotea are restricted to Madeira and the Canaries (E. Dias, Elias, Melo, & Mendes, 2007). However, other notable species are Aderno (Heberdenia excelsa), the Mocanos (Visnea mocanera and Pittosporum coriaceum) and Sanguinho (Rhamnus glandulosa). Associated with these, are large bushes such as Folhado (Clethra arborea). Important herbaceous plants are Leitugas (Sonchus sp), the geraniums (Geranium maderense, G. palmatum and G. rubescens), the Estreleiras (Argyranthemum sp.) and some small orchid such as the extremely rare Madeiran endemic Goodyera macrophylla. In the Azores, the laurel forest is now only represented in small, fragmented patches on the summits of S. Miguel, Terceira, Pico and Flores (Fernández‐Palacios et al., 2011). In the Canary Islands, the humid evergreen forests (Pruno hixa–Lauretea novocanariensis) grows between 500 and 1400 m in elevation, with some species reaching more than 20 m in height (WWF, 2015a). Endemic Macaronesian heaths, also known as fayal-brezal, grow from 500 to 1,700 m, as transition vegetation between laurisilva and Canarian endemic pine forests, with which they share some species (Ilex canariensis, I. perado, Larus novocanariensis, and Picconia excelsa). There are three distinctive species Morella faya, Erica arborea and E. platycodon. Three different patterns of distribution can be seen. The first one is the contact zone with laurisilva, where Morella spp. are dominant, with some Erica spp.; the second one is the typical fayal-brezal association (Morella-Erica); and finally the third one is the contact zone with pine forests where Erica spp. are more common than Morella spp. (González, Rodrigo, & Suárez, 1986). The humid evergreen forests are not found on the most easterly islands of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, although some small pockets were likely present in Fuerteventura prior to the arrival of European settlers (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). The humid evergreen forest has the highest number of endemic plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates (FranciscoOrtega et al., 2010). In Madeira, the laurisilva forest can be divided into a dry evergreen component, found at lower altitudes with high mean temperatures and low annual precipitation (mostly on south-facing slopes), characterized by Apollonias barbujana, Visnea mocanera, and Picconia excelsa and a moist evergreen component, growing from 300 m to 1400 m in humid areas with mild temperatures, high precipitation, and frequent coastal fogs, mostly on north-facing slopes and gorges, where Laurus novocanariensis, Ocotea foetens and Persea indica predominate (WWF, 38 2015c). The dry evergreen vegetation has been much reduced, but the evergreen wet laurel forest still occupies 20% of the island (Aguin-Pombo & Carvalho, 2010). Pine forest Canarian endemic pine forests (Chamaecytiso–Pinetea canariensis alliance Cisto–Pinion canariensis), dominated by the palaeoendemic Canarian pine (Pinus canariensis), are present at the higher Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro) in northern (1200-2000 m) and southern (600-2300) slopes (average rainfall 200-800 mm) (FranciscoOrtega et al., 2010). This vegetation type is absent in Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, and has few small natural pockets on the island of La Gomera. Previously widespread in southern Europe, the Pine Forest disappeared from the continent with the last glaciations (Pliocene). In their limited range they are mixed with Adenocarpus spp., Morella-Erica associations, or even with laurisilva forest (northern), or with Chamaecytisus spp., Spartocytisus spp., and Ephedra spp., or Cistus spp. or Micromeria spp. (southern). Pines can also be found mixed with Juniperus cedrus and J. turbinate canariensis at higher elevations. Although Canarian endemic pine forests contain a lower number of species compared with other vegetation formations in the Canaries, they have a large number of endemics in all plant groups, including fungi and lichens. Some of these Canarian endemic plants are Bystropogon plumosus, Aeonium spathulatum, Asparagus plocamoides, Tolpis laciniata and Teline sp. (González et al., 1986). Summit (heath and scrub) The more or less common scenario for Macaronesian coastal and mid-altitude ecosystems is absent when the summit ecosystems throughout the region are analysed, mainly due to the peculiar summit climates and dispersal filters. The summits of Pico (the single Azorean island high enough to trespass the laurel forest altitudinal distribution) and Madeira are characterized by a heath dominated by different Ericaceae species (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). In the Canaries, most of the high islands (Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro) present by contrast at the same altitudes an open, tall (> 30 m) pine forest (J.M. FernándezPalacios, 2010). Only on La Palma and Tenerife the pine forest is substituted in height by a summit scrub characterized by endemic, cushion-like legumes (Adenocarpus viscosus on La Palma and Spartocytisus supranubius on Tenerife) and several other endemic species such as Echium wildpretii (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). However, in the past, this could have been an open forest where the Canary Island juniper, Juniperus cedrus, dominated. Having been almost driven to extinction for the extraction of timber, the Canary Island juniper is mostly relegated to inaccessible landscapes on Tenerife and La Palma. On the two islands highelevation dry woodland (Chamaecytiso–Pinetea canariensis alliance Spartocytision supranubii) is confined to slopes over 2000 m with specific climatic attributes: very low humidity level, scarce rainfalls, very cool winters (-16ºC occasionally registered), warm summers (sometimes more than 46ºC), high isolation year-round, and big contrasts of day/night temperatures (WWF, 2015a). In Madeira, at higher altitudes, the dry evergreen forest is replaced by an upland vegetation of herbaceous plants and shrubs, with Erica arborea being the dominant shrub species. Bryophyte and lichen communities, especially epiphytes, are highly diverse as well (WWF, 2015c). Lakes Whereas lakes and ponds are abundant in the Azores, by far the more humid system, the rest of the archipelagos lack them. Nevertheless, in Madeira this is only due to the absence of 39 proper basins, because the water availability is high enough. The Canary Islands although without lakes or ponds keep some permanent water fluxes where fresh water arthropods, including endemic species, may be found. Mires and bogs Azorean mires, i.e. peatlands, are an important element of the Azores’s volcanic landscape. Further, 74% of the terrestrial areas in the Azores belonging to the Nature 2000 conservation network of European Union are above 500 a.s.l., where mires are a dominant feature (Mendes & Dias, 2013). These peat formations are of most importance in the Macaronesian biogeographic region where peat formations are very scarce, due to inappropriate environmental conditions for peat formation and large human effect on the landscape. Mires hosts several endangered species, among them juniper (Juniperus brevifolia), Azorean heath (Erica azorica) and fern species (e.g. Culcita macrocarpa). In particular, peat bogs found on Flores and Terceira are very rich in endemic species and are also in immediate danger from overgrazing (WWF, 2015d). Lava fields With the exception of Madeira and Selvagens (without Holocene volcanism), young volcanic terrain is abundant in all the archipelagos with several historical eruptions, some of them with in the last years or decades, usually dominated in their first stages by the lichen Stereocaulon Vesubianum (J.M. Fernández-Palacios et al., 2008). Marine Ecoregion According to the MEOW (Marine Ecoregions of the World) classification, the marine Ecoregions proposed by a group of experts at the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and The Nature Conservancy (TNC) are defined as relatively homogeneous areas that are clearly distinguishable on the basis of the species that inhabit them, as determined by oceanographical or topographical features and by the presence of specific ecosystems (Spalding et al., 2007). For the MEOW classification, the Azores, Madeira and the Canaries formed the Macaronesian Ecoregion, part of the “Lusitanian” marine province, included in the realm “Temperate Northern Atlantic”, with an extension of 1,645,462 km2 (Spalding et al., 2007). Species Diversity and Endemism The Macaronesian region is an extremely important centre of biodiversity and worldwide known for its outstanding endemic biodiversity, the highest of any other insular region within Europe, and comparable in endemism per area to the figures displayed in island show-cases such as Hawaii, Galápagos, New Zealand, New Caledonia or Madagascar (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). At present, more than 5,700 endemic species are known in about 10,600 km2 that make up the 18 islands and several islets of these three archipelagos (Arechavaleta, Rodríguez, Zurita, & Gracía, 2010; Borges et al., 2008; Borges et al., 2010; Moro, Martín, Garrido, & Izquierdo, 2003). The big majority of the Macaronesian endemisms belong to a single archipelago, although there is also an important element of Macaronesian endemic species occurring in more than one archipelago, especially the Canarian-Madeiran element, where many laurel forest species (palaeoendemics) are shared (Sziemer, 2000 in J.M. FernándezPalacios, 2010). This preponderance of endemic species - a result of the islands’ isolation and range of geological ages - has made the Macaronesian region an outstanding area for studies of evolution and speciation. However, most Macaronesian island studies concern the 40 fauna and flora of single islands or archipelagoes, and studies addressing the processes shaping differentiation in the Macaronesian islands as a whole are in need. Moreover, the number of evolutionary studies performed in the Macaronesian islands is clearly biased towards the Canary Islands and very little is known about the youngest and most remote of the Macaronesian archipelagoes, the Azores (Borges et al., 2008). In order to overcome the ‘Linnaean’ shortfall, a thoroughly inventory of the Macaronesian terrestrial and marine biota has been finished and several checklists from all the archipelagos have been published and updated in the last years (Abreu & Teixeira, 2008; Arechavaleta et al., 2010; Barcelos et al., 2015; Borges et al., 2008; Borges et al., 2010; Borges, Cunha, Gabriel, Martins, L. Silva, et al., 2005; Borges, Cunha, Gabriel, Martins, Silva, et al., 2005; I. Izquierdo, Martín, Zurita, Arechavaleta, & (eds), 2004; Moro et al., 2003; R. S. Santos, Porteiro, & Barreiros, 1997). Terrestrial biodiversity Currently, a total of 6,164 terrestrial taxa has been reported for the Azores (from which 7% are endemics), 7,571 for Madeira (19% endemics) and 14,318 for the Canary Islands (27% endemics) (Table 7 and Figure 8). These figures do not include only the native species of those archipelagos, but also those introduced voluntarily or involuntarily by humans and that now grow wild there. The endemicity rates of the respective archipelagos are therefore actually higher than the ones given in Figure 8. Table 7. Terrestrial species biodiversity of Macaronesian archipelagos Azores Fungi (sensu lato) Lichens Diatoms Amoebozoa Protozoa Bryophytes Vascular plants Canaries Madeira Total Species 544 Endemic Species 24 Total species 1,893 Endemic species 107 Total Species 724 Endemic species 36 788 536 39 10 7 1,548 40 758 12 480 1,110 7 73 503 2091 6 539 19 512 1,204 11 154 Arthropods 2,298 266 7,599 2,898 3,891 979 Molluscs 114 49 286 236 295 210 Nematodes 131 2 116 9 63 1 Annelids 22 62 36 Platyhelmints 31 60 1 7 1 Briozoans 2 Nemertins 2 Vertebrates 71 14 156 21 62 15 Total 6,164 452 14,318 3,857 7,571 1,419 (Sources: Arechavaleta et al., 2010; Borges et al., 2008; Borges et al., 2010) 41 Animals dominate the Macaronesian terrestrial diversity, arthropods being the majority (47% on average) of all recorded taxa. The animal phyla are also the most diverse in endemic taxa, namely Mollusca and Arthropoda, comprising about 50% of the Macaronesian endemics. The percentage of endemism within Mollusca is particularly remarkable, ranging from 43% in the Azores to 83% in the Canary Islands. Endemic vascular plants represent 25% of the overall endemic plant species while the remaining higher taxonomic groups are less diverse in terms of endemic forms: fungi – 5% on average; lichens – 2%; bryophytes – 2%; vertebrates 19%. Canaries 8% Azores 3% 2% 13% 6% 1% 4% 26% 20% 2% 38% 83% 1% 1% 1% 7% 12% 43% Fungi (sensu lato) Bryophytes Arthropods Nematodes Vertebrates Lichens Vascular Plants Molluscs Platyhelmints Fungi (sensu lato) Diatoms Vascular Plants Molluscs Vertebrates Madeira 2% 5% 2% 14% Lichens Bryophytes Arthropods Nematodes 13% 24% 25% 2% 71% Fungi (sensu lato) Bryophytes Arthropods Nematodes Vertebrates Lichens Vascular Plants Molluscs Platyhelmints Figure 8. Proportion of endemic taxa (species and subspecies) in the terrestrial phyla of the Macaronesian archipelagos Table 8. Largest radiations in the Macaronesian archipelagos Group Spermatophyta Azores Agrostis (5) Ammi (3) Carex (3) Madeira Sinapidendron (6) Sedum (4) Helichrysum (4) Musschia (3) Lotus (3) Scrophularia (3) Geranium (3) Argyranthemum (3) Mollusca Oxychilus (13) Leiostyla (34) 42 Canaries Aeonium clade (52) Sonchus (32) Sideritis (23) Echium (23) Argyranthemum (19) Limonium (19) Lotus (17) Cheirolophus (15) Micromeria (15) Napaeus (50)* Group Azores Napaeus (7)* Leptaxis (7) Plutonia (7)* Leiostyla (4) Arthropoda Cixius (11) Trechus (9) Tarphius (8) Scoparia (4) Calathus (4) Jaera (4) Atheta (4) Clinocera (4) Madeira Caseolus (27) Discula (25) Actinella (22) Leptaxis (17) Amphorella (12) Boettgeria (9) Geomitra (9) Plutonia (8)* Craspedaria (7) Laparocerus (33) Cylindroiulus (28) Sphaericus (26) Blastobasis (22) Tarphius (21) Geostiba (19) Acalles (17) Trechus (19) Nesotes (16) Chinacapsus (11) Torrenticola (10) Caulotrupis (10) Canaries Hemicycla (35) Plutonia (21)* Canariella (19) Monilearia (10) Xerotricha (9) Ferussacia (8) Discus (8) Cryptella (6) Laparocerus (106) Attalus (52) Dolichoiulus (46) Dysdera (47) Oecobius (33) Cardiophorus (33) Tarphius (30) Acalles (29) Calathus (24) Cyphopterum (26) Spermophorides (24) Hegeter (21) Chordata Gallotia (7) Tarentola (4) (Endemic genera in bold. (*): Genera under taxonomic revision, in process of being split in single-archipelago endemic genera. Source: J.M. Fernández-Palacios (2010). Consisting of nine relatively small oceanic islands of recent origin (between 0.3 and 8 million years) and with a great isolation from the closest mainland (about 1,600 km), the Azorean fauna and flora is characterized by a lower percentage of endemism when compared to the neighbouring Macaronesian archipelagos (Madeira and Canaries), that is, only about 7%, which contrasts with 19% for Madeira and 27% for the Canary islands. However, as in any oceanic archipelago, little diversity is not equivalent to a low interest from the point of view of conservation, since the Azores hosts many unique species. The total number of terrestrial endemic species and/or subspecies from the archipelago is about 452 (411 species). Animals are the most represented in this respect, with 331 taxa (Arthropoda = 266; Mollusca = 49; Vertebrata = 14; Nematoda = 2), that is, about 73% of the Azorean terrestrial endemics. The percentage of endemism within Mollusca (43%) is remarkable. Vascular plants have 73 endemic taxa, while Fungi (including Lichens) have 34, freshwater diatoms and bryophytes have seven endemic species each (Borges et al., 2010). The Canaries archipelago is one of the biologically-richest temperate zones in the world (Petit & Prudent, 2010) and one of the areas with the highest endemism density within the Mediterranean bioclimatic region (Martín et al., 2008), which was considered one of the "hotspots" of biodiversity in the planet (Myers, Mittermeier, Mittermeier, Fonseca, & Kent, 2000). In these islands there are more than 14,300 terrestrial species (included in a total of 3,193 genera and 1,335 families) in a land area of only 7,500 km2, from which about 3,800 species and 120 genera are endemic (Arechavaleta et al., 2010), being among them many examples of spectacular radiations of both invertebrates (Laparocerus, Attalus, Dysdera, Napaeus, 43 Hemicycla, Dolichoiulus, etc.) and plants (Aeonium, Argyranthemum, Cheirolophus, Echium, Limonium, Lotus, Pericallis, Sideritis, Sonchus, etc.) (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). Moreover, a large part of endemic species is unique to a single island, which makes them of even greater importance. Noteworthy are the case of Gran Canaria and Tenerife islands where the proportion of island endemism exceeds 10 and 15%, respectively, of its native biota (Martín et al., 2008). Madeira Island stands out as the second biodiversity richest island in all Macaronesia, only surpassed by Tenerife in the Canary Islands. However, Tenerife is clearly a much larger island, which confirms Madeira Island to be an obvious hotspot of biodiversity (Borges et al., 2008). The archipelago of Madeira is outstanding diverse in total species (ca. 7,571, from which 421 are subspecies) as well as endemic species (ca. 1,419, from which 182 subspecies), among those as much as 979 endemic arthropods, 210 endemic molluscs and 154 endemic vascular plants (Borges et al., 2008). Also the Selvagens islands, despite its minimum size, harbours more than 50 endemics species, and many other Macaronesian endemisms shared either with Madeira, the Canaries or both (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). The mentioned figures may vary greatly due to the lack of many taxa in Madeira, as it is the case of flatworms, annelids and nematodes (José Jesus, Teixeira, Teixeira, Freitas, & Russo, 2009). There are other groups that even with many taxa referred to the Madeira Islands appear to fall short of the actual number, such as the case of arthropods (José Jesus et al., 2009). Also the introduction of new species and the naturalization of some should be considered. Molluscs Macaronesia has one of the highest rates of molluscan diversity in the world ranging from 43% in the Azores to 71% in Madeira and 83% in the Canary Islands (Table 7). Azores Of Palaearctic and Macaronesian origin, terrestrial molluscs of the Azores add up to only 114 species but contain the highest percentage of endemism in the archipelago (Borges et al., 2008). According to Prof. Frias Martins (pers. com., Feb. 2016), the figure for the Azores may also be increased to over 70% when discovered species that have not yet been described to science are included, placing the archipelago at the same level of diversity of Madeira and Canary Islands. Although these endemics are present in all the islands in a relatively homogeneous percentage in relation to all of their existing malacofauna, there are important differences when analysing the exclusive endemism of the various islands (Martín et al., 2008). Thus, only four islands have typical island endemics, standing out among them Santa Maria with 70% of unique endemic species (Martins, 1981, 2002; Martins & Ripken, 1991; Mordan & Martins, 2001 in Martín et al., 2008); then follows São Miguel and Terceira with just over 20% and Faial with about 10%. This disparity of Santa Maria richness in relation to other islands is even more worthy of record when taking into account the size of the island; S. Miguel, for example, about eight times bigger, has in total 76 species while Santa Maria has 62. The endemic wealth of Santa Maria can only be explained by this being the oldest island of the archipelago, with about 8 My. (Feraud et al., 1984 in Martín et al., 2008). Madeira In Madeira, 295 terrestrial mollusc taxa are listed in all the islands (187 on the island of Madeira, 104 in Porto Santo, 37 in Desertas and 8 in the Selvagens islands) (Borges et al., 2008). The percentage of endemism at the specific level is higher than 70%, with an occurrence of very 44 localized endemics and specific to each island of the archipelago of Madeira (Borges et al., 2008). The archipelago, with only 800 km2, belongs to the group of oceanic islands with the greatest diversity of terrestrial molluscs per unit area on our planet, in which the islands of Hawaii and Mauritius are also included (Waldén, 1983 in Martín et al., 2008). It should be noted that the island of Porto Santo, the oldest of the archipelago of Madeira is the island that contains more species and subspecies of terrestrial molluscs per unit area (104 taxa in only 43 km2), 80% of which are endemic (Borges et al., 2008). The most striking feature of Madeiran fauna is its pronounced relict character. Most of the endemic taxa belong to genera or subgenera which are now either extinct in Europe or have evolved from ancestors in Europe (Kay, 1995). The colonization of Madeira seems to have taken place largely in the mid-Tertiary and was probably facilitated by the presence of now sunken islands between Madeira and the Iberian Peninsula (Pastour et al. 1980 in Kay, 1995). Thus Madeira can be considered a living museum for a Tertiary molluscan fauna now extinct elsewhere. Canary Islands In the Canary Islands, endemism is outstanding for gastropods: about 83% of the 285 species are endemic (Arechavaleta et al., 2010), of which one genus alone, the Canarian snail genus Hemicycla, has 76 species and is the second most species-rich genus of invertebrates in the archipelago (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). Six mollusc genera are endemic to the archipelago. Arthropods Arthropods, which include crustaceans, centipedes and millipedes, spiders and insects, are the most diverse group of animals in Macaronesia and include species associated to a wide variety of ecosystems. Arthropod fauna displays a number of characteristics typical of oceanic islands, including a high degree of endemism, ranging from 12% for the Azores (Borges et al., 2010), to 25% for Madeira (Borges et al., 2008) and 38% for the Canary Islands (Arechavaleta et al., 2010). The major group of terrestrial invertebrates in the Macaronesia are insects, to which V. Wollaston dedicated much of his life to study, the Coleoptera in particular (Rego, Boieiro, Vieira, & Borges, 2015). Table 9. Total area for the island systems studied and the respective richness of indigenous, archipelagic endemic and single island endemic species (SIE) of arthropods in general and beetles in particular. Archipelago Arthropods Beetles Indigenous species Endemic species Single-island endemics Indigenous species Endemic species Azores 1 373 258 108 210 64 Singleisland endemic 39 Canaries 6 826 3 079 1 757 1 954 1 250 796 Madeira 3 249 979 845 901 416 356 Total 11 448 4 316 2 710 3 065 1730 1 119 Source: Kostas A. Triantis et al. (2010a) 45 Azores Arthropoda, represent the most diverse Phylum in Azores, encompassing 2,298 species and subspecies, about 37% of taxa (Table 7), a pattern that is common worldwide. A great proportion of the taxa existing in the archipelago are introduced (42%) and only 12% are endemic, while for 11% of the taxa there is not enough information to attribute a colonization status (Rego et al., 2015). However, both current and total rates of species description are the lowest of all Macaronesian archipelagos, indicating that the recent process of description of the most singular Azorean species 5 is far from being complete and that many species of terrestrial arthropods may be discovered in the near future (J. M. Lobo & Borges, 2010). The most important case of a ‘Linnean’ shortfall in the Azores is the inventory of Hymenoptera. The richest terrestrial arthropod groups (=orders) in taxa are Coleoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera. This is in general accordance with what happens in terms of diversity worldwide, the exception being Hymenoptera a globally diverse order (comparable with Diptera), but poorly represented in the Azores (Rego et al., 2015). However, this difference could be only the reflection that this group has been less studied taxonomically in this archipelago (Borges et al., 2005b, 2010a; Lobo & Borges, 2010). When considering only the endemic species the scenario is a little different of the one obtained for the overall diversity, as in the Azores the orders with more endemic taxa (species and subspecies) are the Coleoptera and Diptera, accounting for 27% and 19% of endemic taxa respectively, followed by Lepidoptera representing 14% of all endemic species, while the Hemiptera account for only 4% (Rego et al., 2015). But again, these findings may result from taxonomic bias; in Azores there are some taxonomic experts on Coleoptera, Araneae and Lepidoptera that have made a great effort during the last decades on the study of specimens from the several islands leading to new findings. However, for other groups, like Diptera and Hymenoptera, no such expertise is available (J. M. Lobo & Borges, 2010). Box 1. Initiatives that have contributed to increase public awareness in terms of Azorean arthropod conservation • • • • • • • • • Azorean Biodiversity Portal (www.azoresbioportal.angra.uac.pt) Azorean Biodiversity Gallery (http://galeria.azoresbioportal.angra.uac.pt) ATLANTIS database (http://www.atlantis.angra.uac.pt/atlantis/common/index.jsf) Azorean Spiders (http://www.jorgenlissner.dk/azoreanspiders.aspx) Termites from the Azores (http://sostermitas.angra.uac.pt) E.D.E.N – Azores Habitats (http://www.eden-azores.com) The Facebook page “Chama-lhe Nomes” (“Call them names”) (https://www.facebook.com/Chama.lhe.Nomes) The exhibition “Insetos: vida nos Açores” ("Insects: wildlife ithe Azores") displayed in most Azorean islands (http://siaram.azores.gov.pt/centros-interpretacao/intro.html) 5 The Azores present a low number of endemic taxa when compared with other oceanic archipelagos. Further, when we consider the diversification that occurred in these islands, it is also very low as only 18 genera have 3 or more endemic taxa, representing 30% of the overall endemism, while genera with a single endemic species Despite the interest of Thomas Wollaston in the insect fauna of the Macaronesian archipelagos, he never collected in the Azores, probably because of his health problems that made the local climate unsuitable for him to do fieldwork (A. Machado, 1998). 46 account for 49% (134 species) (Rego et al., 2015). In this context the Coleoptera represent the group with higher diversification events, including five of the most speciose genera (Figure 9). The low diversification in Azores is probably due to the recent origin of this archipelago (a large proportion of the island areas is less than 1 My, even in islands with old terrain like São Miguel and Terceira) and its greater isolation from colonization sources, among other factors (e.g. Borges & Hortal, 2009; Triantis et al., 2012, in Rego et al., 2015). Figure 9. Number of endemic species and subspecies (S) of the most speciose genera of terrestrial arthropods from Azores Source: Rego et al. (2015). Photos by Carla Rego, Paulo A.V. Borges, Javier Torrent, Enésima Mendonça and Virgílio Vieira Madeira According to Borges et al. (2008), 3,891 taxa (species and subspecies) of terrestrial arthropods belonging to 462 families and 2,118 genera were recorded for Madeira. Out of these, about 87% (3,393 taxa) are insects, from which 798 are endemic. And the number of newly described species grows steeply as a function of time, suggesting that many more species await discovery. The subphylum Hexapoda, which includes highly diverse insects, is by far the most diverse of all arthropod groups with 3,394 taxa (i.e. 87 % of all arthropods). If only true species are counted, there are 3,859 arthropod species in the archipelago of Madeira. Madeira island, the largest island of the archipelago, is by far the richest with 3,542 species and 121 subspecies of arthropods, totaling 3,549 individual taxa (Borges et al., 2008). The most hyperdiverse orders worldwide are also the most diverse in Madeira archipelago: beetles (Coleoptera) with 1,040 taxa; wasps, bees and ants (Hymenoptera) with 610 taxa; flies (Diptera) with 555 taxa; and moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera) with 331 taxa. However, bugs, aphids and hoppers (Hemiptera) are also a diverse group with about 522 individual taxa. These five insect orders comprise 78% of all arthropod species and subspecies of the Madeira archipelago (Borges et al., 2008). Radiation processes have been important only in invertebrate genera, nine of them with more than 18 endemic taxa, such as Laparocerus weevils (34 sp.) Sphaericus beetles (28 sp.) or Cylindroiulus millipedes (28 sp.) (Borges et al., 2008). Madeira has about 979 individual taxa (species = 921; subspecies = 77). Most of these taxa are single island endemics. However, based on the steep slope of the cumulative new taxa’ 47 discovery curve, the current number of known endemic species and subspecies is certainly a poor estimate of its real number. The terrestrial arthropod fauna of the Madeira archipelago is dominated by indigenous taxa (68%) and only 28% of the taxa are considered exotic (Borges et al., 2008). Thirty-one arthropod genera have 5 or more endemic species and subspecies. Surprisingly, these 31 dominant genera contain 34% of the endemic arthropod taxa from Madeira (Borges et al., 2008). Madeira island presents unique spider diversity with a high number of endemic species, many of which are still poorly known. A recent biodiversity survey on the terrestrial arthropods of the native forest, Laurisilva, provided a large set of standardized samples from various patches throughout the island. Out of the 52 species recorded, approximately 33.3% are Madeiran endemics, many of which had not been collected since their original description. And new invertebrates species to science continue to be reported (e.g. Ceratinopsis n. sp. and Theridion n. sp.) (Luís C. Crespo et al., 2014) The Desertas Islands are the sole home of one of the largest and rarest wolf spider species, Hogna ingens. This species is a strict endemic, being present in a single valley of an oceanic island (Crespo, Silva, Borges, & Cardoso, 2014) Canary Islands In the Canary Islands, it is in invertebrates that island specific endemicity is the most spectacular, such as beetles and butterflies (A. Machado, 1998). Tenerife harbours the highest number of endemic species of beetles (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). The Geometridae family (Lepidoptera) contains approximately 50% endemicity. Other groups like Orthoptera and Diptera species are almost 45% and 40% endemic respectively (A. Machado, 1998). The Arachnida (spiders, pseudo-scorpions and mites) are represented by approximately 800 native species, half of which are endemic (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). Twelve of the genera in the Arachnida are endemic. With over 43 species, the non-endemic genus of spiders Dysdera has the highest number of endemics (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). Most of the studies aiming to reconstruct the origin and evolution of certain groups of Canarian insects suggest a recent (Quaternary) origin for these organisms, although it has been suggested that species form the lowlands are older than those occurring at higher elevations, particularly on the humid evergreen forest and pine forest (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). The extensive cave system, composed mostly of volcanic tubes, has one of the most peculiar ecosystems in the Canary Islands with a highly endemic invertebrate fauna and with roosting sites for bats. Approximately 168 endemic invertebrate thrive in this ecosystem; 124 of them are terrestrial, and the rest occur in aquatic environments (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). The vast majority of these invertebrates are insects (ca. 80%) and 27% of them are spiders. A great proportion of these species are blind, lack any body pigmentation and have large legs and antennae. Plants The remote and isolated location of the islands has allowed a whole series of the Tertiary subtropical flora to still exist in the Macaronesian region (EEA, 2002). This includes many tropical plant families, such as the palm family (Arecaceae), the sapote family (Sapotaceae) and the tea family (Theaceae) as well as a number of species in the laurel and olive families (Lauraceae and Oleaceae). 48 The Macaronesian region hosts a high number of plant species and especially endemics. In this region, the Canary Islands are outstanding in terms of endemism. Of the 2,091 vascular species, 539 are endemic, constituting a 26 % endemism (Table 7). A majority of the endemics are ancient relict endemics with their greatest affinities in the Tertiary flora. A characteristic feature of these species is that they are systematically isolated or have systematic relatives in remote geographical areas. A Macaronesian endemic, the Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) is closely related to chin pine (P. roxburghii) in the Himalayas (EEA, 2002). Further, the endemic aderno (Heberdenia excelsa) is closely related to H. penduliflora in Mexico. Most of the endemics are found among trees and shrubs and fewer among annuals. Macaronesia is home of important cases of phylogenetic radiation (Table 8), and although usually the radiation is circumscribed to just one Macaronesian archipelago, with the Canaries clearly leading these statistics, there are several cases where different archipelagos contribute with their own endemic species to the global picture of the clade (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010) (Table 10 and Table 11). Actually, one floristic monophyletic clade, the Aeonium group, include species distributed on all Macaronesian archipelagos, each one with their own endemic species, all of them included in four different genera (Aeonium, Greenovia, Aychrison and Monanthes) of the Crassulaceae family (J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010) Table 10. Distribution among archipelagos of the Macaronesian plant endemic species. Endemic species Bryophytes Pteridophytes Spermatophytes Total Azores Madeira Canaries Azores – Madeira Madeira – Canaries Azores – Madeira – Canaries 9 11 9 5 13 8 7 8 3 4 1 61 141 613 7 45 4 77 160 625 16 58 13 Single archipelago endemics 29 18 815 862 Multiple archipelago endemics 26 5 56 87 Macaronesia 55 23 871 949 Sources: Izquierdo et al., 2004; Arechavaleta et al., 2005; Borges et al., 2005, 2008 in J.M. Fernández-Palacios (2010). 49 Table 11. Examples of some multiple-archipelago monophyletic radiation flora events in Macaronesia Clade Aeonium clade Sonchus clade Echium Argyranthemum Cheirolophus Pericallis Azores Madeira Canaries Macaronesia 59 1 6 52 35 3 32 25 2 23 23 4 19 16 1 15 14 1 1 12 1 12 13 Crambe Sources: Izquierdo et al., 2004; Arechavaleta et al., 2005; Borges et al., 2005, 2008; Arnedo et al., 2007; Machado, 2007, 2008, in J.M. Fernández-Palacios (2010) The dominant trees of the Atlantic Laurel Forests shared by the three archipelagos include genera such as Picconia, Laurus, Ilex, Prunus and Morella, whereas Juniperus brevifolia is exclusive from Azores and Apollonias, Persea and Ocotea are restricted to Madeira and the Canaries (Santos, 1990; Capelo et al, 2007; Dias et al, 2007, in J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010) With regard to Bryoflora, the number of taxa in Macaronesia is 792, from which only 64 are common to all of the archipelagos (Sérgio, Sim-Sim, Fontinha, & Figueira, 2008). The endemic taxa of mosses and liverworts-hornworts correspond to about 5% of the total Bryoflora. At a regional level, the archipelago with the highest Bryoflora diversity is Madeira (512), followed by the Canary Islands (503), and Azores (480) (Borges et al., 2008). Table 12. Diversity of bryophytes in the Macaronesian archipelagos Azores Madeira Canaries Mosses 311 333 356 Liverworts/hornwort 169 179 147 Total 480 512 503 Sources: (Arechavaleta et al., 2010) Borges et al. (2008); Borges et al. (2010). Azores In the Azores, vascular plants include over 1,100 taxa from which ca. 200 are native (Schaefer et al., 2011) and 73 are currently recognized as endemic (Table 7). The archipelago’s flora shows affinities with Atlantic and Boreal Europe (Juncaceae, Cyperaceae, Sphagnum) and with Madeira and the Canaries (Ilex, Juniperus, Laurus, Morella, Picconia, Prunus, etc.) (FernandesPalacios & Dias, 2001; Schåffer, 2003 in J.M. Fernández-Palacios, 2010). In contrast with other archipelagos of the Macaronesian region, the Azores are lacking xerophytes of African origin. Instead the Azores show a significant number of associations with the Iberian flora (EEA, 2002). In addition, the Azores only has one endemic genus of vascular plants (Azorina) (Borges et al., 2009). Madeira In the archipelago of Madeira 1,204 taxa (species and subspecies) of vascular plants have been recorded (Table 7). From these, 154 (corresponding to 136 species and 21 subspecies) are endemic to the archipelago (13%), 74 are Macaronesian endemics (6%), 480 native taxa (40%), 66 probable native (6%), 29 likely introduced (2.4%) and 401 (33%) are introduced (Martín et 50 al., 2008). Of special importance for Madeira is the high number of species of pteridophytes, with 75 species represented in the evergreen forest, 14 of them endemic (EEA, 2002). The vascular flora comprises palaeo-endemics (e.g. Laurus, Ocotea, Apollonias, Persea, Clethra), neo-endemics, (many with adaptive radiation, e.g. Aeonium, Sonchus, Echium, Sinapidendron, Euphorbia, Isoplexis, Musschia), Mediterranean Flora (e.g. Euphorbia, Olea, Maytenus, Myrtus, Teline, Genista) and anthropic flora (plants introduced by man and naturalized (e.g. Castanea, Pinus and Ulex) (José Jesus et al., 2009). Some of the vascular plants strictly endemic to Madeira are, for example, Polystichum maderensis, Cerastium vagans, Armeria maderensis, Goodyera macrophylla, Viola paradoxa, Crambe fruticosa, Matthiola maderensis, Sinapidendron angustifolium, Saxifraga maderensis, Sorbus maderensis, Cytisus maderensis, Senecio maderensis, Phalaris maderensis, Pittosporum coriaceum, and Musschia wollastonii (WWF, 2015c). At present, the bryophytes of the Madeira archipelago comprise about 512 taxa, of which 333 are mosses and 179 are liverworts and hornworts (Borges et al., 2008), all widely distributed, occurring from the sea coast to the high mountains of the interior. According to Fontinha and Sim-Sim (2011), 15 of the endemic taxa of Macaronesia are unique to the archipelago of Madeira, corresponding to 11 mosses, of which the genus Nobregaea (N. latinervis) is endemic and monospecific, and 4 liverworts. Canary Islands The Canary Islands house a spectacular botanic diversity with over 1,300 species of native vascular plants found in approximately 102 families and 712 genera (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). It is in the terrestrial vascular plants that the complex evolutionary patterns of the Canaries have had one of its most visible manifestations: there are over 600 endemic species of seed plants, comprising 40% of a native flora with clear affinities with the Mediterranean region (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). At least 22 whole genera of seed plants are endemic to the Canaries, with seven belonging to the daisy family, Asteraceae. Some of these endemics are still considered to belong to ancient lineages that became extinct on the continent after the Tertiary period. However, most are now believed to have arrived and diversified on the islands relatively recently (Emerson, 2002). The evolutionary complexity created by crustal movements, changing sea levels and active volcanism as created mosaics within islands and between islands and archipelagoes. There are, for instance, about 60 native plants on the Canaries which are shared with at least one other Macaronesian archipelago, but are not known to occur on the continent (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). On the other hand, the endemic groups also show evolutionary patterns found in other oceanic islands such as the trend towards woodiness and arborescence (seen, e.g. in the Bencomia genus) and which has been related to competition-mediated selection for higher stature, or selection for longevity in an environment depauperated of pollinators. Concerning non-vascular plants, approximately only 5% of the non-vascular native flora is endemic to the Canary Islands. There are 1,634 native species of fungi (107 endemics), over 1,294 of lichens (26 endemics), and 464 of mosses and liverworts (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). 51 Birds Azores In the Azores, 414 species of birds are listed in the recent checklist of the Birds of the Azores (Barcelos et al., 2015), including those that reproduce in the Azores as well as non breeding species and a smaller list of potentially breeding species. The native birds from the Azores provide good examples of insular speciation, since two endemic species and 11 endemic subspecies are known (Barcelos et al., 2015). Moreover, many more endemic terrestrial species have gone extinct, possibly as a consequence of anthropic influence. A recent paper (J.C. Rando, Alcover, Olson, & Pieper, 2013), for example, describes an endemic species of owl (Otus frutuosoi), possibly extinct after human arrival. Among the regular breeding species, there is the Azores bullfinch Pyrrhula murina, the only Azorean endemic passerine species and one of the most threatened European species, restricted to a 83 km2 patch of cloud forest on the eastern part of São Miguel Island (Ceia, Ramos, Heleno, Hilton, & Marques, 2011). The Azores also hold the canary Serinus canaria, a passerine endemic to Macaronesia which led Birdlife International to designate the Azores as a Secondary Endemic Bird Area (EBA). Several endemic subspecies of Passeriformes are also present in the archipelago, similarly to what happens in the majority of insular systems (Borges et al., 2010). The endemic passerines include three subspecies of the goldcrest Regulus regulus (R. r. azoricus, R. r. inermis and R. r. sanctaemariae), and also one subspecies of the grey wagtail Motacilla cinerea patriciae, the common blackbird Turdus merula azorensis, the blackcap Sylvia atricapilla gularis, the common starling Sturnus vulgaris granti and the common chaffinch Fringilla coelebs moreletti. There is also an endemic subspecies of Falconiformes, the Azorean common buzzard Buteo buteo rothschildi, the only bird of prey in the region, and one of Columbiformes, the Azorean wood pigeon Columba palumbus azorica. Included in the species that sporadically nest in Azores, is the American black duck Anas rubripes. The Eurasian collared dove Streptopelia decaocto has greatly expanded in the last decades, having already arrived in the Azores, on São Miguel and Terceira islands. On the latter island, breeding was confirmed in 2009. The rose-ringed parakeet Psittacula krameri and the common waxbill Estrilda astrild were recently (and accidentally) introduced. Madeira In Madeira, birds are the class of vertebrates with more taxa, registering 38 species and subspecies (62%) (Martín et al., 2008). Moreover, the comparison of the proportion of endemics per class of vertebrates shows that birds account for 50% of all the endemics present in this archipelago (Martín et al., 2008). Four of these are endemic to the archipelago (a pigeon, Columba trocaz, two petrels, Pterodroma madeira and P. feae, and a passerine, Regulus maderensis), with an additional 2 species endemic to Macaronesia. In addition, there are also endemic subspecies such as Fringilla coelebs maderensis (Madeiran chaffinch). Canary Islands In the Canary Islands, 105 species and subspecies of breeding birds have been recorded (regular and occasional breeding), representing 67% of all vertebrates (Arechavaleta et al., 2010). 52 Together with Madeira, the Canaries have been designated an Endemic Bird Area by Birdlife International, and an urgent priority area for conservation. Most restricted-range species on the Canarian islands are dependent on laurel forest, with the majority being found on Tenerife. Four birds are endemic, Bolle's pigeon (Columba bollii), Laurel pigeon (Columba junoniae), Canary Islands finch (blue chaffinch Fringilla teydea), and Canary Islands kinglet (Regulus teneriffae). Columba junoniae prefers scrubbier areas above and below major stands of laurel, whereas Fringilla teydea is restricted to pine forest. The endemic Fringilla teydea is restricted to Gran Canaria (F. t. polatzeki) and Tenerife (F. t. teydea). However, a recent study carried out by Sangster, Rodríguez-Godoy, Roselaar, Robb, and Luksenburg (2015) shows that the blue chaffinches on Gran Canaria and Tenerife represent two distinctive species: F. polatzeki, considered as one of Europe’s rarest passerine species and F. teydea, much more common. Berthelot's pipit (Anthus berthelotii), plain swift (Apus unicolor), and common canary (Serinus canaria), all of them shared with Madeira and the last one with Azores, are near-endemic to the Canary Islands dry woodlands and forests (A. Machado, 1998). Bird subspecies restricted to the Canary Islands include a subspecies of kestrel (Falco tinnunculus teneriffae), a grey wagtail (Motacilla cinerea canariensis), a long-eared owl (Asio otus canariensis), three subspecies of chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs tintillon, F.c. ombriosa, F.c. palmae), a Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus canariensis) and two subspecies of great spotted woodpeckers (Dendrocopos major canariensis, D. m. thanneri) (A. Machado, 1998). The archipelago’s ecoregion “Mediterranean Acacia-Argania Dry Woodland and Succulent Thicket” contains the endemic Fuerteventura chat (Saxicola dacotiae), and the following endemic bird sub-species: kestrel (Falco tinnunculus dacotiae), houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae), barn owl (Tyto alba gracilirostris), stone-curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus insularum), and the cream-colored courser (Cursorius cursor bannermani) (WWF, 2015b). Other bird subspecies endemic to all the Canaries include the buzzard (Buteo buteo insularum), spectacled warbler (Sylvia conspicillata orbitalis), great grey shrike (Lanius excubitor koenigi), lesser short-toed lark (Calandrella rufescens polatzeki), and linnet (Acanthis canabina harteri) (WWF, 2015b). A process of radiation, has occurred in many birds, such as the blue tit Parus caeruleus (Paridae) that has evolved into three different subspecies: P. c. teneriffae in Gran Canaria, Tenerife and La Gomera, P.c. ombriosus in El Hierro and P.c. palmensis in La Palma (Moreno 1988). Because of the short distance to Africa, the Canary Islands are visited every year by many migratory bird species that fly south in autumn in search of warmer places and go back to Europe in the spring. In addition, there are fossils from a poorly know giant flightless bird from Lanzarote (approximately 6 million years old). Other extinct flightless birds include a passerine (Emberiza alcoveri) and a finch (Carduelis triasi and C. aurelioi); it is believed that these two species became extinct recently, very likely linked to human activities. Reptiles The remote and isolated locations of islands in the Macaronesian region may contribute to the generally low diversity of species observed in the herpetofauna (EEA, 2002). The region lacks systematic units as snakes and amphibians, but recent introductions of – for instance marsh frog (Rana perezi) and tree frog (Hyla meridionalis) – have occurred. Isolation and low levels of 53 flow of genetic material has caused a significant speciation in reptiles, especially so in the Canary Islands. The region now hosts endemic genera, species and subspecies. Azores The only species of reptile regularly found in Azores – Lacerta (Teria) dugesii – was introduced from Madeira, where it is endemic. In 2002, the Tarentola mauritanica was recorded for the first time and breeding and the establishment of natural populations has been confirmed since then (Borges et al., 2010). Madeira In Madeira, seven species and subspecies of reptiles occur, representing 11% of vertebrates in the archipelago (Martín et al., 2008) and contributing for 42% of all the endemics present in these archipelagos (Borges et al., 2008). Two species where introduced, the Tarentola mauritanica and Hemidactylus mabouia. The five native taxa are all endemic (Erro! A origem da referência não foi encontrada.): a gecko (Tarentola bischoffi) in the Selvagens islands and a small lizard (Teira dugesii, peculiar for having distinct sub-species in each of the 4 island groups) in the entire archipelago. The lack of dispersal abilities featured by this group is responsible for a small rate of gene flow, which allowed speciation to occur fast. Canary Islands In the Canary Islands, 13 species of reptiles are native, all of them endemic (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). In fact, reptiles (as well as other vertebrates), went through an evolutionary radiation as species adapted to the varied island habitats. As a result, each island has endemics in the families Gekkonidae, Lacertidae and Scincidae, i.e., its own species or subspecies of lizard, skink or gecko; there are even island endemic representatives of these three families. The reptiles include one endemic genus of lizard, Gallotia (seven living species), which exhibit gigantism, including the largest species of the family Lacertidae (fossil specimens of the extinct G. goliath reached more than one meter). Smaller relatives of these extinct reptiles are still living in cliffs and crevices of islands like El Hierro, La Gomera, Tenerife and probably La Palma (WWF, 2015a). On Gran Canaria, larger than average lizards can also be seen all around the island, and the Haría lizard (Gallotia atlantica) is endemic to the two larger islands (Fuerteventura and Lanzarote) and associated smaller islets in the eastern Canaries (Clarke & Collins 1996, in WWF, 2015b). Skinks are represented here by four different endemic species of the genus Chalcides (C. coeruleopunctatus, C. sexlineatus, C. viridianus and C. simonyi), whereas geckos by four endemic species of the genus Tarentola as well (T. delalandii, T. gmerensis, T angustimentalis, and T. boettgeri), this last one shared with Salvages. Mammals Except for the white-toothed shrew (Crocidura canariensis), endemic to the eastern Canarian islands, all native and endemic terrestrial mammals in Macaronesia are bats. This fact is related to the poor dispersal abilities over widespaces of sea by terrestrial mammals (Borges et al., 2008). Possibly by virtue of the relative proximity of the coasts of continental Africa, the archipelago of the Canaries is the only one in Macaronesia to have been characterised by a terrestrial mammalian fauna, whereas such elements do not appear to have been diffused on the other islands throughout the entire recent Quaternary (Masseti, 2010). Today, 17 species of bats are reported from the islands of Macaronesia (Masseti, 2010), although this figure is not taken as certain. Three of these bats are regarded as endemic: the Madeira pipistrelle (Pipistrellus maderensis) endemic to Macaronesia, the Azorean bat 54 (Nyctalus azoreum), endemic to the Azores, and the Tenerife long-eared bat (Plecotus teneriffe), endemic to the Canaries. Together with the Sardinian long-eared bat, Plecotus sardus, these are the only four bat species regarded as endemic to the entire territory of Europe (Masseti, 2010). Azores Of the 11 terrestrial mammal species occurring in the Azores, only one is endemic (Nyctalus azoreum), three are native (Pipistrellus pipistrellus, P. madeirensis and Myotis myoti, although the occurrence of the latter is yet to be confirmed (Rainho, Marques, & Palmeirim, 2002)) and the remaining seven were introduced (Borges et al., 2010). Madeira In Madeira, there are 12 species and subspecies of mammals, representing 20% of the vertebrates in the archipelago (Borges et al., 2008). Endemic taxa comprise Nyctalus leisleri verrucosus, endemic to the archipelago and Pipistrellus maderensis, endemic to Macaronesia. Native species include Tadarida teniotis, Hypsugo savii and Plecotus austriacus. However, there is no certainty as to the number of species that actually occur in the archipelago (Borges et al., 2008; José Jesus et al., 2009). Canary Islands In the Canary islands, 21 mammal taxa have been reported (Arechavaleta et al., 2010). Of these, nine are native, including two endemics: the white-toothed shrew (Crocidura canariensis) is endemic to the eastern islands, where it is currently found on Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Lobos and Montaña Clara (Hutterer, 2008) and the Canary Big-eared Bat (Plecotus teneriffae). Other native bats species are Tadarida teniotis, Barbastella barbastellus, Hypsugo savii, Nyctalus leisleri, Pipistrellus kuhlii and Pipistrellus maderensis. Marine biodiversity Marine and coastal biodiversity of Macaronesia is also noteworthy but lack of information in this environment remains a significant challenge. However, given that terrestrial biota is much better known than marine biota, one can assume that a larger number of marine species will be added in the near future (e.g. Nematoda) (Borges et al., 2010). The marine organisms currently listed make up about 23% of the Azorean biodiversity (Borges et al., 2010). The total number of marine taxa (species and subspecies) in the Azores is estimated in about 1,883 taxa belonging to 16 phyla (Table 13). However, the precise number of species in the Azorean coastal and marine ecosystems is very difficult to know given the incomplete state of taxonomic knowledge. (Borges et al., 2010). The list of phyla is not complete and for many of those listed the diversity figures are not representative. So far, the most diverse groups are Pisces (543 taxa), Molluscs (353 taxa), Macro-algae (327 taxa) and Arthropods (291 taxa). The total number of marine endemic species and/or subspecies from the Azores is about 39. The majority of the Azorean marine biota comprises species that have arrived predominantly from the eastern Atlantic, chance survivors of episodic colonizing events (Morton & Britton, 2003). The geological youth of the islands and the greater connectedness of the marine realm apparently precluded a degree of endemism comparable to that reported on land. The current list of endemic marine taxa nevertheless includes 39 species (Borges et al., 2010). Most are littoral molluscs, but also included is one species of fish: the blue 55 wrasse Symphodus caeruleus, a sister species of S. trutta, found in Madeira and the Canaries (Almada, Almada, Henriques, Santos, & Brito, 2002). In the Canaries more than 5,265 marine species have been reported (Table 13), among which there are at least 164 endemic species to the archipelago (Moro et al., 2003). Unfortunately, these marine biodiversity data are not available for Madeira. Table 13. Number of known species and subspecies in the Azorean and Canarian coastal and marine habitats KINGDOM/ Phyla MONERA Cyanophycota Proteobacteria Firmicutes Protoctista Chlorophyta Rhodophyta Heterokontophyta Dinoflagellata Chromopyta Bacillariophyta Plantae Magnoliophyta Fungi Ascomycota Fungi imperfecti Animalia Porifera Cnidaria Ctenophora Sipuncula Echiura Annelida Arthropoda Mollusca Bryozoa Phoronida Entoprocta Echinodermata Brachiopoda Chaetognata Cephalorhyncha Nemertea Platyhelminthes Protozoa Chordata Classes Azores Total Endemics 327 51 214 62 Ascidiacea “Pisces” Total Actinopterygii Chondrichthyes 56 1 1 1,556 95 77 1 4 1 40 291 353 20 3 1 48 34 622 40 543 483 60 5 4 29 Canary Is. Total 83 63 17 3 1,149 118 391 231 130 279 3 3 22 19 3 4,008 157 168 4 6 2 305 1,113 1,188 136 2 84 15 22 1 1 37 35 732 28 673 587 86 KINGDOM/ Phyla TOTAL Classes Azores Canary Is. Total Endemics Total Reptilia 5 4 Mammalia 34 27 1,883 39 5,265 Sources: Borges et al. (2010) and Moro et al. (2003) Sea Birds The Azores archipelago displays colonies of several seabird species of great importance in the European context, but its importance for the avifauna extends beyond breeding species, given that it is also possible to observe pelagic birds and a large variety of migratory birds, some of which are very rare Nearctic vagrants to the western Palearctic (Rodrigues & Michielsen, 2010). Among the regular breeding species, there’s the only Azores endemic seabird, the Monteiro’s storm-petrel, (Hydrobates monteiroi), classified as vulnerable due to its small population size (a population of about 250-300 breeding pairs was estimated in 1999) and its restricted distribution (it is only known to breed on two islets, Baixo and Praia, situated off Graciosa Island) (BirdLife International, 2014). However, the actual population can be even higher because breeding is suspected on other islets of Graciosa (Baleia), althoug it cannot be confirmed due to its inaccessibility, as well as on further islets in the Azores (including some stacks off Flores and Corvo island), but proof is still lacking (Bolton et al., 2008). The remaining populations of marine birds in the archipelago are among the most important of Europe. The Azores houses the largest population in the world of cory’s shearwater (Calonectris borealis), with more than 180,000 couples, which corresponds to approximately four fifths of the European population (Bolton, 2001). Although the species is endangered, the population has a restricted distribution to the subtropical north-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean (Borges et al., 2010). Also important are the concentrations of angelito, Hydrobates castro (915-1240 couples, corresponding to 29% of the European population) and the Macaronesian shearwater, Puffinus lherminieri, (800-1500 couples, corresponding to 21% of the European population) and a residual population of Bulwer's Petrel, Bulweria bulwerii (about 50 to 70 pairs) (Miller et al, 1996, in Martín et al., 2008). Other two species nest in the Azores, which, although relatively common worldwide, are important populations at European and national level, respectively the roseate tern, Sterna dougallii, (about 1,000 couples, corresponding to 63% of the European population) and the common-tern, Sterna hirundo (about 2,000 couples, corresponding to 5% of the European population) (Gochfeld, 1983; Del Nevo et al., 1993, in Martín et al., 2008). Among the species that sporadically nest in Azores, there is the red-billed tropicbird Phaethon aethereus. The sooty tern Onychoprion fuscatus reaches the northern limit of its distribution in the Azores, where its presence has been known since 1902 (Borges et al., 2010). This species has been regularly breeding in the archipelago since 2002. Madeira is also particularly important for breeding seabirds, including not only Zino's Petrel (Pterodroma madeira), the endemic breeder on Madeira itself but also Fea's petrel (Pterodroma feae), which nests on Bugio in the Desertas islands (BirdLife International, 2015) and has a population of about 160-180 breeding pairs (SRA, 2014). In particular, the Desertas islands are one of the most important nesting areas for seabirds in Macaronesia and the North Atlantic, having singular and unique conditions worldwide (SRA, 2014). The entire group of islands is classified as "Important Bird Area" (IBA). Besides the mentioned Pterodroma feae, endemic to these islands, other breeding species are the shearwater Calonectris borealis, Bulwer's Petrel 57 (Bulweria bulwerii), Band-rumped Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro) and the common-tern (Sterna hirundo), all of European interest (SRA, 2014). Because of the short distance to Africa, the Canary Islands are visited every year by many migratory bird species that fly south in autumn in search of warmer places and go back to Europe in the spring. Others, mainly marine birds, use the archipelago as a nesting point only in the breeding season and after that return to the sea. This is the case with species of shearwater, such as Puffinus puffinus (Procellariidae), which nest in gullies of laurisilva (WWF, 2015a). Invertebrates Taxonomic knowledge on marine invertebrates is very incomplete. Twenty nine endemic marine snails are listed for the Azores, but no comprehensive studies are known for this group in the other archipelagoes, or for the remaining molluscs, let alone other major invertebrate groups such as crustaceans or echinoderms. Nevertheless, marine molluscs and arthropods are among the most diverse marine taxa in Macaronesia. Some marine gastropod molluscs, such as the Rissoidae, for instance (a group of mostly littoral, small marine gastropods) show a high percentage of endemism in Macaronesia and this has been related to its evolutionary capacity to lose the planktotophic larval stage (Ávila, Goud, & Frias Martins, 2012). In the Azores 353 molluscs and 291 arthropods are recorded up to date (Table 13). In the Canaries, approximately 1,180 of invertebrates in the marine environment are molluscs (42%), and about 1,100 are arthropods (38%) (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). However, very few of these are endemic to the Canaries. In line with terrestrial biota, marine molluscs show the highest rate of endemism from all taxonomic groups in the Azores: they represent 74% of all of marine endemic species and/or subspecies from the archipelago (29 species out of 39 in total) (Borges et al., 2010). The rich marine biodiversity of Madeira has clear affinities with the Mediterranean and the tropical and subtropical eastern Atlantic (Segers, Swinnen, & Prins, 2009), recording . In specific groups the conditions were right for the evolution of endemic species. This is particularly the case of littoral shelled molluscs: from the about 750 species recorded from Madeira, 23 are endemic to the archipelago (mostly in the littoral Rissodae family), with an additional 23 species shared with other Macaronesian archipelagoes (Segers et al., 2009). In the Canaries, animals clearly dominate the marine realm: molluscs are the most diverse marine taxa (1,170 species and 18 subspecies, from 227 families and 553 genera), followed by arthropods (1,096 species and 17 subspecies) and vertebrates (717 species and 15 subspecies) (Moro et al., 2003). Flora In the Azores, algae have been one of the most comprehensively studied marine groups in the more recent years. According to Borges et al. (2010), there are 327 macroalgae in the Azores (51 Chlorophyceae, 62 Phaeophyceae e 214 Rhodophyceae). The Predaea feldmannii ssp. azorica is the only known endemic taxa to the Azores. A few other species (Codium elisabethae, Laurencia viridis, Gelidiella tinerfensis, Phyllophora gelidioides, Meristotheca decumbens, Botryocladia macaronesica) are listed as endemic to the Macaronesian islands. The Canarian marine flora has approximately 700 species, including over 23 species of bluegreen algae and three species of flowering plants (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). 58 Approximately 16 of the algal species are endemic to the Canarian archipelago. The majority of the native flora (391 species) is red algae (Rhodophyta) Table 13). The island with the highest number of species is Tenerife (476 ssp.). In contrast, the western islands of La Palma and El Hierro have a poor flora with 196 and 189 species, respectively (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). In Madeira, 374 algae have been listed, from which 68 Chlorophyceae, 68 Phaeophyceae and 238 Rhodophyceae (S. Ferreira et al., 2012). Fish At least 18 species of fish are known to have a distribution restricted to Macaronesia (Brito, Falcón, & Herrera, 2007). Among these are the island grouper Mycteroperca fusca, the barred hogfish, Bodianus scrofa, the Madeira rockling Gaidropsaurus guttatus, the wrasse Symphodus trutta (shared between Madeira and the Canaries), Paraconger macrops (shared between Madeira and the Azores), and Gobius maderensis (shared between Madeira and the Canaries). In the Azores, only one of the known species of nearshore fishes is regarded as endemic, Symphodus caeruleus (Azevedo, 1999). In Madeira, a total of 226 species of littoral fish are recorded so far but no endemic species are known in the archipelago (SRA, 2014). The Canarian marine environment has a rich vertebrate fauna that includes 730 native species of fish. Reptiles From the seven species of sea turtles existing worldwide, six occur in Macaronesia: one of the family Dermochelydae (Dermochelys coriacea) and five in Cheloniidae family (Caretta caretta, Lepidochelys kempii, Eretmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, Lepidochelys olivacea). Although juvenile animals attend regional waters during their migration as a point of rest and food, there are no nesting records in Macaronesia for any of these species (Cabral et al., 2005; Brongersma, 1982; Dearniyagala, 1952, in Loureiro, N, M, & O, 2008). While Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas and Dermochelys coriacea are common, the others are only sighted occasionally (WWF, 2015a). Only Caretta caretta is considered a visitor species in Macaronesia according to the IUCN data, the other being occasional (M. E. Oliveira et al., 2005). Mammals Macaronesia has a unique diversity of sea mammals, with 27 species of cetaceans observed in the Canary Islands (Borges et al., 2010). Most of these species are migrants, although at least three species (i.e. short finned pilot whales, Globicephala macrorhynchus), sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) form permanent colonies in the region waters (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). The only pinniped that occurs in the region is the Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus), currently restricted to the Desertas islands. Once widely and continuously distributed in the Mediterranean and Black Seas (including all Macaronesian archipelagos), the monk seal was reduced to small numbers as a consequence of commercial hunting and human persecution, being virtually reduced to 3–4 isolated subpopulations (Karamanlidis, 2015). In the Macaronesia, there is a small colony with about 30-40 individuals on Desertas islands (Life Madeira Monkseal, 2014) that due to the legal protection of these islands have increased its population during the last years and expanded its presence along the coast of Madeira Island. 59 4. CONSERVATION OUTCOMES Introduction The Regional Ecosystem Profiles are built, in accordance with the CEPF EP methodology, based on Langhammer et al. (2007), around the concepts of conservation outcomes and key biodiversity areas (KBAs) 6. Conservation outcomes are the entire set of justifiable conservation targets that need to be achieved to prevent species extinctions and biodiversity loss. They are used as the scientific underpinning for determining geographic and thematic focus for conservation investment. Indeed, the BEST funding niches and strategy will be based upon these outcomes, firstly to ensure that investments are directed at relevant projects, and secondly to enable measurement of the success of conservation investments. By presenting quantitative and justifiable targets against which the success of investments can be measured, conservation outcomes allow the limited resources available for conservation to be targeted more effectively, and their impacts to be monitored at the global scale. Therefore, conservation outcomes form the basis for identifying biological priorities for investment. The selection of conservation outcomes relies on the understanding that biodiversity is not measured in any single unit. Rather, it is distributed across a hierarchical continuum of ecological scales that can be categorized into three levels: (1) the globally threatened species within the region, (2) the sites that sustain them (the key biodiversity areas, or KBAs), and (3) the landscapes necessary to maintain the ecological and evolutionary processes upon which those sites depend. These levels interlock geographically through the occurrence of species at sites and of species and sites within corridors. Given threats to biodiversity at each of the three levels, targets for conservation can be set in terms of “extinctions avoided” (species outcomes), “areas protected” (site outcomes), and “corridors consolidated” (corridor outcomes). Defining conservation outcomes is a bottom-up process, with species outcomes defined first, followed by site outcomes and, finally, corridor outcomes. Species outcomes The approach for setting conservation priorities is driven by species locality data to identify sitescale targets for biodiversity conservation. Therefore, the first phase of defining conservation outcomes is to identify and list the species that should be considered, based on technical criteria to ensure the appropriate global conservation interest (Table 14). According to Langhammer et al. (2007), two main variables determine how to prioritize conservation targets: irreplaceability and vulnerability: 6 The methodology used by CEPF for ecosystem profiling since 2008 is “Langhammer et al. (2007) “Identification and Gap Analysis of KBAs”. In 2012, SSC and WCPA embarked upon an extensive consultation process to consolidate a standard approach to KBA identification. As a result, KBA standard and methodology was launched at World Parks Congress in Sydney in November 2014. However, as BEST III started in January 2014, Langhammer et al. (2007) was still the methodology used in the present EP profiling for Macaronesia. 60 • • Vulnerable species are those threatened with global extinction (i.e. globally threatened species). The sites that support them are priorities for conservation because action is urgently required to avert their extinction (i.e. there is limited time in which to take action). Irreplaceable species are those that occur at few or no other sites. The sites that support them are priorities for conservation because there are few or no other places where these species can be conserved. Table 14. Criteria for conservation targets Criteria Sub-criteria Vulnerability Globally Threatened Species (CR, EN, VU) a) Restricted-range (range < 50,000 km2) Species b) Large but dispersed population Irreplaceability c) Globally significant congregations d) Globally populations significant source e) Bioregionally restricted assemblages According to the CEPF’s methodology, species outcomes for the Macaronesia equate to: 1) 389 globally threatened species and subspecies listed on the IUCN Red List based on quantitative criteria under which the probability of extinction is estimated for each species. Species classified as threatened on the Red List have a high probability of extinction in the medium-term future. These include the three IUCN categories Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU). This definition excludes DataDeficient species (DD), which, according to the methodology, are considered to be priorities for further research but not necessarily for conservation action. It also excludes those species that are threatened locally and may be high national or regional priorities, but not high global priorities. 2) 164 globally threatened species and subspecies listed on sub-global Red Lists that sometimes incorporate higher quality data than are available at the global level. Within sub-global Red Lists, any species endemic to the assessment region that has been assessed according to the IUCN’s Red List guidelines are also included in the application of the vulnerability criterion (for globally threatened species). If the IUCN guidelines were followed in a local Red List, then the species (existing nowhere else) would have, by definition, the same listing on the global Red List, pending evaluation by the appropriate Red List Authority. Sub-global Red Lists considered for the Macaronesia were the Red List of Vertebrates of Portugal (Cabral et al., 2005); the Reference List of Azores’ fauna (Eduardo Dias, 2010); the threatened bryophytes in Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos (Sim-Sim et al., 2014); the Red List of Spanish Vascular Flora (J. C. Moreno, coord., 2008); Atlas and Red Book of the Threatened Bryophytes of 61 Spain (Garilleti, 2012); Atlas of the Threatened Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú & Galante, 2009). 3) 97 restricted-range species, i.e., species restricted to an area of less than 50,000 km2 according to Langhammer et al. (2007), that do not meet the previous criteria. The majority of consulted stakeholders in Macaronesia agreed that this latter criterion is more appropriate for large or continental regions than for small islands, as it is the case of Macaronesia, that records a very high endemicism rate and covers a total land surface of 10,571 km2, much inferior to the defined range of 50,000 km2. The strict use of this criterion would lead to the inclusion of an excessive number of endemic species resulting in the delineation of KBAs covering nearly the total surface of the region. Therefore, only endemic species listed as threatened in local red books and checklists, using different criteria from IUCN, were considered. These Lists and Assessments include the Endemic Threatened Vertebrates and Flora of Madeira (R. Jardim, Fernandes, F., Carvalho, J., 2006), the Catalogue of Protected Species of the Canary Island (Gobierno de Canarias, 2010); TOP100 Priority Species of the Macaronesia (Martín et al., 2008). 4) 6 species with globally significant congregations. Sites that hold large proportions of the global population of an individual species at a given time are often considered as irreplaceable. These may comprise the following: i. Breeding colonies and/or other sites used during the non-breeding season where large numbers of individuals gather at the same time (e.g. for foraging and roosting); ii. Bottleneck sites through which significant numbers of individuals of a species pass over a concentrated period of time (e.g. during migration) Although the criterion “Threatened Species” has not yet been changed from to “Threatened Taxa” by the IUCN, subspecies were also considered in this EP, in the event that this changes in the near future 7. Threatened subspecies in Macaronesia include 2 birds, 1 mammal and 38 plants, all endemic. Table 15 summarizes the taxonomic breakdown of the 655 species outcomes in the region, while a full list is given in Appendix 4. A comprehensive database on Macaronesian species outcomes is available online at http://goo.gl/CahYZT. 7 Under the original guidelines, sub-species (and other taxa below the level of species) do not trigger the KBA criteria, unless the species they belong to is itself a globally threatened (or locally endemic) species. However, under the new KBA standard, the A1 criterion has been changed from Threatened Species to Threatened TAXA. The proposed new language is "At the global level, the taxa that can trigger or meet KBA sub-criterion A1 encompass species, subspecies, plant varieties, and isolated subpopulations". Neverthless, Macaronesian subspecies were clearly identified in this EP (adding a suffix “ssp” to their threatened status), so they can be taken out of the data set in the event that this changes or the criterion is not formally adopted by IUCN. 62 Table 15 - Summary of Species Outcomes Global status Taxonomic group threat RR CR EN VU Arthropods 11 16 16 20 Birds 1 3 6 10 Crustacean s 1 Congr 6 1 Total Distribution archipelago by AZO MAD CAN 63 13 8 42 26 8 8 16 1 1 1 1 Fish 7 7 29 43 25 29 38 Mammals 1 9 1 11 7 8 8 Molluscs 40 24 54 2 120 6 59 54 Plants 124 107 83 64 378 69 123 228 Reptiles 6 3 4 13 5 6 11 Total 190 169 194 656 138 246 400 Percentage 29 % 26% 30% 100% 21% 38% 61% 97 6 15% 1% (see full list in Appendix 4 and online at http://goo.gl/CahYZT) Species outcomes mainly comprise terrestrial species (90%) but this is clearly biased due to scarse data on knowledge, conservation status and distribution of marine species. Out of the 656 species outcomes in the Macaronesian Islands, 400 (61%) occur in the Canary Islands, including 313 endemic; 246 (38%) occur in the Madeira archipelago, including 166 endemic; and 138 (21%) occur in the Azores, including 72 endemic. The Azores supports fewer globally threatened species than the other two archipelagos in the region but it remains a high priority for global biodiversity conservation, because of the significant number of globally threatened species that are found nowhere else. The high number of critically endangered species (29%) should be highlighted. The CR species are, by definition, the ones most at risk of imminent extinction and, therefore, warrant greater attention than species in the lower threat categories of Endangered and Vulnerable. From all taxa, the largest proportion of CR species occurs within reptiles (46%), molluscs (33%) and plants (33%). The taxonomic group with the lowest proportion of CR species is the group of birds, with 4% (Figure 10). 63 Birds 4% 0% 17% 46% Arthropods Crustaceans 9% Mammals 33% 33% Molluscs Fish Plants 16% Reptiles Figure 10 – Proportion of CR species by taxonomic group In total, 90% of the species outcomes are endemic to Macaronesia (91% if Congregatory species are not considered in the total species outcomes). The level of endemicism is extremely high within molluscs (100%), arthropods (98%) and plants (99%) and very low within fish (5%) (Figure 11). Birds 54% Arthropods 62% Crustaceans 99% 98% Mammals Molluscs 5% 100% 50% Fish Plants 45% Reptiles Figure 11 - Endemic species outcomes by taxonomic group When analysing species outcomes, it should be stressed that the process of collecting and listing data on species is not made without challenges. First of all, it requires detailed knowledge of the conservation status of individual species, namely on the global threat status of each species, and on the distribution of globally threatened species at sites, and across corridors. Although this information has been accumulating in the global Red List of Threatened Species produced by IUCN and partners for about 50 years, knowledge of the population status of some threatened species is still incomplete or absent. Not only there are several species evaluated as “Data deficient” (DD), but also an important number of others are totally absent from the Global List. In fact, as stated by Pedro Cardoso, Borges, Triantis, Ferrández, and Martín (2012), “the IUCN Red List is the most useful list of species that are at risk for extinction worldwide, as it relies on a number of objective criteria. Nevertheless, there is a taxonomic bias that excludes species with small body sizes, narrow distribution ranges and low dispersal abilities, which constitute the vast majority of the planet’s biota, particularly local endemics”. This issue was also particularly stressed during the first round of workshops in the three Macaronesian archipelagos — there are gaps in the IUCN Red List with respect to the taxonomic representation in the region, especially on invertebrates, bryophyte and algae that play a crucial role in islands’ ecosystems. Acknowledging this gap, the IUCN is currently reviewing the list of threatened invertebrates with the support of local experts, an assessment that should be complete by 2020. 64 The same applies to sub-local Red Lists, as they do not cover all taxonomic groups. In particular, invertebrates (except for Spain) and marine species are not cover by any of those Red Lists and Assessments. Also in other Red Data books and checklists, marine species are highly sub-represented, as noticed, for example, by R. Aguilar et al. (2009): “only 12 marine species are considered in the Catalogue of Protected Species of the Canary Islands. Considering the 5,232 marine species in the archipelago, according to the report published in 2003 by the Autonomous Government, this means the protection of only 0.2%”. In addition to the shortfall of assessed species, there are some incongruities in the IUCN Red List for some of the already identified and assessed species. In some cases, species are listed as threatened although they are actually fossil species (e.g. mollusc Leptaxis vetusa listed as CR). In other cases, species are described as threatened while the status and description refers in fact to only one of its subspecies. This is the case, for example, of a perennial evergreen shrub endemic to the Azores (Euphorbia stygiana): listed as critically endangered for being restricted to a population of 50-60 individuals on a particular island; however, this assessment in fact refers to one of its subspecies, while another subspecies has a population of 30.000-40.000 specimens and is widespread throughout the archipelago, a situation known by local botanists for some time but not reflected yet in the listing status. Furthermore, there are still controversial taxonomic discussions among experts concerning some species, as it is the case of some plants in the Azores: Ranunculus cortusifolius (Willd.); Pericallis malvifolia (L'Hér.) B. Nord.; the genus Ammi; the genus Agrostis. Despite these considerations, defining outcomes is a fluid process and, as data become available, species outcomes can be expanded to include other taxonomic groups and species that have not previously been assessed, as well as restricted-range species. The taxonomic groups that are covered as species outcomes in the present EP are highlighted below. Arthropods Out of the 63 threatened arthropods, 17% are CR species. All of them are endemic to Macaronesia, two to Madeira archipelago and nine to the Canary Islands. One of those is the possibly extinct Madeira Large White (Pieris wollastoni), restricted to the island of Madeira. It has not been reported since the 1970s despite several visits of lepidopterists to its former habitat. An adequate survey is needed to define if the species is extinct or not (van Swaay, 2010). Another species that might be currently extinct is the Paradeucalion desertarum (António Franquinho Aguiar, pers. com.), an endemic species to the Desertas Islands, not yet assessed in the IUCN Red List but considered here as a RR species. Birds Within the 26 bird species outcomes, 54% are terrestrial and 46% are marine. The only CR bird in Macaronesia is the “Regulus regulus sanctae mariae”, an endemic subspecies of Golden Crest restricted to one single island of the Azores (Santa Maria). Some threatened bird species have improved in status from CR to EN in the last decade thanks to conservation efforts funded by EU LIFE-Nature. This is the case of the Zino’s Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) and the Azores Bullfinch (Pyrrhula murina), although they have highly 65 restricted ranges. The Azorean Bullfich has a population of about 1,000 individuals restricted to a 83 km2 patch of cloud forest on the eastern part of São Miguel Island (Ceia et al., 2011). Among the RR bird species is the Gran Canaria blue chaffinch (F. teydea ssp polatzeki). The blue chaffinch Fringilla teydea is endemic to the Canary Islands where it is restricted to Gran Canaria (F. t. polatzeki) and Tenerife (F. t. teydea) and is listed as “Near Threatened” (NT) in the IUCN Red List. However, a recent study carried out by Sangster et al. (2015) shows that the blue chaffinches on Gran Canaria and Tenerife represent two distinctive species: F. polatzeki, considered as one of Europe’s rarest passerine species and F. teydea, much more common. Therefore, the authors argue that Gran Canaria blue chaffinch is and should be classified as critically endangered as its long-term survival in the wild currently depends on a very small area (20 km2) in southwest Gran Canaria. Reclassification of Gran Canaria blue chaffinch as a species increases the urgency of ongoing conservation efforts. Half of the marine bird outcomes (6) are species that, although not globally threatened, form important congregations in the region during breeding periods. Cory’s Shearwater (Calonectris borealis) is a seabird species endemic to Europe, where it mainly breeds on the Azores and Madeira (nearly 90% of the global population) and on the Canary Islands. The population is estimated and projected to be increasing globally, so the species is classified as Least Concern. Bulwer’s Petrel (Bulweria bulwerii), listed as LC, is a marine and highly pelagic species that breeds in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. Researchers estimate that about 50% of the roseae terns (Sterna dougallii, LC) in Europe nest in the Azores, where there are c. 35 colonies of this species, considered as one of the 30 rarest in Europe. Recently, Census 2015 on Birds of the Azores revealed that, in particular, the island of Graciosa holds the second largest colony of the species in Europe, with about 600 pairs. Others congregatory species are the Band-rumped Storm-petrel (Hydrobates castro), the Whitefaced Storm-petrel (Pelagodroma marina), and the common tern (Sterna hirundo). Crustaceans There is only two crustacean species outcome: the European Spiny Lobster (Palinurus elephas), listed as VU in the Global Red List and present in all three archipelagos and the giant barnacle (Megabalanus azoricus), a RR species that occurs in Madeira and the Azores. Fish Considerably more information concerning distribution and other facets of conservation status is necessary for many of the fish species known in Macaronesia before a more comprehensive global threat assessment can be made for the group in the region. It is probable that the region supports more fish species of the highest global conservation concern than were listed by July 2015. The seven CR fish present in Macaronesia include one from the family Rajidae (Dipturus batis), three from the family Squatinidae (Squatina aculeata; Squatina oculata; Squatina squatina), one from the family Squalidae (Squalus acanthia, Northeast Atlantic subpopulation), one of the family Lamnidae (Lamna nasus-Northeast Atlantic subpopulation) and the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). The latter occurs in coastal waters and, although among the watercourses, lakes and ponds, is unlikely to remain and grow to maturity in Macaronesian islands due to the irregularity and small size of the water courses or, otherwise, remaining captive in those waters which prevents its reproductive migration. 66 Two of the threatened fish outcomes are endemic to Macaronesia: Mycteroperca fusca (EN) and Bodianus scrofa (VU). Regarding the whale shark (Rhincodon typus, VU), the Azores, acting as a thermal boundary, has attracted seasonal numbers of individuals in the last years probably due to the large-scale temporal changes in the tropical climate. Yet, the relevance of this region as oceanic habitat and its connectivity with other habitats across the Atlantic still needs to be clarified and the reasons for the spatial variability within the region and, in particular, the local aggregations remain unknown, although local productivity related to seamounts appears to play a major factor role (Afonso P, 2014). Mammals Threatened mammals in the Macaronesia include four bats (all endemic), one Canarian shrew, five whales species and one seal. The only CR mammal is a subspecies of Leisler's Bat (Nyctalus leisleri ssp. verrucosus), endemic to Madeira island. The Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) is the sole representative of the genus Monachus and the only seal that occurs in Macaronesia. It is regarded as one of the most endangered pinniped species in the world, with only approximately 600-700 surviving animals (Karamanlidis, 2015). Listed as CR in the IUCN Red List since 1996 until mid 2015, it has now an improved status of EN. According to Karamanlidis (2015) it is now thought that the previous assessment (Critically Endangered A2abc) “was an overestimate of the scale of decline in the global population over the previous 33 years, since most of the reduction in population size likely happened more than three generations ago”. However the Mediterranean Monk Seal population remains very small and highly fragmented (consists of 3–4 isolated subpopulations) and still faces many threats (Karamanlidis, 2015). In the Macaronesia, the species is extinct in the Azores and the Canary Islands, having survived only in the remote Desertas Islands of Madeira archipelago, with increased sightings in recent years also around the main island of Madeira Except for the Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus, VU), the other threatened whale species known in Macaronesia are all EN. Macaronesia is considered as an important route where different species of baleen whales pass on their annual migration, although no breeding occurs in the region (Silva et al., 2014). Molluscs Of all animal groups, molluscs are the most numerous species outcomes in Macaronesia, with 120 taxa, representing 43% of all animals. There are 40 described CR molluscs. Among these, some are already possibly extinct, but still pending confirmation: Leiostyla cassida, Atlantica gueriniana, Geomitra delphinuloides, Discula lyelliana, Leiostyla simulator in Madeira archipelago; Monilearia arguineguinensis, Monilearia pulverulenta, Sculptiferussacia clausiliaeformis, Monilearia granostriata in the Canary Islands. In the Azores there are several endemic species not yet reported to science that might already be extinct due to habitat destruction (Antonio Frias Martins, pers. com.). 67 Plants There are 368 plant species outcomes, from which 314 are threatened and 64 have a restricted range. Out of those, 33% are CR species. Some are already possibly extinct, such as the Delphinium maderense, and two Madeiran endemic Bryophytes, Fissidens microstictus and Nobregaea latinervis (Sim-Sim et al., 2014). Reptiles Reptiles are the taxonomic group with the highest proportion of CR species. In fact, 6 out of 13 reptile species outcomes known in Macaronesia are listed as CR in the IUCN Red List. This includes two species of marine turtles (Lepidochelys kempii and Eretmochelys imbricate) that occur occasionally in the region’s waters, and four lizards from the genus Gallotia, endemic to the Canary Islands (Gallotia auaritae, Gallotia bravoana, Gallotia intermedia, Gallotia simonyi). Gallotia auaritae was believed to have become extinct in the last 500 years. However, it remains listed in the IUCN Red List as a CR species because “there are recent sightings and photographs of giant Gallotia lizards from northern La Palma (Mínguez et al. 2007; Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, pers. com. 2008). While the identity of these lizards needs to be verified through the capture of an individual, it is probable that there has only ever been a single species of large Gallotia on La Palma (Barahona et al. 2000; Mateo et al. 2003; Jose Antonio Mateo Miras pers. com. 2008)” (Miras & Martínez-Solano, 2009). Site outcomes Methodology Because most globally threatened species are best conserved through the protection of a network of sites where they occur, the process of defining conservation outcomes also focuses on identifying a comprehensive set of Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) which are explicitly designed to conserve biodiversity at the greatest risk of extinction (Langhammer et al., 2007). Thus, KBAs are sites contributing significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity. Global implies that the contributions of a site to the persistence of a given biodiversity element are measured in relation to the worldwide extent of the element (Dudley et al., 2014). KBAs are sites, in that they are relatively limited in extent, and could thus potentially be managed as protected areas or by other effective means to conserve biodiversity. They therefore differ from broad-scale approaches, such as Ecoregions, Endemic Bird Areas, Wilderness Areas and Biodiversity Hotspots, which identify large regions of interest, often spanning several countries. However, while identification of a KBA is recognition of a site’s significance to biodiversity, it does not on its own imply any one management response. KBAs are thus a data set used to help processes such as systematic conservation planning and implementation and monitoring of intergovernmental commitments (Dudley et al., 2014). KBAs are identified using globally standardised criteria and thresholds applied by national and international constituencies, based on irreplaceability and vulnerability: • Vulnerability (or threat) refers to the likelihood that a site’s biodiversity value will be lost in the future. A site meets the vulnerability criterion for KBAs if it holds one or more globally threatened species that occurs regularly (instances of vagrancy, marginal occurrence and historical records are excluded). The occurrence should be confirmed and not suspected. 68 • The irreplaceability (or uniqueness) of a site is the degree to which geographic options for conservation will be lost if that particular site is lost. In an extreme example, a site is completely irreplaceable if it contains one or more species that occur nowhere else. Sites regularly supporting significant populations of restricted-range species are global conservation priorities because there are few or no other sites in the world where conservation action for these species can be taken. Some species trigger more than one KBA criterion, for example, because they are both globally threatened and geographically restricted. The defined criteria and thresholds for the identification of KBAs of global importance are summarized on Table 16. Only sites that meet these criteria and thresholds qualify as global KBAs. Table 16 - Criteria for identifying Key Biodiversity Areas Criteria Provisional thresholds triggering KBA status Sub-criteria Vulnerability Regular occurrence of a globally threatened Globally species (according to Species the IUCN Red List) at the site for Critically Endangered (CR) and Endangered (EN) species: Threatened presence of a single individual; Vulnerable (VU) species: >10 pairs or 30 individuals a) Restricted-range Species > 5% of global population at site (range < 50,000 km2) Irreplaceability b) Large but dispersed 5% of global population at site population Site holds X% of a c) Globally significant species’ global congregations population at any stage of the species’ lifecycle d) Globally significant source populations > 1% of global population seasonally at the site (5% for marine species) Site is responsible for maintaining >1% of global population e) Bioregionally restricted assemblages To be defined (Source: Langhammer et al., 2007) The starting point for defining KBAs in the Macaronesian region was the Alliance for Zero Extinction sites (AZE) and the Important Bird Areas (IBAs). Sites for which such assessments exist qualify directly as KBAs. The same apllies to Important Plant Areas (IPA) but no IPAs have been identified in the Macaronesia so far. The two sites identified by the Alliance for Zero Extinction in Macaronesia, both triggered by EN bird species, are “Maciço Montanhoso Oriental” in Madeira island, triggered by the Zino’s Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) and “Pico da vara” in the island of São Miguel, triggered by the Azores Bullfinch (Pyrrhula murina) (Alliance for Zero Extinction, 2010). Both AZE sites have been included in the KBAs. The network of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in each archipelago was identified by BirdLife International, partners and 69 collaborating organizations, starting in 1993. The means by which IBAs are identified in the EU deliberately align with Special Protection Areas (SPA) selection criteria, established under the EU’s Birds Directive (Council Directive on the conservation of wild birds). However, as many IBAs in the Macaronesian region have been identified based on globally “Least concern” (LC) or “Near threatened” (NT) species only (or that its status have been changed to these categories since the IBA designation), it has been agreed with CEPF that only IBAs including also globally threatened trigger species should be considered as KBAs. Besides, and following the criteria of the used methodology, IBAs with congregatory birds selected by criteria A1 (globally threatened), A4i and A4ii (congregatory > 1%), were also considered as KBAs. The guiding principle for the delimitation of KBA is to consider “management units”. Therefore, the distribution of species has been overlapped with the protected areas (“effective” management units, already in place), as a second step for the delimitation of a preliminary set of KBAs. In Macaronesia, and in addition to protected areas designated under local legislation, there are also Natura 2000 sites, the ecological network of protected areas according to the Birds and the Habitat Directives of the EU, composed of Special Protection Areas for birds (SPA) and of Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) for other species and habitats. In many cases, these protection figures overlap and in the case of the Azores, they are totally included in the regional network of protected areas. Geographic information on the distribution of threatened species in the region was collected from the existing Biodiversity Databases. These databases are available online for the Azores (http://www.atlantis.angra.uac.pt) and for the Canary Islands (http://www.biodiversidadcanarias.es/atlantis) aiming to disseminate the data to the public, allowing universal and unrestricted access. For Madeira, where no such Biodiversity Databank exists, distribution Box 2. Criteria to extract distribution data from biodiversity data was collected databases with the support of The criteria used to extract distribution data from the biodiversity the governmental databases of the Azores and Canary Is. was discussed and agreed division on Nature among experts and databases’ administrators: Conservation and Biodiversity and a) Time frame: 1990 onwards local experts. b) Precision: KBA boundaries - Plants and invertebrates: level 1 were edited in - Vertebrates: levels 1 and 2 ArcGIS based on - Aquatic taxa: level 1 for coastal species; levels 1 and 2 for species distribution fish and marine mammals and aided by map c) Spatial resolution: the best possible, but not lower than overlays of protected areas and bathymetry (except in the case of the Canary Islands where no bathymetry was available). A process of consultation among relevant stakeholders followed to elicit review, refine boundaries, incorporate further species records, and capture contextual data on threats for KBA prioritization. In order to help discriminate among the large number of KBAs that were identified in the region, a biological prioritization process was undertaken, using the methodology set out in Langhammer et al. (2007). This methodology is based upon the principles of irreplaceability and vulnerability of species already mentioned in Table 14. Another consideration is vulnerability at the site level, regardless of the species that occur there. All things being equal, acutely 70 threatened sites (due to, for example, commercial logging) are higher priorities for conservation action than sites not under severe, immediate threat, because action is more urgently required to avoid the loss of the site and the species populations it supports. These three criteria of irreplaceability, species-based vulnerability and site-based vulnerability will be combined to assign each KBA to one of five priority levels, as shown in Table 17. Table 17 – Criteria for priorization of KBAs Irreplaceability Extreme (species endemic to hotspot and not known from any other site) Species-based Vulnerability High Medium Low Extreme (CR) 1 1 1 High (EN) 1 1 1 Medium (VU) 2 3 4 Low (not CR, EN or VU) 3 4 5 Extreme (CR) 2 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 5 High High (EN) (species known Medium (VU) only from 2-10 sites globally) Low (not CR, EN or VU) Extreme (CR) 3 Medium High (EN) (species known Medium (VU) only from 11-100 sites globally) Low (not CR, EN or VU) Low (species known from more than 100 sites globally) Site-based Vulnerability 4 5 5 Extreme (CR) 4 High (EN) 5 Medium (VU) 5 Low (not CR, EN or VU) 5 (Source: Langhammer et al., 2007) In Macaronesia, site-based vulnerability was defined according to the level of protection and, consequently of conservation. Areas with a protection status are Protected Areas in the regional or local domain as well as Natura 2000 sites. Despite not being strictly protected, Natura 2000 sites must have site-specific management plans, which not only contributes to its sustainable management, but it is in many cases more than protected areas actually have. In addition, IBAs 71 were also considered because in the EU these areas are being classified as Natura 2000 sites, more precisely as SPA-Special Protected Areas for birds 8. As such: • • • “Low” vulnerable sites: those mostly or totally protected, i.e., which surface is covered by protected areas, Natura 2000 sites and IBAs; “Medium” vulnerable sites: those witch are partly protected; “High” vulnerable sites: those with little or no protection. Data and time constraints prevented the differentiation of protection levels within Protected Areas and Natura 2000 sites, as well the analysis of specific threats for site vulnerability. Challenges and data constraints Although the process of identifying conservation outcomes used the best available data, there are a number of limitations of the present analysis in addition to those already mentioned (shortfall of species assessments, in particular within invertebrates and marine species). The main limitations and issues that have prevented the consideration of all species outcomes to trigger KBAs are described below: 1. For species that have already been assessed, knowledge and availability of geographical data on their distribution may still be limited in the Macaronesian region. In fact, despite the existence of regional online databases on biodiversity for the Azores and the Canary islands, these unique and useful tools rely on the existing studies and information on species distribution, which are not only limited by research knowledge but also not always made available by the scientific community. As a result, 75% of endangered, restricted-range and congregatory species in Macaronesia are included in the Biodiversity databanks, with available shapefiles (Figure 2). Fish and reptiles (especially marine reptiles) are the taxa with the lowest rate of known distribution (26% and 62%, respectively). The scarcity of distribution data was more pronounced in Madeira archipelago, whereas the most complete is found in the Canary Islands. To overcome the gaps in distribution data a comprehensive literature review (e.g. Natura 2000 forms and published literature) and stakeholder consultation was carried out. As a result, it was possible to increase the threatened, restricted-range and congregatory species assigned to KBAs from 75% to 88% (i.e. 579 out of 655 species). However, for some of the species with no shapefile only partial distributions are known. In addition, and as geographic data for fish is extremely limited (Canary Islands) or nonexisting (Azores and Madeira), Macaronesian MPAs (Marine Protected Areas) where threatened species occur and are listed in MPAs descriptions, were considered as marine KBAs. 8 The European network of IBAs has formed an important scientific reference for the designation of special protection areas (SPAs) under the Wild Birds Directive of the European Union. It is now accepted BirdLife policy that in the EU, all IBAs should be classified as SPAs. 72 100% 100% 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 92% 76% 78% 78% 75% 62% 26% A 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 86% 63% AZO 34% MAD CAN B Figure 12 – Percentage of species with available cartographic distribution. Totals for Macaronesia (A) and by archipelago (B). 2. Even for species for which both assessment and distribution are known, the quality of the distribution data is not always the best. This is the case for the geographic data for plants in the Madeira archipelago (spatial resolution of 10 x 10 km for a total land territory of 802 km2), the same as provided as per request to Natura 2000 Network. In addition, the available data is not always totally accurate. Despite the significant efforts made on regional online databases on biodiversity, it is not easy to keep it up to date, and experts detected some gaps and inaccuracies. In these cases, the used data was the one provided by experts during consultations instead of the available shapefiles from the Biodiversity Portal (e.g. Pippistrellus madeirensis, Nyctalus azoreum, Plantathera micrantha, Hydrobates monteiroi, for the Azores) 3. When all the above information is available, the lack of abundance data poses a problem to classify species as VU, RR or congregatory species. Thresholds with absolute values, such as VU species, were therefore replaced with relative values: a 5% threshold was used for VU species instead of “10 pairs or 30 individuals”. 73 Apart from the already described data gaps, for widespread species it was not possible to assign specific Key Biodiversity Areas (Table 18). On the one hand, considering these species for the definition of KBAs would mean covering most, if not all, of the territories with KBAs. On the other hand, site-scale conservation is not the most effective approach for the conservation of these species. But, while not assigned to specific key biodiversity areas, these species will benefit from specific conservation actions. Those species were marked as trigger species in the existing KBAs where they occur, but no KBAs were delineated specifically for them. Table 18 – Species with known but extremely large distribution Taxa Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Reptiles Reptiles Species Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Chlamydotis undulata Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Neophron percnopterus Puffinus lherminieri baroli Saxicola dacotiae dacotiae Tyto alba gracilirostris Buteo buteo rodshildi Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Balaenoptera borealis Balaenoptera musculus Balaenoptera physalus Physeter macrocephalus Caretta caretta Dermochelys coriacea Status VU loc VU RR RR RR EN RR RR RR RR EN EN EN EN EN VU EN VU Archipelago Canary Is. Canariy Is., Madeira, Azores Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Azores Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is., Madeira, Azores Canary Is., Madeira, Azores Canary Is., Madeira, Azores Canary Is., Madeira, Azores Canary Is., Madeira, Azores Canary Is., Madeira, Azores In the case of whales and marine turtles indicated on Table 18, not only mobility is a major constrain to a site based conservation strategy, but also the distribution data extracted from the biodiversity databases of the Canary Islands and the Azores, refers to specific spots where the presence of the species has been confirmed, often provided from whale watching boats. Therefore, the available data for these type of species is not a fair representation of their actual distribution. Furthermore, despite being an important route where different species of whales pass on their annual migration, Macaronesia is not considered as reproduction or feeding area for these types of cetaceans - although a study by DOP/IMAR published in the scientific journal Plos ONE reveals that some blue and fin whales (Balaenoptera musculus and Balaenoptera physalus) suspend their spring migration to feed in the Azores waters (M. A. Silva, Prieto, Jonsen, Baumgartner, & Santos, 2013). Nevertheless, specific conservation actions must be considered for those species as whale watching and vessel collisions are increasing and significant threats to their conservation. The same applies to marine turtles. Although juvenile animals attend regional waters during their migration as a point of rest and food, there are no nesting records in Macaronesia for all those species. Only Caretta caretta is considered a visitor species in Macaronesia according to the IUCN data, the others being marginal or vagrant occurrences (M. E. Oliveira et al., 2005). Even if the population might be at risk from decimation of its juveniles, a LIFE project, carried out in Madeira (Dellinger, 2000), found out that turtles are constantly on the move and no 74 defined preferential area exists (although they seem to be influenced by seamounts and islands to some extent). KBAs for bats were created in the Azores and Madeira archipelagos with the support from experts and based on scientific articles (e.g. Rainho et al., 2002). In the Canary Islands, however, the two existing species of bats (Plecotus teneriffae y Pipistrellus maderensis) have an extremely wide distribution, and as such no specific KBAs were defined for the species. Pipistrellus maderensis are found in all types of habitats, from high mountains to sea level, forest and anthropic areas, using all kinds of shelters. In the case of P. teneriffae, its presence is confirmed in high mountain areas, forested areas of pine forest, and is very rare in populated and anthropic areas as well as on coastal zones. However, much remains unknown (Silvia Fajardo Gonzalez, pers. com. 2016). Other taxa not considered to trigger specific KBAs are species that formerly occurred in Macaronesia but are now believed to be regionally extinct (e.g. Pieris wollastoni; Leiostyla cassida; Atlantica guerinianus; Geomitra delphinuloides; Leiostyla simulator; Monilearia arguineguinensis; Monilearia pulverulenta; Sculptiferussacia clausiliaeformis; Monilearia granostriata; Gallotia auaritae; Delphinium maderense; Paradeucalion desertarum). Although possibly extinct, further research is still needed to confirm its extinction. Therefore, they are considered as research priorities and not necessarily as conservation priorities. Results In total, 194 KBAs were identified in the Macaronesian region, covering a combined area of approximately 16,245 km², from which 5,408 km² represent 51% of the total land area of the region (Figure 13 to ). A full list of the KBAs is presented on Appendix 5 and can be found with a more detailed description at http://goo.gl/CahYZT. Each KBA contains at least one trigger species, but most contain several globally threatened, restricted-range or congregatory species. One hundred fifty eight (81% of the total) were identified for bird species, 80 (41%) for arthropods, none for crustaceans, 88 (45%) for mammals, 59 (30%) for molluscs, 17 (9%) for fish, 145 (75%) for plants and 17 (9%) for reptiles (Table 19). Table 19 - Summary of taxonomic triggers for Key Biodiversity Areas Canary Total * Islands Birds 30 14 114 158 Arthropods 19 3 58 80 Crustaceans 0 0 0 0 Mammals 33 10 45 88 Molluscs 5 16 38 59 Fish 5 3 9 17 Plants 32 11 102 145 Reptiles 0 1 16 17 All KBAs 44 18 132 194 Percentage 23% 9% 68% 100% * The figures add up to well over 194 because most KBAs are triggered by species from more than one taxonomic group Taxonomic group Azores Madeira 75 Figure 13. Site outcomes for the Azores- São Miguel and Santa Maria Islands. Figure 14. Site outcomes for the Azores- Terceira and Graciosa Islands 76 Figure 15. Site outcomes for the Azores- Pico, Terceira, São Jorge Islands Figure 16. Site outcomes for the Azores- Flores and Corvo Islands 77 Figure 17. Site outcomes for Madeira- Madeira and Porto Santo Islands. Figure 18. Site outcomes for Madeira- Desertas and Selvagens Islets 78 Figure 19. Site outcomes for the Canary Islands- Lanzarote and Fuerteventura Islands Figure 20. Site and corridor outcomes for the Canary Islands- Gran Canaria Island. 79 Figure 21. Site and corridor outcomes for the Canary Islands- Tenerife and La Gomera Islands. Figure 22. Site and corridor outcomes for the Canary Islands- La Palma and El Hierro Islands. 80 The number of KBAs identified for fish, invertebrates and plant species would have certainly been much higher if more detailed information had been available on the distribution of these species among sites. Nevertheless, as the comprehensiveness of available data on the distribution of globally threatened species among KBAs varies significantly among taxonomic groups, KBAs identified as being important for the conservation of one taxonomic group may also be important for other groups for which data are not yet available. Of the 194 KBAs, 190 were identified for globally threatened species, either alone or together with restricted-range and congregatory species. The remaining 4 KBAs are not known to support any globally threatened species but were identified solely on the basis of the occurrence of restricted-range or congregatory species. Several KBAs were triggered by significant numbers of globally threatened species. For instance, sites with records of over 35 globally threatened species include: Central area of Pico island in the Azores; GarajonayChejelipes and Anága in the Canary Islands; and Madeira Nature Park in Madeira archipelago. The Macaronesian region hosts two sites identified by the Alliance for Zero Extinction, both triggered by EN bird species: “Maciço Montanhoso Oriental” in Madeira island, triggered by the Zino’s Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) and “Pico da Vara” in the island of São Miguel, triggered by the Azores Bullfinch (Pyrrhula murina) (Alliance for Zero Extinction, 2010). Both AZE sites have been included as KBAs. Two of the 194 KBAS cover the two AZE sites and 52% match or partially overlap IBAs in the region. Although an important number of KBAs are under some protection figure, 31% of them are not covered by any government-managed protected areas (or are covered only by a very little parcel). After undertaking the biological prioritization, 46 KBAs were assigned to the highest priority level (level 1), representing 24% of total KBAs; 28% were assigned to level 2, 22% were assigned to level 3, 18% to level 4 and 9% to level 5 (Table 20). Table 20. Results of the Biological Prioritization of KBAs in Macaronesia Priority level 1 2 3 4 5 All KBAs Azores Madeira Canary Is. Total 6 15 10 9 4 44 7 6 2 1 2 18 33 33 30 24 12 132 46 54 42 34 18 194 The significant number of KBAs of priority level 1 should be stressed, as it reflects the high number of endemic threatened species. Each of the 46 KBAs assigned to level 1 are the only known site for one or more CR or EN species, and thus qualify as Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites. The list of sites and trigger species are given in Appendix 6. These sites have the highest biological priorities for conservation in the region, because the loss of any of them would result in the global extinction of at least one species. Six AZE candidate sites are located in the Azores, seven in the Madeira archipelago and 33 in the Canary Islands. Except for two Birds, all trigger species of those KBAs are Plants, Molluscs and Arthropods, numbering 130 in all Macaronesia. Several AZE candidates shelter various unique species: for example, KBAs sheltering at least five CR or EN species that occur nowhere else are Madeira Nature Park 81 (Madeira island); Garajonay-Chefelipes (La Gomera); Plains of Corona-La Hondura-Tegela Grande and Famara crag (Lanzarote); Jandía Peninsula (Fuerteventura), El Teide (Tenerife); Anága (Tenerife); Northern Buenavista (Tenerife); Los Canizales (Tenerife); La Solana (Gran Canaria); Los Marteles (Grand Canaria); Santo Andrés-Valle Seco (Gran Canaria). The island of Tenerife alone has 37 unique threatened species distributed across nine KBAs. Since the AZE objective is to underline areas that constitute the last remaining refuge of at least one endangered or critically endangered species, this list of sites needs to be reviewed following the biodiversity outcomes underlined in the present profile. Corridor outcomes While the protection of a network of sites is sufficient to conserve many elements of biodiversity in the medium term, the long-term conservation of all elements of biodiversity requires the consolidation of interconnected networks of sites at larger spatial scales. CEPF framework uses the term conservation corridors to define broadscale planning units. In this context, the term does not adhere strictly to the biological definition of corridors (i.e. strips or patches of habitat designed to reduce habitat fragmentation or enable species movement by connecting protected areas or other priority sites). CEPF conservation corridors‖ refer to far larger areas through which to direct conservation investment at a landscape scale. These planning units include major clusters of KBAs and as much biophysical homogeneity as possible. The definition of landscape-scale planning units, or conservation corridors, are particularly important where it is necessary to: i) have a maintained connectivity between two or more KBAs to meet the long-term conservation needs of landscape species; ii) increase the area of actual or potential natural habitat to maintain evolutionary and ecological processes (Schwartz, 1999). As such, one corridor was defined in Macaronesia for the conservation of the Monk Seal (Monachus monachus). Conservation measures introduced over the last 30 years have helped to stem the decline of the population of the Monk Seal, estimated today at approximately 600-700 animals (Karamanlidis, 2015). One of the subpopulations is located in the archipelago of Madeira and numbers approximately 40 seals (Pires et al, 2008 in Karamanlidis, 2015). Once restricted to the remote Desertas Islands, Monk Seals have recently recolonized the main island of Madeira, where not only suitable habitat for the species still exists but where there are even strong indications of pupping (R. Pires, pers. com. in Karamanlidis, 2015). Therefore, the marine corridor comprises two KBAs - Coastal marine area of Madeira Island and Desertas Islands - to meet the long-term conservation needs of the Monk Seal in the region. 82 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT This chapter provides an overview of the socio-economic context, and analysis of interactions between economic and social activities and biodiversity conservation. Historical Context Humans played a determining role in the present status of biodiversity conservation in Macaronesia. While the Canary Islands have a relatively long history of human occupation, Madeira and the Azores were uninhabited until the XVth century before the arrival of Portuguese navigators. The Canaries were first colonized by Moroccan Berbers within the first millennium BC (Maca-Meyer et al., 2004), giving rise to the Guanches. A second colonizing wave took place in the XVth century by Spanish settlers. Since the arrival of the first settlers, the indigenous flora and fauna have been under severe pressure from habitat destruction, harvesting of living resources and the introduction of invasive species. In the Canaries, the initial impacts were associated with the use of fire and opening of forests for grazing, whereas in the Azores and Madeira the forests were cleared for agriculture and cattle. By the beginning of the XIXth century, practically all the mid and low altitude land had been converted to agriculture or urbanized. The native laurel forest that covered the islands before human colonization (estimated at 365,000 ha for the whole of Macaronesia) is now reduced to about 12.5% of the potential area (J.M. Fernández-Palacios & de Nascimento, 2011). The rich volcanic soils and a favourable climate allowed a rapid expansion of areas used for agriculture production for export. By the end of the 15th century, Madeira was the worlds’ leading producer and exporter of sugar (EEA, 2002). Other products included wheat, wine, maize and sweet potatoes. The expanding agricultural industry had a major impact on topography and original biodiversity. Large native areas, including forests, were transformed into cultivation (at places to monocultures of sugar cane) and extensive irrigation systems were constructed to bring water from mountainous areas to dry lowlands. In the Canary Islands, the Guanches brought domesticated animals (goats, pigs, dogs and possibly sheep) and culture plants (barley, beans, peas) from the mainland to the islands about 4 000 years ago (EEA, 2002). After the Spanish colonization, trade with the Spanish American colonies, the European mainland and the British Isles, based essentially on raw materials exports, shaped the Canaries’ economy and agriculture: sugarcane and rum in the early days, wine and cochineal later, and latterly, as from the 19th century, tomatoes, and bananas. After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: first sugar cane and then wine, an important item of trade with England. However, the sugarbased economy of the islands soon faced stiff competition from Spain's American colonies. Low prices in the sugar market in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop, cochineal (cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, saving the islands' economy. At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a new cash crop - the banana. In the Azores, the initial intensive conversion to agricultural and grazing land allowed the archipelago to go through several major economic cycles: the wheat, the crop of pastel (dye plant), the orange, the pineapple. Also the idea of using the Azores as an acclimatization centre of exotic species was implemented (Ramos, 1871). Most exotic ornamental plants was 83 introduced for use in parks and private gardens, since the last quarter of the eighteenth century until the late nineteenth century. From the 1940’s to the 1960’s a huge effort, led or supported by public authorities, replaced the vegetation of most mid and high altitude areas with monocultures of the fast growing Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica). A further negative impact originated from the expansion of dairy farms, which became the main economic activity in the Azores especially after Portugal’s entry into the European Union in 1986. Aided by subsidies from the Common Agriculture Policy, pastures became the dominant landscape in low altitudes, especially in two of the largest islands, creating “green deserts” of low biodiversity and negatively affecting the water quality of the lakes. Demographic and social trends Macaronesia has 2.6 million inhabitants and a density of nearly 250 persons/km2, on average (Table 21). With a population of about 2 million people, the Canary Islands are the most populated European overseas entity (Petit & Prudent, 2010). But it’s Madeira that records the highest population density of Macaronesia - 323 inhabitants/km2 - while the Azores stands with the lowest population density of 106 persons/km2. The small Desertas and Selvagens archipelagos remain uninhabited by humans and protected as Nature Parks. Table 21 – Macaronesian archipelagos: socio-economic facts and figures Azores Canary Islands Madeira Total population Population density GDP/per capita (€)* Unemployment rate (%)** 246,353 106 15,111 12.8% 2,104,815 283 19,581 29.1% 258,686 323 15,710 14.7% (* 2014 data; **2015, annual averages. Sources: ISTAC (2015a); ISTAC (2015b); ISTAC (2016d); DREM (2015); (DREM, 2016); SREA (2015a); SREA (2016)) The population distribution in each archipelago is also uneven, causing varying degrees of human pressure in the natural environments and resources of the different islands. Half of the nearly 250,000 inhabitants of the Azores live on the largest island, São Miguel (SREA, 2015a). Here the population density is 185,7 people/km2 in contrast to about 27 in the most remote islands of Flores and Corvo. In Madeira, 41% of the population is concentrated in Funchal, the capital of Madeira island (DREM, 2015). This situation is even more pronounced in the Canary Islands: the islands of Gran Canaria and Tenerife account for over 80% of the total population in the archipelago (ISTAC, 2015a). In the two islands the population density is respectively 546 and 442 people per square kilometre, in opposition to 41 in El Hierro and about 60 in Fuerteventura and La Gomera. The demographic behaviour observed in the three archipelagos since the beginning of the 20th century is also different. While the Azores recorded a stable population variation throughout the last century and until now (around 250,000 inhabitants), the Madeiran population had an increase of over 100,000 inhabitants since 1900 (Figure 23). In the Canary islands, the population increased nearly six times over the same period, reaching a total of over 2.1 million people today in comparison to 365,000 in 1900 (ISTAC, 2015a). 84 In terms of living standards, measured by GDP per capita, the Azores records the lowest one (15,111€), followed by Madeira (15,710€), while the Canary Islands stand with the highest (19,581€) (Table 21). On the other hand, the Canaries record the highest unemployment rate of the region (29.1%). Moreover, while the Azores and Madeira have seen their unemployment rates severely increased only in the last years, especially as a result of the world economic crisis, the Canary Islands have had a persistent high unemployment, following the Spanish pattern. 2,250,000 2,000,000 1,750,000 1,500,000 1,250,000 Azores 1,000,000 Madeira 750,000 Canary Is. 500,000 250,000 1900 1911 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1981 1991 2001 2011 0 Figure 23. Evolution of the population in the Macaronesian archipelagos (Sources: SREA (2015c), ISTAC (2015a), DREM (2012)) Economic trends The Macaronesia’s economy is strongly specialized in the services sector, where tourism has a prominent role, particularly in Madeira and the Canary Islands. Over the last few decades tourism has grown steadily as a source of income, though to varying degrees among the archipelagos and islands, while the secondary sector has remained largely undeveloped and the primary sector is in decline (Table 22), surviving with the support of public and European subsidies. Table 22. Production and employment structure of the Macaronesian archipelagos Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing Industry and construction Services % of % of % of % of % of employed employed employed GVA GVA population population population 13 16 71 Azores 10 13 77 3 10 87 12 Canary Is. 2 86 13 12 75 85 Madeira 2 13 (2014 preliminary data. Sources: ISTAC (2016a); ISTAC (2016b); DREM (2015); SREA (2015a). GVA- Gross Value Added) % of GVA The development of the primary sector in the Macaronesian islands is conditioned by climatic and orographic factors, as well as the scarcity of water and adequate surface for cultivation. The rugged topography and high average slope had influence on the reduced average size of farms 85 and seriously hinder access and mechanization. Regarding the fishing sector, aquaculture is increasingly being promoted as an alternative to traditional fishing that is facing problems of overexploitation and limitations under agreements with third countries (PIC-INTERREG IIIB2000/2006, 2001). The industrial sector, dominated by traditional industries, especially food, beverages and tobacco, and the extracting and processing raw materials industries, shows a weak dynamism in the economy of the Macaronesian islands (PIC-INTERREG IIIB-2000/2006, 2001). The sector is subject to the market configuration based on a reduced internal demand and a high dependence on the external supply, which implies higher costs due to the remoteness of the islands. The majority of the low technological content of produced goods also does not encourage efforts in R&D. As regards to the construction industry, it is dependent on the evolution of other sectors and on the scarcity of substrate, due both to fragmentation of the territory and the large surface of protected areas. In addition to activities directly linked to tourism, other branches of the services are gaining importance, such as trade and financial services. Azores The Azores economy is based mainly on agriculture, fisheries and tourism (Figure 24). The primary sector has traditionally accounted for the archipelago’s economic activity and, although there’s currently a growing concentration of activity in the tertiary sector, it remains relevant. Contribution to GVA 10% Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing 13% Industry and construction 78% Services Figure 24. Productive structure of the Azores Agricultural production in the Azores differs substantially from the Canary Islands and Madeira. Here, livestock and dairy production is the main trade using more than 100 000 hectares of the total farmland (EEA, 2002). Most of the farms are relatively small, hosting between 5 and 20 heads. The sector accounts for an annual production of over 500 million litters of milk (SREA, 2015b), or about 25% of Portuguese milk production. Some crops also deserve mentioning, as is the case of pineapples, vine plantations, potatoes, oranges, tobacco and tea (SREA, 2015a). In turn, forests occupy more than 30% of the territory of the Azores, two-thirds of which consists of production forests, planted in public and private areas, consisting primarily of Cryptomeria (Autonomous Region of the Azores, 2013). The ‘Cryptomeria Azores’ brand has recently been created to promote the use of this timber and it represents an important incentive. Although with a decreasing trend in recent years, fisheries are also an important economic activity on all Azorean islands, with 2,831 registered fishermen and 762 motor vessels in 2014 86 (SREA, 2015b). Although the Azores archipelago accounts for the largest sub-area of Portugal’s EEZ it has a relative lack of biomass and is biologically fragile, especially in terms of demersal and deep water species, since it does not have a continental shelfand has high average depths. Only 2.2% of this total area can potentially be used up to a depth of 1 000 metres (Autonomous Region of the Azores, 2013). Fishing methods are highly traditional among Azorean fishermen, hook and line still being the major fishing gear used. This has allowed for a sustainable exploration of resources over centuries. Fishing brings in an average revenue of about € 35 million for the region, with 9 to 19 tons of fish extracted between 2010 and 2014 (SREA, 2015a, 2015d) from an Exclusive Economic Zone of about one million km². As a result of the importance of the primary sector, the archipelago's main exports are based on the agricultural economy (dairy farms), through the production and sale of meat, milk, cheese and butter. Other exports are also important, such as tea, tobacco, pineapple, canned tuna and fish (PIC-INTERREG IIIB-2000/2006, 2001). Not surprisingly, industry in the Azores is also based mainly on the production of dairy products (milk, cheese) and transformation of fisheries products, such as tuna. The tourist industry is far less well developed than those of Madeira or the Canary Islands, but is becoming of considerable importance to the economy of the archipelago, with an expressive contribution to wealth creation, employability and internationalization. The tourist infrastructure has grown markedly over the last years, with the accommodation capacity more than doubling between 2000 and 2006 (SREA, 2012), reaching nearly 10,000 beds. Since then the accommodation capacity of traditional hotels have recorded a slow increase, but rural tourism instead kept growing steadily, nearly tripling its accommodation capacity since 2000 (SREA, 2012, 2015c). Nature, humanized space and intangible heritage of the Azores have resulted in the last years in more than 30 awards as a sustainable tourist destination from websites and internationally recognized magazines. However, the great efforts from the Azorean Government to promote the archipelago as a touristic destination in European and international markets and the arrival of low cost companies in 2015 are causing some increasing pressures, such as a growing interest in the construction of ports and harbours and in coastal development. Madeira Madeira’s economy is also dominated by the tertiary sector, which concentrates 75% of the employed population, while Industry and Agriculture account for 12% and 13% respectively (Table 22 and Figure 25). Favourable fiscal conditions have attracted many international finance companies. Besides, Madeira has been a tourist destination since the XIXth century and the tourist industry mobilized nearly 1.2 million visitors in 2014 (DREM, 2015). There is little industry, most of it related to the production of artisanal goods, such as embroideries. The production of sugar, wine and bananas is the backbone of the agricultural economy of Madeira, together with numerous common European vegetables. Further, temperate fruits like oranges, lemons, guavas and mango together with pineapple and figs are cultivated for export. Fisheries are of relatively low relevance in the archipelago. Some aspects linked to the surrounding natural conditions and characteristics of the available fish resources, are not conductive to increase productivity of fishing activity and related sectors. Thus, the sector's 87 contribution to the Madeiran GDP is lower than what could be expected, corresponding to approximately 0.8% (SRA, 2014). Contribution to GVA 2% 13% Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing Industry and construction 85% Services Figure 25. Productive structure of Madeira Canary Islands The tertiary sector and tourism in particular, with about 12 million visitors a year (ISTAC, 2016c), accounts for 86% of the economy of the Canaries and employs 87% of the population (Table 22 and Figure 26). The archipelago is the third-largest Spanish tourist region, only behind Catalonia and the Balearic Islands (European Parliament, 2011a). Contribution to GVA 2% 12% Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing Industry and construction 86% Services Figure 26. Productive structure of the Canary Islands The expansion of tourism, especially after the 1970’s, has promoted construction and services linked to tourism activity, also contributing to the primacy of services in the Canarian economy. Industry is scarce, representing about 12 % of GVA, and is mainly based on agricultural and food products and tobacco. The power subsector is also relevant, based essentially on oil refinery. Agriculture, which during the 1960’s still accounted for about 30% of GDP, today plays a minor role in the archipelago’s economy (2% of GVA). Lack of water and land suitable for cultivation has been the main constraints to agricultural development. As a result, only 10% of the surface is farmed, to a large extent dry land farming (barley, wheat, vines and potatoes) and a minority of irrigation farming (bananas, tomatoes), targeted at the Spanish and European markets 88 (European Parliament, 2011a). Other crops for export include tropical fruits (avocados, pineapples, mangoes and other crops in green-houses) and flowers. 89 6. LEGAL AND POLITICAL CONTEXT Overview of the Regional and National Political Situation Madeira and the Azores are insular regions of Portugal with an autonomous political and administrative status under the Portuguese Constitution since 1976. Both have their own regional governments and parliaments and are responsible for the political and administrative decisions in all sectors except defence and foreign affair. The Canary Islands form one of the 17 Spanish Autonomous Communities, divided into two administrative provinces. The capital of the Autonomous region is shared by the cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, which in turn are the capitals of the provinces of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and of Las Palmas. The autonomy was granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, after the establishment of a democratic constitutional monarchy in Spain. Having its own government and parliament, it has exclusive competence in a number of fields including physical planning and land management, hunting, fisheries in inner waters, aquaculture, water management, scientific research (in coordination with the Spanish State), natural protected areas and coastal zone management. On 1 January 1986, Spain and Portugal acceded to the European Economic Community, which thus became the ‘Europe of the Twelve’. Both Spain and Portugal were countries emerging from dictatorship and seeking to consolidate their newly restored democracies. Having long been marginalised in Europe both economically and politically, Spain and Portugal also suffered from out-dated industrial and agricultural sectors compared with the Member States of the European Economic Community (EEC). Membership of the EEC appeared to be the ideal solution to the problems facing these countries in transition. Within the EU, the Macaronesian region is an ‘Outermost Region’ (OR). The first European text on specific programmes in favour of the outermost regions was a 1987 European Parliament Resolution on the French Overseas Departments (DOM- département d'outre-mer). Decision 89/687/EC of 22 December 1989 introduced the first programme in favour of the DOM, the true starting point of the POSEI (Programme d'Options Spécifiques à l'Éloignement et l'Insularité). A further step was taken in 1991, when, in addition to updating the POSEIDOM, programmes were introduced for Madeira and the Azores (POSEIMA) and the Canary Islands (POSEICAN). In 1999, the notion of ‘outermost region’ was enshrined in Article 299 of the Treaty of Amsterdam, with a specific reference to the Canary Islands. Finally, on signature of the Treaty of Lisbon, Articles 349 and 355 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU) reiterated the Treaty of Amsterdam’s definition of ‘outermost region’ and its specific measures regarding the Customs Union, common trade policy, fiscal policy, free zones, common agricultural and fisheries polices, supply of raw materials and essential consumer goods, State aids and conditions of access to structural funds. According to the Treaty, the concept of 'outermost region' is based on the special socio-economic situation of a particular region, exacerbated by its remoteness, insularity, small size, topography, climate and economic dependence on a few products, factors that severely restrain its development. 90 Global and Regional Agreements Portugal and Spain are signatories to a range of global and regional agreements of direct importance for biodiversity. Some of these agreements led to national and local legislative instruments and to the nomination of areas of biodiversity importance, such as the ones summarized on Table 23 and described below. Table 23. Areas of biodiversity importance in Macaronesia, designated under regional and international conventions and agreements Man and Biosphere Reserves Ramsar sites OSPAR MPAs Natural World Heritage Sites Nr Area (km2) Nr Area (km2) Nr Area (km2) Nr Area (km2) Azores 4 1,951 13 129 11 107,126 0 0 Canary Is. 7 8,201 1 1 n.a. n.a. 2 230 Madeira 1 152 0 0 n.a. n.a. 1 150 Macaronesia 12 10,304 14 129 11 107,126 3 380 (n.a. = not applicable. Sources: OSPAR Commission (2015); Ramsar Sites Information Service (2016); UNESCO (2016); UNESCO (1999)) Global agreements Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Both Portugal and Spain have ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1994. Effective since 1993, the Convention requires countries to prepare a national biodiversity strategy (or equivalent instrument) for implemention at the national level, and to ensure that this strategy is mainstreamed into the planning and activities of all those sectors whose activities can have an impact (positive and negative) on biodiversity. In addition, Parties should deliver national reports, providing information on measures taken for the implementation of the Convention and the effectiveness of these measures. In 2010, the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held from 18 to 29 October, in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, for the 2011-2020 period. Parties agreed to translate this overarching international framework into revised and updated national biodiversity strategies and action plans within two years. Additionally, the Conference of the Parties decided that the fifth national reports, due by 31 March 2014, would focus on the implementation of the 2011-2020 Strategic Plan and progress achieved towards the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Portugal has elaborated an official National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) in 2001, which acts as over-arching guides to biodiversity conservation in the country. However, no post-2010 NBSAP has been submitted so far. Despite its national scope, the Portuguese National Strategy does not cover the two autonomous regions of Madeira and the Azores 91 specifically, and these two regions have not formulated their own strategy for nature conservation and biodiversity. Spain has adopted a National Biodiversity Plan in 1999 (CBD, n.d.). A revised version followed in 2005 and an Action Plan in 2011. The Strategic Plan on Natural Heritage and Biodiversity 2011-2017, adopted by the Council of Ministers in September 2011 is the national response to the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, as well as a fundamental element in support of the Law on Natural Heritage and Biodiversity 42/2007 adopted on 13 December 2007. It includes a number of goals, 39 objectives and 281 actions for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and also considers the targets set out in the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2020. The timeframe for implementing the Spanish Strategic Plan is from 2011 to 2017. The Spanish National Strategy for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity are applicable to the Canary Islands. As an autonomous region of Spain, the Canary Islands is able to approve its own regional/local strategy but no such strategy has been formulated. The CBD was also followed by two supplementary agreements: the Cartagena and the Nagoya Protocols. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. The Protocol was accepted and ratified by Portugal and Spain in 2004 and 2003, respectively. The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement, which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way. The Protocol establishes a clear, legally-binding framework determining how researchers and companies can obtain access to the genetic resources of a country and to the traditional knowledge associated with these resources. It also explains how the benefits arising from the use of these genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge will be shared. It entered into force on 12 October 2014, 90 days after the date of deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification. Portugal and Spain have also signed the Protocol, but until now only Spain has ratified it. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. Ramsar is the oldest of the modern global intergovernmental environmental agreements. The treaty was negotiated through the 1960s by countries and non-governmental organizations concerned about the increasing loss and degradation of wetland habitat for migratory waterbirds. It was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975. Portugal and Spain ratified the Convention in 1981 and 1982, respectively. As Contracting Parties, both countries had to: 1) designate wetlands for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance. These sites are recognized from the ecosystem representativeness criteria, fauna and flora values and its importance for the conservation of waterfowl and fish; 92 2) develop planning and management plans for wetlands, with a view to sustainable use; 3) promote the conservation of wetlands and waterfowl by establishing nature reserves and provide their proper protection. To date, 14 ‘Ramsar sites’, or wetlands of international importance, have been designated in the Macaronesian archipelagos, covering about 13,027 hectares (Table 24). Not surprisingly, the majority (13 areas; 12,900 ha.) are located in the Azores, while the other site is in the Canary Islands, namely in Las Palmas. Most of these sites are included in Protected Areas designated by the governments of each archipelago. Table 24. Ramsar sites in Macaronesia Site Name number Archipelago (island) Total area (ha.) 1615 Fajãs das Lagoas de Santo Cristo e dos Cubres de São Jorge Azores (S. Jorge) 87 1798 Caldeira da Graciosa (Furna do Enxofre) Azores (Graciosa) 120 1799 Caldeira do Faial Azores (Faial) 312 1800 Caldeirão do Corvo Azores (Corvo) 316 1801 Complexo Vulcânico das Furnas Azores (S. Miguel) 2 855 1802 Complexo Vulcânico das Sete Cidades Azores (S. Miguel) 2 171 1803 Complexo Vulcânico do Fogo Azores (S. Miguel) 2 182 1804 Ilhéus das Formigas e Recife Dollabarat Azores (S. Maria) 7 1805 Planalto Central da Terceira (Furnas do Enxofre e Algar do Carvão) Azores (Terceira) 1 283 1806 Planalto Central das Flores (Morro Alto) Azores (Flores) 2 572 1807 Planalto Central de São Jorge (Pico da Esperança) Azores (S. Jorge) 231 1808 Planalto Central do Pico (Achada) Azores (Pico) 748 2099 Paúl da Praia da Vitória Azores (Terceira) 16 1262 Saladar de Jandía o Playa del Matorral Canary Is. (Fuerteventura) (Source: Ramsar Sites Information Service (2016)) 127 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Effective since 1975, CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement to which States (countries) adhere voluntarily. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties – in other words they have to implement the Convention – it does not take the place of national laws. Rather it provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level. 93 Roughly 5,600 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade. They are listed in the three CITES appendices. The species are grouped in the Appendices according to how threatened they are by international trade. While the more charismatic creatures, such as bears and whales, may be the better known examples of CITES species, the most numerous groups include many less popularized plants and animals, such as aloes, corals, mussels and frogs. In Portugal and Spain the Convention entered into force in 1981 and 1986, respectively. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS; Bonn Convention) As an environmental treaty under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme, CMS provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats. CMS brings together the States through which migratory animals pass, the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for internationally coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range. As the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and migration routes, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other international organizations, NGOs and partners in the media as well as in the corporate sector. Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of the Convention. CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Besides establishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, CMS promotes concerted action among the Range States of many of these species. Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional agreements. In this respect, CMS acts as a framework Convention. The agreements may range from legally binding treaties (called Agreements) to less formal instruments, such as Memoranda of Understanding, and can be adapted to the requirements of particular regions. The development of models tailored according to the conservation needs throughout the migratory range is a unique capacity to CMS (Table 25). 94 Table 25. Bonn Convention: ratification status of CMS agreements in Portugal and Spain Portugal Status Party Party Party Party MOU Monk Seal in the Atlantic Signatory Western African Aquatic MOU Mammals Signatory MOU Birds of Prey (Raptors) Signatory CMS Instrument CMS AEWA EUROBATS ACCOBAMS Aquatic Warbler Range State Atlantic Turtles ASCOBANS Range State Range State Status date 01.11.1983 01.03.2004 10.01.1996 01.01.2005 18.10.2007 05.12.2008 22.10.2008 Slender-billed Curlew Sharks MOU Signatory 01.03.2016 Spain Status Party Party Range State Party MOU Signatory Status date 01.05.1985 01.11.1999 02.02.1999 18.10.2007 Range State MOU Signatory MOU Signatory Range State Range State MOU Signatory 01.06.2015 13.04.2003 15.12.1994 Range State ACAP Party 12.08.2003 (ACAP: Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels; ACCOBAMS: Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic area; AEWA: Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds; ASCOBANS: Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas; EUROBATS: Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats. Source: (CMS, 2015)) Man and Biosphere programme Launched in 1971, UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) is an Intergovernmental Scientific Programme that aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their environments. MAB combines the natural and social sciences, economics and education to improve human livelihoods and the equitable sharing of benefits, and to safeguard natural and managed ecosystems, thus promoting innovative approaches to economic development that are socially and culturally appropriate, and environmentally sustainable. The East Atlantic Biosphere Reserve Network (REDBIOS) was created in 1994. It comprises the Canary Islands (Spain), Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau, Madeira and Azores (Portugal), Mauritania, Morocco, Sao Tomé and Principe, and Senegal. The network fulfils an interregional mandate in enabling countries from the Macaronesian Region to co-operate and to exchange their experiences. There are 12 UNESCO’s Biosphere reserves in the Macaronesian region (Table 26). In the Azores, three islands (Corvo, Graciosa and Flores) have been proposed by the Azores Government and approved by UNESCO as Biosphere Reserves, with the purpose of promoting solutions to conciliate biodiversity and its sustainable usage. In addition, a new Biosphere Reserve, including the ‘Fajãs’ of S. Jorge island has recently been approved (March 2016). In the Canaries archipelago, all seven islands are totally (Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La 95 Gomera & El Hierro) or partly (Gran Canaria & Tenerife) UNESCO Biosphere reserves, thus contributing to biodiversity conservation on the archipelago. Madeira is also home to one Biosphere reserve that includes an area (Santana) of the Madeira island. Table 26. Biosphere reserves in the Macaronesian region Archipelago Biosphere reserve Total area (ha.) Azores Corvo 25 853 Azores Fajãs de S. Jorge 98 114 Azores Flores 59 000 Azores Graciosa 12 172 Canary Islands El Hierro 29 600 Canary Islands Fuerteventura 353 500 Canary Islands Gran Canaria (46%) 100 459 Canary Islands La Gomera 84 522 Canary Islands La Palma 80 702 Canary Islands Lanzarote 122 610 Canary Islands Macizo de Anaga 48 727 Madeira Santana 15 218 World Heritage Convention Effective since 1975, the World Heritage Convention has 189 member countries, including Portugal and Spain. The convention’s aim is to identify and conserve cultural and natural monuments and sites of outstanding universal value, through the nomination of World Heritage Sites by national governments and their recognition by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). As of 1986, three Natural World Heritage Site had been declared in the Macaronesian region (Table 27): • • • “Laurisilva of Madeira” is the largest surviving area of laurel forest and is believed to be 90% primary forest. It contains a unique suite of plants and animals, including many endemic species such as the Madeiran long-toed pigeon. Next to the Laurisilva of Madeira (Madeira), Garajonay National Park, situated in the middle of the island of La Gomera in the Canary Islands archipelago, preserves an outstanding example of Laurisilva’s unique vegetation that covers some 70% of the park’s area. Situated on the island of Tenerife, Teide National Park features the Teide-Pico Viejo stratovolcano that, at 3,718 m, is the highest peak on Spanish soil. Rising 7,500 m above the ocean floor, it is regarded as the world’s third-tallest volcanic structure and stands in a spectacular environment. Teide is of global importance in providing evidence of the geological processes that underpin the evolution of oceanic islands. 96 Table 27. Natural World Heritage sites in Macaronesia Archipelago (island) Canary Gomera) Is. (La Natural World Heritage site Year Garajonay National Park Criteria 1986 (vii); (ix) Total area (km2) 39.8 Madeira (Madeira) Laurisilva of Madeira 1999 (ix); (x) 150 Canary Is. (Tenerife) Teide National Park 2007 (vii); (viii) 189.9 (Source: (UNESCO, 1999)) European agreements Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) OSPAR is the mechanism by which 15 Governments of the western coasts and catchments of Europe, together with the European Union, cooperate to protect the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. The fifteen Governments are Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom. OSPAR started in 1972 with the Oslo Convention against dumping and was broadened to cover land-based sources and the offshore industry by the Paris Convention of 1974. These two conventions were unified, up-dated and extended by the 1992 OSPAR Convention. The new annex on biodiversity and ecosystems was adopted in 1998 to cover non-polluting human activities that can adversely affect the sea. At the Ministerial Meeting in Sintra in 1998, OSPAR Ministers agreed to promote the establishment of a network of marine protected areas. Following a period of preparatory work, the 2003 OSPAR Ministerial Meeting in Bremen adopted Recommendation 2003/3 on a network of marine protected areas with the purpose of establishing an ecologically coherent network of well-managed MPAs in the North-East Atlantic. The Azores is included in the OSPAR Region V (wider Atlantic). Region V represents the deep waters of the North-East Atlantic extending across the abyssal plain and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and including many seamounts. There have been recent discoveries of a number of different fragile deep-sea habitats (such as hydrothermal vents, carbonate mounds, coral gardens and sponge communities). Eleven of the 12 MPAS Portugal has nominated to OSPAR are part of the Marine Park of the Azores (Government of the Azores, 2015). The 11 OSPAR MPAs have a total area of about 107,126 km2 (Table 28). Four of these MPAs, namely Altair Seamounts HS MPA, AntiAltair Seamounts HS MPA, Mid Atlantic Ridge Northern of the Azores (MARNA) HS MPA and Rainbow Hydrothermal Vent Field, occur on an area beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) subject to a submission by Portugal to the UN CLCS (UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf) for an ECS (Extended Continental Shelf). 97 Table 28. Number and coverage of OSPAR MPAs OSPAR MPA Area (km2) Territorial waters EEZ D. João de Castro seamount 365 Menez Gwen hydrothermal vent field 264 Lucky Strike hydrothermal vent 301 Rainbow hydrothermal vent field Beyond EEZ 22 Sedlo Seamount 4,121 Altair Seamount High Seas MPA 4,381 Antialtair Seamount High Seas MPA 2,855 MAR North of the Azores High Seas MPA 93,795 Faial-Pico Channel 241 Formigas Bank 524 Corvo Island 257 Total 1,022 5,051 101,053 (EEZ: Exclusive Economic Zone. Source: Government of the Azores (2015); OSPAR Commission (2015)) In 2010, the Strategy of the OSPAR Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 2010–2020 (North-East Atlantic Environment Strategy) was adopted by the OSPAR Contracting Parties to halt and prevent by 2020 further loss of biodiversity in the OSPAR maritime area. Using the Ecosystem Approach to manage human activities affecting the maritime area, the Strategy aims to conserve marine ecosystems and safeguard human health and, when practicable, restore marine areas, which have been adversely affected in the North-East Atlantic by preventing and eliminating pollution and by protecting the maritime area against the adverse effects of human activities. 98 Figure 27. OSPAR MPAs and Exclusive Economic Zones of OSPAR Contracting Parties (Source: OSPAR Commission (2015) Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) The Council of Europe’s Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (1979), or Bern Convention is a binding international legal instrument in the field of nature conservation, covering most of the natural heritage of the European continent and extending to some States of Africa. The Bern Convention was the first international treaty to protect both species and habitats and to bring countries together to decide how to act on nature conservation and is the only regional Convention of its kind worldwide. The treaty also takes account of the impact that other policies may have on natural heritage and recognises the intrinsic value of wild flora and fauna, which needs to be preserved and passed to future generations. Fifty countries and the European Union have already signed up to the Convention, including Portugal and Spain that have concluded the ratification in 1982 and 1986, respectively. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention has shown in various ways (declarations, organization of joint seminars and other initiatives, etc.), their determination not to duplicate, but to bring together the efforts of various organizations and nature conservation instruments, as for example, with the Birds and Habitats Directives and the Pan-European Strategy for the Conservation of Biological and Landscape Diversity. 99 European Union strategies and policy instruments Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services issues are either mainstreamed in EU environmental legislation, for example in water legislation, or specifically addressed through EU policies and legislation such as the EU’s Biodiversity Strategy or nature directives. From the broad set of EU strategies and instruments targeting or influencing biodiversity conservation, only the main ones are described in this section. EU Environmental Action Programme to 2020 A framework for policy-making is set out in the Environmental Action Programme (EAP). The current seventh EAP covers the period 2012-2020 and has nine priority objectives. The three key areas are: to protect and enhance nature and biodiversity, boost resource efficient, sustainable growth and to improve environmental links with health. These goals will be achieved by better implementation of existing legislation, enhancing knowledge, larger investments and full integration of environmental issues into policy. The programme also proposes to make EU cities more sustainable and to work across boundaries on a global scale. This programme is the top environmental priority and will be regularly monitored until it is revaluated in 2020. European Union Biodiversity Strategy The EU 2010 biodiversity baseline indicated that up to 25 % of European animal species were facing extinction, and 65 % of habitats of EU importance were in an unfavourable conservation status, mainly due to human activities (European Commission, 2015b). Basic ecosystem services have continued deteriorating. As a response, in 2011, the EC adopted an EU strategy to halt the loss of biodiversity and Box 3. EU Biodiversity Vision and Target ecosystem services in the EU by 2020, to restore ecosystems in so far as is feasible, 2050 vision and to step up the EU contribution to averting global biodiversity loss. The strategy is an integral part of the Europe 2020 strategy and the 7th Environmental Action Programme. The Strategy implements the global commitments made in Nagoya in October 2010, within the international Convention on Biological Diversity, providing a framework for action to enable the EU to reach its 2020 biodiversity target and set it on the right path to attain the 2050 vision. It builds on the results from the EU’s fifth National Report as required under the Convention on Biological Diversity. The strategy is built around six targets, each supported by a set of actions: • • • • By 2050, European Union biodiversity and theecosystem services it provides – its natural capital – are protected, valued and appropriately restored for biodiversity’s intrinsic value and for their essential contribution to human wellbeing and economic prosperity, and so that catastrophic changes caused by the loss of biodiversity are avoided. 2020 headline target Halting the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of ecosystem services in the EU by 2020, and restoring them in so far as feasible, while stepping up the EU contribution to averting global biodiversity loss. Full implementation of EU nature legislation to protect biodiversity Better protection for ecosystems, and more use of green infrastructure More sustainable agriculture and forestry Better management of fish stocks 100 • • Tighter controls on invasive alien species A bigger EU contribution to averting global biodiversity loss Since the shared EU and CBD targets need to be pursued through a mix of sub-national, national and EU-level action, close coordination is therefore needed to track progress in reaching the targets, including those addressed through policy measures outside the scope of this strategy, and to ensure consistency between EU and Member State action. The 2015 mid-term review of the strategy assessed whether the EU is on track to achieve this objective. It shows progress in many areas, but highlights the need for much greater effort. EU Regulation 511/2014 on the Implementation of the Nagoya Protocol On 16 April 2014 the European Union adopted Regulation 511/2014 to implement the Nagoya Protocol in the EU and to enable Union-wide ratification of the Protocol (“Regulation No. 511/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on compliance measures for users from the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization in the Union”). The Regulation applies to all use of genetic resources in the EU, and includes obligations on users of genetic resources in the EU. On 13 October 2015 the European Union published the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2015/1866, which lays down detailed rules on the implementation of Articles 5, 7 and 8 of Regulation 511/2014. Furthermore, a document titled Guidance on the EU Regulation implementing the Nagoya Protocol is under preparation The Regulation applies directly to and in all Member States of the EU, and as such can apply to all institutes, companies and citizens who use genetic resources falling within the scope of the Regulation. Its rules apply when genetic resources, and the traditional knowledge associated with them, are used in research and development for their genetic properties and/or biochemical composition, including through the application of biotechnology. EC Birds and Habitats directives and the Natura 2000 network Natura 2000 is a network of nature protection areas in the territory of the European Union, which legal basis comes from the Birds Directive and the Habitats Directive that form the backbone of the EU's internal biodiversity policy. Furthermore, the Natura 2000 network is the EU contribution to the "Emerald network" of Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs) set up under the Bern Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats. Natura 2000 is also a key contribution to the Program of Work of Protected Areas of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Under the EU’s Birds Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of wild birds), Member States are required to designate and manage a network of Special Protection Areas (SPA) for 194 particularly threatened species and all migratory bird species. SPAs are scientifically identified areas critical for the survival of the targeted species. The Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC) aims to protect over 1,000 animals and plant species and over 200 so called "habitat types" (e.g. special types of forests, meadows, wetlands, etc.), which are of European importance. Member States must suggest a list of “Sites of Community Importance” (SCI), which, once adopted, should be designated as “Special Areas of Conservation” (SAC). Member States are responsible for ensuring that all Natura 2000 sites are appropriately managed by conservation authorities in each country. These organisations often work in partnership with other authorities, voluntary bodies, local or national charities and private 101 landowners. It is, however, important to note that Natura 2000 sites can vary considerably in character. They are not strictly protected in terms of how they are allowed to be used by people. Many sites are farmed, forested and some are even in urban areas. Other areas are much wilder. The list of Natura 2000 sites for the Macaronesia region was the first to be adopted in December 2001 (European Commission, 2005). It is currently made up of 290 sites, covering about 32,500 km2 of land and sea (Table 29). While designation of sites may be near complete, the management and enforcement of protection on sites is less advanced and many sites lack management plans. Table 29. Natura 2000 sites in the Macaronesian region SCI SAC Nr Area (km2) Nr Area (km2) Azores 3 307 23 Canary Is. 2 20,429 Madeira 0 Macaronesia 5 SPA Total Nr Area (km2) Nr Area (km2) * 336 15 162 41 802 177 4,632 54 12,373 233 29,238 0 11 500 5 2,219 16 2,452 20,735 211 5,468 74 14,754 290 32,493 (* Totals do not add up because many SCI/SAC overlap with SPAs. Sources: Secretaria Regional da Agricultura e Ambiente, Azores; estimate based on GIS calculations, Canary Islands; Serviço do Parque Natural da Madeira) EC Marine Strategy Framework Directive The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) constitutes the environmental pillar of the EU’s Integrated Maritime Policy. The Marine Directive aims to achieve Good Environmental Status (GES) of the EU's marine waters by 2020 and to protect the resource base upon which marine-related economic and social activities depend. It is the first EU legislative instrument related to the protection of marine biodiversity, as it contains the explicit regulatory objective that "biodiversity is maintained by 2020", as the cornerstone for achieving GES. The Marine Directive was adopted on 17 June 2008, after several years of preparation and extensive consultation of all the relevant actors and the public, and came into force on 15 June 2008. It was due to be transposed into national legislation by 15 July 2010. The Commission also produced in 2010 a set of detailed criteria and indicators to help Member States implement the Marine Directive. The Directive enshrines in a legislative framework the ecosystem approach to the management of human activities having an impact on the marine environment, integrating the concepts of environmental protection and sustainable use. In order to achieve its goal, the Directive establishes European marine regions and sub-regions on the basis of geographical and environmental criteria. The Directive lists four European marine regions – the Baltic Sea, the North-east Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea – located within the geographical boundaries of the existing Regional Sea Conventions (OSPAR; HELCOM; UNEP-MAP; the Bucharest Convention). Cooperation 102 between the Member States of one marine region and with neighbouring countries, which share the same marine waters, is already taking place through these Regional Sea Conventions. In order to achieve GES by 2020, each Member State is required to develop a strategy for its marine waters (or Marine Strategy). In addition, because the Directive follows an adaptive management approach, the Marine Strategies must be kept up-to-date and reviewed every 6 years. In compliance with the European Directive, Marine strategies have been developed by Portugal and Spain, including specific strategies for the subdivisions of Azores, Madeira and the Canaries, integrated in the Macaronesia sub-region. These strategies are the main planning tool aimed at the achievement of good environmental status of the marine environment in the Macaronesian archipelagos and constitutes the general framework to be met by the different sectoral policies and administrative actions with an impact on the marine environment in accordance with the relevant sectoral legislation. EU Regulation 1143/2014 on Invasive Alien Species The EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy adopted in May 2011 also announced a dedicated legislative instrument on invasive alien species, which entered in force on 1 January 2015. This Regulation seeks to address the problem of invasive alien species in a comprehensive manner so as to protect native biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as to minimize and mitigate the human health or economic impacts that these species can have. The Regulation foresees three types of interventions: prevention, early warning and rapid response, and management. The European Commission is working together with several partners to develop an information exchange mechanism to facilitate the implementation of the EU policy on invasive alien species: the European Alien Species Information Network (EASIN) is an online platform that aims to facilitate the exploration of existing information on alien species from distributed sources. EU Wildlife Trade Regulations CITES is implemented in the EU through a set of Regulations known as the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations. Currently these are: • • • • Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein (the Basic Regulation); Commission Regulation (EC) No 865/2006 (as amended by Commission Regulation (EC) No 100/2008; Commission Regulation (EU) No 791/2012 and Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 792/2012) laying down detailed rules concerning the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 (the Implementing Regulation); Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 792/2012 of 23 August 2012 laying down rules for the design of permits, certificates and other documents provided for in Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating the trade therein amending Regulation (EC) No 865/2006 (the Permit Regulation). In addition, a Suspensions Regulation is in place to suspend the introduction into the EU of particular species from certain countries. 103 EU Directive and Strategy on adaptation to climate change The EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change, adopted by the European Commission in April 2013, sets out a framework and mechanisms for taking the EU’s preparedness for current and future climate impacts to a new level. Complementing the activities of Member States, the strategy supports action by promoting greater coordination and information-sharing between Member States, and by ensuring that adaptation considerations are addressed in all relevant EU policies. Spain adopted its National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC) in 2006, and work has been ongoing since then. The Climate Change Strategy for the Canary Islands was adopted in 2009 and followed by an Adaptation Plan for the Canary Islands. The National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (ENAAC) was adopted by Portugal in 2010. The Azores approved its Regional Strategy on Climate Change (ERAC) in 2011, which will be implemented through the Regional Plan for Climate Change (PRAC), expected in 2017. In Madeira, the development of an Adaptation Strategy to Climate Change is underway (European Commission, 2014b), being led by the Regional Government of Madeira and the Department for Spatial Planning and the Environment (under the project “CLIMA-Madeira”). Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive The Directives on Environmental Assessment aim to provide a high level of protection of the environment and to contribute to the integration of environmental considerations into the preparation of projects, plans and programmes with a view to reduce their environmental impact. They ensure public participation in decision-making and thereby strengthen the quality of decisions. The projects and programmes co-financed by the EU (Cohesion, Agricultural and Fisheries Policies) have to comply with the EIA and SEA Directives to receive approval for financial assistance. The newly amended Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive (2014/52/EU) entered into force on 15 May 2014 and introduces, among other elements, a broader scope of the EIA covering new issues (climate change, biodiversity, risks prevention). Local Policies and Legislation Biodiversity conservation in the Macaronesian Autonomous Regions is set both at national and local level, and is either mainstreamed in the region’s environmental legislation, for example in water legislation, or specifically addressed through policies and legislation such as the legislation on Protected Areas. In both cases, global and regional aggrements have been transposed into several plans, programs and strategions in the region (see 0). EU legislative instruments, in turn, must be transposed into national and local legislation. Whilst EU regulations have direct application in member states and do not have to be transposed into national regulations, the necessary enforcement provisions must be transferred into national legislation and supplemented with national laws, as these are matters that remain under the sovereignty of each Member State. EU directives, on the other hand, must be transposed into national legislation in order to give effect to European law. Directives set out results that all EU Member States must achieve and national authorities then have the choice of form and method to meet this result. The European 104 Commission closely monitors that transposition is timely, correctly done and implemented, so as to attain the results intended. Despite its national scope, both the Portuguese and Spanish National Biodiversity Strategies do not address the autonomous territories of Madeira, the Azores and the Canaries specifically, and none of the three regions have formulated its own strategy for nature conservation and biodiversity. The main linkages with the CBD’s goals and targets take place at the time of reporting at national level, when each region is called to cooperate with the respective national authorities and a detailed compilation of actions implemented in these regions is made and incorporated into Portugal’s and Spain’s national reports. In the absence of comprehensive locally driven strategies, insufficient attention is being paid to the need for integrating and mainstreaming conservation in development planning, and conservation is approached as a distinct sector. Nature conservation and biodiversity are mostly perceived and approached as limited to protected areas or particular endangered species, and the value of mainstreaming biodiversity into development planning is not yet fully appreciated (Benzaken & Renard, 2011). Nevertheless, as all the archipelagos have a significant percentage of their territories classified as protected areas (40% of the terrestrial surface, on average), nature and biodiversity conservation is in effect being implemented in all main ecosystems. In the case of the Canary Islands, conservation activities are also implemented by the insular governments (i.e., the governments of each island, known as Cabildo) and some city councils, since they have responsibilities for some aspects of nature conservation and biodiversity management. Some insular governments have indeed sought to formulate their own insular biodiversity strategies Protected Areas Network Protected Areas form the heart of biodiversity conservation strategies in the Macaronesia. Previously to Natura 2000 Network implementation, all Macaronesian archipelagos had a local legislation supporting the creation and management of network of protected areas. To date, a total of 289 protected areas have been designated in the region (235 land PAs, 46 MPAs and 8 mixed PAs), covering 118,208 km2, from which 95% are marine sites in the Azores (Table 30). Table 30 – Regional networks of protected areas in Macaronesia AZO IUCN - I MAD CAN MACARONESIA Nr Area (ha) Nr Area (ha) Nr Area (ha) Nr Area (ha) 24 533 804 5 14 82 809 35 642 271 15 180 687 15 180 687 25 658 IUCN - II IUCN - III 10 733 52 29 812 62 30 545 IUCN - IV 53 10 650 880 34 15 506 87 10 666 386 IUCN - V 16 26 612 27 39 000 43 65 612 IUCN - VI 31 107 522 31 107 522 7 83 401 1 44 396 IUCN - V, VI Several 7 1 44 396 105 83 401 Total 134 11 319 551 6 70 054 149 431 214 289 11 820 820 (Sources: DRAA, pers. com. (2014), Government of the Azores (2015); Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation, pers. com. (2014); Gobierno de Canarias: Consejería de Obras Públicas (2014); Ministerio de Agricultura (2014)) In addition, Natura 2000 sites cover more than a third of the total land area in the region (Table 29), although often overlapping with the network of regional protected areas. Macaronesia also accounts for 119 Important Bird Areas (IBAs), 11 Biosphere Reserves, 14 Ramsar sites and 11 OSPAR areas. However, while the legal framework for biodiversity conservation in the region is robust, some issues exist in terms of coordination between institutions, and effective law implementation and enforcement. Azores In the Azores, Regional Decree Law 15/2012/A, of April 2nd, transposes international and EU policy, promoting and strengthening synergies between various international conventions on biodiversity, especially the Convention on Biological Diversity, Bern, Bonn and Ramsar, and also establishes the necessary measures for compliance with and implementation of CITES and associated Regulations, the EUROBATS and AEWA in the Azores territory. The Azorean Network of Protected areas was first created in 1993, long before the Habitats and Birds Directives were transposed into a regional law in 2012. In the Autonomous Region, protected areas, Natura 2000 sites and others designated under local, national or international frameworks (such as the Ramsar Convention and the Man and Biosphere UNESCO Programme) are integrated, for the purpose of administration and management, in a recent (2012) scheme of Nature Parks, one per island. The nine Island Nature Parks include all terrestrial protected sites located in the territory of the island as well as marine areas located within the limit of the territorial sea adjacent to the islands. The Protected Areas Network include 123 areas covering 560 km2 on land (24 % of the terrestrial area of the archipelago) and 1,242 km2 of the coastal sea (Table 30). 106 An additional management figure is that of the Azores Marine Park that includes all offshore MPAs (Government of the Azores, 2015). The Marine Park was created in 2011, following the approach expressed in the various high-level documents used as a guide to the management of the sea, with particular reference to the Green Paper and the Blue Paper on Maritime Policy, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the National Strategy for the Sea. It covers 111,393 km2 of offshore waters (DRAA, pers. com.; Government of the Azores, 2015), including seven OSPAR areas within national waters and four outside national jurisdiction but within the limits of the areas proposed for legal continental shelf extension that Portugal submitted to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (Calado, Ng, Lopes, & Paramio, 2011). Eight of these OSPAR MPAs incorporated the protection of the seafloor and sub-seafloor for two coastal areas, three seamounts and two hydrothermal vent fields within the EEZ, and for an additional hydrothermal vent field located outside the EEZ. Additionally, other four oceanic MPAs have recently been proposed: • • • MPA of Princesa Alice Bank (PMA15 on the attached figure, 370 km2) MPA of Condor (PMA14, 242 km2) Bank Box 4. Azores pioneerism on the implementation of a set of marine conservation instruments (Abecasis et al., 2015) • • • • • The understanding that seamount fishing resources are particularly vulnerable and that industrial fishing may exert irrecoverable impacts on those has led the Azores to influence a non-trawling policy implemented by the EU, to establish several seamount MPAs within its EEZ and to promote the establishment of high-seas MPAs protecting large seamount areas under international agreements. The pioneering actions taken by the Azores to protect hydrothermal vents in deep-waters, potentially rich in these noble minerals, in a time of increasing interest in deep-sea mining, has resulted in the establishment of several untouchable sites. Some EU directives were applied to deep-water and offshore in the Azores before they were applied elsewhere in Europe. For example, seamounts were first protected under the Habitats Directive in the Azores (namely D. João de Castro, Formigas and Dollabarat). Also, in anticipation of the Natura 2000 revision to include habitats beyond 200 m deep, in 2005 the Azorean government proposed the inclusion of the deep-sea hydrothermal vents Lucky Strike and Menez Gwen in this network. The hydrothermal vent fields “Rainbow” was the first national MPA to have been proposed under the high seas and accepted by OSPAR. This made Portugal, and particularly the Azores, a pioneer in the protection of marine biodiversity at an international level and a progressive player that helped to progress the ground-breaking OSPAR high seas MPAs process. The collaboration between OSPAR and Portuguese entities toward the development of common management strategies for three MPAs located outside the Azorean EEZ (Altair, Antialtair, and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge North of the Azores) was also a ground-breaking step for the establishment of OSPAR's Network of High Seas MPAs and was welcomed as significant progress at the interministerial OSPAR meeting in Bergen. MPA of Meteor Submarine Archipelago (PMA12, 123,238 km2) 107 • MPA Southwest of Azores (PMA13, 11,030 km2) All of Natura 2000 sites are included in the network of protected areas and have, in comparison, a relatively low coverage: three SCI, 23 SAC and 15 SPA cover a land and marine area of 802 km2. Madeira The archipelago of Madeira has a network of 11 Natura 2000 sites covered by 2,452 km2 (Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation, pers. com. 2014) that has been set up since 2002 (Table 29). However, regional protected areas exist since 1982, when the Madeira Nature Park (MNP) was created. This is still the largest protected area in the island, representing 60% of the surface of Madeira island (Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation, pers. com 2014), covering the Madeiran Central Massif and all the Laurisilva area. In addition to the Nature Park, the archipelago also has 5 Nature Reserves (one being a marine protected area). The Nature Park and the Nature Reserves cover about 701 km2 that partially overlap the Natura 2000 sites. Recently, the Autonomous Region has announced that soon a "Network of Marine Protected Areas" will be created. The draft Regional Legislative Decree is being outlined by the Regional Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources and will soon be subject to the Government’s Council (R. M. Oliveira, 2015). The proposed network will include marine nature reserves and four marine parks (Funchal, Cabo Girão, Ponta de São Lourenço, Achadas da Cruz). In addition, a large MPA (132,999 km2) has been proposed on the Madeira-Tore geological complex, between Madeira and mainland Portugal, covering the submarine banks Tore, Ashton, Ormonde and Gettysburg (Gorringe), Josephine, HirondelleII, Lion, Unicorn, Seine and Dragon. Recognition by OSPAR will be sought. The component within the Portuguese EEZ will be designated as an SCI within Natura 2000 network. The Service of the MNP is responsible for the management of all the terrestrial and marine protected areas of Madeira, reporting to the Regional Government. For this, it has its own executive, scientific, administrative and operational staff, as well as the necessary infrastructures and equipment. In addition to the regular activities of monitoring and controlling the archipelago’s protected land area and more than 300 km that separate the Porto Santo and Selvagens islands, the Service carries out environmental education activities and coordinates and supports research projects, some in the context of the EU’s LIFE programme. Since 2016, the Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation has been merged with the Regional Directorate of Forests and Nature Conservation giving place to a new Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (IFCN, IP-RAM). In addition to classified areas, Madeira's territorial waters have been, from 1987, a designated marine mammal sanctuary. Rationale is to protect the marine mammals of the Madeira islands, including the endangered Mediterranean monk seal. Canary Islands In the Canary Islands, 146 areas are safeguarded in a network of protected areas of which four have the status of national parks. Two of these, the national parks of Cañadas del Teide and of Garajonay, belong to the UNESCO World Heritage network. All seven islands are today totally (Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera & El Hierro) or partly (Gran Canaria & Tenerife) classified as UNESCO Biosphere reserves, thus contributing to biodiversity 108 conservation on the archipelago. On the marine sector, three Marine Reserves with Fishery Interest cover the northern Lanzarote coasts and its offshore islets, the south-eastern sector of El Hierro, and the south-western coast of La Palma. In total, 149 protected areas cover 4,312 km2 (Table 30). In turn, Natura 2000 sites cover today a much large area of 29,238 km2 (Table 29), especially since the recent (2014) extension that resulted from the LIFE+project INDEMARES. The resulting new SPAs and SCI added 13 more sites in the marine demarcation of the Canary Islands. All Network of Protected Natural Areas is officially under the responsibility of the Canarian goverment, although the management is delegated to the “Cabildos” (island governments). The same would apply to the terrestrial Natura 2000 Network. However, as Natura 2000 planning is still delayed in comparison to protected areas and the Cabildos have not yet developed all necessary skills (except for specific actions), also the management remains with the Canarian government. In the case of marine Natura 2000 network, the management is made directly by the Government of Spain (Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment), unless there is an "ecological continuity" with a terrestrial site, in which case the management is carried out by the Canarian government. In addition to the protected area instrument, Spanish and Canarian catalogues of protected species have been implemented. Inclusion on these catalogues imply the application of protection measures that range from preventing the capture to active management through conservation or recovery plans, which may include designating critical areas for biodiversity conservation. Recent changes in the Canarian catalogue of protected species have prompted critics from biodiversity experts (e.g. J.M. Fernández-Palacios & de Nascimento, 2011) which have since been addressed. Mainstreaming of Environment into other sectors The three Macaronesian autonomous regions have a comprehensive and consistent legislation on most environmental subjects, such as pollution, water management and sewage, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), fisheries, and energy, in which biodiversity issues play a determinant role (Table 31). This legislation is implemented by a diverse array of different ministries, agencies and institutions. However, the lack of a local/regional biodiversity strategy aligned with the CBD’s Programme of work on Island Biodiversity reduces the opportunities to integrate biodiversity biodiversity concerns into other sectors and into the general decision-making process (Benzaken & Renard, 2011). Conservation is often approached as a distinct sector, with most of the efforts being concentrated on classical instruments such as protected areas. 109 Table 31. Examples of regional policies, strategic plans and programs in which biodiversity issues are integrated Azores Rural Development Program (PRORURAL) Spatial Planning for Tourism (POTRAA) Spatial Planning of the Coastal Zone (POOC) Spatial Municipal Planning (PMOT) Canary Islands Spanish Program for Sustainable Rural Development (2010-2014) National Hydrological Water Plan Sector Plan of Nature and Biodiversity Tourism Spanish Business and Biodiversity Initiative Maritime Spatial Planning of the Azores (POEMA) Madeira Land-use Plan of Madeira (POTRAM) Regional Plan on Environmental Policy (PRPA) Special Plans for the Management of Protected Areas (PEOGAP) Strategic Waste Plan of Madeira (PERRAM) Spatial Planning for Tourism Energy Policy Plan (PPERAM) Regional Water Plan (PRAM) Spatial Municipal Planning (Sources: ICNF (2015); MAGRAMA (2014b)) While some of these policies and legislative frameworks are set strictly by the Governments’ initiative, many others result from the transposition of global/regional agreements and European Directives. In that context, and to ensure primarily, that spending under the EU budget has no negative impacts on biodiversity, and additionally, that spending under the EU budget is overall supportive to achieving the biodiversity targets, the European Commission has developed comprehensive guiding: the Commission's "Common Framework for Biodiversity proofing of the EU budget" provides a practical Common Framework for Proofing the EU Budget including general and fund-specific guidelines to be used by national and regional authorities as well as by Commission services (Common Framework for Biodiversity-Proofing of the EU Budget – General Guidance; Proofing Guidance for the Cohesion Policy Funds; Proofing Guidance for the Common Agricultural Policy funds (EAGF and EAFRD); Proofing Guidance for the Connecting Europe Facility (TEN-E and TEN-T); Proofing Guidance for the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund) 9. 9 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/comm2006/proofing.htm 110 Figure 28. Regional protected areas and Natura 2000 sites in the Azores 111 Figure 29. Marine Park of the Azores 112 Figure 30. Regional protected areas and Natura 200 sites in the Canary Islands 113 Figure 31. Regional protected areas and Natura 200 sites in Madeira 114 7. CURRENT STATUS OF THE CONSERVATION COMMUNITY This chapter gives a general picture of the civil society situation and its capacity for the Macaronesian region. The focus is on the associative structures, but information is also provided on the research organizations and the private sector, which are considered by CEPF as part of the civil society. Overview While governmental institutions do most of the nature conservation activity in Macaronesia (e.g. creation and management of protected areas; legislative framework on biodiversity conservation), a number of important conservation programmes and research initiatives have been undertaken in the region involving different stakeholders, including from the civil society. Much of these initiatives have been collaborative between academic institutions, NGOs and government departments. This cooperation is well illustrated in the projects undertaken within the LIFE Nature Programme. The LIFE programme helps translate EU Nature and Biodiversity policy into practice at the local level supported by establishing partnerships between the different groups of people concerned with and directly affected by Natura 2000 network sites, and by the particular project’s target species and/or habitats. The majority of LIFE Nature and Biodiversity projects in Macaronesia has been led by NGOs or regional authorities (see Table 37). These beneficiaries quite often establish partnerships with different stakeholders in order to fulfil the objectives of their projects. This has generated a wealth of practical experience and know-how regarding the most effective ways to work with stakeholders in order to successfully manage Natura 2000 network sites and ensure a favourable conservation status for protected species and habitats. Another example of stakeholder cooperation for conservation is illustrated by the projects developed under the Interreg / MAC programmes funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) (see Table 36). The programme foresees the participation of the following beneficiaries (Figure 32): • • • • • Regional and local public entities; Socioeconomic and professional bodies; Research centres, universities and polytechnics; Associations, foundations and agencies of local and regional development; Other non-profit entities. The cooperative projects involve different entities from Madeira, Azores and the Canary Islands dealing with nature conservation and biodiversity at the Macaronesian level. This cooperation has led to the establishment of common strategies and the use of common methods in the management of biodiversity in these islands. 115 Government/public administration Local municipalities 21% 26% 11% 13% 29% Universities, research centres, foundations Other public entities Non profit private entities Figure 32. Involvement of different entities in projects under the MAC 2007-2013 programme (Macaronesia) Source: (Government of the Azores, 2016) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Public participation and the development of a culture of environmental movements and associations in Portugal and Spain needs to be seen in the context of a string of social trends that characterized the countries throughout the twentieth century. The environmental movement in these countries is distinctively marked by their late emergence within a cycle of mobilization in opposition to a dictatorial regime and the transition to democracy in the 1970s. Until de mid1980s, the environmental movement in this countries faced difficulties to establish itself within the countries, given that public opinion was still more focused on other priorities (e.g. consolidation of democracy and fight against poverty). In this sense, its organizational roots clearly differ from the New Social Movements (NSMs) that came into being during the 1960s and 1970s in other European countries (Jiménez, 2007). NGO activity in Macaronesia is, thereby, still fragile and there is a limited consciousness of them and their work in the society of each region. While development NGOs account for the majority of these organizations in the region, there are few environmental NGOs, with local scope, not always skilled, operating under unstable financial conditions, with limited fundraising capacity, small membership and budget. Only a small number of the environmental NGOs in the Macaronesia are active in biodiversity issues and few are able to develop high-profile, long-term programs. Most of them are in need of qualified staff, consistent funding, and of improving cooperation with other NGOs in order to increase their ability to influence policy and cooperation with governments. In the Canary Islands, the environmental movement has been organized in a more systematic way than in the other archipelagos. The Assembly of Environmentalist Movement Canarias (AMEC) was set up following a gathering of environmental groups around the archipelago in 1989 in Lanzarote. Later, in 1991 the Environmental Federation Canaria Ben Magec was created in La Palma de Gran Canaria to respond to the increasing complexity of environmental problems and make more effective the struggle in defence of the natural and cultural heritage of the Canary Islands. 116 Although NGOs in the Macaronesia are still frequently viewed as adversaries/critics rather than potential partners, in many cases they have begun to be included in policy development processes and consultations. In addition, there is, at the institutional level, a growing cooperation among actors working in the field of nature conservation and biodiversity in the region, including NGOs. A list of NGOs contributing more actively to nature and biodiversity conservation is given on Table 32. Table 32. NGOs contributing to biodiversity conservation in the Macaronesia Archipelago Canary Is. Canary Is. Web http://www.adsbiodiversidad.o rg/ Asociación Amigos de la Pardela http://www.amigosdelaspardel Cenicienta as.com/ Asociación BalFin www.balfin.org Asociación Gigante Azul https://www.facebook.com/aso ciaciongiganteazul?fref=photo Asociación Montymar http://asociacionmontymar.blo gspot.com.es/ AVANFUER - Asociación de Voluntarios https://www.facebook.com/AV de Ayuda a la Naturaleza de ANFUER Fuerteventura Ben Magec - Ecologistas en Acción http://www.benmagec.org/ Canarias Conservacion www.canariasconservacion.or g Colectivo Ornitológico de Gran Canaria http://ornitologiadegrancanaria .blogspot.com.es/ Ecooceanos -Ecología y cooperación http://ecooceanos.blogspot.co m.es/ Federación Canaria de Desarrollo Rural www.redcanariarural.org Canary Is. Canary Is. Fundación César Manrique Fundación Foresta Canary Is. Canary Is. Fundación Neotrópico GOHNIC - Grupo de Ornitología e Historia Natural de las islas Canarias Greenpeace Canarias Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Organization ADS Biodiversidad (Gran Canaria) Grupo Ecológico La Vinca - Ecologistas en Acción Loro Parque Fundación SECAC - Sociedad para el estudio de los cetaceos en el archipielago canario SEO/Birdlife - Sociedad Española de Ornitología (delegación Canarias) SOC - Sociedad Ornitológica Canaria WWF Canarias 117 http://www.fcmanrique.org/ http://www.fundacionforesta.e s/ http://www.neotropico.org http://www.gohnic.org/ https://www.facebook.com/Gr eenpeace-Canarias138542932935678/ http://www.lavinca.org/ http://www.loroparquefundacion.org/ http://www.cetaceos.org/ http://www.seo.org/canariasdelegacion/ http://www.avescanarias.com/ http://www.wwf.es/wwf_adena /donde_estamos/wwf_canaria s/ Archipelago Azores Organization Ambiflores - Associação de Defesa do Ambiente da Ilha das Flores Azores Associação Ecológica Amigos dos Açores Azorica – Assciação de Defesa do Ambiente CADEP-CN - Clube dos Amigos e Defensores do Património-Cultural e Natural Fundação Rebikoff-Niggeler GÊ-QUESTA - Associação de Defesa do Ambiente Os Montanheiros - Sociedade de Exploração Espeleológica Quercus - Associação Nacional de Conservação da Natureza SPEA – Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves Associação dos Amigos do Parque Ecológico do Funchal Associação Ecológica da Madeira Azores Azores Azores Azores Azores Azores & Madeira Azores & Madeira Madeira Madeira Web https://www.facebook.com/Am bifloresassocia%C3%A7%C3%A3ode-defesa-do-ambiente-dailha-das-Flores442878962538845/ http://www.amigosdosacores. pt/ http://www.azorica.org/ http://naturmariense.blogspot.pt/ http://www.rebikoff.org/ http://ge-questa.blogspot.pt/ http://www.montanheiros.com/ http://www.quercus.pt/ http://www.spea.pt/ http://www.amigosdoparque.c om/ aecomadeira@gmail.com Private Sector Several international treaties and many conservation initiatives have tried to stem the loss of biodiversity, but with limited success to date (European Commission, 2008). The Macaronesia region is no exception: to date, the engagement of the private sector in biodiversity conservation is very limited. Some examples of collaboration between NGOs or the government and the private sector in the region are the following: • Programme "Natural Park - Partner for Sustainable Development”: is a partnership program between Island Nature Parks and regional companies in the Azores to disseminate the natural values and promote an economic development compatible with biodiversity conservation. These partnerships aim to create the necessary conditions to fulfil identified needs and promote the Azores destination, thus ensuring the growth of the tourism sector and its contribution to the economic and social development of the archipelago in addition to the preserving environmental excellence. All individual or collective organisations, either profit or non-profit, may become partners of Island Natural Parks as long as they develop their activities within Natural Parks and commit themselves to actively contribute to their sustainable development; these are typically travel agencies, tourism enterprises, agro-food producing entities, catering entities, local development associations, sports clubs, environmental NGOs, schools, local authorities and the media. 118 • • • Priolo (Azorean bullfinch) of Azores. This brand was created within the actions of the LIFE Sustainable Laurel Forest project aiming to be a quality seal for those companies that establish a partnership with the São Miguel Island Natural Park in order to contribute to the conservation of the protected areas in the councils of Nordeste and Povoação (Priolo Lands). This trademark aims, as well, to promote a sustainable tourism activity in these two councils, according to the objectives contained in the Strategy of the European Charter of Sustainable Tourism (ECTS) in the Lands of Priolo. Brand: is a trademark registered by the Regional Government Box 5. Message from Lisbon on Business and Biodiversity (2007) To tackle European biodiversity loss, the European Commission’s 2006 Biodiversity Communication identified the engagement of the private sector in partnerships for biodiversity conservation as a key action. The engagement of the private sector will contribute to sustainable ecosystem services and goods upon which Europe’s sustainable development depends. The Commission, Member States and many stakeholders have all identified the need for the integration of biodiversity criteria into business decisionmaking and corporate governance as a priority. This need was clearly expressed at a high-level conference on business and biodiversity in Portugal in 2007, which was attended by more than 400 decision makers. In the ‘Message from Lisbon on business and biodiversity’ (2007) the participants stated that “the primary need to promote an even greater awareness of the importance of biodiversity throughout the business sector as well as consumers, to make knowledge, information and relevant expertise available to business and assist companies in shaping their commitments to biodiversity”. The message also emphasised that the major focus should be on micro-, small- and medium-size companies. Furthermore, the Commission committed to establishing a technical facility to support the European Business and Biodiversity Initiative, which was launched under the Portuguese Presidency of the EU in 2007. Biodiversity audits for the integration of biodiversity parameters and ecosystem services in the management of Spanish companies: the Global Nature Foundation, in collaboration with companies such as Cepsa, Ence, Herdade do Freixo do Meio, Cooperativa Agraria de Vive, Iberdrola and Red Eléctrica de España, has carried out audits (50% of the cost financed by the LIFE project and 50% by the Biodiversity Foundation) in which it conducts and analysis of the relationship between the company and the biodiversity that affects its business, then providing the basis for integrating biodiversity in the environmental management of the company and undertaking actions aimed at the sustainable use of resources and protection of nature. Following the implementation of the audits, the companies have developed actions to improve their business management of biodiversity, both in terms of communication with their stakeholders and with specific actions in the ecosystems related to their business activity. This has led to an improvement in terms of biodiversity conservation. As a recent example, Cepsa has financed a communication and awareness campaign on the conservation of bats in the Canary Islands, which extends the range of environmental actions undertaken by the company. Mapping of the flight paths of birds that interact with electricity transmission lines by Red Eléctrica de España: a project that aimed to study and search for solutions to the 119 • • • • • problems arising from the collision of birds with power lines. The satisfactory results obtained in the pilot project (2010-2011) have led the company to undertake a second phase, in which the initiative was extended to a wider geographical area, including the Canary Islands. Spanish Business and Biodiversity Initiative: launched in 2013, it aims to increase the engagement of the business sector in order to achieve the international Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The Biodiversity Foundation, a public foundation of Spain’s Ministry of Environment whose mission is to preserve natural heritage and promote biodiversity conservation, is the main actor of this initiative. Fifteen companies are signatories of the so-called Spanish Biodiversity Pact: ABB, BSH Electrodomésticos España, CEMEX España, CEPSA, Endesa, FCC, Ferrovial, Grupo Mahou San Miguel, Heineken España, Holcim España, ISS Facility Services, REE, Gas Natural Fenosa, Grupo Zeltia and Iberdrola. Micro Marine Areas (MMAs) are a marine management strategy in the Canary Islands that proposes coexistence between conservation, commercial fishing and ecotourism uses. It is an innovative model of coastal management proposed in conjunction with the Eco Oceans Association, based on small-scale protected marine areas, promoted by local governments and associations, monitored by the users and designed to promote the economic development of various sectors by encouraging ecotourism and recreational activities within the area. It also promotes traditional fisheries in adjacent areas, research and development of the local community and the culture of management through Protected Marine Areas (PMAs). Six micro marine areas are currently being worked on simultaneously and another six are being studied. The project is promoted by seven public institutions: Fundación Obra Social Caja Canarias, Canary Islands Government, Tenerife Inter-island Council, Gran Canaria Inter-island Council, Palmas de Gran Canaria University (ULPGC), UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Tourism, Fisheries Biology Research Group of the Canary Island Institute of Marine Science. Aena Aeropuertos supports the Programme for the Recovery of the Gomera Giant Lizard (Gallotia bravoana) and its range by authorizing the use and maintenance of the land near the La Gomera airport required for the future release and reintroduction of the species in the natural environment, as well as the appropriate modifications and new sections of fencing to prevent access to predators. Species transplantation by the FCC, a company operating in sectors such as environmental services, water, and infrastructure: the initiative aims to minimize the amount of vegetation that may be affected by the work and, in the event that for reasons of the project this vegetation has to be removed from its current location, to transplant it to other areas where it can continue to perform its photosynthetic and aesthetic functions and provide shelter for the wildlife associated with the habitat concerned. The LIFE Project “Conservation of Tursiops and Caretta on La Gomera” (LIFE03/NAT/E/000062) developed a management plan for the Special Area of Conservation that, by involving all stakeholders, has been able to persuade them that this status does not limit the socio-economic development of the area and of La Gomera. A sign of the positive response to the project has been the involvement of marine tourism companies and fishermen in data collection activities that have highlighted the complexity and richness of the protected marine area. 120 • The former Portuguese Bank “Espírito Santo” had established an annual biodiversity award scheme in recognition of Portuguese R&D and innovative projects focusing on biodiversity. The top prize was awarded to the LIFE-Nature project “Important bird areas for seabirds in Portugal” (LIFE04 NAT/P/000213) in addition to a prize of €75,000 for its survey and educational work improving knowledge about the protection of marine birds in the Atlantic Ocean. LIFE-Nature’s “PRIOLO” project (LIFE03 NAT/P/000013) also received commendations by the judges for its work restoring Bullfinch habitats in the Azores and won a prize of €3,000. Public participation Each of the autonomous territories of the Macaronesian region has developed a comprehensive system of environmental information, broadened by public participation. Most recent national policy frameworks include provisions for private sector and public stakeholder participation in environment and development decision-making, and stakeholder participation is promoted under many regional and international initiatives in which Macaronesian governments participate. However, active participation by citizens in decision-making is still limited and supported by a weak NGO movement. Government consultation processes are still criticized for poor disclosure and late involvement of the stakeholders. Despite these considerations, there have been some initiatives to involve the public in conservation actions, contributing to raise awareness on biodiversity issues. In addition, social support for the development of conservation actions is also often appointed as a cost-saving measure (Martín et al., 2008). Some examples of public participation in actions and projects in Macaronesia are the following: • • • • • POSEIDÓN is a citizen science program, supported by scientific validation, for the sighting of marine species in the marine and coastal environment of the Canary Islands. RedPROMAR: the Observer Network of the Marine Environment of the Canary Islands is a tool of the Canarian Government for monitoring and surveillance of marine life in the archipelago. It is an information system that records the continuous changes that are occurring in the oceans, using the concept of "Citizen Science”. The LIFE+ project ECOCOMPATÍVEL (2010-2015) had as main objective the communication and provision of information to the public, for better implementation, management and conservation of Natura 2000 sites. Within the project several actions were undertaken involving the general public and stakeholders from different economic sectors. The Regional Plan for Education and Environmental Awareness of Azores (PRESAA) is in force since 2011 and combines all the campaigns, projects and actions promoted in this issue by the regional government. Authorities, businesses, NGOs and local associations also contribute to its implementation. The "Azorean Biodiversity Kit" was published in 2012 under this Plan and it was distributed in 1st cycle schools. Every year the program “Parque Escolar” is held In the Azores. It is a set of activities in the a class-room context with field trips to protected areas, with biodiversity, geodiversity, waste prevention, climate change and good practices of environmental citizenship as main themes. 121 • • • • • The portal “Sentir e Interpretar o Ambiente dos Açores - SIARAM” (to feel and interpret the environment of the Azores), created in the International Year of Biodiversity (2010), is regularly updated. Its content (multimedia, texts, videos, photos and audio, with testimonials from researchers from the University of the Azores and other experts) can be freely used for educational, non-commercial purposes. “Na minha ilha” (in my island) is a service provided by the government of the Azores in its website, through which any citizen or organization can report environmental crimes/occurrences in the archipelago. Long term monitoring programmes of common breeding birds and their habitats are undertaken in Spain (SACRE) and in Portugal (CAC - Common Bird Census), including in the Canary Islands, Azores and Madeira. The Census, carried out by SPEA and SEO (NGOs associated to Birdlife International) and integrated into the Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme (PECBMS), is supported by volunteer counters that take part in the surveys. Other census of birds (e.g. Buteo buteo rothschildi in the Azores and Buteo buteo harterti in Madeira) and of bats (Azores) are carried out in the region, gathering volunteers among the local population. SOS Cagarro: a government-led campaign carried out annually since 1995, with the objective of involving the public in saving the Cory’s shearwater (Calonectris borealis) juveniles when flying from the nest in Autumn and are disoriented by human activities, namely by urban public lights. Activities developed within the initiative include the: i) development of several activities in schools and libraries aiming at environmental awareness and education; ii) organization of evening rescue brigades to collect juvenile shearwaters in danger and to release them in the next morning; iii) development of joint actions with the police and scouts to raise drivers awareness; iv) development of promotional and educational materials to be distributed to the people engaged in the campaign (volunteers, etc.) Research Institutions and Universities All the Macaronesian archipelagos have established over the last decades research centres associated to universities and departments within the governments covering the most important areas of biodiversity. These research institutions provide an immeasurable service to biodiversity conservation in the region, namely with the baseline data, necessary to the designation of protected areas, development of legal regulations, as well as to specific conservation actions. The main research centres and groups that are partially or fully involved in training and research activities related to biodiversity conservation are listed on Table 33. These research groups are only partially responsible for the scientific research in the region, since there are a number of public/governmental institutions and departments undertaking an important work in this field in all the archipelagos. 122 Table 33. Main research centres in Macaronesia Institution Description Azores IMAR-DOP/UAç Department of Oceanography and Fisheries of the university of the Azores Dedicated to the scientific knowledge and conservation of the marine life of the Atlantic Ocean in the Azores. Created in 1976, it participates since 1999 in the research network IMAR- Sea Institute, of which the University of the Azores is a founding member. CITA-A (Research for Agricultural Technologies of the Azores) Multidisciplinary research unit and service in the field of agricultural sciences and the environment, supported by the Foundation for Science and Technology (Portuguese Ministry of Science and Technology) and by the Azores Regional Government. Azorean Biodiversity Group Previously integrated in CITA-A, belongs now to the Centre for Ecology, Evolution and environmental change (cE3c), based in Lisbon. It undertakes research on ecological and evolutionary processes on oceanic islands, as well as in environmental risk assessment and pest control. CIBIO Azores - Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, InBIO Associate Laboratory Associated to CIBIO/University of Oporto and to the University of the Azores, it is a Research Unit in biological sciences conducting basic and applied research on the three main components of biodiversity: genes, species and ecosystems. CIBIO Madeira - Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, InBIO Associate Laboratory CIBIO Madeira Hub. Research Unit in biological sciences conducting basic and applied research on the three main components of biodiversity: genes, species and ecosystems. Madeira OOM - Oceanic Observatory of Madeira Research in Biodiversity, Fisheries and Aquaculture; Remote marine Animal Detection and Remote Sensing; MeteoOceanographic modelling and forecasting systems. Banco de Germoplasma ISOPlexis Research unit at the University of Madeira, developing fundamental and/or applied studies in the field of Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (in particular the study of agrobiodiversity, genetic resources and agrosystems). CIIMAR - MADEIRA Private, non-profit organization specialized on insular environments, which is currently involved in the development of fundamental and applied scientific research, both in atmospheric and marine sciences. Canary Islands PLOCAN - Oceanic Platform of the Canary Islands A multipurpose technical-scientific service infrastructure that provides support for research, technological development and innovation in the marine and maritime sectors, available to public and private users. 123 Institution Description BIOECOMAC - Biodiversity, marine ecology and conservation A research unit of the University of la Laguna dedicated to research on animal and plant biology and ecology; fundamental and systems biology; livestock and fisheries. University of La Laguna Department of Plant Biology Integrates various research groups, of which, Terrestrial nonvascular biota; Marine botany; Canarian flora and vegetation; Applied Plant Biology Group (GBVa); Systematics, biogeography and evolution of arthropods of the Canary Islands. University of La Laguna, Department of Animal Biology, Soil Science and Geology Research unit of the University of La Laguna dedicated to biology, soil science and geology. Island Ecology and Biogeography Research Group Research unit of the University of La Laguna dedicated to island ecology; island biogeography; paleoecology; forest dynamics; ecological restoration. EIGI - Interuniversity Research Group on Invasive Species Unit research of University of la Laguna dedicated to the ecology and distribution of invasive species. IPNA-CSIC - Island Ecology and Evolution Research Group Scientific research on the fields of ecology, evolution, biogeography and conservation biology of animals and plants on oceanic islands. BIOGES – Research Centre on Biodiversity and Environmental Management Research unit of the University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria comprised by the research groups of Environmental Chemical Analysis, Environmental Quality and Biodiversity and Conservation. Research covers, among others, Systematics and Ecology of Marine Plant; Biodiversity Conservation; Paleoclimatology and Palaeontology of the Canary Islands; Management of Coastal Biological Resources; Fisheries and Fish Ethology. IU-EcoAqua - University Research Institute on Sustainable Aquaculture and Marine Ecosystems As part of the ERA Chair program, it integrates researchers in the Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC) to foster research excellence in Sustainable Aquaculture under an Ecosystem Approach. BEA - Spanish Bank of Algae It is a service of the Scientific and Technological Park Foundation of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), which aims at the identification, characterization, conservation and provisioning of microalgae and cyanobacteria. 124 8. THREATS AND PRESSURES ON BIODIVERSITY Overview Humans played a determining role in the present status of biodiversity conservation in Macaronesia. Following the human settlement of the islands (first millennium BC in the Canary Islands and XVth century in Madeira and Azores), the introduced animals (there were no mammals in the islands, with the exception of bats) and the agricultural and forestry practices (including the use of fire) caused marked decreases in the native habitats and species. A recent palaeoecological study in Flores and Pico Islands (Azores) demonstrated that there were widespread and persistent vegetation changes during the last 600 years of human occupation, which surpass the impact of Pleistocene climatic changes (Connor et al., 2012). Direct destruction of habitats, over-exploitation of resources and the introduction of exotic species have been appointed as the main threats to biodiversity and causes of species extinctions (e.g. Illera et al., 2012; Petit & Prudent, 2010; J.C. Rando et al., 2014; J.C. Rando et al., 2012). Causes of habitat degradation, and in extreme cases of total loss, are of various kinds, such as the development of infrastructures, changes in land use, agricultural practises, urban development and pollution, among others. In the marine environment, main threats to biodiversity are associated to fisheries practices (e.g. bottom-set longline, by-catch), fastgrowing tourism, shipping, pollution, and climate change. As a result of cumulative threats over the years, the native laurel forest in Macaronesia occupies presently only 12.5% of its primitive range (Table 34), having been nearly wiped out from the Azores and the Canaries. In the Azores, the primitive forest is presently restricted to small, fragmented patches on the summits of four islands, but some of the endemic species that composed it or lived within it can be found in other habitats as well. However, it has been pointed out that there may be an extinction debt: it has been estimated, e.g., that more than half of the extant forest arthropod species might eventually be driven to extinction (K.A. Triantis et al., 2010); due to forest fragmentation, the area of the remaining forest patches may not be enough for long-term species persistence. Table 34. Potential (i.e. pre-settlement) and present distribution of the Macaronesian laurel forest Potential area (103 ha) Present area (103 ha) Potential (%) Azores 200 6 3 Canary Islands 105 19 18 Madeira 60 15 25 Total Macaronesia 365 40 12.5 (Source: Fernández‐Palacios et al. (2011)) The preservation in Madeira of the largest extension of laurel forest in Macaronesia can be credited to the mostly inaccessible mountain systems that cover a large proportion of the island. In the more accessible areas many sensitive habitats were severely altered, leading to the extinction of species. This occurred, for instance, in humid habitats of Southern Madeira (where 125 Rupia maritima disappeared from brackish habitats and Osmundia regalis and Dracunculus canariensis vanished with the artificialization of riparian habitats). In the Canary Islands, it is estimated that that forests once covered 291,251 ha (39% of the islands’ surface) (M.-J. d. A. Aguilar, González-González, Garzón-Machado, & PizarroHernández, 2010). Today they have been reduced to 36% of that former extent (14% of the islands’ surface - 11% natural and 3% plantations). Thermo-sclerophyllous forest with a persistence of 8%, and laurisilva of 11.8%, are the most reduced. Pine woodland, with 54% of persistence, is the best conserved and most favoured by reforestation. Vertebrates have been among the first to be unable to cope with the combined pressure of predation and competition from introduced species. In the Canary Islands evidence suggests that at least one species of giant rat (Canariomys bravoi), one species of giant lizard (Gallotia goliath), and two birds, the Canarian quail (Coturnix gomerae) and the shearwater (Puffinus olsoni), all endemic, were extinct in the pre-Hispanic period (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). Since the arrival of the Europeans, at least two further endemic vertebrate species went extinct, the lava mouse (Malpaisomys insularis) and an oystercatcher, Haematopus meadewaldoi. The lava mouse is known only from fossil remains but the shorebird was last recorded in 1913 and is believed to have been extinct as recently as the 1940s. Two additional native vertebrate species, the red kite (Milvus milvus) and the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) have totally disappeared from the Canaries, further impoverishing the archipelago’s biodiversity. In the other Macaronesian archipelagos, six flightless bird species are confirmed to be extinct in the Azores, namely one Otus species (J.C. Rando et al., 2013) and five Rallus species (Alcover, Pieper, Pereira, & Rando, 2015), and at least one endemic subspecies of bird (Columba palumbus madeirensis) have become extinct in Madeira since the arrival of European colonizers 500 years ago (P. Oliveira & Menezes, 2004). 126 Table 35. Extinct taxa in the Canary Islands Group Birds Mammals Molluscs Reptiles Species Carduelis triasi Alcover & Florit, 1987 Coturnix gomerae Jaume, McMinn & Alcover, 1993 Emberiza alcoveri Rando, López & Seguí, 1999 Haematopus meadewaldoi Bannerman, 1913 Phylloscopus canariensis exsul Hartert, 1907 Puffinus holeae Walker, Wragg & Harrison, 1990 Puffinus olsoni McMinn, Jaume & Alcover, 1990 Pyrrhocorax graculus Linnaeus, 1766 Saxicola dacotiae murielae Bannerman, 1913 Canariomys bravoi Crusafont-Pairo & F. Petter Canariomys tamarani López-Martínez & López-Jurado, 1987 Malpaisomys insularis Hutterer, López-Martínez & Michaux, 1988 Canariella pontelira Hutterer, 1994 Hemicycla semitecta (Mousson, 1872) Gallotia simonyi auaritae Mateo, García-Márquez, López-Jurado & Barahona, 2001 Gallotia goliath (Mertens, 1942) Geochelone burchardi (Ahl, 1925) Geochelone vulcanica López-Jurado & Mateo, 1993 (Source: Arechavaleta et al. (2010) Among plants, some Canarian species are considered recently extinct in the wild - Solanum nava and Kunkelliela psilotoclada - while others haven’t been found in a long time and are also possibly extinct - Viola plantaginea and Helianthemum cirae (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010) Several invertebrate species have equally been recorded as extinct. In Madeira, fossil records show that at least nine terrestrial molluscs, disappeared in the last 600 years since human colonization (Goodfriend, Cameron, & Cook, 1994). One of them is the large Pseudocampylaea lowii extinct since the XIXth century (Cameron & Cook, 1992; Goodfriend et al., 1994). Possible recent extinctions include species as the Leiostyla cassida and L. cassidula, probably decimated by the fire on Madeira's central mountain massif in 2010 (Dinarte Teixeira, pers. com.). In addition to extinctions, impacts of cumulative anthropogenic threats are also illustrated by available information on the current number of endangered species. As seen in Chapter 0, there are 650 threatened species in Macaronesia identified in the present Ecosystem Profile (Table 15). This number includes 553 globally threatened species and other 97 restricted-range species that are listed as threatened in sub-global Red Lists. While plants and molluscs account for the majority of threatened taxa (378 and 120 taxa, respectively), vertebrates have the highest proportion of threatened species in relation to the total number of existing species (Figure 33). 127 Azores 1% 1% Arthropods 4% Canary Islands Arthropods 9% vertebrates 5% 22% Fish 5% 28% 19% Molluscs Plants vertebrates Fish Molluscs 6% Plants Madeira 0.2% 7% Arthropods vertebrates 20% 35% Molluscs Plants 0% Figure 33. Percentage of threatened taxa in Macaronesia (data from Tables Table 7, Table 13 and Table 15) Overexploitation of natural resources Over-exploitation of the forests for wood has had a major impact on the Macaronesian ecosystems. Just about all the thermophilous forests and a large section of the Laurel forest have been lost to massive deforestation since the colonization of the islands. Predation of species for human use has also impacted biodiversity. Marine birds were extremely abundant on the islands, due to the absence of terrestrial predators. Chronicles from the early colonizers mention egg collection (up to 500 tern eggs in one single event on a particular islet) and report how “bags full” of birds were killed with sticks for their oil and feathers. However, since human colonization, several bird species suffered a sudden decrease in population size due to their use as food and oil source for human consumption, as well as to the introduction of predators and the destruction of their habitat. The particular case of Hydrobates monteiroi is illustrative: this small ground nesting bird, endemic to the Azores, is reported to have been killed nightly by the thousands in the XVth century. It is now restricted to a population of about 300 pairs nesting only on two islets off the island of Graciosa (Bolton et al., 2008). Another example of historical over-exploitation is that of the Monachus monachus. The species was reported as abundant at the time of the arrival of the first Europeans but has been exploited for its pelt and oil (M. Machado, 1979) nearly to the verge of its extinction in the region. Today, the population of the monk seal is eradicated from the Azores and Canary Islands and is restricted to the Desertas Islands of Madeira. In more recent decades, fishing has caused the decline in major stocks of fish and shellfish, with impacts on their respective ecosystems. In the Azores, the species that inhabit the rocky coast, dominant in the Azorean littoral, are subject to any form of exploitation mainly because of their economic value (Martín et al., 2008). Among these, are species whose biology is known 128 (Patella spp.; Scyllarides latus; Megabalanus azoricus) as well as those whose ignorance of biology coupled with low population numbers and/or scattered populations greatly increase the risk, already high, of its disappearance. In the early 1980’s, for instance, limpet fishing in the Azores went from a centuries-old self-consumption or door-to-door bartering activity to become the fifth or sixth most important commercial resource (R. Santos, Hawkins, Monteiro, Alves, & Isidro, 1995). Bowing to the huge fishing pressure, the stocks collapsed before the end of the decade, forcing a ban on fishing and the implementation of extensive regulation. In some islands, the stocks have never recovered (Ferraz, Menezes, & Santos, 2001). Severe overfishing is also appointed as the main contribution to the creation of wide barren areas where complex and productive algal communities previously existed (Alves, 2001). Researchers have concluded that this transformation is caused by the reduction of fish predators by intense fishing, leading to an urchin population outbreak with serious consequences to the benthic community. This situation is well illustrated in the south coast of Madeira by the wide areas deprived of the typical macro algae which characterize the temperate rocky reefs of the Madeira littoral (Alves, 2001), and it has been linked to the overabundance of the Diadema antillarum sea-urchin. In the Caribbean, this urchin is beneficial because it prevents algal growth over the coral reefs. In temperate reefs, however, macro algal are a key biological element, and so-called “urchin barrens” have a negative impact on marine coastal biodiversity. Studies done in the Canaries (Tuya, 2004), where this phenomenon also occurs, suggest that the intensive fishing of parrot fish, known sea-urchin predators, is a causing factor of the sea-urchin barrens. Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Recent studies have shown that Macaronesia has considerable problems with alien species, particularly those considered as invasive, which threaten local taxa with foreign diseases, hybridization risks, competition and predatory effects. Several of the introduced species present in the Macaronesian archipelagos are even listed in the “100 worst invasive species of the world” (www.issg.org, e.g. Hedychium gardnerianum; Linepithema humile; Rattus rattus; Felis catus; Capra hircus; Oryctolagus cuniculus). An assessment of the worst invasive species of Macaronesia was recently published (L. Silva, Ojeda-Land, & Rodríguez-Luengo, 2008). The authors analysed biological invasions in the European Macaronesia, including fauna and flora, and defined the top 100 invasive alien species (IAS) with management priority. The TOP 100 IAS, are mainly vascular plants, together with some invertebrate and vertebrate species (Figure 34). 129 8% 9% Vertebrates 83% Invertebrates Vascular plants Figure 34. Taxonomic characterization of the Top 100 IAS in Macaronesia. (Source: L. Silva et al. (2008) The main conclusions from the “TOP 100 Invasive species in Macaronesia” can be summarized as follows. Impacts: • • • • The large majority of the top IAS is expanding in different archipelagos and 83% still has the potential to further expand their distribution (i.e. they are not at equilibrium). The majority of the top IAS affects endemic, non-endangered species. However, more than one third affects endangered species. The large majority of the IAS affected high priority or listed habitats in the Habitats Directive. 95% of the top IAS affects legally protected areas with a high conservation value. Control: • • • It is difficult or impossible to control 42% of the top IAS with the presently available human and technical resources. The control of the large majority of the top IAS was considered to demand medium to long duration projects. The control of the large majority of the top IAS will demand specific projects requiring moderate to large financial investment. Although invasive alien species (IAS) are important in all the Macaronesian archipelagos, knowledge and its laws differ among sub-regions and between different taxonomic groups. For example, in Madeira only 28% of arthropods are considered as exotic (Borges et al., 2008). This is in agreement with the pattern observed in the Canary Islands (I. Izquierdo, Martín, Zurita, & Arechavaleta, 2001), but contrasts with the results for the Azores archipelago, where exotic taxa dominate (58%) (Borges, Cunha, Gabriel, Martins, Silva, et al., 2005). 130 Azores For the Azores, the introduction of many species, some of them cosmopolitan and others with an invasive potential, is related to the fact that, for centuries, the Azores have been (and still are) a strategic gateway for many boats coming from the Americas to Europe and vice-versa. Additionally, the Portuguese brought plants, often with associated fauna, from all over the world to their private gardens, particularly in the most populated islands. Today, the number of exotic species per square km is one or two times the number of indigenous species (L. Silva et al., 2008). Approximately 70% of the vascular plants and 58% of the arthropods found in the archipelago are exotic (Borges et al., 2009), and all the mammals (except the Azorean bats), amphibians and reptiles are introduced (L. Silva et al., 2008). The impact of introduced species for agriculture, forestry, and aesthetic purposes – in particular, invasive vascular plants, which are disrupting native plant communities with unknown consequences for overall native biodiversity – can have dramatic consequences. A negative impact on the indigenous community of phytophagous insects is expected, as well as changes in vegetation structure, difficulties in the regeneration of endemic species, and competition for dispersal agents, leading to a reduction in the frequency and abundance of indigenous plant taxa (Borges et al., 2009). The continuous expansion of some invasive plants like kahili ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum), sweet Pittosporum (Pittosporum undulatum) and Hydrangea macrophylla, is threatening several fragments of native vegetation, leading to the prediction that several communities of lichens, vascular plants, molluscs, and arthropods native and endemic to the Azores are under pressure (L. Silva et al., 2008). Introduced fauna also poses an important threat to native species. The main islands were once important breeding places for seabirds, but now most sites are restricted to small islets or precipitous cliffs, probably due to predation by introduced mammals (Monteiro, 1999). Herbivory caused by wild goats is virtually eradicated, but the impact of rabbits in the native flora is considered important. Furthermore, several exotic arthropods are considered as pests in the Azores, namely the Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) which attacks pastureland and other crops, and is now expanding in several islands (Terceira, Faial and São Miguel); the armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta) in pastureland areas in several islands where it causes heavy annual damage in agriculture; the termites in urban areas, in particular Cryptotermes brevis, considered as the most dangerous dry wood termite in the world and that is presently considered as an urban pest in the cities of Angra do Heroísmo, Ponta Delgada and Horta (Borges & Myles, 2007). Madeira In the archipelago of Madeira there are 430 species and subspecies of plants considered as naturalized, representing 35.7% of the vascular flora (R. Jardim & Sequeira, 2008). Invasive species constitute an important threat, mainly at the lowest altitudes of laurisilva distribution, where species of Acacia, Hedychium gardnerianum and Pittosporum undulatum, Ailanthus altissima, and Acer pseudoplatanus are widely distributed. These species also prevent the natural expansion of laurisilva on abandoned rural land. Higher regions are equally under pressure by other species such as Ageratina and Erigeron. Among vertebrates, all the terrestrial mammals were introduced, with the exception of five species of indigenous bats (P. Oliveira, 2008). Among those, there are three rodent species (Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus and Mus musculus), two species of herbivores (Oryctolagus 131 cuniculus and Capra hircus) and one felid (Felis silvestris catus) (P. Oliveira, 2008). The amphibians and reptiles are modestly represented, the indigenous taxa with a higher number of species than the introduced. The only species deserving attention are the frog (Rana perezi), due to its abundance and wide distribution and the geko (Tarentola mauritanica), the distribution area of which is in continuous expansion (J. Jesus, 2008). Species like the black rat and the domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) are known to have a strong negative impact on populations of native birds, which in turn are the main vectors for dispersal of seeds in the laurel forest. Seabirds and indigenous predators evolve a natural coexistence with indigenous predators, but introduced predators can cause severe reduction and even extinction of seabird populations. The introduction of rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) to Porto Santo in the Madeira archipelago caused a degradation of the natural vegetation, a situation that has remained due to continued grazing by both rabbits and livestock. Overgrazing by rabbits and livestock has also lead to severe regression of the endemic flora on Desertas and Salvages, which in turn has caused erosion of the coastline. Canary Islands In the Canaries, about 11% the terrestrial biota corresponds to alien species (Martín-Esquivel, M.C. Marrero, N. Zurita, M. Arechavaleta, & I. Izquierdo, 2005). The large majority of these species was introduced beginning in the 1960’s; 43% of which have been recorded during the last three decades. Alien species of Canaries, invasive or not, are represented by 47% of invertebrates, about 46% of vascular plants, 4% of fungi and about 3% of vertebrates (MartínEsquivel et al., 2005). The middle-oriental islands include the largest proportion of alien species, particularly Gran Canaria, where they represent 15.5% of the island biota. However the largest number of introduced species is found in Tenerife. Among those species, at least 151 are considered as invasive, of which 79 are phanerogmes, one is a fern, 45 are arthropods, and there are also three amphibians, one reptile, 10 birds and 12 mammals. According to Nogales, Rodríguez Luengo, and Marrero (2006), within the IAS in the Canaries the negative effect originated by mammals should be emphasised, particularly that associated to the feral cat (Felis silvestris catus) and to alien herbivores like the mouflon (Ovis aries), Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) and the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The feral cat figures among the main factors threatening the survival of the giant lizards from El Hierro (Gallotia simonyi), La Gomera (G. bravoana) and Tenerife (G. intermedia), and its dramatic effects on the bird populations are well known. The above mentioned alien herbivores in conjunction with the effect of uncontrolled domestic sheep and goats are affecting the support, photosynthetic and reproductive parts of the native vegetation and disrupting the native seed dispersal systems (Martín et al., 2008). The rodents introduced with the European settlers are credited with predation on seabirds and other animal species. Rattus rattus, in particular, may have been responsible for the extirpation of many seabird populations, even the extinction of the lava shearwater, Puffinus olsoni (J.C. Rando & Alcover, 2008). The voracious species is also adapted to climb trees and feed on wild fruits from native vegetation. In addition to introduced mammals, the Barbary ground squirrel (Atlantoxerus getulus) has decimated numerous plant species on the island of Fuerteventura, and the growing colonies of very aggressive Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) are pushing out indigenous ants and other insects from their habitats (Petit & Prudent, 2010). Some other recent introductions originated 132 some social alarm, namely the recent naturalization of a species of snake (Lampropeltis getula) in Gran Canaria. Introduced plants also pose threats to the natural habitats. It is estimated that over 400 species introduced by humans (approximately 32% of the flora) are currently established and naturalized in the Canarian ecosystems (Francisco-Ortega et al., 2010). Among them, the grass Pennisetum setaceum represents one of the most immediate threats to the native vegetation of the lowlands. At higher elevations, the neotropical sunflowers of the genus Ageratina and the spiderwort Tradescantia fluminensis, are major concerns in the evergreen forests, while the California poppy, Eschscholzia californica, covers large areas of the open dry pine forests. An aggressive invader is a sedge (Cyperus rotundus), which has invaded fields and gardens. It spreads through seeds, bulbs and runners and is in banana plantations fought with special herbicides. The wild tobacco (Nicotiana glauca), introduced from South America has established well and is now being found even in the driest areas in the Canary Islands. Urban and tourism development The Macaronesian region has experienced a significant increase in human population since the beginning of the 20th century, namely in the Canary Islands and, to a less extend, in Madeira (see chapter 0), leading to intense urban development and road construction. In addition, the great expansion of tourism in recent years, especially in coastal areas, raises the question of the sustainability of this trend, especially considering the absence of a tourism sustainability strategy in the medium and long term (PIC-INTERREG IIIB-2000/2006, 2001). The growing tourism industry of the region, and especially that of the Canary Islands and Madeira (described in chapter 0) has caused dramatic changes to coastal areas. The establishment of hotels, maritime infrastructures and other tourist facilities partly use rich agriculture lands and have pronounced negative impact on natural coastal habitats. Urban and tourist development has had significant impacts, for example, in the vegetation of the dunes and coastal Tamarix forests of the Canary Islands, which have been destroyed or fragmented, especially after the 1970s (Petit & Prudent, 2010). Similarly, the sclerophyllus woods (thermophilous forest) have seen their surface areas considerably diminished, because of their proximity to human settlements. Even within protected areas the growth in the numbers of visitors in recent years has led to degradation of vegetation and disturbance of fauna, due to carrying capacities being exceeded. Some groups of animals and plants are known to be particularly vulnerable, notably at breeding sites, such as nesting seabirds, and the iconic Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus). In the marine realm, one of the impacts of increasing tourism that has deserved some recent attention is that of the whale watching activity. Many cetacean species are known to inhabit or visit the Macaronesian waters (in the Canary Islands, as much as 30 species; v. Faes, in rev.), making the region an important area for cetacean observation. As a result, whale watching, among other touristic activities, has had a great expansion in the region. However, numerous studies have shown have the activity can be detrimental to the target species due to engine’s noise and vibration and direct interference from whale watching boats. Some studies shown that cetaceans exhibit behavioural changes in response to whalewatching boat traffic (e.g. Magalhães et al., 2013). Some of these behavioural changes involve 133 inhibiting biologically important behaviours such as feeding and resting. There is convincing evidence for some species that these can translate into population-level effects such as reduced reproductive rates. The introduction of guidelines or regulations for whale watching has been the most common method of trying to mitigate the impacts of boat-based whale watching. However, there is great variety in the comprehensiveness of guidelines, and even if operators have guidelines, compliance with them can be poor, as it has been reported in the Canary Islands during consultation workshops. Agriculture and forestry Agriculture is an important feature of the Macaronesian region. Extensive areas of the Macaronesian islands have over time been deforested and used for agriculture purposes. While in the Canary Islands and in Madeira agriculture has recently been losing ground to the services sector, in the Azores it still remains relevant (see chapter 0). However, agricultural production in the Azores differs substantially from the Canary Islands and Madeira since there, livestock and dairy production is the main activity. Azores Agriculture has traditionally accounted for the archipelago’s economic activity. The initial intensive conversion to agricultural and grazing land, coupled with the later development of timber (the fast growing Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica) production, almost destroyed the laurel forest of the archipelago, which is now restricted to about 5% of the original coverage (Gaspar, Borges, & Gaston, 2008), represented only in small, fragmented patches on the summits of São Miguel, Terceira, Pico and Flores (Fernández‐Palacios et al., 2011). A further negative impact originated from the expansion of dairy farms, which became the main economic activity in the Azores especially after Portugal’s entry into the European Union in 1986 and subsequent availability of agricultural subsidies, grants, and quotas for which it is eligible. Aided by subsidies from the Common Agriculture Policy, large areas of pastures became the predominant land use (Figure 35), accounting on average for 42% of each island area (Rego et al., 2015), creating “green deserts” of low biodiversity. 134 Figure 35. Land use in the Azores (Source: Rego et al. (2015); maps drawn by Enésima Mendonça) In some cases, the areas surrounding pastures are also vulnerable to grazing due to the lack of fences. This is the case, for example, of the “Cabeços” on Pico Island. Additionally, the associated increase in fertilizer use and chemical applications compromise freshwater quality, leading to serious eutrophication problems in freshwater lakes, even affecting the water supply. Further, pesticide use, either in agricultural pest control, or to control livestock parasites (e.g. anthelmintics) contributes to reduce insect diversity and abundance. This is, moreover, one of the threats often associated with the conservation of bats (Rainho et al., 2002). Pesticides, in addition to decreasing the diversity and abundance of prey, can poison bats that eat contaminated insects. There are, however, ways to reconcile agricultural practices with biodiversity conservations: the semi-natural pastures of mid and high altitude of some islands, for instance, allow the coexistence of endemic plant species and their associated invertebrate fauna (Borges et al., 2004). Madeira Most of the forest of Madeira has during the last 500 years, since its colonization, been destroyed through exploitation for agricultural purposes, ship-building, hydric resource exploitation and forestry management. The intensive sugar cane cultivation that took place until the XVII century, in particular, placed an enormous burden on the native forests because of the wood needed as fuel for boiling the cane juice. The ensuing deforestation, linked to the steep orography and the occurrence of flash rains, led to frequent mass floods, particularly serious in the XIX century: the worst disaster, the 1803 flood, killed hundreds of persons (Quintal, 2013). 135 More recently, the 2010 Madeira floods and mudslides resulted in the death of at least 42 people and damages were estimated at over € 1 billion (European Commission, 2010). The native lowland vegetation and dry laurisilva are almost completely replaced by terraced agriculture, forest plantation of Acacia ssp. and Eucalyptus sp., as well as by urban development. Only the mountain slopes on the northern side of Madeira still retain areas of humid Laurisilva (Wakeham-Dawson, Aguiar, & Martin, 2002). In high altitudinal areas of Madeira, intense unregulated grazing in areas spanning from the Ericaceous forest and thickets to the high mountain habitat resulted in degradation of vegetation and habitats in several areas (Sim-Sim et al., 2014). Restrictions beginning in the early XIXth century and culminating in a recent total ban give hope of restricting the degradation trend. However, as anthropogenic activity increased, fire and habitat fragmentation became more frequent with a clear cumulative impact on natural vegetation integrity, especially if we consider the island’s relatively small size. Canary Islands More than 50% of the Canary Islands’ area has over time been used for agriculture purposes (EEA, 2002). Sugar cane was the main cash crop of the islands during the fifteen and sixteenth centuries, causing a very negative effect on the dry and humid evergreen forests. In addition, the forests were severely exploited for timber, pitch and torch poles. Vast areas of indigenous forest have also been transformed to managed forest due to the use of young timber in banana plantations and by the plantation of California pine (Pinus radiata). Of special importance is also the cultivation of olive trees (Olea spp.) which form open woodlands on high south-facing slopes. Accidentally and intentionally set for livestock grazing, crop planting, timber and real estate speculation, fires have also dramatically reduced forests in the last decades. Marine traffic and ship-strikes Intensive marine traffic causes serious injuries and mortalities in cetacean populations. Although ship-strikes are also of concern in the other Macaronesian archipelagos, it is considered a major threat in the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands, known for their extraordinarily high cetacean species diversity, have witnessed a rapid expansion in fast and high speed ferry traffic during the past few years, which today are almost the only means to travel between the islands at sea. Ferries, fast ferries (travelling at approx. 25 knots), high speed ferries (HSC, reaching maximum velocities of 40 knots, including the largest ferry trimaran in the world) travel every year 1.48 million kilometres in Canary Island waters, often in areas with high density of cetaceans (R. Aguilar et al., 2009). The large catamarans are so called wave-piercing vessels and strongly dominate the interisland traffic in the Canaries today. According to R. Aguilar et al. (2009), the areas considered of high risk are: • • • • the channel between Tenerife and La Gomera, where 8,944 transects occur annually; the waters south and southwest of La Gomera with 2,184 transects/year; the channel between Tenerife and Gran Canaria with 6,760 transects/year; the area between Lanzarote and Fuerteventura with 9,568 transects/year. 136 It is also of concern the traffic around Santa Cruz de La Palma, with 1,352 transects/year; and the area of Valverde (El Hierro), with 1,040 transects/year. Figure 36. Ferry transects in the Canary Islands in 2007 (Source: Carrillo & Ritter, 2010) During the period 1991-2007 a total of 59 strandings, from eight different cetacean species, were reported as showing signs of ship-strike in the Canary Islands (Carrillo & Ritter, 2010). Sperm whales comprise the majority of these stranding records: since 1999 an average of two sperm whales strand peras year with signs of ship-strike (Carrillo & Ritter, 2010), which makes the archipelago one with the highest reported rates of sperm whale ship-strikes in the world (Fais et al., 2016). But other species have also been affected, e.g., pygmy sperm whales (Kogia breviceps), Cuvier’s beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris), short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), Bryde’s whales (B. brydei) and sei whales (B. borealis) (Carrillo & Ritter, 2010). The occurrence and severity of ship-strikes in the area appears to increase with both the size and speed of vessels. According to Carrillo and Ritter (2010), reports of ship-strike have increased significantly since 1999, when a regular high speed craft service was introduced in the Canaries, therefore likely corresponding with the increase in both the mean speed and the number of ferry journeys. The mentioned reports comprise ca. 11% of the total number of strandings. However, the true numbers of ship strikes remain largely unknown (Carrillo & Ritter, 2010; Natacha Aguilar, pers. com.). Not only collisions are intentionally not reported by ferry operators, but also many carcases from ship-strikes may pass unnoticed. As pointed out by N. Aguilar (pers. com.), most carcasses come ashore on Tenerife, because the currents and wind favour the stranding of whales that have collided with vessels in the channel Tenerife-Gran Canaria. If the same number of whales had been affected in the channel Tenerife-La Gomera-El Hierro, most carcasses would drift towards the Atlantic and pass unnoticed. Fisheries by-catch and entanglements in fishing gear Accidental entanglement in fishing gear currently poses serious threats to the survival of endangered species, namely sharks, the monk seal and marine turtles. 137 The intensification and expansion of fishing activities throughout the area of Madeira archipelago, and increased deliberate and accidental killings by entanglement, have accelerated the decline of the small surviving monk seal colony in the Desertas Islands of Madeira (Neves & Pires, 1999). Direct killings are related to persecution of competitor for fisheries resources or because the species produce actual and perceived damage to fishing gear. Prior to the establishment of a protected area, the extensive use of gill nets in particular constituted a major threat. A major clean-up operation of abandoned nets, coupled with an initiative to have fishermen convert from net gear to long line seems to have tackled the problem but occasional entanglements still occur. In addition to pollution (of plastic, in particular), threatened marine turtles also suffer from accidental captures in fishing activities. In the Azores, consulted stakeholders appoint longline fishing as the main fishing threat affecting the species. Climate change Climate change is still considered a secondary threat to biodiversity in Macaronesia. The main threat, according consulted stakeholders, remains habitat destruction and fragmentation as a result of economic activities and introduction of IAS. Thus, expected consequences of climate change in the region are described in this section mainly based on literature review. According to the IPCC the average annual temperature in Macaronesia is set to increase by 2.1°C (1.9 to 2.4) b y the end of the century (Petit & Prudent, 2010). In addition, IPCC predictions point to a rise in the sea level of 0.35 metres between until end of the century, which is in line with the predicted global average. Under the influence of climate change it is likely that the Azores anticyclone will move east during the summer months. This will probably serve to diminish the frequency and intensity of the north-east trade winds. These weaker trade winds may have different effects on the ecosystems of the different islands of Macaronesia. In the case of Madeira Island, it may allow for warmer temperatures to reach higher altitudes, pushing the “sea of clouds” further up. Laurel forest will likely migrate upwards, displacing high altitude vegetation such as Erica spp., and the mountain top vegetation would disappear (F. D. Santos & Aguiar, 2006). In contrast, the weaker trade winds will probably lead to a downward movement of the roof of the “sea of clouds” towards lower altitudes in islands such as Tenerife (Sperling, Washington, & Whittaker, 2004). This will be accompanied by an increase in the number of heat waves in this zone. In any case, the direct consequence of these climatic changes will be, according to Sperling et al. (2004) a decline in the bio-climatic areas occupied by the laurel forest and as a result, an important reduction in this forest formation. Furthermore, the pine and eucalyptus species, which are also likely to migrate to lower altitudes for similar reasons, will probably encroach on the areas occupied by the Laurel forest. The disappearance of the Laurel forest will not only have dramatic consequences for the associated biodiversity but would also disrupt the hydric balance of the islands and water supplies for human consumption. In Madeira, other terrestrial habitats considered even more vulnerable to climate change than the Laurisilva are the Central Mountain Massif, Madeira Zambujal and Matagal Marmulan (Cruz et al., 2014) 138 Likewise, in the Canaries other natural habitats could also be perturbed by a change in the wind direction as well as by the resulting changes in temperature and precipitation (Del Arco, 2008 in Petit & Prudent, 2010): • • • • • The euphorbia shrubs could spread out, while the thermophilous forests will tend to contract. The latter already have a very weak resilience because of their high fragmentation and slow rate of growth. The pine forests could be more vulnerable to forest fires, which are likely to be more frequent because of the rise in temperatures and the drop in precipitation. During the summer 2007, a violent fire destroyed close to 35,000 hectares of forest, affecting practically the entire habitat of the Blue chaffinch (Fringilla teydea) on Gran Canaria Island. The high altitude ecosystems will also suffer the effects of rising temperatures, because they will be unable to migrate to higher altitudes. The subalpine Bencomia exstipulata or Rhamnus integrifolia for example, are already on the verge of extinction; drought would almost certainly make them disappear definitively. At the coastal level, a rise in sea levels could affect the vegetation of the dunes and beaches and bring about major changes in the coastal landscape. The change in wind directions might lead to a migration of numerous terrestrial plant species that spread using wind borne seeds. Those that are unable to migrate run the risk of declining. The endemic hydrophile species such as the Canary willow (Salix canariensis) or the Canary Island date palm (Phoenix canariensis) will be particularly affected. With regard to species, a recent assessment of vulnerabilities and responses to climate change in Madeira (Cruz et al., 2014) concluded that terrestrial groups with more species identified as vulnerable to climate change were the groups of bryophytes, vascular plants and terrestrial molluscs. The project IMPACTBIO (Implications of Climate Change for Azorean Biodiversity), concluded that in the end of the century, in the two studied islands (S. Miguel and Terceira) vascular plants will have its distribution reduced by 93%, arthropods by 91% and bryophytes by 74% (Elias & Ferreira, 2015). In addition, the introduction of invasive species and the extension of the spatial distribution of existing invasive species could also be among the major consequences of climate change. In particular, numerous species of African origin could settle in the Canaries, attracted by dryer climatic conditions. The African fountain grass (Pennisetum setaceum) for example, a grass that develops on high grounds, is already present in the Canaries, but is currently limited to the arid lands. It could see its area of spatial distribution extended. Swarms of Pilgrim crickets (locusts) that affect West Africa could become more frequent in the Canary Islands as a result of the strengthening of the south-westerly winds from Africa, which are expected with higher temperatures (European Parliament, 2011b; Petit & Prudent, 2010). In 2004, a swarm of more than 10 million locusts descended on the coasts of Lanzarote. The desertification of the island of Fuerteventura in the Canaries might have led to the establishment of several species of exotic birds, which were restricted to the Sahara desert region until now. More than 30 species of Saharan birds have already recently been observed for the first time in the archipelago (Petit & Prudent, 2010). A change in the migratory habits of some of Madeira’s birds has also been observed recently. For example, a small number of 139 Pallid swifts (Apus pallidus) now spend the entire year in Madeira and no longer migrate towards Africa in the autumn. In the marine ecosystems, the acidification of the oceans caused by an increase in the level of CO2 in the atmosphere leads to a drop in PH levels with considerable consequences to marine biodiversity. In the Macaronesia, the most vulnerable areas and systems to a rise in temperatures and acidification of the sea water are benthic communities, as the black corals and the populations of Zostera noltii (MAGRAMA, 2014b). Deep water coral reefs (consisting mainly of Lophelia pertusa, which develop at depths of 50 metres and are sometimes found as deep as 1,000 metres) are sensitive to the acidification of the oceans since a drop in PH levels reduces the rate of calcification of the corals and puts a brake on their growth and regeneration (Petit & Prudent, 2010). Coldwater corals are particularly threatened, because the depth at which they begin to dissolve (or the aragonite saturation point) could rise by several hundred metres (Doney, 2006). Marine mammals are also expected to suffer from climate change impacts. The most vulnerable species of cetaceans are, according to Cruz et al. (2014) the Sperm Whale and the Fin Whale, followed by the pilot whale and the bottlenose dolphin. Additionally, tropical fish species, which usually live further south, have recently been observed for the first time in the Macaronesian waters. Major movements of fish stocks could completely modify the equilibrium of marine food chains and lead to a decline in certain cold-water species that will not be able to migrate to higher latitudes. In the Azores, the Spined pygmy shark (Squaliolus laticaudus) was first spotted in 1998 and the Lesser amberjack (Seriola fasciata) in 2006 (A. A. Silva, Duarte, Giga, & Menezes, 1998). These recent sightings could be explained by a change in the spatial distribution of these species brought about by a warming of the waters. Similarly, the establishment and development of the green algae Caulerpa webbiana, an invasive species recently detected in the Azores, could be facilitated by rising water temperatures (Cardigos et al., 2006). In the vicinity of the Canary Islands, the ocean triggerfish (Canthidermis suflamen), a warm water fish, was also recently observed as a result of the rise in water temperatures (Petit & Prudent, 2010). Likewise, in recent years, the occurrence and/or increase in frequency of several warm-water species around Madeira (e.g. crab Platypodiella picta, Aluterus scriptus, Aluterus monoceros, Abudefduf saxatilis, Gnatholepis thompsoni, Canthidermis sufflamen, Caranx crysosmay) may also be due to progressive warming of the sea water (Wirtz, Fricke, & Biscoito, 2008). 140 9. ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT INVESTMENTS This chapter presents an assessment of recent and current conservation investments in the Macaronesian region. The purpose of this assessment is to assist in identifying funding sources that may be mobilized for the implementation of the regional investment strategy. The analysis of past and current funding will also contribute to define the strategy by identifying funding gaps in themes and sites that are currently funded. EU financing instruments Currently, two EU level instruments provide major financial support for conserving biodiversity: the European Regional Development Fund (namely the Interreg programme) and the LIFE programme. Other funding mechanisms relevant to biodiversity include the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development and the European Fund for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. However, the overall amount of EU funding that relates directly or indirectly to biodiversity purposes is difficult to assess and quantify (Kettunen, Baldock, Adelle, & al., 2009) and these financial instruments lack a coding system that would allow identifying biodiversityrelevant funding shares (Lung, Meller, Teeffelen, Thuiller, & Cabeza, 2014). European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Interreg Programme European Territorial Cooperation (ETC), better known as Interreg, is one of the goals of cohesion policy and provides a framework for the implementation of joint actions and policy exchanges between national, regional and local actors from different Member States. Funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), it is designed to strengthen economic, social and territorial cohesion in the European Union by promoting cross-border (Interreg A), transnational (Interreg B) and interregional cooperation (Interreg C). Interreg differs from the majority of Cohesion Policy programmes in the way that it involves collaboration among entities of two or more Member States. Interreg measures are not only required to demonstrate a positive impact on the development on either side of the border but their design and implementation must be carried out on a common cross-border basis. Interreg was launched as Interreg I for the programming period 1989-1993, and continued moving on for following periods. Interreg IV (2007-2013) introduced within its strand B (transnational cooperation) 13 different Operational Programmes, among which the MAC programme - Açores-Madeira-Canarias. MAC 2014-2020 is currently operational, supported by a budget of 130 million euros (85% financed by the ERDF) (ERDF, 2014). Likewise the Interreg, the MAC programme falls within the framework of the European territorial cooperation objective, and includes among its specific objectives the development of sustainable management plans of natural areas and protected marine areas as well as strategies for the protection of biodiversity and natural resources, mainly of marine resources. The Programme MAC and its predecessor Interreg III-B have been regarded as successful initiatives integrating the Macaronesia region for biodiversity and climate change related activities, mainly due to the management structures established to facilitate the programme and the substantial funding made available (Cooper, Benzaken, Collin, Renard, & Tyack, 2011). Some examples of conservation initiatives funded by these INTERREG Funds, are summarized in Table 36. 141 Table 36. Conservation-related projects funded by INTERREG in the Macaronesian region Project Period Budget (euros) Beneficiaries BIOVAL: Valorisation, control 2013and management of marine 2015 resources of Macaronesia Total: 237,883 GESMAR: management resources Total: 827,588 General Fisheries Directorate ERDF: 703,449 (Canarian government); Cabildo of Gran Canaria; City council of Funchal; Cabildo of Tenerife; University of the Azores; University of Madeira of sustainable 2009the marine 2014 University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria; Canarian Institute of ERDF: 192,001 Marine Sciences; Technological Institute of the Canaries; Museum of Natural History of Funchal; Marine Biology Station of Funchal; University of Madeira; University of Cape Verde; University of the Azores MaReS: Macaronesia Research 2009Strategy 2013 Total: 549,725 Oceanic Plataform of the Canaries; Scientific and ERDF: 467,266 Techonlogical Hub of Madeira; Regional Fund for Science and Technology (FRCT, Açores) BIOCLIMAC: Biotechnology 2009and plant conservation in the 2013 face of climate change Total: 650,301 DEMIURGO: Population 2009genetic information banks and 2012 meta-analysis of the Macaronesian Flora Total: 814,378 MACETUS: Study of the 2003population structure, 2006 distribution, movements and habitat use of Physeter macrocephalus, Globicephala macrorhynchus, Tursiops truncatus and Stenella frontalis in the Macaronesian Region Total: €470,588 Canarian Botanic Garden "Viera y Clavijo"; Association for the Local ERDF: 552,756 Development of the Azores islands; Regional Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources of Madeira (Botanic Garden of Madeira) GRAFCAN; Regional Secretariat of Science, Technology and ERDF: 692,221 Equipment (Azores); several city councils of the Canary Islands and of the Azores ERDF: 311,629 142 Also within the INTERREG VB, the Atlantic Area Programme 2014-2020 covers now an expanded area compared to the previous Programme (2007-2013) due to the inclusion of the three Macaronesian archipelagos. It supports transnational cooperation projects in 38 regions of five Atlantic countries: France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom, contributing to the achievement of economic, social and territorial cohesion. With a total budget of €185M, which comprises a fund allocation above EUR 140 million from the ERDF (European Commission, 2014a), the Programme aims to implement solutions to answer to regional challenges in the fields of Innovation & competitiveness; resource efficiency; territorial risks management; biodiversity and natural & cultural assets (€ 39,484 M). An annual call for projects will be organised from 2016 to 2020. In the case of the Canary Islands, financing of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment in Natura 2000 under the ERDF in the period 2009-2012 accounted for €5.9 million (MAGRAMA, 2014a). LIFE Programme Several conservation projects in Macaronesia have been developed with support from the LIFE Programme, the EU’s financial instrument supporting environmental, nature conservation and climate action projects throughout the EU. The LIFE programme is managed by the European Commission through DG Environment and DG Climate Action. With regard to nature and biodiversity conservation, the LIFE programme remains a small but highly effective funding source (European Commission, 2015b). EU Member States are expected to pay for the management of the Natura 2000 Network sites in their country, but to help countries to pay for urgent or innovative conservation work, the European Union has set aside money under a fund called LIFE-Nature, which is managed by the Environment Directorate of the European Commission. LIFE-Nature (now called LIFE Nature and Biodiversity) co-finance action grants for best practice, pilot and demonstration projects that contribute to the implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives and the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. Since the launch of the LIFE-Nature by the European Commission in 1996, a total of 14 LIFE Nature projects have been financed in the Azores, 23 in the Madeira archipelago and 32 in the Canary Islands (European Commission, 2015a). Accomplishments so far include, among others, the reintroduction of the giant lizard of El Hierro (Gallotia simonyi machadoi); management and conservation of the Laurisilva Forest of Madeira; and the conservation of endemic birds, such as the Gran Canaria blue chaffinch (Fringilla teydea polatzeki), dark and white tailed laurel pigeons (Columba bolli, C. junoniae), the Azorean bullfinch (Pyrrhula murina). A number of marine projects have been conducted including measures for the recovery of the monk seal (Monachus monachus) in the Atlantic; support projects for the conservation of the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus); management plans for the marine Natura 200 sites of the Azores (“Maré”). Some of the LIFE Nature and biodiversity projects that are currently underway in the Macaronesian region are briefly described in Table 37. 143 Table 37. Ongoing LIFE Nature and Biodiversity projects in the Macaronesian region Period LIFE+ Pinzón 2015-2020 Budget (€) Coordinator and partners Objectives Main expected results Total: 1,123,860 TRAGSA (Enterprise) Government of the Canaries Cabildo of Gran Canaria Increase range expansion and population size of the priority species Fringilla teydea polatzeki (blue chaffinch) Project of range expansion and population size of the priority species Fringilla teydea polatzeki: a partnership among to increase the restricted wild blue chaffinch population of Gran Canaria (Fringilla teydea polatzeki); Increase of the wild blue chaffinch population of Gran Canaria by up to 450 individuals, effectively doubling the size of the population; plantation of 80,000 Canarian pines in the ecological corridors in the central summit and Tamadaba. TRAGSA (Enterprise) University of La Laguna Ecological restoration of Garajonay National Park and its surroundings, after the great fire of 2012 Strategy to prevent and tackle wild fires in the Canary Islands; Strategy to support natural regeneration of affected laurel forest habitats; Long-term restoration of the affected priority habitats; Long-term recovery of the affected populations of endangered species. EU contribution: 674,316 LIFE+ GARAJONAY VIVE 2014-2018 Total: 1,511,494 EU contribution: 755,747 144 Period Budget (€) LIFE Madeira Monk Seal 2014-2018 Total: 1,143,364 EU contribution: 670,808 LIFE Terras do Priolo 2013-2018 Total: 3,363,260 EU contribution: 2,522,445 LIFE CWR 2013-2018 Total: 2,213,312 EU contribution: 1,106,656 Coordinator and partners Objectives Main expected results Fundación CBD para la conservación de la biodiversidad y su habitat (NGO) Regional Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (Madeira Government) Protection and conservation of Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) in Madeira An official Monk Seal Regional Conservation Plan in Madeira; Increased capacity of the Natural Park of Madeira to intervene along the coastline to tackle threats or emergency situations for monk seal individuals; Surveillance systems, indicators and baseline values for monitoring of the monk seal and its habitat. SPEA (Portuguese NGO) Regional Secretariat of Natural Resources (Government of the Azores) Active protection of the population of the Azores bullfinch (Priolo) and its habitas and sustainable management of Pico da Vara/ Ribeira do Guilherme SPA's Recovery of 102.4 ha of habitat, of 4 ha of water line areas and of 6.3 ha of landslide areas; Creation of 9.6 km of access rails for visitor use; Planting of 200,000 plant specimens from more than 25 native species grown in nurseries; Development of methodologies and strategies for growing natives and controlling IAS. Council of Praia da Vitória Ecological Restoration and Increased biodiversity in the coastal area of Conservation of Praia da Vitória Praia da Vitória; Coastal Wet Green Infrastructure Establishment of a network of wetlands that integrates three areas with very different characteristics. 145 Period Budget (€) Life+RABICHE 2013-2017 Total: 1,401,870 EU contribution: 700,935 LIFE+ GUGUY 2013-2017 Total: 852,808 EU contribution: 426,404 LIFE Fura-Bardos Total: 1,629,198 EU contribution: 1,221,898 Coordinator and partners Objectives Main expected results Cabildo de Gran Canaria (Local Authority) GESPLAN (Canarian Government) Expansion of the range of the white-tailed laurel pigeon (Columba junoniae) by reintroducing it to the island of Gran Canaria Captive breeding and release on Gran Canaria of 15-30 white-tailed laurel pigeons per year; Creation of a viable population (75-100 pairs) of white tailed laurel pigeons on Gran Canaria; Restoration of 1,049 ha. of potential whitetailed laurel pigeon habitat in the area of Monteverde; Raised awareness amongst local people of the laurel forests. GESPLAN (Gestión y Recover of native forests with Not available Planeamiento Territorial y Juniperus spp, and its flora and Medioambiental) fauna, in the Special Nature Reserve Güigüí SPEA (Portuguese NGO) Conservation of Macaronesian Regional Secretariat of Sparrowhawk and Laurissilva Environment and Natural habitat in Madeira Island Resources (Madeira Government) SEO (Spanish NGO) 146 Recovery of a significant area of Laurel forest habitat (76.20 ha), as a result of the eradication of invasive alien plants (reestablishment of 14.6 ha in Ginjas and 21.6 ha in Assumadores); Plantation of 40 000 native plants; Reforestation of 20 ha (distributed by 40 ha) of burned areas in Terra Chã with 22 000 native plants. Period Budget (€) LIFE RECOVER NATURA Total: 1,344,044 EU contribution: 658,798 LIFE Maciço Montanhoso 2012-2017 Total: 1,225,022 EU contribution: 658,798 Coordinator and partners Objectives Main expected results Madeira Nature Park Service (Madeira Government) SPEA (Portuguese NGO) Recovery of the species and land habitats of the Natura 2000 sites Ponta de São Lourenço and Desertas Islands Removal or significant reduction of those agents contributing to poor ecosystem functioning; Approval of species action plans and revised management plans; Raised public awareness of the importance of these ecosystems; Evaluation of population densities and distribution of goats, rabbits, rats, mice, invasive and endemic plants, gulls, terrestrial molluscs and insects. Madeira Nature Park Service (Madeira Government) Regional Directorate of Forestry and Nature Conservation SPEA (Portuguese NGO) Recovery and conservation of species and habitats on the Madeiran Central Massif (following a major fire in August 2010) Conservation programmes: - for the regeneration of priority habitats in burned areas and in areas dominated by invasive species - of measures for species and habitats of Community interest with unfavourable conservation status Increased knowledge on the ecology of endemic and indigenous species of Community interest. Source: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/ 147 In addition to the direct investment in biodiversity projects since 2007 by LIFE+Nature and Biodiversity, many other LIFE projects have indirectly contributed to the EU's goal of halting biodiversity loss. This is the case, for example of “ECOCOMPATÍVEL-Communicating for the sustainability of socio economic activities, human use and biodiversity in Natura 2000 network sites in Madeira Archipelago”, financed by the Environment/Information and Communication strand. Natural Capital Financing Facility In recognition that halting the loss of biodiversity and adapting to climate change requires increasing investment in natural capital to complement the more traditional grant-based funding, LIFE project funding, will also, for the first time, be provided through innovative financial instruments. The LIFE Environment sub-programme contributes to one such instrument, the pilot Natural Capital Financing Facility (NCFF) financial instrument, which falls under the Nature and Biodiversity project area and will help finance biodiversity projects, amongst other things (European Commission, 2015b). The NCFF has recently been launched by the European Commission and the European Investment Bank (EIB) and aims to demonstrate that natural capital projects can generate revenues or save costs, whilst delivering on biodiversity and climate adaptation objectives. The NCFF will establish a pipeline of replicable, bankable operations that will serve as a "proof of concept" and that will demonstrate to potential investors the attractiveness of such operations. The available funding under the NCFF should finance some 9-12 projects over the 20152017 period. Other key funding sources • • The Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development, also called Framework Programmes or abbreviated FP1 through FP7 with "FP8" being named "Horizon 2020", are funding programmes created by the European Union/European Commission to support and foster research in the European Research Area. The specific objectives and actions vary between funding periods. In FP6 and FP7 focus was still in technological research, in Horizon 2020 the focus is in innovation, delivering economic growth faster and delivering solutions to end users that are often governmental agencies. Horizon 2020 is the biggest EU Research and Innovation programme ever with nearly €80 billion of funding available over 7 years (2014 to 2020) – in addition to the private investment that this money will attract. In the frame of the BEST Preparatory Action adopted by the European Parliament in 2010 and 2011 two open calls for proposals BEST-2011 and BEST-2012 were published and allowed the funding of 16 projects. One of these BEST projects was funded in the Macaronesian region: “ECOSUBVEGChanges in submersed vegetation: assessing loss in ecosystem services from frondose to depauperate systems dominated by opportunistic vegetation”. Implemented from 2013 to 2013, the project compares the value of ecosystem services from seagrasses and large algae with these from opportunistic vegetation in Canaries, Azores and Guadeloupe to help guide 148 • conservation and restoration of these ecosystems, currently declining worldwide. The transnational European project MISTIC'SEAS (Macaronesia Islands Standard Criteria and Indicators: Reaching Common Grounds on Marine Biodiversity Monitoring in Macaronesia), aims to meet the specific needs of the biogeographic subregion of Macaronesia under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. Coordinated by the Government of the Azores (through the Regional Directorate for Sea Affairs and the Regional Fund for Science and Technology (FRCT) aims to review the current knowledge and conservation strategies for the Macaronesian populations of seabirds, sea turtles and cetaceans. The project will develop a standardized methodology to monitoring these groups of animals to be adopted in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. It will culminate in the approval of a common action plan for the monitoring of marine biodiversity in Macaronesia. Funded by the European Commission through DG ENVIRONMENT, with a budget of around 650 thousand Euros, the MISTIC'SEAS project has as partners the GeneralDirectorate of Natural Resources, Security and Marine Resources (DGRM) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Sea, the Regional Secretariat for the Environment and Natural Resources (SRARN) of the Government of Madeira, the Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Fundación Biodiversidad (FB) and the Directorate-General of Sustainability la Costa y del Mar (DGSCM); the last two institutions are under jurisdiction of Ministerio Español de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. This project will also include the provision of technical and scientific assistance by regional experts on birds, turtles and cetaceans. Government expenditure Government budgets are a critical source of biodiversity financing even though commitments are sometimes small. In the Macaronesia, the authorities responsible for environment coordinate the regional expenditure in nature conservation predominantly, but other divisions, such as the agriculture, fisheries, tourism or industry, can also make contributions in crossover or geographically localized issues. In addition, provincial and local government expenditure can also be significant in some cases. Apart from the direct investments in nature conservation, the governments can also support biodiversity NGOs’ activities both by contracting projects and by annual grants to develop conservation strategies. According to Benzaken and Renard (2011), it can be estimated that local governments of EU overseas entities allocate less than one percent of their budget to the staffing and work of their conservation departments. It was not possible to collect detailed and accurate information budgets that each of the three Macaronesian governments allocated to environmental and biodiversity issues. Nevertheles, receipts and expenditure of city councils, on the protection of biodiversity and landscape are published in the statistical yearbook of both Madeira and Azores archipelagos. These figures include activities related to the protection of ecosystems and habitats essential to the conservation of fauna and flora, the protection of 149 landscapes for their aesthetic value, as well as the preservation of natural sites protected by law. In addition to the already described financial contribution for LIFE and INTERREG projects and the effort on implementing and managing a comprehensive network of protected areas and Natura 2000 sites, a list of some recent conservation investments made by the governments of each of Macaronesian autonomous regions is given below. Azores • • • • • Azorean Biodiversity Databank: an Internet database for regional biodiversity outreach was developed in the course of the Atlantico (2003-2005) and Bionatura (2007-2008) projects and is currently managed by the University of the Azores with the financial support of the Government. It is an important resource for fundamental research in systematics, biodiversity, education and conservation management in the Azores. It also provides an original platform for biogeographical and macroecological research on islands. The Azorean Regional Government also provides online information on the archipelago biodiversity (http://siaram.azores.gov.pt). All multimedia content, videos, audios and photos can be freely used for educational purposes (but not commercial). SOS Cagarro: a government-led campaign carried out annually since 1995, with the objective of involving the public in saving the Cory’s shearwater (Calonectris borealis) juveniles when flying from the nest in Autumn and are disoriented by human activities, namely by urban public lights. Activities developed within the initiative include the: i) development of several activities in schools and libraries aiming at environmental awareness and education; ii) organization of evening rescue brigades to collect juvenile shearwaters in danger and to release them in the next morning; iii) development of joint actions with the police and scouts to raise drivers awareness; iv) development of promotional and educational materials to be distributed to the people engaged in the campaign (volunteers, etc.); v) reduction of public lighting during the night. As a result of the 2015 campaign nearly 5,000 birds were saved. Public/Private Partnership financing schemes, such as MoniAves (Integrated monitoring of marine priority bird species in the Azores); MoniZEC (identification, recovery and certification of marine habitats in the Azores); monitoring activities in SACs. Erradication and control of invasive plant species: the strategic and operational plans "PRECEFIAS" (Regional Plan of Eradication and Control of Invasive Plant Species in Sensitive Areas; 2003-2008; €820,000) and "Mais endémicas – Plantar o futuro" (More Endemics - Planting the Future) are two complementary instruments with the common goal of improving the conservation status of species and habitats of the Azores, with direct influence on the recovery of the Azorean landscape. 150 • • Initiative "Partnership for Sustainable Development": it is a partnership program between Island Nature Parks and regional companies to disseminate the natural values and promote an economic development compatible with biodiversity conservation. Botanical Garden of Faial is an ecological garden, component of the Faial Nature Park, established in 1986 to educate and protect the biodiversity of Faial. It has done much to collect and study native and endemic flora of the islands, and also propagate certain plants in project sites. Madeira • • • • • Atlas of the birds that nest in the Madeira Archipelago: it is the first Atlas of its kind in Madeira, an initiative of the service of Madeira Nature Park of Madeira, in partnership with the Portuguese Society for the Study of Birds (SPEAMadeira). The city council of Funchal holds, under its Division of Nature Conservation and Natural Resources, three entities with recognised work in the field of scientific research and nature conservation: the Museum of Natural History of Funchal, the Marine Biology Station of Funchal and the Ecological Park of Funchal. Scientific initiatives conducted with own resources include (SRA, 2014): o Lepadogaster Project: collection and analysis of tissue samples from fish Lepadogaster zebrina and comparison with other Lepadogaster lepadogaster species, through DNA analysis. o Scientific expedition to the Selvagens Islands to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the first scientific expedition to these islands by the Museum. o Monitor_Ictio Project: monitoring Ichthyofauna through visual surveys to check which new species would appear, trying to relate this phenomenon to climate change. o Diadema Project: monitoring of the species Diadema antillarum, in collaboration with the Nature Park of Madeira and the Naval Club Diving centre of Funchal. The Whale Museum of Madeira: over the last years, the Museum conducted several projects to increase knowledge on the species of cetaceans that occur in the archipelago waters. Erradication of invasive alien species: since the early 1990’s, a longterm programme for the restoration of many different terrestrial habitats has been set up. Since then rabbits have been eradicated from Desertas and Selvagens, mice from the Selvagens and goats from the laurel forest of Madeira. Restoration interventions after the 2010 fire: the ecological Park of Funchal has been implementing plans for the recovery of natural habitats and species, such as the Manx-shearwater in order to restore the Park’s natural area after 151 • the fire in 2010. Some of the activities are developed in partnership with the civil society. The Government of Madeira has also taken important measures to prevent forest fires and recover degraded areas. A total of 1,685 ha have been subject to planting and forest improvement measures, particularly in Funchal, Câmara de Lobos and Paul da Serra. Canary Islands • • • • • • • Canarian Biodiversity Databank: It was created as part of an ambitious program known as Project BIOTA whose implementation dates back to 1998, and developed in the course of the Atlantico (2003-2005) and Bionatura (2007-2008) projects. Both Databank Biodiversity as other facets of the BIOTA project resulted from the integration of two action groups, the academic sphere (universities and other research centers) and technical sphere (the Department of Public Administration with competence in the conservation and management of biodiversity). The databank is currently managed by the Biodiversity Service of the Canarian Government. Spanish Catalogue of exotic invasive species: in addition to the database on introduced species developed in the course of the Bionatura project, a national catalogue was also developed, associated with strict rules to prevent introduction and proliferation. National and regional catalogues of protected species have been implemented (in the form of laws), which imply the application of protection measures that range from preventing the capture to active management through conservation or recovery plans, which may include designating critical areas. National Biodiversity Inventory: a Spanish initiative developed by the Directorate General for Biodiversity of Spain that gave place to the development of several initiatives and Red Lists, later compiled in a database. Recovery and Conservation Plans of Species: in addition to the recovery plans developed by the Spanish government (e.g. giant lizard of El Hierro and of La Gomera), the Canary Islands have also prepared local plans for several species, such as the recovery plan for the flora species of the Canaries. In addition, national plans with restricted application in the Canary Islands, were also developed, namely for birds. RedPROMAR: the Observer Network of the Marine Environment of the Canary Islands is a tool of the Canarian Government for monitoring and surveillance of marine life in the archipelago. It is an information system that records the continuous changes that are occurring in the oceans, using the concept of "Citizen Science”. BIOCAN: a web platform that integrates different databases on biodiversity, such as the Biodiversity Databank of the Canary Islands, RedPromar and the Database on Alien Species in the Canaries. In addition, it provides for the development and integration into the platform of a new computer application 152 • (CENTINELA) that brings together information on protected Canarian species under state and regional regulations, which will allow to consult data and documents on their distribution in the islands, their conservation status, follow-up studies, recovery and conservation plans, etc. This platform and the various databases that comprise it will have free access, facilitating its use by other governmental entities, non-governmental organizations, businesses and individuals, thereby contributing to the dissemination of the natural values of the archipelago and to greater efficiency in their management and conservation. Regional research strategy: it provides funding for a widespread range of projects in the archipelago. The Government of the Canary Islands manages the fund, which has 2 transversal instrumental areas (Technology of Information and Communications, and Biotechnologies) and 9 scientifictechnological priorities sectors; among these sectors is Natural Resources and within this field, projects related to energy, water, climate change and biodiversity are funded. Funds, Trusts and Foundations Some national funds and private or public foundations and trusts are focussed on supporting biodiversity conservation projects. The most active in the Macaronesian region are given below. • • The Fund for the Conservation of Nature and Biodiversity (Portugal), defined within the Institute for Nature and Biodiversity Conservation (current ICNF) aims mainly at i) support projects for the conservation of nature and biodiversity; ii) Promote projects or studies that contribute to the enlargement of the areas included in the protected areas network; iii) Encouraging conservation projects of threatened species at national level. The Fund may establish coordination mechanisms with other public or private funds, of national, EU or international nature, related to the economic valorisation of ecosystem services through, inter alia, market instruments or biodiversity credits systems. The Biodiversity Foundation (“Fundación Biodiversidad”), funded by the Ministry of Environment of the Spanish government, grants biodiversity projects to Spanish NGOs, including an allocation for international proposals. A recent (2009) study by Oceana, the largest international ocean conservation organization, to propose Marine Areas of Ecological Importance in the Canaries, was financed by this Foundation. In addition, the Spanish Business and Biodiversity Initiative (“Iniciativa Española Empresa y Biodiversidad”) was launched by the Foundation to channel private funding for biodiversity conservation. This initiative has as partners the Fundación Global Nature, a private national organization that focuses on nature conservation, environmental protection and sustainable development; Forética, a non profit multistakeholder organisation working on promoting ethical and socially responsible policies; Biodiversity in Good Company, the 153 • • B&B initiative; and the Club of Excellence in Sustainability, a non-profit association composed of large companies. BBVA Foundation (Spain) is a Spanish bank foundation, that every year launches a call for proposals for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change Awards. It also sponsors research on ecology and conservation biology and the editing of publications and conferences on these issues. SEO/BirdLife, WWF-Spain and Foundation Oso Pardo are three of the Spanish NGOs awarded on the Action on Biodiversity Conservation category. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (BirdLife Partner in the UK) has own funded country programs that provide strategic support to NGOs (other BirdLife Partners) and increase their capacity on nature conservation. In the Macaronesian region it is currently supporting BirdLife Partners in all archipelagos (SPEA Azores, SPEA Madeira; SEO Canarias). Financing needs and gaps Although there are important investments being made in conservation in Macaronesia, the general perception is that these are still low when compared to the needs. The lack of a local/regional biodiversity strategic framework increases funding constraints, as there are less opportunities to seek resources specifically for the purpose of biodiversity management, and there are no clear investment priorities. Most of the efforts are concentrated on protected areas. Within the EU the basis for the action of EU Member States to safeguard habitats and species is provided by the EU Birds and Habitats Directives, and a great effort is currently addressing Natura 2000 Network, as one of the primary instruments for nature and biodiversity conservation. The Prioritized Action Frameworks (PAF) of Natura 2000 prepared by each of the regional authorities of the Macaronesian archipelagos 10 describe the priority areas of intervention in biodiversity and the Natura 2000 Network during the next period program 2014-2020, in compliance with policies and legal commitments related to the Natura 2000 network, as well as to biodiversity targets of the EU Biodiversity Strategy in 2020. A list of strategic conservation priorities for the period, as well as a description of key measures to achieve priorities, are included in the PAF. Neither the estimates of the costs for the implementation of these measures, nor the potential financing sources are provided. An estimate of the current financial needs for the management of Natura 2000 in the territories is, however, given. For the whole Macaronesian region this estimates accounts for € 102.6 million per year for the whole region (Table 38). 10 In the case of the Canaries, it is integrated in the Spanish PAF. 154 Table 38. Annual investment needs for Natura 2000 in Macaronesia Current Desirable (€ Million) (€ Million) Azores 25 n.a. Madeira 4.7 n.a. 72.9* 159.4 Archipelago Canary Islands (2013. “n.a."- not available. * Estimate based on V. Moreno, Picazo, VázquezDodero, and Hidalgo (2013), corrected with the variation of CPI 2007-2003 of 16,6%. Sources: MAGRAMA (2014a); V. Moreno et al. (2013); RAA (2013); RAM (2014)) For the Canary Island the desirable investment was also estimated and accounts for €159.4 million, i.e., over twice the current investment. In that context, the European Box 6. Compensation payments Commission recently estimated that within Natura 2000 Network only around 20% of the financing stakeholder consultation in needs for the existing N2K network are The highlighted that covered by current EU instruments Macaronesia has compensation payments within Natura (European Commission, 2011), let alone conservation needs beyond this 2000 network are far too low. Natura payments to compensate network. Moreover, Lung et al. (2014) 2000 beneficiaries for the additional costs and concluded that the current distribution of EU biodiversity funds is not well loss of income resulting from the aligned with future needs under application of the Birds and Habitats climate change. Climate change is Directives and the agri-environment expected to decrease the payments are aimed to provide positive effectiveness of established protected incentives for the conservation and use areas (and in particular N2K areas) by sustainable biodiversity. However, in inducing range shifts and biodiversity Portugal these payments range between reshuffling (Araujo, Alagador, Cabeza, €12-20/ha., depending on the size of the Nogues-Bravo, & Thuiller, 2011; land and. The additional restriction on Maiorano, Falcucci, Zimmermann, & the intensification agricultural activity, al, 2011). An additional threat posed increases the amount to €24-49/ha. by climate change is thus a pressing need to expand biodiversity management beyond the currently protected sites. In addition to these considerations, the stakeholder consultation and KBAs delineation, carried out during the present Macaronesian profiling process, also highlight the need for financing beyond the Natura 2000 Network to tackle further biodiversity loss in the Macaronesian region: • In the Azores and Madeira most protected species have this status as a result of the implementation at national level of European directives (Habitats and Birds Directives). The directives’ annexes include strictly protected species, so that their presence in a particular site forces the Portuguese state to some kind of preservation. These Directives are thus one of the main instruments 155 • for the effective protection of species. However, these directives were based on a set of subjective criteria that reflect above all the knowledge at the time and the existence of experts for the different groups and regions in Europe, so that the vast majority of species whose management is a priority are not legally protected, a fact which is also reflected in the archipelago of the Azores (Martín et al., 2008). Moreover, for terrestrial arthropods, for example, the efforts made in the European Community towards conservation priorities were based on the knowledge on Northern and Central Europe arthropod biodiversity, where a lot more information was available, including historical data. As a result some of the species protected under the Habitats Directive are species that in Portugal are relatively common, while Portuguese endemic species with restricted distributions (like those occurring on islands) received no consideration (Rego et al., 2015). Overlapping the distribution of globally threatened species and currently classified areas in the Macaronesian islands (N2K Network and Regional Protected Areas Network), an activity carried out during the delineation of Macaronesian KBAs, clearly shows that a large number of these species do not occur in protected sites. Further, many globally threatened species are not listed as ‘priority species’ under the Birds and Habitats Directives (and many priority species are not globally threatened), and therefore are not considered as priorities for conservation at the EU level. This highlights the need for tackling further biodiversity loss in the Macaronesian region by financing beyond the Natura 2000 Network. 156 10. PRIORITY AREAS FOR ACTION Priority Key Biodiversity Areas In total, 194 KBAs were identified in the Macaronesian region, of which 46 were assigned to the highest priority level (level 1), 54 were assigned to level 2, 42 were assigned to level 3, 34 to level 4 and 18 to level 5. The full list of KBAs is given in Appendix 5 and is summarized in Table 20 (chapter 0). Although an important number of KBAs are under some protection figure, 31% of them are not covered by any protected areas (or are covered only by a minor parcel). Moreover, from the 46 KBAs assigned to level 1, eight are not covered by any protection figure and 16 are only partially protected (Table 39 and Appendix 6). However, these sites are the highest biological priorities for conservation in the region: they are the only known site (globally) for one or more endemic CR or EN species and the loss of any of them would result in the global extinction of at least one species. Thus, the current coverage of the protected areas network needs to be subjected to a more in-depth revision. In addition, and since Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) objective is to underline areas that constitute the last remaining refuge of at least one EN or CR species, the mentioned 46 KBAs qualify as AZE, i.e., the current list of two AZE sites needs to be reviewed following the biodiversity outcomes underlined in the Macaronesian Ecosystem Profile. 157 Code DES1 FAI3 FUE1 FUE6 FUE8 GCA1 GCA2 GCA4 GCA5 GCA7 GCA8 GCA9 GCA13 GCA18 GOM1 GOM7 GOM11 GOM13 GOM15 HIE1 HIE2 HIE6 LAN3 MAD1 MAD4 MAD8 PAL1 PAL12 PAL15 PIC4 PSA2 PSA4 SEL1 Table 39. List of KBAs of priority level 1 Total Land area area Key Biodiversity Area Archipelago (km2) (km2) Desertas Islands Madeira 765 14 Great crater of Faial Jandía Peninsula North area of Fuerteventura Island of Lobos La Solana Los Marteles Tamadaba - south Tamadaba - north Santo Andrés - Valle Seco Cruz de Pineda Barranco del Pino Pino Santo Jinámar Las Palmas Garajonay- Chejelipes Los Chapines Epina Taguluche Garajonay - Central Frontera - central area Echedo Valverde PLains of Corona - La Hondura - Tegala Grande and Famara crag Madeira Nature Park (enlarged) Coastal cliffs of Madeira island São João creek - Santa Luzia creek - João Gomes creek La Palma Centralnortheast Teneguia Vucanos Coast of Garafía Pico mountain crater Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo Northeast area of Porto Santo Selvagens Islands Protection Whole Nr trigger spp 32 Azores Canary Is. Canary Is. 1 178 222 1 178 222 Whole Most Some 13 34 14 Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. 5 110 124 18 47 61 5 110 124 18 47 61 Whole Whole Some Most Some Most 10 31 34 14 32 33 Canary Is. 11 11 Some 4 Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. 11 2 3 58 9 13 19 14 0.4 5 5 106 11 2 3 58 9 13 19 14 0.4 5 5 106 Some Little/none Most Some Some Most Some Whole Most Little/none Most Some 10 4 6 50 20 25 17 16 27 4 10 29 Madeira 475 475 Most 95 Madeira 32 32 Little/none 15 Madeira 15 15 Little/none 8 Canary Is. 270 270 Most 41 Canary Is. Canary Is. Azores Madeira 2 20 4 27 2 20 4 0 Most Most Some Whole 2 12 5 28 Madeira 11 11 Little/none 17 Madeira 1,246 3 Whole 29 158 Code SJG3 SMA7 SMA8 SMG4 TEN1 TEN2 TEN3 TEN4 TEN6 TEN16 TEN19 TEN21 TEN24 Key Biodiversity Area Pico da Esperança Pico Alto São Lourenço Pico da Vara El Teíde Anága Northern Buenavista Los Carrizales Adeje Guimar - La Esperanza La Viuda - Añaza Garachico - La Montañeta San Cristoval de La Laguna Archipelago Azores Azores Azores Azores Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Canary Is. Total area (km2) 32 1 3 145 252 159 50 45 20 47 30 45 Land area (km2) 32 1 3 145 252 159 50 45 20 47 30 45 Protection Some Most Little/none Some Whole Most Most Some Some Some Little/none Some Nr trigger spp 24 15 14 19 21 60 41 31 16 27 10 26 Canary Is. 5 5 Little/none 3 Description of priority KBAs Priority KBA are presented in alphabetic order within archipelagoes and islands. AZORES FAI3 - Great crater of Faial - Azores Description This terrestrial KBA on Faial Island, with a total area of 1 km2, is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area, 2 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Ramsar site. In this KBA a total of 13 trigger species were recorded (Table 40), of which 1 mammal and 12 plants. Of these 13 species, 12 are listed in IUCN's Red List, 3 of which as vulnerable, 5 as endangered and 4 as critically endangered. FAI3 Table 40. Trigger species for FAI3, Great crater of Faial, Azores. Group Species Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Ammi trifoliatum Euphrasia grandiflora Rumex azoricus Pericallis malvifolia caldeirae Nyctalus azoreum Lactuca watsoniana Frangula azorica Sanicula azorica Euphorbia stygiana stygiana 159 Conserv ation CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc Endemic AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO Restri cted Yes Group Species Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Isoetes azorica Juniperus brevifolia Ilex azorica Elaphoglossum semicylindricum Conserv ation VU VU VU loc ENDEM Endemic Restri cted AZO AZO AZO MACAR Main trigger species Pericallis malvifolia caldeirae (© Eduardo Dias) Figure 37. Critically endangered species occuring only on KBA FAI3, Great crater of Faial, Azores. Pericallis malvifolia (Figure 37) is an endemic Azorian species widespread in shaded and humid areas of most islands. The subspecies P. malvifolia caldeirae, however, is only found inside the central caldera of Faial Island. Its restricted habitat and the low populations density (less than 250 individuals, (Bilz, 2011b) makes it vulnerable to competition with exotic plants. PIC4 - Pico mountain crater – Azores Description The Pico mountain crater, on Pico Island, has a total area of 4 km2, totally covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area and 1 Natura 2000 site. In this KBA a total of 5 trigger species were recorded, all of them plants. Of these 5 species (Table 41), 4 are listed in IUCN's Red List, 3 of which as endangered and 1 as critically endangered. PIC4 Table 41. Trigger species of KBA PIC4, Pico mountain crater, Azores Group Plantae Plantae Species Silene uniflora cratericola Frangula azorica Status CR loc EN loc 160 Endemi c AZO AZO Restricte d Yes Plantae Plantae Plantae Sanicula azorica Agrostis congestiflora oreophila Platanthera pollostantha EN loc EN loc ENDEM AZO AZO AZO Main trigger species Silene uniflora cratericola (© Hanno Schaeffer) Figure 38. Critically endangered subspecies, know only from KBA PIC4, Pico mountain crater, Azores Less than 100 specimens exist of Silene uniflora cratericola (Figure 38), a subspecies restricted to the crater of Mount Pico (Schäfer, 2005), the highest peak in the Azores. S. uniflora’s other subspecies are adapted to strongly exposed, harsh coastal habitats. The gap in distribution within a single island makes this an interesting example of speciation in progress. SJG3 - Pico da Esperança – Azores Description "Pico da Esperança" KBA, in São Jorge Island, has a total area of 32 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected SJG3 area, 1 Natura 2000 site and 1 Ramsar site. In this KBA a total of 24 trigger species were recorded (Table 42), of which 1 arthropod, 2 mammals and 21 plants. Of these 24 species, a total of 22 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 5 of which as vulnerable, 10 as endangered and 7 as critically endangered. Table 42. Trigger species of KBA SJG3, Pico da Esperança, Azores Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Ammi trifoliatum Bellis azorica Chaerophyllum azoricum Diphasiastrum madeirense Euphrasia grandiflora Status CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc 161 Endemic Restricted AZO AZO AZO MAC AZO Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Platanthera azorica Rumex azoricus Azorina vidalii Nyctalus azoreum Pipistrellus maderensis Platanthera micrantha Cardamine caldeirarum Euphorbia stygiana stygiana Frangula azorica Rumex obtusifolius obtusifolius Sanicula azorica Scabiosa nitens Platanthera pollostantha Trechus isabelae Isoetes azorica Juniperus brevifolia Holcus azoricus Ilex perado azorica Picconia azorica Status CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc ENDEM ENDEM VU VU VU loc VU loc VU loc Endemic Restricted AZO Yes AZO AZO AZO MAC AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO Yes AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO Main trigger species Platanthera azorica (© Richard Bateman) Figure 39. Critically endangered species know only from KBA SJG3, Pico da Esperança, Azores The genus Platanthera groups about 100 species of temperate orchids widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere (Bateman et al., 2009). P. azorica (Figure 39) was recently rediscribed by Bateman et al. (2013), and its range narrowed to a single location within KBA SJG3. With only 250 individuals known, this is the rarest of the three Azorean Platanthera, and likely the rarest orchid in Europe. Its is threatened by habitat destruction and invasive alien plants. SMA7 - Pico Alto – Azores Description 162 The "Pico Alto" KBA, in Santa Maria Island, has a total area of 1 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area. In this SMA7 KBA a total of 15 trigger species were recorded (Table 43), of which 1 bird, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal, 3 mollusks and 9 plants. Of these 15 species, a total of 14 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 3 of which as vulnerable, 7 as endangered and 4 as critically endangered. SMA8 Table 43. Trigger species of KBA SJG3, Pico da Esperança, Azores Group Mollusca Plantae Plantae Aves Arthropoda Mollusca Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Species Plutonia angulosa Ammi trifoliatum Cerastium azoricum Regulus regulus sanctae-mariae Crotchiella brachyptera Leptaxis minor Pipistrellus maderensis Sanicula azorica Scabiosa nitens Tolpis succulenta Viburnum treleasei Platanthera pollostantha Oxychilus agostinhoi Picconia azorica Ilex perado azorica Status CR CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc ENDEM VU VU loc VU loc Endemic AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO MACAR AZO AZO MACAR AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO Pico Alto Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Plutonia angulosa (© António Frias Martins) Leptaxis minor (© Pedro Cardoso) Figure 40. Critically endangered species know only from KBA SMA7, Pico Alto, Azores Plutonia angulosa (Figure 40), a vitrinid slug known only from this KBA, is one of the six Azorean species of this transition group between shelled snails and real slugs, 163 characterized by vestigial shells, into which the animal cannot retreat. This makes them competitively inferior to slugs and has resulted, in continental Europe, in the displacement of its activity period towards the cold season and its altitudinal distribution towards higher altitudes (Hausdorf, 2001). In Macaronesia vitrinid slugs evolved without competition with slugs, and this is reflected in the higher species diversity in this region (the highest in Europe, (Hausdorf, 2002)) and their adaptation to low altitude, warm habitats. The snail genus Leptaxis is a case study of a pattern of colonization commonly observed in volcanic archipelagoes where islands are colonized, as they are formed, from source populations on older islands (Van Riel et al., 2005). Leptaxis minor (Figure 40) is one of the most basal taxa in the phlylogeny of the genus in the Azores and is correspondingly restricted to this KBA, in the heart of the oldest island of the archipelago. Both species have limited ranges which, although included in a protected area, are threatened by habitat loss and climate change (Frias Martins, 2011a, 2011b). SMA8 - São Lourenço – Azores Description The "São Lourenço" KBA has a total area of 4 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA has little coverage by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area. In this KBA a total of 14 trigger species were recorded (Table 44), of which 2 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal and 10 plants. Of these 14 species, a total of 12 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 1 of which as vulnerable, 5 as endangered and 6 as critically endangered. SMA8 SMA7 Table 44. Trigger species of KBA SMA8, São Lourenço, Azores Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Arthropoda Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Species Euphorbia stygiana santamariae Aichryson santamariensis Ammi trifoliatum Lotus azoricus Pericallis malvifolia malvifolia Regulus regulus sanctae mariae Azorina vidalii Crotchiella brachyptera Pipistrellus maderensis Scabiosa nitens Tolpis succulenta Picconia azorica Platanthera pollostantha Puffinus lherminieri 164 Status CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN loc EN loc VU loc ENDEM ENDEM Endemic AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO MAC AZO MAC AZO AZO MAC Restricted Yes Main trigger species Euphorbia stygiana santamariae (© Hanno Schaefer) Figure 41. Critically endangered species know only from KBA SMA8, São Lourenço, Azores Euphorbia stygiana is endemic to the Azores, where two subspecies are known: one is common throughout the archipelago, the other, E. stygiana santamarie (Figure 41), is restricted to KBA SMA8. It is to this later subspecies that the critically endangered classification of Bilz (2011a) applies: only 50 individuals were counted in 2008, and the population trend was declining due to habitat changes and invasive species. SMG4 - Pico da Vara – Azores Description "Pico da Vara", in São Miguel Island, has a total area of 145 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is partially covered by protective legislation, SMG4 namely 3 protected areas, 2 Natura 2000 sites, 1 Alliance for Zero Extinction site, 1 Important Bird Area and 1 Ramsar site. In this KBA a total of 19 trigger species were recorded (Table 45), of which 2 birds, 2 arthropods, 1 mammal and 14 plants. Of these 19 species, a total of 16 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 3 of which as vulnerable, 10 as endangered and 3 as critically endangered. Table 45. Trigger species of KBA SMG4, Pico da Vara, Azores Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Mammalia Aves Plantae Species Diphasiastrum madeirense Prunus azorica Rumex azoricus Crotchiella brachyptera Nyctalus azoreum Pyrrhula murina Cardamine caldeirarum 165 Status CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN loc Endemic MAC AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO Restricted Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Arthropoda Plantae Species Frangula azorica Sanicula azorica Scabiosa nitens Smilax divaricata Viburnum treleasei Rumex obtusifolius obtusifolius Juniperus brevifolia Picconia azorica Ilex perado azorica Buteo buteo rothschildi Calathus lundbladi Elaphoglossum semicylindricum Status EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU loc VU loc ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO MAC Restricted Yes Main trigger species Pyrrhula murina (© Pedro Monteiro) Figure 42. Endangered species know only from KBA SMG4, Pico da Vara, Azores The priolo, or Azores bullfinch (Pyrrhula murina, Figure 42), is the most threatened and the second rarest bird in Europe. Presently confined to KBA SMG4, a protected area in São Miguel area, it was once widespread on the island, to the point of being considered a pest to orange orchards in the XIXth century. The large clearings of laurel forest to make way for exotic conifers in the 1960s, and more recently the habitat modification from introduced exotic plants led the Azores bullfinch to the brink of extinction (Ceia et al., 2011). Intensive conservation actions in the present century, mostly with LIFE support and including removal of exotic plants and laurel forest restauration have stabilized the population, which is nevertheless still considered Endangered. MADEIRA DES1 - Desertas Islands, Madeira Description The Desertas are a chain of three small islands with a total area of 14 km2 extending for about 22 km in a north-south direction, starting 25 km from the southeast tip of Madeira 166 DES1 Island. They are the 5.1-1.9 million years old remains of the deeply eroded interior of a volcanic rift zone (Klügel, 2009). Desertas are unhabited except for a warden’s house in Deserta Grande (altitude 442 m). This KBA has a total area of 765 km2, of which 751 km2 are marine and 14 km2 terrestrial. This KBA is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area, 2 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 32 trigger species were recorded (Table 46), of which 6 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal, 9 mollusks and 15 plants. Of these 32 species, a total of 23 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 12 of which as vulnerable, 4 as endangered and 7 as critically endangered. Table 46. Trigger species for DES1, Desertas Islands, Madeira Group Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mammalia Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Aves Plantae Aves Plantae Aves Aves Aves Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Aves Plantae Species Beta patula Discula lyelliana Discula tetrica Geomitra grabhami Hogna ingens Monizia edulis Aichryson villosum Geomitra moniziana Monachus monachus Sinapidendron sempervivifolium Actinella laciniosa Amphorella hypselia Amphorella melampoides Chamaemeles coriacea Convolvulus massonii Heberdenia excelsa Leiostyla macilenta Phalaris maderensis Pterodroma deserta Sideroxylon mirmulano Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Frullania sergiae Bulweria bulwerii Calonectris borealis Hydrobates castro Argyranthemum haematomma Asparagus umbellatus lowei Euphorbia piscatoria Patella candei Puffinus lherminieri Teline maderensis var. paivae 167 Emdemism MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD No MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAC MAC MAD No No No MAD MAD MAD MAC MAC MAD Conservati on CR CR CR CR CR CR CR loc EN EN EN VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Restri cted Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Desertas spider, Hogna ingens (© Serviço do Parque Natural da Madeira) Desertas Petrel, Pterodroma deserta (© Serviço do Parque Natural da Madeira) Figure 43. Endangered species occuring only on KBA DES1, Desertas Islands, Madeira. The Desertas Islands Protected Area was created in 1990 for the protection of the only remaing colony of monk seals in Macaronesia. Rescued from the brink of local extinction, the Madeira population of this critically endangered species has recovered thanks to timely and well directed conservation actions (Pires, Neves, & Karamanlidis, 2008). These islands are also home to 5 species of animals found nowhere else in the world, including (Figure 43) the Desertas wolf spider, Hogna ingens (the largest and rarest wolf spider species worldwide, (P. Cardoso, 2014) and the Bugio petrel, Pterodroma deserta (stabilized at 120-150 pairs breeding in the Bugio islet, (Ramírez et al., 2013). MAD1 - Madeira Nature Park - Madeira Description The "Madeira Nature Park" has a total area of 475 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area, 7 Natura 2000 sites, 1 Alliance for Zero Extinction site and 3 Important Bird Areas. In this MAD1 KBA a total of 95 trigger species were recorded MAD4 (Table 63), of which 5 birds, 4 arthropods, 2 mammals, 22 mollusks and 62 plants. Of these 95 MAD8 species, a total of 63 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 30 of which as vulnerable, 18 as endangered and 15 as critically endangered. 168 Table 47. Trigger species of KBA MAD1, Madeira Nature Park, Madeira Group Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Mollusca Plantae Mollusca Plantae Mollusca Arthropoda Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Mammalia Aves Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Mollusca Species Actinella arridens Aichryson dumosum Beta patula Geranium maderense Goodyera macrophylla Leiostyla abbreviata Lemniscia galeata Monizia edulis Pittosporum coriaceum Polystichum drepanum Sinapidendron rupestre Sorbus maderensis Teucrium abutiloides Echinodium spinosum Nyctalus leisleri verrucosus Actinella carinofausta Bryoxiphium madeirense Caseolus calvus Dracaena draco Geomitra tiarella Gonepteryx maderensis Juniperus cedrus Lampadia webbiana Leiostyla falknerorum Marcetella maderensis Musschia wollastonii Pararge xiphia Pipistrellus maderensis Pterodroma madeira Sinapidendron frutescens Thamnobryum fernandesii Vicia capreolata Andoa berthelotiana Actinella actinophora Actinella armitageana Actinella giramica Amphorella iridescens Caseolus leptostictus Chamaemeles coriacea Convolvulus massonii Craspedopoma lyonnetianum 169 Status CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU Endemic MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Restricte d Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Group Mollusca Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Aves Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Disculella spirulina Echinodium setigerum Leiostyla arborea Leiostyla colvillei Leiostyla filicum Leiostyla heterodon Leiostyla laurinea Leptaxis furva Meladema lanio Phalaris maderensis Picconia excelsa Plutonia albopalliata Prunus hixa Radula jonesii Riccia atlantica Sedum brissemoretii Sideroxylon mirmulano Argyranthemum pinnatifidum succulentum Aphanolejeunea azorica Brachymenium notarisii Tylimanthus madeirensis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Bulweria bulwerii Hydrobates castro Agrostis obtusissima Anthyllis lemanniana Arachniodes webbianum Armeria maderensis Asparagus umbellatus lowei Asplenium trichomanes maderense Berberis maderensis Bunium brevifolium Bystropogon maderensis Cerastium vagans var. vagans Ceterach lolegnamense Chrysolina fragariae Columba trocaz Crepis vesicaria andryaloides Deschampsia maderensis Geranium rubescens 170 Status VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU Endemic MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD No MAC MAD MAD MAC MAD VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM MAC MAC MAD MAC No No MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Restricte d Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Helichrysum devium Helichrysum monizii Hymenophyllum maderense Isoplexis sceptrum Luzula seubertii Melanoselinum decipiens Normania triphylla Orchis scopulorum Parafestuca albida Peucedanum lowei Plantago malato-belizii Rubus grandifolius Sambucus lanceolata Viola paradoxa 171 Status ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Restricte d Yes Yes Main trigger species Geranium madeirense (©r Ramin Nakisa) Goodyera macrophylla (© A. Cabral) Pittosporum coriaceum (© Charles Boulanger) Sinapidendron rupestre (© Ben Rushbrooke) Polystichum drepanum (CC-BY-SA-3.0 Citron) Sorbus maderensis (© VisitMadeira) Teucrium abutiloides (©Jean-Michel Moullec, Jardin exotique et botanique de Roscoff) Figure 44. Criticaly endangered plant species know only from KBA MAD1, Madeira Nature Park, Madeira. This KBA encompasses large remnants of the Laurisilva Forest that in the XVth century covered most of the island. Presently restricted to high altitude and difficult access areas, this vegetation is extremely rich in endemic species. The extensive list in Table 47 is both a testimony of this high biodiversity and a reminder of the pressures and threats that still affect this World Heritage site. 172 All plant species in Figure 44 are known from less than 50 mature individuals in the wild. Two tree species are in this category: Pittosporum coriaceum (Carvalho, 2011a) and Sorbus maderensis. The later occurred in only two sites when the main one was destroyed in the huge fire of the summer of 2010 (Carvalho, 2011c). A LIFE project has supported the reintroduction of the species, removing invasive species and also restoring the pre-existing community (C. Lobo, 2014). On the understory of the laurel forest many species evolved in isolated conditions and are now critically endangered by habitat destruction and invasive species. The pressures were particularly severe in low altitude habitats. Although widely planted in gardens, in Madeira and abroad, Geranium maderense is now very rare in its natural habitat, due to the profound habitat changes from urban and infrastructure development which have restricted its habitat in the low altitude Laurisilva (0 to 700 m) to small, scatered and inaccessible sites (Fernandes, 2011b). But even in more extensive areas of high altitude Laurisilva many species are having difficulties in maintaining natural populations. Examples are: a species of fern endemic to the Laurisilva forest of Madeira Island, Polystichum drepanum, restricted to five sites within this KBA (Carvalho, 2011b); Goodyera macrophylla, a Madeiran endemic orchid, restricted to a few ravines in the central and northern part of the island, between 300 and 1400 m altitude (Rankou, 2011); the population of Sinapidendron rupestre, a small plant in the mustard family endemic to the Laurisilva of Madeira Island, recorded in only about five sites (Kell, 2011); and Teucrium abutiloides, presently reduced to a few mature individuals dispersed through less than 20 sites within the Laurisilva forest. The legal protection has been insufficient for the recovery of these species, which are threathened by invasive species, which greatly magnify the natural factors already affecting the species (Gouveia & Carvalho, 2009). MAD4 - Coastal cliffs of Madeira island - Madeira Description The KBA "Coastal cliffs of Madeira Island" has a total area of 32 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA has little coverage by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area and 1 Natura 2000 site. In this KBA a total of 15 trigger species were recorded (Table 48), of which 3 birds, 2 mammals, 5 mollusks and 5 plants. Of these 15 species, a total of 13 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 4 of which as vulnerable, 2 as endangered and 7 as critically endangered. 173 MAD1 MAD4 MAD8 Table 48. Trigger species of KBA MAD4, Coastal cliffs of Madeira Island, Madeira Group Mollusca Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Mammalia Plantae Mammalia Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Aves Aves Aves Species Actinella obserata Aichryson dumosum Andryala crithmifolia Discula tabellata Jasminum azoricum Sinapidendron angustifolium Nyctalus leisleri verrucosus Cheirolophus massonianus Pipistrellus maderensis Actinella giramica Caseolus leptostictus Craspedopoma lyonnetianum Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Columba trocaz Status Endemic Restricted CR MAD CR MAD CR MAD Yes CR MAD Yes CR MAD Yes CR MAD CR loc MAD EN MAD EN MAC VU MAD VU MAD VU MAD VU loc MAC CONGR No ENDEM MAD Main trigger species Andryala crithmifolia (© Instituto das Florestas e Conservação da Natureza) Jasminum azoricum (CC Daniel Feliciano) Figure 45. Critically endangered species know only from KBA MAD4, Coastal cliffs of Madeira Island, Madeira. Like all Macaronesian islands, the human impact on Madeira habitats and species is heaviest in the coastal areas, where human settlements and tourist developments are concentrated. Of the three critically endangered endemic species known only from this KBA (Table 48), images could only be found for the plants (Figure 45). The third species, Discula tabellata, is a sea-cliff living land snail restriced to a place called Garajau, where it is threatned by coastal construction and the resulting human pressures, compounded by invasive plants and fire. Andryala is a Mediterranean genus of the sunflower familiy, of which a single colonizing event likely led to a speciation radiation in Madeira and the Canaries into 8 different taxa (M. Z. Ferreira, 174 2016). A. crithmifolia is restricted presently to only two inaccessible localities in coastal cliffs, one of which has no legal protection (Fernandes, 2011a). The lemonscented jasmine, Jasminum azoricum, is known in the wild from only two unstable locations, both included in MAD4 KBA, where it is threatned by invasive species and land use by humans (Fernandes, 2011c). However, its bright evergreen foliage, long flowering period and scented blooms led to its widespread cultivation by gardeners around the world. MAD8 - São João creek - Santa Luzia creek - João Gomes creek Madeira Description This KBA covers three creeks and its margins, for a total area of 15 km2. It has no coverage by protective legislation. In this KBA a total of 8 trigger species were recorded (Table 49), of which 1 bird, 1 mammal and 6 mollusks. Of these 8 species, a total of 7 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 2 of which as vulnerable, 1 as endangered and 4 as critically endangered. MAD1 MAD4 MAD8 Table 49. Trigger species of KBA MAD8, São João, Santa Luzia and João Gomes creeks, Madeira. Group Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mammalia Mollusca Aves Mollusca Mollusca Species Actinella arridens Leiostyla cassidula Leiostyla gibba Nyctalus leisleri verrucosus Leiostyla falknerorum Columba trocaz Craspedopoma lyonnetianum Leiostyla macilenta Status CR CR CR CR loc EN ENDEM VU VU Endemic MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Restricted Yes Yes Main trigger species As far as non-marine molluscs are concerned, the Bern Convention and the European Habitats Directive have been considered to be heavily biased towards Madeiran endemic snails (Bouchet, Falkner, & Seddon, 1999). This is a consequence of the drafting process of those documents, but it is also a reflection of the high diversity of land snails in the Madeira archipelago. Leiostyla cassidula and Leiostyla gibba, two endemic and critically endangered species, illustrate the threats and the unknowns still pending over this component of the Macaronesian fauna: L. cassidula is only known from a site of about 4km2 included in MAD8 KBA with declining habitat quality due to a nearby road (Seddon, 2011c); L. gibba, on the other hand, has not been recorded alive for over 150 years, but still experts hesitate to consider it extinct (Seddon, 2011d). 175 PSA2 - Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo – Madeira Description The Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo Island has a total area of 27 km2, of which 25 km2 are marine and 2 km2 terrestrial. This KBA is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area, 1 Natura 2000 site and 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 28 trigger species were recorded (Table 50), of which 4 birds, 1 mammal, 14 mollusks, 4 fish and 5 plants. Of these 28 species, a total of 24 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 11 of which as vulnerable, 9 as endangered and 4 as critically endangered. PSA2 PSA4 PSA2 Table 50. Trigger species of KBA PSA2, Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo, Madeira Group Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Fish Mollusca Mollusca Mammalia Fish Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Fish Mollusca Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Fish Aves Aves Aves Mollusca Aves Species Cecilioides eulima Discula bulverii Idiomela subplicata Monizia edulis Cheirolophus massonianus Discula pulvinata Discula tectiformis Dracaena draco Epinephelus marginatus Lampadia webbiana Leptaxis wollastoni Monachus monachus Mycteroperca fusca Actinella littorinella Amphorella cimensis Amphorella melampoides Bodianus scrofa Caseolus calculus Chamaemeles coriacea Hystricella turricula Leptaxis simia portosancti Sideroxylon mirmulano Sphyrna zygaena Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Hydrobates castro Geomitra turricula Puffinus lherminieri 176 Status CR CR CR CR EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM Endemic MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC No MAD MAD No MAC MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC No MAC No No MAD MAC Restricted Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Idiomela subplicata (© Porto Santo Verde) Figure 46. Critically endangered species know only from KBA PSA2, Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo, Madeira Porto Santo is home to several endemic terrestrial gastropods, many of them endangered (Table 50). Cecilioides eulima is a minuscule snail with a fragile shell. Its original habitat is grossly disturbed, and the species is not seen alive for over 70 years (Seddon, 2000). Idiomela subplicata (Figure 46), on the other hand, is quite large, but found only on two small islets in Porto Santo, where it is nevertheless threatned by predation from rodents and by competition with exotic species of snails (Seddon, 2011b). PSA4 - Northeast area of Porto Santo – Madeira Description This terrestrial KBA has a total area of 11 km2, with no coverage by protective legislation. A total of 17 trigger species were recorded here (Table 51), of which 2 birds, 1 mammal, 8 mollusks and 6 plants. Sixteen of these 17 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 6 of which as vulnerable, 6 as endangered and 4 as critically endangered. PSA2 PSA4 PSA2 Table 51. Trigger species of KBA PSA4, Northeast area of Porto Santo, Madeira Group Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Species Discula bulverii Discula testudinalis Monizia edulis Vicia ferreirensis Cheirolophus massonianus Discula pulvinata Discula tectiformis Lampadia webbiana Status CR CR CR CR EN EN EN EN 177 Endemic MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Restricted Yes Group Mollusca Mammalia Mollusca Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Species Leptaxis wollastoni Pipistrellus maderensis Amphorella melampoides Chamaemeles coriacea Cylichnidia ovuliformis Saxifraga portosanctana Sideroxylon mirmulano Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Status EN EN VU VU VU VU VU VU loc CONGR Endemic MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAC No Restricted Main trigger species Discula testudinalis is a small gastropod known only from a small headland on dry stony ground. It is extremely rare, and threatned by fire and predation (Seddon, 2011a). SEL1 - Selvagens Islands – Madeira Description The "Selvagens Islands" KBA has a total area of 1.246 km2, of which 1.243 km2 are marine and 3 km2 terrestrial. It is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area, 2 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 29 trigger species were recorded (Table 52), of which 6 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mollusk, 3 fish, 17 plants and 1 reptile. Of these 29 species, a total of 8 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 3 of which as vulnerable, 4 as endangered and 1 as critically endangered. SEL1 Table 52. Trigger species of KBA SEL1, Selvagens Islands, Madeira Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Fish Fish Fish Reptilia Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Arthropoda Species Beta patula Argyranthemum thalassophilum Asparagus nesiotes Epinephelus marginatus Mycteroperca fusca Bodianus scrofa Tarentola bischoffi Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Bulweria bulwerii Calonectris borealis Hydrobates castro Pelagodroma marina Deucalion oceanicum 178 Status CR EN EN EN EN VU VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR CONGR CONGR ENDEM Endemic MAD MAD MAC No MAC MAC MAD MAC No No No No MAD Restricte d Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Aves Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Euphorbia anachoreta Limonium papillatum var.callibotryum Lobularia canariensis rosula-venti Lobularia canariensis succulenta Misopates salvagense Monanthes lowei Patella candei Plantago afra var. obtusata Puffinus lherminieri Rumex simpliciflorus maderensis Scilla madeirensis var. melliodora Scrophularia lowei Scrophularia racemosa Sedum fusiforme Siderites candicans var. crassifolia Solanum patens Status ENDEM ENDEM Endemic MAD MAD ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM MAD MAD MAD MAD MAC MAD MAC MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Restricte d Yes Main trigger species Argyranthemum thalassophilum (© Parque Natural da Madeira) Tarentola bischoffi (© Vanessa Gil) Figure 47. Critically endangered species know only from KBA SEL1, Selvagens Islands, Madeira Argyranthemum is the largest endemic plant genus of any volcanic archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, including 24 species and 15 subspecies, having radiated into all major habitats in Madeira, Selvagens and the Canaries. The ancestor of these dill daisies originated from the Mediterranean basin in the late Tertiary, 1.5 to 3.0 million years ago (Francisco-Ortega, Jansen, & Santos-Guerra, 1996). Argyranthemum thalassophilum is endemic to the Selvagens Islands, where less than 250 individuals have been counted but the population is considered to be stable (Caldas, 2011). The Macaronesian geckos also have an interesting evolutionary history (Carranza, Arnold, Mateo, & López-Jurado, 2000). They originate in North Africa and share ancestors with geckos from Cape Verde and Cuba. The affinities of the Selvagens gecko, Tarentola bischoffi (Figure 47), are still debated but its small area of 179 distribution led to a classification of Vulnerable in a Portuguese publication (Cabral et al., 2005). The population, estimated in 10,000 individuals divided in three main islets, is believed to be rising since the eradication of the exotic terrestrial mammals (Rebelo, 2010). CANARY ISLANDS FUE1 - Jandía Peninsula - Canary Is. Description This KBA in Fuerteventura Island is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 4 Natura 2000 sites, 2 Important Bird Areas and 1 Ramsar site. However, there are no real conservation measures in place (Scholz, 2013a). As most low altitude habitats, it is subject to intense human pressure, in this case mainly related to grazing by goats and trampling by animals and humans. Further threats from hotel developments and road linkages are feared (Groh & Alonso, 2013a). FUE8 FUE6 FUE1 A total of 34 trigger species were recorded (Table 53), of which 7 birds, 2 arthropods, 6 mollusks and 19 plants. Of these 34 species, a total of 30 are listed in IUCN's Red List, 9 of which as vulnerable, 11 as endangered and 10 as critically endangered. Table 53. Trigger species for FUE1, Jandía Peninsula, Canary Is. Group Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Arthropoda Aves Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Canariella jandiaensis Argyranthemum winteri Echium handiense Onopordum nogalesii Carduus bourgeaui Ononis christii Aichryson pachycaulon pachycaulon Trechus detersus Limonium bourgeaui Volutaria bollei Canariella eutropis Obelus discogranulatus Purpuraria erna Neophron percnopterus Asparagus nesiotes Bupleurum handiense Cryptella susannae Orthotrichum handiense Sideritis pumila Pulicaria canariensis canariensis 180 Conserv ation CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc Ende mic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Restri cted Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Echium decaisnei purpuriense Napaeus lichenicola Obelus moratus Euphorbia handiensis Heberdenia excelsa Chlamydotis undulata Asparagus arborescens Picconia excelsa Sideroxylon canariensis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Corvus corax canariensis Saxicola dacotiae dacotiae Conserv ation EN VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM Ende mic CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC No CAN MAC CAN MAC No No CAN CAN Restri cted Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Echium handiense (©’ Chuck B.) Argyranthemum winteri (© Krzysztof Ziarnek) Onopordum nogalesii (© Anita Stridvall) Figure 48. Selected critically endangered species occuring only on KBA FUE1, Jandía Peninsula, Canary Is. 181 This site is home to 8 species of plants and 6 species of molluscs that are found nowhere else. Two of the critically endangered species of plants (Onopordum nogalesii and Echium handiense, Figure 48) occur only on small, single locations and have numbers of mature individuals between 70 and 145 (Scholz, 2013a, 2013b). FUE6 - North area of Fuerteventura - Canary Is. Description With a total area of 222 km2, all of it terrestrial, this KBA is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 5 protected areas, 7 Natura 2000 sites and 5 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 14 trigger species were recorded (Table 54), of which 8 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal, 3 plants and 1 reptile. Of these 14 species, a total of 9 are listed in IUCN’s Red List, 4 of which as vulnerable and 5 as endangered. FUE8 FUE6 FUE1 Table 54. Trigger species for FUE6, North area of Fuerteventura, Canary Is. Group Mammalia Aves Reptilia Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Crocidura canariensis Neophron percnopterus Chalcides simonyi Maiorerus randoi Pulicaria canariensis canariensis Aeonium balsamiferum Androcymbium psammophilum Chlamydotis undulata Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Tyto alba gracilirostris Corvus corax canariensis Saxicola dacotiae dacotiae 182 Status EN EN EN EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN No CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No MAC No No CAN CAN CAN Restri cted Yes Main trigger species Maioreus randoi (© Pedro Oromí) Figure 49. Critically endangered species occuring only on KBA FUE6, North area of Fuerteventura, Canary Is. Maioreus randoi (Figure 491) is a blind opilione arachnid described in 1993 and known only from a 648 m long volcanic tube included in this KBA and formed nearly 1 million years ago. The site is not protected and is subject to frequent tourist visits (Oromí, 2009). Although considered in danger of extinction in the Spanish Catalog of Threatened Species, this species is not included in the Red List. FUE8 - Island of Lobos - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 5 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area, 2 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 10 trigger species were recorded (Table 55), of which 6 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal, 1 plant and 1 reptile. Of these 10 species, a total of 6 are listed in IUCN’s Red List, 1 of which as vulnerable, 4 as endangered and 1 as critically endangered. FUE8 FUE6 FUE1 Table 55. Trigger species for FUE8, Island of Lobos, Canary Is. Group Plantae Species Status Endemic Restrict ed Limonium ovalifolium canariense CR loc CAN Yes Mammalia Crocidura canariensis EN CAN Arthropoda Purpuraria erna EN CAN Aves Neophron percnopterus EN No Reptilia Chalcides simonyi EN CAN Aves Anthus berthelotii berthelotii VU loc MAC Aves Calonectris borealis CONGR No 183 Aves Sterna hirundo CONGR No Aves Tyto alba gracilirostris ENDEM CAN Aves Corvus corax canariensis ENDEM CAN Main trigger species Limonium ovalifolium canariense (© G.B. Kortleve) Figure 50. Critically endangered species found only on KBA FUE8, Island of Lobos, Canary Is. This is the only site where the halophite Limonium ovalifolium canariense (Figure 50) can be found, although it once had a much larger distribution in the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (Suaréz García, Roca, & Vilches, 2004). GCA1 - La Solana - Canary Is. Description With a total area of 110 km2, all of it terrestrial, this KBA in Gran Canaria Island is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 4 protected areas, 8 Natura 2000 sites and 3 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 31 trigger species were recorded (Table 56), of which 4 birds, 3 arthropods and 24 plants. Of these 31 species, a total of 28 are listed in IUCN’s Red List, 8 of which as vulnerable, 13 as endangered and 7 as critically endangered. GCA1 Table 56. Trigger species for GCA1, La Solana, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Helianthemum bystropogophyllum Limonium sventenii Dracaena tamaranae Helianthemum inaguae Limonium vigaroense Scrophularia calliantha 184 Status CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Restri cted Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Sideritis sventenii Cheirolophus falcisectus Crambe scoparia Dracaena draco Graptodytes delectus Hydroporus pilosus Isoplexis isabelliana Micromeria leucantha Sphingonotus guanchus Teline rosmarinifolia Helianthemum tholiforme Micromeria pineolens Parolinia filifolia Echium onosmifolium spectabile Asparagus plocamoides Dendriopoterium pulidoi Globularia sarcophylla Camptoloma canariensis Cheirolophus arbutifolius Convolvulus scoparius Lotus spartioides Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Corvus corax canariensis Fringilla teydea polatzeki Status CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN VU VU VU VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc CONGR ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC No CAN CAN Restri cted Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Helianthemum bystropogophyllum (© R.S.Almeida) Figure 51. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GCA1, La Solana, Canary Is. 185 This site harbours six plant species found nowhere else in the world. Three of these are critically endangered, including Helianthemum bystropogophyllum (Figure 51), a Red List species with an area of occupation smaller that 60 m2 in the whole of its 3 subpopulations (Martín Osorio, Wildpret de la Torre, & Marrero Rodríguez, 2004). GCA2 - Los Marteles - Canary Is. Description With a total area of 124 km2, all of it terrestrial, this KBA is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 10 protected areas, 10 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 34 trigger species were recorded (Table 57), of which 2 birds, 6 arthropods and 26 plants. Of these 34 species, a total of 31 are listed in IUCN’s Red List, 7 of which as vulnerable, 14 as endangered and 10 as critically endangered. GCA2 Table 57. Trigger species for KBA GCA2, Los Marteles, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Bencomia brachystachya Onopordum carduelium Pericallis hadrosoma Solanum lidii Cionus canariensis Hypericum coadunatum Kunkeliella canariensis Parolinia platypetala Scrophularia calliantha Urtica morifolia Anagyris latifolia Calliphona alluaudi Crambe pritzelii Dracaena draco Graptodytes delectus Hydroporus pilosus Isoplexis isabelliana Sphingonotus guanchus Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum Teline rosmarinifolia Aichryson bituminosum Argyranthemum adauctum jacobaeifolium Helianthemum tholiforme Malva canariensis Echium callithyrsum 186 Status CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN EN loc EN loc VU CAN CAN CAN Restrict ed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Aves Aves Species Globularia sarcophylla Aichryson porphyrogennetos Camptoloma canariensis Cheirolophus arbutifolius Lotus spartioides Semele gayae Carabus coarctatus Corvus corax canariensis Fringilla teydea polatzeki Status VU VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Restrict ed Main trigger species Bencomia brachystachya (© Antonie van den Bos) Onopordum carduelium (© Orlando Torres Sanchez) Pericallis hadrosoma (© Orlando Torres Sanchez) Figure 52. Some of the critically endangered species restricted to KBA GCA2, Los Marteles, Canary Is. Of the six plant species found only on this location (Figure 52), 5 are classified as critically endangered, 3 of which are included in the Global Red List. GCA4 - Tamadaba - south - Canary Is. Description 187 This KBA has a total area of 18 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 3 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 14 trigger species were recorded (Table 58), of which 3 birds, 3 arthropods and 8 plants. Of these 14 species, a total of 10 are listed in IUCN’s Red List, 2 of which as vulnerable, 6 as endangered and 2 as critically endangered. GCA4 Table 58. Trigger species for GCA4, Tamadaba south, Canary Is. Group Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Arthropoda Aves Species Dicrodontus alluaudi Limonium benmageci Anagyris latifolia Argyranthemum lidii Lotus callis-viridis Sphingonotus guanchus Descurainia artemisioides Sideritis guayedrae Camptoloma canariensis Cheirolophus arbutifolius Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Carabus coarctatus Corvus corax canariensis Status CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No No CAN CAN Restrict ed Yes Trigger species Limonium benmageci (©’ Ben Magec - Ecologistas en Acción) Figure 53. Critically endangered species known only from KBA GCA4, Tamadaba south, Canary Is. Limonium benmageci (Figure 53) is another example of the exacerbation of threats caused by a reduction of suitable habitat. Although it is found within a protected area, it distribution is limited to an area of only about 500 x 50 m, where it is grazed by wild 188 goats, trampled by nesting seagulls and detached by periodic land slides (Á. Marrero & Almeida, 2008). GCA5 - Tamadaba north - Canary Is. Description This has a total area of 47 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 2 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 32 trigger species were recorded (Table 59), of which 5 birds, 3 arthropods, 2 mollusks and 22 plants. Of these 32 species, a total of 28 are listed in IUCN’s Red List, 5 of which as vulnerable, 17 as endangered and 6 as critically endangered. GCA5 Table 59. Trigger species for GCA5, Tamadaba north, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Mollusca Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Species Crambe tamadabensis Globularia ascanii Hemicycla saulcyi Limonium sventenii Tanacetum oshanahanii Scrophularia calliantha Argyranthemum lidii Calliphona alluaudi Crambe pritzelii Isoplexis isabelliana Leipaspis pinicola Lotus callis-viridis Napaeus myosotis Sphingonotus guanchus Sventenia bupleuroides Teline rosmarinifolia Aichryson pachycaulon praetermissum Descurainia artemisioides Helianthemum tholiforme Malva canariensis Micromeria pineolens Schizogyne glaberrima Sideritis guayedrae Echium callithyrsum Pteris incompleta Anthus berthelotii berthelotii 189 Status CR CR CR CR CR CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc Endem ic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU VU loc CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No MAC Restri cted Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Cheirolophus arbutifolius Lotus spartioides Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Corvus corax canariensis Fringilla teydea polatzeki Status VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM Endem ic CAN CAN No No CAN CAN Restri cted Main trigger species Globularia ascanii (© A. Marrero) Tanacetum oshanahanii (© Leif Stridvall) Figure 54. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GCA5, Tamadaba north, Canary Is. The two Red List plant species on Figure 54 have their whole world distribution contained within this KBA. Both have less than 50 individuals surviving in the wild, and severely fragmented populations (Febles Hernández, Naranjo Suárez, & Fernández-Palacios Acosta, 2013; Marrero Rodríguez & Almeida Pérez, 2013). Common threats are grazing by wild goats, trampling by humans and low capacity to resist competition from other species. Imbreeding may be a causative factor in the later threat. The full list of trigger species can be found on Table 59. GCA7 - Santo Andrés - Valle Seco - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 61 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 6 protected areas and 5 Natura 2000 sites. In this KBA a total of 33 trigger species were recorded (Table 60), of which 1 bird, 7 arthropods, 3 mollusks and 22 plants. Of these 33 species, a total of 31 are listed in IUCN’s Red List, 8 of which as vulnerable, 11 as endangered and 12 as critically endangered. 190 GCA7 Table 60. Trigger species of KBA GCA7, Santo Andrés - Valle Seco, Canary Is. Group Plantae Mollusca Plantae Mollusca Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Plantae Mollusca Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Aves Species Isoplexis chalcantha Napaeus osoriensis Patellifolia webbiana Plutonia machadoi Sideritis discolor Cionus canariensis Dicrodontus alluaudi Dorycnium broussonetii Hypericum coadunatum Scrophularia calliantha Urtica morifolia Solanum vespertilio doramae Calliphona alluaudi Crambe pritzelii Graptodytes delectus Hydroporus pilosus Isoplexis isabelliana Napaeus myosotis Sphingonotus guanchus Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum Sambucus nigra palmensis Aichryson pachycaulon praetermissum Argyranthemum adauctum jacobaeifolium Echium callithyrsum Picconia excelsa Pteris incompleta Aichryson porphyrogennetos Camptoloma canariensis Cheirolophus arbutifolius Gesnouinia arborea Semele gayae Carabus coarctatus Corvus corax canariensis 191 Status CR CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN EN loc CAN VU VU VU VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc ENDEM ENDEM CAN MAC No CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Restrict ed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Isoplexis chalcantha (© Leif Stridvall) Sideritis discolor (© Leif Stridvall) Napaeus osoriensis (© Robert Reuselaars) Plutonia machadoi (©’ Guido Poppe) Figure 55. Red List species restricted to KBA GCA7, Santo Andrés - Valle Seco, Canary Is. Two plant species are restricted to this KBA (Figure 55). Isoplexis chalcantha has a highly fragmented and restricted geographic range. Main threats include droughts and predation by rabits on seedlings and young individuals (Marrero Rodríguez & Naranjo Morales, 2013). The severely fragmented population of Sideritis discolor, with an area of occupancy of only 1.25 km2, suffers drastic annual and seasonal fluctuations which have caused the reduction of its effectives to dangerously low levels (Marrero Rodríguez, 2013). Two species of land snails are also restricted to single sites in degraded laurisilva forest within this KBA, where conservation practices are counteracted by agriculturerelated pressures (Groh, 2013; Groh & Alonso, 2013c). 192 GCA8 - Cruz de Pineda - Barranco del Pino - Canary Is. Description This KBA, with a total area of 11 km2, all of it terrestrial, is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected areas and 1 Natura 2000 site. In this KBA a total of 4 trigger species were recorded (Table 61), of which 1 arthropod and 3 plants. All 4 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 2 of which as endangered and 2 as critically endangered. GCA8 Table 61. Trigger species of GCA8, Cruz de Pineda - Barranco del Pino, Canary Is. Group Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Species Teline nervosa Dicrodontus alluaudi Crambe pritzelii Dracaena draco Status CR CR loc EN EN Endemic CAN CAN CAN MAC Restricted Yes Main trigger species Teline nervosa (© Peter Schönfelder) Figure 56. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GCA8, Cruz de Pineda Barranco del Pino, Canary Is. Teline nervosa (Figure 56) is a rupicolous species which grows in degraded and steep sites within thermophile forests. Known only from two sites within this KBA, its 300 mature individuals are threatened by seed predation from insects and by habitat degradation from human activities (Navarro Denis, Navarro Valdivielso, & Naranjo Suárez, 2013). 193 GCA9 - Pino Santo - Canary Is. Description KBA "Pino Santo" has a total area of 12 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas and 2 Natura 2000 sites. In this KBA a total of 10 trigger species were recorded (Table 62), of which 2 birds, 1 arthropod, 2 mollusks and 5 plants. Of these 10 species, a total of 8 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 1 of which as vulnerable, 4 as endangered and 3 as critically endangered. GCA9 Table 62. Trigger species of GCA9, Pino Santo, Canary Is. Group Mollusca Plantae Arthropoda Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Species Napaeus exilis Parolinia glabriuscula Dicrodontus alluaudi Napaeus myosotis Anagyris latifolia Crambe pritzelii Dracaena draco Camptoloma canariensis Calonectris borealis Puffinus lherminieri Status Endemic Restricted CR CAN Yes CR loc CAN Yes CR loc CAN EN CAN EN CAN EN CAN EN MAC VU loc CAN CONGR No ENDEM MAC Main trigger species Napaeus exilis (© Robert Reuselaars) Parolinia glabriuscula (© James Steakley) Figure 57. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GCA9, Pino Santo, Canary Is. Napaeus exilis (Figure 57) is an endemic land snail restricted to Jardin Canario, a garden conserving Canarian plants (Groh & Alonso, 2013b). The fragile looking Parolinia glabriuscula (Fig. x) is only found in the wild on a single rock ledge from where land slides are frequent. In both cases the sites have tourist interest and this 194 adds to the negative pressures on the surviving populations (O. Fernández-Palacios, Vilches, & Ortega, 2004). GCA13 - Jinámar - Canary Is. Description The "Jinámar" KBA has a total area of 2 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially protected by 1 protected areas and 1 Natura 2000 site. In this KBA a total of 4 trigger species were recorded (Table 63), of which 2 birds, 1 mollusk and 1 plant. Of these 4 species, a total of 3 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 1 of which as vulnerable, 1 as endangered and 1 as critically endangered. GCA13 Table 63. Trigger species for GCA13, Jinámar, Canary Is. TAXA Species Status Plantae Mollusca Aves Aves Lotus kunkelii Napaeus myosotis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis CR EN VU loc CONGR Endemic Restrict ed CAN Yes CAN MAC No Main trigger species Lotus kunkelii (© J. Naranjo) Figure 58. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GCA13, Jinámar, Canary Is. Only 41 mature individuals of Lotus kunkelii (Figure 58) remained on Jinámar beach in 2013 (Navarro Denis, Navarro Valdivielso, & Naranjo Suárez, 2004), threathened by construction and trampling by humans. Since then, conservation actions carried out by the Gran Canaria Council, including ex-situ conservation, in situ re-planting and removing invasive species (Cabildo de Gran Canaria, 2015), have allegedely improved the situation. 195 GCA18 - Las Palmas - Canary Is. Description This fully terrestrial KBA has a total area of 3 km2 most of it covered by protective legislation, namely 1 protected area. In this KBA a total of 6 trigger species were recorded (Table 64), of which 2 birds and 4 mollusks. Of these 6 species, a total of 4 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 1 of which as endangered and 3 as critically endangered. GCA18 Table 64. Trigger species for KBA GCA18, Las Palmas, Canary Is. Group Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Aves Aves Species Hemicycla saulcyi Monilearia tumulorum Napaeus isletae Theba grasseti Calonectris borealis Puffinus lherminieri Status CR CR CR EN CONGR ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN No MAC Restricted Yes Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Hemicycla saulcyi (© María Rosario Alonso y Miguel Ibáñez) Figure 59. One of the critically endangered land snails restricted to KBA GCA18, Las Palmas, Canary Is. Four species of snail (including Hemicycla saulcyi, Figure 59) are known only from this location, from a much larger distribution before the construction surge in the littoral of Gran Canaria Island. They are threatned by the actions connected with the military base in which they occur, but will most likely go extinct when the base is inactivated, if the land is turned over for urban expansion. 196 GOM1 - Garajonay- Chejelipes - Canary Is. Description "Garajonay-Chejelipes" covers a total area of 58 km2 on La Gomera Island, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 6 protected areas, 13 Natura 2000 sites and 3 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 50 trigger species were recorded (Table 65), of which 7 birds, 3 arthropods, 1 mammal, 1 mollusk and 38 plants. Of these 50 species, a total of 44 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 21 of which as vulnerable, 14 as endangered and 9 as critically endangered. GOM1 Table 65. Trigger species of GOM1, Garajonay- Chejelipes, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Echium acanthocarpum Ilex perado lopezlilloi Limonium dendroides Plutonia falcifera Sideritis marmorea Convolvulus subauriculatus Helichrysum alucense Sonchus wildpretii Urtica morifolia Aeonium gomerense Anagyris latifolia Asparagus fallax Calliphona alluaudi Calliphona gomerensis Ceropegia dichotoma krainzii Cistus chinamadensis Juniperus cedrus Pipistrellus maderensis Ruta microcarpa Sambucus nigra palmensis Androcymbium hierrense hierrense Convolvulus volubilis Limonium redivivum Aeonium saundersii Arbutus canariensis Asparagus arborescens Asparagus plocamoides Canariothamnus hermosae Crambe gomerae 197 Status CR CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU VU VU Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Restricted Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Euphorbia bourgeana Ferula latipinna Heberdenia excelsa Ilex perado platyphylla Picconia excelsa Pteris incompleta Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Cololejeunea schaeferi Euphorbia bravoana Fissidens coacervatus Gesnouinia arborea Pimelia fernandezlopezi Plagiochila maderensis Sideroxylon canariensis Tortella limbata Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Puffinus lherminieri Status VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN MAC CAN MAC No MAC MAC CAN MAC CAN CAN MAC CAN MAC No No CAN CAN CAN MAC Restricted Yes Main trigger species Echium acanthocarpum (© Manuel Gil) Sideritis marmorea (© biodiversia.es) Figure 60. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GOM1, GarajonayChejelipes, Canary Is. Echium acanthocarpum is a large shrub growing in platforms, enclaves or overhangs. It occurs in the central sector of the island but in the last 15 years several of its subpopulations have disappeared, of which only 3 remain (M.V. Marrero Gómez, Carqué Álamo, & Bañares Baudet, 2006). Sideritis marmorea grows in cracks and ledges of steep cliffs in one single location within this KBA (Reyes Betancort, González González, León Arencibia, & Pérez de Paz, 2013). Both species (Figure 198 60) are threathened by trampling and grazing pressures from domestic livestock and by invasive species. GOM7 - Los Chapines - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 9 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas, 6 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 20 trigger species were recorded (Table 66), of which 5 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal, 2 mollusks and 11 plants. Of these 20 species, a total of 16 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 6 of which as vulnerable, 6 as endangered and 4 as critically endangered. GOM7 Table 66. Trigger species of GOM7, Los Chapines, Canary Is. Group Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Hemicycla efferata Morella rivas-martinezii Sonchus wildpretii Urtica morifolia Asparagus fallax Calliphona gomerensis Juniperus cedrus Pipistrellus maderensis Ruta microcarpa Convolvulus volubilis Canariothamnus hermosae Euphorbia bourgeana Napaeus rupicola Pteris incompleta Sideroxylon canariensis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Columba bollii Columba junoniae Puffinus lherminieri 199 Status CR CR CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN loc VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc Other - CONGR Other - ENDEM Other - ENDEM Other - ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN MAC MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No CAN MAC No CAN CAN MAC Restriced Yes Main trigger species Hemicycla efferata (© Julio Talavan) Figure 61. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GOM7, Los Chapines, Canary Is. This KBA includes the single, unprotected, site where the land snail Hemicycla efferata (Figure 61) is know to occur. Subfossil remains indicate that this species, the largest of this Canarian genus, was once more widespread on la Gomera, from where it is endemic (Groh, 2011). GOM11 - Epina - Canary Is. Description KBA "Epina" has a total area of 13 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 4 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 25 trigger species were recorded (Table 67), of which 4 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal and 19 plants. Of these 25 species, a total of 22 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 10 of which as vulnerable, 6 as endangered and 6 as critically endangered. GOM11 Table 67. Trigger species of GOM11, Epina, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Apollonias barbujana ceballosi Crambe wildpretii Myrica rivas-martinezii Carex perraudieriana Sonchus wildpretii Urtica morifolia Asparagus fallax Calliphona alluaudi Cistus chinamadensis Pipistrellus maderensis Ruta microcarpa Sambucus nigra palmensis Euphorbia bourgeana 200 Status CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN VU Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN Restricted Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Picconia excelsa Pteris incompleta Ilex perado platyphylla Cololejeunea schaeferi Fissidens coacervatus Gesnouinia arborea Plagiochila maderensis Sideroxylon canariensis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Status VU VU VU VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic MAC No CAN MAC MAC CAN MAC CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN Restricted Main trigger species Apollonias barbujana ceballosi (© A. Bañares) Figure 62. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GOM11, Epina, Canary Is. Apollonias barbujana is a tree of the laurel family. It is the only species of this Macaronesian genus, with a former wide distribution in Madeira and the Canary Islands. The subspecies ceballosi (Figure 62) is endemic of La Gomera Island. Its dark timber was highly appreciated, leading to its overexploitation. It is presently restricted to a small and inaccessible area within KBA GOM11, where it is nevertheless threatened by cattle and the possibility of fire (Mesa Coello, Marrero Gómez, Romero Manrique, & Oval, 2004). 201 GOM13 - Taguluche - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 19 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 5 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 17 trigger species were recorded (Table 68), of which 5 birds, 1 mammal, 1 mollusk and 10 plants. Of these 17 species, a total of 13 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 6 of which as vulnerable, 3 as endangered and 4 as critically endangered. GOM13 Table 68. Trigger species of GOM13, Taguluche, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Aves Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Crambe wildpretii Convolvulus subauriculatus Helianthemum aganae Limonium relicticum Ceropegia dichotoma krainzii Pipistrellus maderensis Ruta microcarpa Aeonium saundersii Cheirolophus satarataensis Euphorbia bourgeana Napaeus ornamentatus Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Sideroxylon canariensis Calonectris borealis Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Puffinus lherminieri 202 Status CR CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN No CAN CAN MAC Restricted Yes Yes Main trigger species Helianthemum aganae (© R. Mesa Coello) Limonium relicticum (© R. Mesa Coello) Figure 63. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GOM13, Taguluche, Canary Is. This KBA is home to two recently described and highly threatened plants (Figure 63). Neither the species nor the sites where they occur have any legal protection. Described in 2003, Helianthemum aganae has not been seen since 2007 (M.V. Marrero Gómez, Carqué Álamo, & Bañares Baudet, 2010). Another La Gomera endemic, Limonium relicticum, was described in 2001 and is also known only from a single location, where it is reduced to about 50 individuals in almost innacessible rock ledges (Mesa Coello, Marrero Gómez, Carqué Álamo, & Bañares Baudet, 2008). For both species, the main threat is the intense herbivory pressure from uncontrolled goat grazing and trampling. GOM15 - Garajonay - Central - Canary Is. Description With a total area of 14 km2, all of it terrestrial, this KBA is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 4 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 16 trigger species were recorded (Table 69), of which 3 birds, 3 arthropods, 1 mammal and 9 plants. Of these 16 species, a total of 14 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 7 of which as vulnerable, 4 as endangered and 3 as critically endangered. GOM15 Table 69. Trigger species of GOM15, Garajonay - Central, Canary Is. Group Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Plantae Mammalia Species scientific name Hydroporus compunctus Ilex perado lopezlilloi Urtica morifolia Calliphona alluaudi Calliphona gomerensis Cistus chinamadensis Pipistrellus maderensis Status CR CR CR loc EN EN EN EN 203 Endemic Restricted CAN Yes CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Species scientific name Status Endemic Restricted Euphorbia bourgeana VU CAN Ilex perado platyphylla VU CAN Picconia excelsa VU MAC Pteris incompleta VU No Anthus berthelotii berthelotii VU loc MAC Cololejeunea schaeferi VU loc MAC Fissidens coacervatus VU loc MAC Columba junoniae ENDEM CAN Corvus corax canariensis ENDEM CAN Main trigger species Hydroporus compunctus (© Ribera et al. 2003) Ilex perado lopezlilloi (© A. Hernández) Figure 64. Critically endangered species restricted to KBA GOM15, Garajonay - Central, Canary Is. Hydroporus compunctus (Figure 64) is an endemic aquatic beetle, one of three species native to Macaronesia (Ribera, Bilton, Balke, & Hendrich, 2003). Its conservation status needs to be updated (Foster, 1996).The world population of the Laurisilva tree Ilex perado lopezlilloi (Figure 64) was reduced to only two specimens but thanks to the intervention of the Garajonay National Park there are now nearly two dozens other plants within the protected area (M. V. Marrero Gómez, E. Carqué Álamo, & A. Bañares Baudet, 2004). 204 HIE1 - Frontera - central area - Canary Is. Description This KBA on the El Hierro Island has a total area of 0.4 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 5 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 27 trigger species were recorded (Table 70), of which 7 birds, 1 arthropod, 2 mammals, 1 mollusk, 15 plants and 1 reptile. Of these 27 species, a total of 21 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 6 of which as vulnerable, 7 as endangered and 8 as critically endangered. HIE1 Table 70. Trigger species of KBA HIE1, Frontera - central area, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Reptilia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Mammalia Mammalia Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Bencomia sphaerocarpa Cheirolophus duranii Crambe feuillei Gallotia simonyi Morella rivas-martinezii Sonchus gandogeri Urtica morifolia Argyranthemum adauctum erythrocapon Adenocarpus ombriosus Cerastium sventenii Cistus chinamadensis Leipaspis pinicola Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Limonium brassicifolium brassicifolium Canariella bimbachensis Picconia excelsa Gesnouinia arborea Pelekium atlanticum Sideroxylon canariensis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Puffinus lherminieri 205 Status CR CR CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc Endem ic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc VU VU VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN MAC CAN MAC No No CAN CAN CAN MAC Restrict ed Yes Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Bencomia sphaerocarpa (© Krzysztof Ziarnek) Figure 65. Critically endangered species know only from KBA HIE1, Frontera - central area, Canary Is. Two critically endangered plant species occur only in particular sites on El Hierro Island, all within KBA HIE1. Once known also in La Palma Island, the perennial 2-4 m high bush Bencomia sphaerocarpa (Figure 65) is restricted today to 3 sites with a population of a little over 20 individuals. A typical Laurisilva plant, it is threatened by habitat degradation and goat predation (Martín Osorio, Wildpret de la Torre, & Hernández Bolaños, 2011). The more modest Crambe feuillei also occurs in shaded and humid habitats in two sites of the north coast of El Hierro Island, but it is threatened by road construction and maintenance and by land slides (Santos Guerra, 2011). HIE2 - Echedo - Canary Is. Description "Echedo" has a total area of 5 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA has no coverage by protective legislation. In this KBA a total of 4 trigger species were recorded (Table 71), of which 2 birds and 2 plants. Of these 4 species, a total of 3 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 1 of which as vulnerable and 2 as endangered. HIE2 Table 71. Trigger species of KBA HIE2, Echedo, Canary Is. Group Species Status Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Adenocarpus ombriosus Teucrium heterophyllum hierrense Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis 206 EN EN loc VU loc CONGR Endemi c CAN CAN MAC No Restricte d Yes Main trigger species Teucrium heterophyllum hierrense (© Markus von Gaisberg) Figure 66. Endangered species know only from KBA HIE2, Echedo, Canary Is. Teucrium heterophyllum ssp. Hierrense (Figure 66) is a low altitude plant known only from a few sites in El Hierro, all whithin KBA HIE2. It has a small recruitment rate which, coupled with herbivory and competition with exotic plants is probably linked to its reduced distribution (M.V. Marrero Gómez, Mesa Coello, Bañares Baudet, & Carqué Álamo, 2010). HIE6 - Valverde - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 5 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 3 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 10 trigger species were recorded (Table 72), of which 3 birds, 2 arthropods, 2 mammals and 3 plants. Of these 10 species, a total of 7 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 2 of which as vulnerable, 4 as endangered and 1 as critically endangered. HIE6 Table 72. Trigger species of KBA HIE6 - Valverde, Canary Is. Group Plantae Mammalia Mammalia Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Aves Aves Aves Species Cheirolophus duranii Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Silene sabinosae Limonium brassicifolium Delagrangeus schurmanni Hipparchia bacchus Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis 207 Status CR EN EN EN loc EN loc VU VU ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN MACAR CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Restricted Yes Yes Main trigger species Silene sabinosae (© Manuel Gil) Hipparchia bacchus (© Martin Wiemers) Figure 67. Endangered and vulnerable species know only from KBA HIE6 - Valverde, Canary Is. One plant and one arthropod are found only on KBA HIE6 (Figure 67). Silene sabinosae is found on a single location where its numbers have decreased from 117 plants in 2002 to only 37 in 2006. The main threats are foraging and trampling by goats (Decreto 82/2007, 2007). The endemic butterfly Hipparchia bacchus occurs in grassy clifs and the vineyards at the basis of them. It is threathened by habitat changes and intensification of vineyard management. LAN3 - Plains of Corona - La Hondura - Tegala Grande and Famara crag - Canary Is. Description This prioritary KBA on La Palma Island has a total area of 106 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas, 4 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 29 trigger species were recorded (Table 73), of which 7 birds, 2 arthropods, 1 mammal, 18 plants and 1 reptile. Of these 29 species, a total of 24 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 5 of which as vulnerable, 14 as endangered and 5 as critically endangered. LAN3 Table 73. Trigger species of KBA LAN3, Plains of Corona, La Hondura, Tegala Grande and Famara crag, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Plantago famarae Helianthemum bramwelliorum Helianthemum gonzalezferreri Limonium bourgeaui Volutaria bollei 208 Status CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Restricte d Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Reptilia Plantae Mammalia Plantae Aves Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Aves Aves Aves Arthropoda Aves Aves Species Asparagus nesiotes Atractylis arbuscula Bupleurum handiense Chalcides simonyi Convolvulus lopezsocasii Crocidura canariensis Helichrysum monogynum Neophron percnopterus Purpuraria magna Echium decaisnei purpuriense Limonium puberulum Malva canariensis Pulicaria canariensis lanata Sideritis pumila Aeonium balsamiferum Androcymbium psammophilum Chlamydotis undulata Helichrysum gossypinum Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Corvus corax canariensis Morlockia ondinae Puffinus lherminieri Tyto alba gracilirostris Status EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU VU loc CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No CAN MAC No CAN CAN MAC CAN Restricte d Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Plantago famarae Helianthemum bramwelliorum (© Manuel Gil) (© Gerardo García Casanova) Helianthemum gonzalezferreri (© Gerardo García Casanova) Figure 68. Critically endangered species know only from KBA LAN3, Plains of Corona, La Hondura, Tegala Grande and Famara crag, Canary Is. 209 The Famara site, located within KBA LAN3, is an excepcional stronghold of endemic plants of the Canary Islands. Within its small area, included in Natural Park Archipiélago Chinijo (also part of Natura 2000 network), there are not less than 3 critically endangered plant species found nowhere else on the planet (Figure 68). They belong to the genus Plantago and Helianthemum, both important food sources for butterfly larvae (see, e.g., (Wahlberg, 2001) and (Robinson, Ackery, Kitching, Beccaloni, & Hernández, 2016). The area is however subject to heavy grazing and trampling by free-range goats, and this is the main threat to the survival of its endemic flora (A. Marrero & Migueles, 2004; Reyes Betancort, Martín Cáceres, Marrero Gómez, & Santos Guerra, 2011)(Marrero & Mígueles, 2004). PAL1 - La Palma Central-northeast - Canary Is. Description This KBA on La Palma Island has a total area of 270 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 7 protected areas, 18 Natura 2000 sites and 3 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 41 trigger species were recorded (Table 74), of which 6 birds, 4 arthropods, 2 mammals and 29 plants. Of these 41 species, a total of 35 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 13 of which as vulnerable, 15 as endangered and 7 as critically endangered. PAL1 Table 74. Trigger species of KBA PAL1, La Palma Central-northeast, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Cheirolophus santos-abreui Lotus pyranthus Meladema imbricata Morella rivas-martinezii Carex perraudieriana Echinodium spinosum Argyranthemum adauctum palmensis Arthropoda Calliphona palmensis Plantae Cerastium sventenii Plantae Cicer canariense Plantae Crambe microcarpa Plantae Echium pininana Plantae Himantoglossum metlesicsianum Plantae Juniperus cedrus Arthropoda Pieris cheiranthi Mammalia Pipistrellus maderensis Mammalia Plecotus teneriffae Plantae Sambucus nigra ssp. palmensis 210 Status CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN Endemic Restricted CAN Yes CAN Yes CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN MAC CAN CAN Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Plantae Species Andoa berthelotiana Asplenium anceps Cheirolophus arboreus Limonium imbricatum Bencomia exstipulata Echium gentianoides Ferula latipinna Genista benehoavensis Hipparchia tilosi Picconia excelsa Pteris incompleta Cololejeunea schaeferi Gesnouinia arborea Grimmia curviseta Pelekium atlanticum Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Echium wildpretii trichosiphon Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Viola palmensis Status Endemic Restricted EN loc MAC EN loc MAC EN loc CAN EN loc CAN VU CAN VU CAN Yes VU CAN VU CAN Yes VU CAN Yes VU MAC VU No VU loc MAC VU loc CAN VU loc CAN Yes VU loc MAC VU loc MAC VU loc CAN CONGR No CONGR No ENDEM CAN ENDEM CAN ENDEM CAN ENDEM CAN Yes Main trigger species Lotus pyranthus (© Manuel Gil) Cheirolophus santos-abreui (© Arnoldo Santos) Figure 69. Critically endangered species know only from KBA PAL1, La Palma Centralnortheast, Canary Is. The PAL1 KBA includes the known area of distribution of two plant species found only on La Palma Island (Figure 69). Cheirolophus santos-abreui occurs only in two 211 high altitude ravines overlooking the city of Santa Cruz de La Palma (Martín Cáceres, Mesa Coello, & Santos Guerra, 2004b). Lotus pyranthus has a single natural population of only two individuals, and efforts at reintroduction have mixed results, with no evidence of reproduction(González González, Pérez de Paz, León Arencibia, & Reyes Betancort, 2011a). For both species predation by feral goats has been a key factor in reducing the populations to such small units, exacerbating the effects of competition with exotic species and chance events like landslides. PAL12 - Teneguia Vucanos - Canary Is. Description With a total area of only 2 km2, all of it terrestrial, this KBA is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas and 1 Natura 2000 site. In this KBA a total of 2 trigger species were recorded (Table 75), of which 1 bird and 1 plant. Both species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 1 of which as vulnerable and 1 as endangered. PAL12 Table 75. Trigger species of KBA PAL12, Teneguia Vucanos, Canary Is. Group Plantae Aves Species Cheirolophus junonianus Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Status EN VU loc Endemic CAN MAC Restricted Yes Main trigger species Cheirolophus junonianus (© Anita Stridvall) Figure 70. Critically endangered species know only from KBA PAL12, Teneguia Vucanos, Canary Is. Cheirolophus junonianus (Figure 70) is a low altitude species, growing in dry rocky areas. Its seedlings have a low surviving rate, and the species is found only in two sites, both within this KBA. Its population is small but stable, although threathened by human activities, mainly trampling by tourists (Rodríguez Delgado, García Gallo, Cruz Trujillo, & Pérez de Paz, 2011). 212 PAL15 - Coast of Garafía - Canary Is. Description "Coast of Garafía" has a total area of 20 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 5 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 12 trigger species were recorded (Table 76), of which 5 birds, 1 arthropod and 6 plants. Of these 12 species, a total of 8 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 2 of which as vulnerable, 5 as endangered and 1 as critically endangered. PAL15 Table 76. Trigger species of KBA PAL15, Coast of Garafía, Canary Is. Group Species Status Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Lotus eremiticus Anagyris latifolia Calliphona palmensis Sambucus nigra palmensis Limonium imbricatum Androcymbium hierrense hierrense Ferula latipinna Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis CR EN EN EN EN loc EN loc Endemi c CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN VU VU loc CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM CAN MAC No CAN CAN CAN Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Restricte d Yes Main trigger species Lotus eremiticus (© Dario I. Ojeda Alayon) Figure 71. Critically endangered species know only from KBA PAL15, Coast of Garafía, Canary Is. 213 The Lotus genus groups a diverse assemblage of over 150 species. It has an intercontinental distribution, with diversity centers in the Mediterranean and western North America. There are several endemic species in Macaronesia, all of them tracing their ancestors to North African colonizations (Allan, Francisco-Ortega, Santos-Guerra, Boerner, & Zimmer, 2004). A group of four Macaronesian Lotus underwent adaptation to bird pollination, visible in their large, upward oriented flowers of a distinctive red-orange colour, contrasting with the smaller yellow flowers of the insect pollinated species (Ojeda et al., 2012). L. eremiticus (Figure 71) belongs to this bird pollinated clade, but its population is critically endangered, being restricted to less than ten individuals occurring in a single, small area of less than 1 km2 (Martín Cáceres, Mesa Coello, & Santos Guerra, 2011). TEN1 - El Teíde - Canary Is. Description The "El Teíde" KBA, on Tenerife Island has a total area of 252 km2, all of it terrestrial and including the highest peak in all Atlantic islands, at 3718 m above sea level. This KBA is totally covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas, 3 Natura 2000 sites and 3 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 21 trigger species were recorded (Table 77), of which 4 TEN1 birds, 4 arthropods, 2 mammals and 11 plants. Of these 21 species, a total of 17 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 6 of which as vulnerable, 9 as endangered and 2 as critically endangered. Table 77. Trigger species of KBA TEN1, El Teíde, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Plantae Aves Arthropoda Aves Aves Species Silene nocteolens Helianthemum juliae Cerastium sventenii Himantoglossum metlesicsianum Juniperus cedrus Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Stemmacantha cynaroides Cistus osbeckiifolius osbeckiifolius Dactylis metlesicsii Laphangium teydeum Bencomia exstipulata Colletes dimidiatus Gonepteryx cleobule Rhamnus integrifolia Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Canarobius oromii Columba bollii Columba junoniae 214 Status CR CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU VU loc ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN Restricted Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Aves Aves Corvus corax canariensis Fringilla teydea teydea ENDEM ENDEM CAN CAN Main trigger species Silene nocteolens (pedido Alberto Gil Chamorro) Helianthemum juliae (em poster. pedido a Manuel V. Marrero-Gómez) Figure 72. Critically endangered species know only from KBA TEN1, El Teíde, Canary Is. The El Teide volcano is home to a host of endemic species, many of them endangered. Five endangered species of plants occur only within the limits of Teide Natural Park. Figure 72 illustrates those with the most critical conservation status. Silene nocteolens populations are fragmented and the quality of its habitat degraded by predation by rabits and mouflon. The last counts registered less than 600 adults. Conservation measures are in place, but the population trend is still declining (Bañares Baudet, Carqué Álamo, & Marrero Gómez, 2011b). Helianthemum juliae is also criticaly endangered, with less than 200 adults restricted to a small area of 500 m2, almost half of which were replanted. In adition to threats posed by herbivores, this species has a narrow ecological plasticity, with low resilience to dry periods (M. V. Marrero Gómez, E. Carqué Álamo, & Á. Bañares Baudet, 2004), which is a cause of concern in terms of climate change (M. V. Marrero Gómez, Oostermeijer, Carqué Álamo, & Bañares Baudet, 2007). TEN2 - Anága - Canary Is. Description KBA "Anága" has a total area of 159 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 4 protected areas, 5 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 60 trigger species were recorded (Table 78), of which 7 birds, 5 arthropods, 1 mammal, 6 mollusks, 40 plants and 1 reptile. Of these 60 species, a total of 54 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 25 of which as vulnerable, 17 as endangered and 12 as critically 215 TEN2 endangered. Table 78. Trigger species of KBA TEN2, Anága, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Arthropoda Mollusca Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Species Lotus maculatus Micromeria glomerata Micromeria rivas-martinezii Monanthes wildpretii Patellifolia webbiana Plutonia reticulata Argyranthemum sundingii Carex perraudieriana Dorycnium broussonetii Radula wichurae Solanum vespertilio vespertilio Urtica morifolia Anagyris latifolia Asparagus fallax Cistus chinamadensis Dracaena draco Graptodytes delectus Hydroporus pilosus Napaeus doliolum Pipistrellus maderensis Pleiomeris canariensis Sambucus nigra palmensis Tolpis glabrescens Andoa berthelotiana Convolvulus volubilis Limonium imbricatum Malva canariensis Salvia broussonetii Telaranea azorica Asparagus arborescens Calliphona koenigi Canariella fortunata Canariella hispidula Canariella leprosa Cheirolophus tagananensis Crambe scaberrima Euphorbia bourgeana Gonepteryx cleobule Heberdenia excelsa Ilex perado platyphylla Leipaspis lauricola Napaeus esbeltus Picconia excelsa Prunus hixa Pteris incompleta Radula jonesii Anthus berthelotii berthelotii 216 Status CR CR CR CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC No No MAC MAC Anága Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Group Plantae Reptilia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Cololejeunea schaeferi Gallotia galloti insulanagae Gesnouinia arborea Lejeunea canariensis Limonium macrophyllum Sideroxylon canariensis Teline pallida pallida Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Puffinus lherminieri Status VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic MAC CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN No No CAN CAN CAN MAC Anága Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Micromeria glomerata (© Tsaag Valren) Micromeria rivas-martinezii (© R. Mesa) Monanthes wildpretii (© Beneharo Hernández) Argyranthemum sundingii (© R. Mesa) Figure 73. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN2, Anága, Canary Is. Anaga is one of three paleo-islands constituting the island of Tenerife, formed 4-12 million years old and connected 1 million years ago by the eruption that gave rise to the present day Teide volcano (Ancochea et al., 1990). This geological history can be retraced on the distribution of some of the endemisms of Tenerife: the four species in 217 Figure 73, for instance, are all restricted to the Anaga peninsula. Micromeria is a cosmopolit genus, found in all temperate regions of the world except Australia. Macaronesia is one of its centers of diversity (Morales Valverde, 1993), where it underwent an adaptive radiation from a single colonizing event led to 16 species and 13 subspecies, most of them restricted endemics. Predation by rabits and goats has led to the restriction of M. glomerata and M. rivas-martinezii to small areas in inaccessible places, increasing the risks due to chance events, like storms or volcanic ativity (González González, Reyes Betancort, Pérez de Paz, & León Arencibia, 2011; Martín Osorio & Wildpret de la Torre, 2004). Monanthes wildpretii is a small-sized rupicolous species growing in fissures, crevices and small paths in steep rocky basaltic slopes. Is occurs in a single location, where only about 500 individuals have been counted. Its perennial nature and ability to reproduce vegetatively gives some stability to the population, which is nevertheless threatened by proximity to a road and the consequent degradation of its habitat (Bañares Baudet, Carqué Álamo, & Marrero Gómez, 2011a). Argyranthemum sundingii is a biologically unique species: it occurs in mid-valley habitats, having evolved from a fertile hybrid between a montane and a coastal species. A further aspect of interest is that it occurs in only two valleys, and the chloroplast donor species was different in each of the valleys (Brochmann, Borgen, & Stabbetorp, 2000). It is unfortunately threatened by overgrazing and habitat changes leading to hybridization with other species (Martín Cáceres, Mesa Coello, & Santos Guerra, 2004a). TEN3 - Northern Buenavista - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 50 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas, 4 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 41 trigger species were recorded (Table 79), of which 7 birds, 1 arthropod, 1 mammal, 3 mollusks, 28 plants and 1 reptile. Of these 41 species, a total of 35 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 15 of which as vulnerable, 13 as endangered and 7 as critically endangered. TEN3 Table 79. Trigger species of KBA TEN3, Northern Buenavista, Canary Is. Group Reptilia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Species Gallotia intermedia Hypochaeris oligocephala Teline salsoloides Dorycnium broussonetii Solanum vespertilio vespertilio Teline pallida silensis Tolpis crassiuscula Anagyris latifolia Dorycnium spectabile Dracaena draco Limonium fruticans 218 Status CR CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN Restricted Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Group Arthropoda Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Pieris cheiranthi Pipistrellus maderensis Pleiomeris canariensis Sambucus nigra palmensis Convolvulus volubilis Limonium imbricatum Malva canariensis Micromeria densiflora Sideritis nervosa Arbutus canariensis Asparagus arborescens Asparagus plocamoides Canariella pthonera Crambe scaberrima Euphorbia bourgeana Napaeus elegans Napaeus roccellicola Picconia excelsa Pteris incompleta Rhamnus integrifolia Sideroxylon mirmulano Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Gesnouinia arborea Sideroxylon canariensis Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Puffinus lherminieri 219 Status EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC No CAN MAC MAC CAN CAN No No CAN CAN CAN MAC Restricted Yes Yes Main trigger species Hypochaeris oligocephala (© Manuel Gil) Tolpis crassiuscula (© Manuel Gil) Teline pallida silensis (© A. Hernández) Teline salsoloides (© G. Mannaerts) Figure 74. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN3, Northern Buenavista, Canary Is. The four critically endangered species illustrated in Figure 74 all have less than 200 remaining individuals restricted to very small marginal areas of its potential habitat by a combination of human-induced habitat degradation and predation by rats and rabits (Acevedo Rodríguez, Rodríguez Martín, & Siverio Hernández, 2011; Acevedo Rodríguez, Rodríguez Martín, Hernández Luís, & Rodríguez Martín, 2004; Martín Osorio & Wildpret de la Torre, 2011; Santos Guerra, Martín Cáceres, & Marrero Gómez, 2004). 220 TEN4 - Los Carrizales - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 45 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 2 protected areas, 6 Natura 2000 sites and 2 Important Bird Areas. In this KBA a total of 31 trigger species were recorded (Table 80), of which 7 birds, 2 arthropods, 2 mammals, 4 mollusks, 15 plants and 1 reptile. Of these 31 species, a total of 25 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 9 of which as vulnerable, 8 as endangered and 8 as critically endangered. TEN4 Table 80. Trigger species of KBA TEN4, Los Carrizales, Canary Is. Group Arthropoda Reptilia Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Mammalia Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Acrostira tenerifae Gallotia intermedia Hemicycla mascaensis Kunkeliella psilotoclada Limonium spectabile Limonium sventenii Sideritis cystosiphon Urtica morifolia Anagyris latifolia Crambe laevigata Dracaena draco Himantoglossum metlesicsianum Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Calathus amplius Salvia broussonetii Asparagus arborescens Asparagus plocamoides Canariella pontelirae Canariella pthonera Limonium perezii Napaeus elegans Rhamnus integrifolia Convolvulus scoparius Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Puffinus lherminieri 221 Status CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN MAC CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC No No CAN CAN CAN MAC Restricted Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Acrostira tenerifae (© Pedro Oromí) Kunkeliella psilotoclada (© A. Santos) Hemicycla mascaensis (© Miguel Ibañez) Limonium spectabile (© Pete Favelle) Sideritis cystosiphon (© A. Santos) Figure 75. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN4, Los Carrizales, Canary Is. The Teno massif, where this KBA is located, is one of the paleo-islands of which Tenerife is composed (Ancochea et al., 1990). Up to the present, several endemic species of Tenerife (including those in Figure 75) are only found on this 4-7 million years old region. Acrostira tenerifae is a pamphagid grasshopper endemic to this KBA, one of a group of four species and two subspecies, each a single island endemism. Like all the other species, A tenerifae feeds on a single species of endemic plant, Euphorbia lamarckii, and has a very low abundance: intensive survey work across its limited distribution range located only 60 individuals (López et al., 2005). Land use changes and goat grazing affecting the Euphorbia vegetation are the main threats to this species (Jakobs, 2012). Hemicycla mascaensis is a ground-dwelling snail found on a single site in typical lowland canary island vegetation. It is threatened by urbanization and habitat degradation from tourist activities, a problem composed by its lack of legal protection (Groh & Alonso, 2011). 222 Grazing by feral or free-range goats and by rabits is a common threat for plants all over the world, and is a particularly serious problem in many places in the Canary Islands (Gangoso, Donázar, Scholz, Palacios, & Hiraldo, 2006). Kunkeliella psilotoclada is a sad example of a species pushed to extinction by these factors. It was know from a single location within this KBA, but has not been seen since 1983 (Martín Cáceres, Santos Guerra, & Marrero Gómez, 2011). Limonium spectabile and Sideritis cystosiphon face the same prospect, their populations severely reduced in number and range, in the latter case compounded by the construction of a road and the associated habitat degradation (Acevedo Rodríguez, Rodríguez Martín, Rodríguez Martín, Siverio Hernández, & Siverio Hernández, 2011; González González, Pérez de Paz, León Arencibia, & Reyes Betancort, 2011b). TEN6 – Adeje, Canary Is. Description "Adeje" has a total area of 20 km2, all of it terrestrial. This KBA is mostly covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas, 3 Natura 2000 sites and 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 16 trigger species were recorded (Table 81), of which 3 birds, 1 mammal and 12 plants. Of these 16 species, a total of 14 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 7 of which as vulnerable, 4 as endangered and 3 as critically endangered. TEN6 Table 81. Trigger species of KBA TEN6, Adeje, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Aves Plantae Aves Aves Species Patellifolia webbiana Echium sventenii Lotus berthelotii Anagyris latifolia Dracaena draco Pipistrellus maderensis Convolvulus volubilis Asparagus arborescens Asparagus plocamoides Crambe scaberrima Rhamnus integrifolia Sideritis infernalis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Sideroxylon canariensis Calonectris borealis Corvus corax canariensis 223 Status CR CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN loc VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc CONGR ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC MAC CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN No CAN Restricted Yes Yes Main trigger species Echium sventenii (© A. Bañares) Figure 76. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN6, Adeje, Canary Is. Echium sventenii (Figure 76) is restricted to alluvial deposits on the head of two narrow creeks within KBA TEN6. Water diversion from these creeks, compounded by competition with other species, is the major threat (Jaén Molina, Mora Vicente, & Tapia, 2004). TEN16 - Guimar - La Esperanza - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 47 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas and 3 Natura 2000 sites. In this KBA a total of 27 trigger species were recorded (Table 82), of which 6 birds, 2 mammals, 3 mollusks and 16 plants. Of these 27 species, a total of 22 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 10 of which as vulnerable, 7 as endangered and 5 as critically endangered. TEN16 Table 82. Trigger species of KBA TEN16, Guimar, La Esperanza, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Mammalia Mammalia Plantae Species Cheirolophus metlesicsii Helianthemum teneriffae Dorycnium broussonetii Urtica morifolia Solanum vespertilio vespertilio Anagyris latifolia Dorycnium spectabile Dracaena draco Juniperus cedrus Napaeus nanodes Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Arbutus canariensis 224 Status CR CR CR loc CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN EN EN VU Endemic CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN CAN CAN MAC MAC CAN MAC CAN CAN Restricted Yes Yes Group Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Plantae Mollusca Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Asparagus arborescens Canariella hispidula Crambe arborea Crambe scaberrima Euphorbia bourgeana Hemicycla inutilis Picconia excelsa Sideroxylon canariensis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Columba bollii Columba junoniae Corvus corax canariensis Fringilla teydea teydea Status VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC CAN MAC No CAN CAN CAN CAN Restricted Yes Yes Main trigger species Helianthemum teneriffae (© Manuel Gil) Figure 77. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN16, Guimar, La Esperanza, Canary Is. Helianthemum teneriffae (Figure 77) is know from a single site within KBA TEN16, with a population of less than 200 individuals fragilized by drought periods and threatened by habitat disruption from hiking activities (Ojeda Land, Oval de la Rosa, Marrero Gómez, & Mesa Coello, 2011). TEN19 - La Viuda - Añaza - Canary Is. Description With a total area of 30 km2, all of it terrestrial, this KBA has no coverage by protective legislation. In it a total of 10 trigger species were recorded (Table 83), of which 4 birds, 1 mammal, 4 mollusks and 1 plant. Of these 10 species, a total of 7 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 3 of which as vulnerable, 2 as endangered and 2 as critically endangered. 225 TEN19 Table 83. Trigger species of KBA TEN19, La Viuda – Añaza, Canary Is. Group Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mammalia Plantae Mollusca Aves Aves Aves Aves Species Hemicycla plicaria Napaeus teobaldoi Hemicycla pouchadan Plecotus teneriffae Asparagus arborescens Canariella hispidula Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Calonectris borealis Sterna hirundo Corvus corax canariensis Status CR CR EN EN VU VU VU loc CONGR CONGR ENDEM Endemic CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAC No No CAN Restricted Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Hemicycla plicaria (© Miguel Ibañez) Figure 78. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN19, La Viuda, Añaza, Canary Is. Two critically endangered endemic snails (including Hemicycla plicaria, Figure 78) have their entire distribution range within KBA TEN19. The mains threats are the same, and common to many other coastal snails: habitat destruction from urbanization and infrastructures such as roads (Groh & Neubert, 2011; Ibáñez & Rosario Alonso, 2009). 226 TEN21 - Garachico - La Montañeta - Canary Is. Description This KBA has a total area of 45 km2, all of it terrestrial. It is partially covered by protective legislation, namely 3 protected areas and 9 Natura 2000 sites. In this KBA a total of 26 trigger species were recorded (Table 84), of which 8 birds, 2 arthropods, 2 mammals, 2 mollusks and 12 plants. Of these 26 species, a total of 20 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 8 of which as vulnerable, 9 as endangered and 3 as critically endangered. TEN21 Table 84. Trigger species of KBA TEN21, Garachico, La Montañeta, Canary Is. Group Plantae Plantae Plantae Mammalia Mammalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Plantae Plantae Arthropoda Mollusca Mollusca Plantae Aves Plantae Plantae Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Aves Scientific Name Kunkeliella subsucculenta Chenopodium coronopus Urtica morifolia Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Anagyris latifolia Dracaena draco Himantoglossum metlesicsianum Pleiomeris canariensis Loboptera subterranea Carduus volutarioides Limonium imbricatum Calliphona koenigi Canariella pthonera Napaeus roccellicola Arbutus canariensis Chlamydotis undulata Pteris incompleta Sideroxylon canariensis Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Puffinus lherminieri Calonectris borealis Columba bollii Columba junoniae Fringilla teydea ssp. teydea Corvus corax canariensis 227 Status CR CR loc CR loc EN EN EN EN EN Endemism CAN CAN MAC MAC CAN CAN MAC CAN EN EN loc EN loc EN loc VU VU VU VU VU VU VU loc VU loc ENDEM CONGR ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM ENDEM CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN No No CAN MAC MAC No CAN CAN CAN CAN Restricted Yes Yes Yes Main trigger species Kunkeliella subsucculenta (© Manuel Gil) Figure 79. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN21, Garachico, La Montañeta, Canary Is. Kunkeliella subsucculenta is a halophyte growing in coastal cliffs with high marine influence (Figure 79). Its distribution range has been reduced to two small sites, both within KBA TEN21, but even there it is impacted trampling by users of the area and predation by rabits. Small areas are disproportionately affected by random events: in this case an illegal dumping of construction materials severely affected the quality of the habitat of the largest subpopulation (Barrera Acosta, González González, & Beltrán ejera, 2011). TEN24 - San Cristoval de La Laguna - Canary Is. Description The KBA "San Cristoval de La Laguna" has a total area of 5 km2, all of it terrestrial. It has little coverage by protective legislation, namely 1 Important Bird Area. In this KBA a total of 3 trigger species were recorded (Table 85), of which 2 birds and 1 mollusk. Of these 3 species, 2 species are listed in IUCN's Red List, 1 as vulnerable and 1 as endangered. TEN24 Table 85. Trigger species of KBA TEN21, Garachico, La Montañeta, Canary Is. TAXA Species scientific name Status Mollusca Parmacella tenerifensis Aves Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Aves Corvus corax canariensis EN VU loc ENDEM 228 Endemic Restricted CAN MAC CAN Yes Main trigger species Parmacella tenerifensis (© Salvador de la Cruz) Figure 80. Endangered species know only from KBA TEN21, Garachico, La Montañeta, Canary Is. The giant slug of Tenerife (Figure 80) is only known from an area coinciding with the city and outskirsts of La Laguna, the capital of the island. It is presently restricted to two sites, where it has managed to survive in natural areas between cultivated fields, or in abandoned agricole areas. Maintain this species under these conditions is a challenge to the model of urban development requiring, for instance, the creation of natural corridors (De la Cruz López, López Hernández, & Morales Delgado, 2011). KBAs and the Natura 2000 network The Macaronesian Ecosystem Profile has highlited a mismatch between the proposed KBAs and the coverage by the protected areas network in place in the region, and particularly by its Natura 2000 component. To understand why areas important for the conservation of globally threatened species might not already be under legal protection, one must go back a few decades. The Natura 2000 network has an interesting and complex history, details of which can be found, e.g., in Keulartz & Leistra (2007) and Evans (2012). In brief it has its foundation on two European directives: the Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds (the Birds directive, adopted in 1979) and the Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (commonly known as the Habitats Directive, adopted on 1992). These directives establish the obligation of Member States to designate protected sites based on the presence of the species and/or habitats listed on the Directive’s annexes. These sites were to be described and the information forwarded to the European Commission to be integrated in the Natura 2000 network, either directly (the Special Protected Areas, SPA, established under the Birds Directive) or after discussion in biogeographical seminars (the Sites of Community Importance, SIC, which, when accepted, became Special Areas of Conservation, SAC). According to the latest data on the Natura 2000 Barometer, there are over 27,000 sites, covering more than 18% of the land area of the European Union, making this the “largest coordinated network of protected areas in the world”. In spite of it, however, European biodiversity continues to decline: the 2015 European environment - state and outlook report (EEA, 2015) concluded that 229 no significant progress has been made towards the target of halting the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of ecosystem services in the EU by 2020. Directive criteria used for site selection are varied and include a global assessment of the value of the site for conservation of the natural habitat type or the species concerned. The main feature of the whole process, though, is that sites are designated based on particular species or habitats it contains, but there are no requirements that this must be carried out based on a systematic assessment of the conservation needs of those species and habitats. Moreover, the criteria for including species or habitats on the annexes, although based on scientific evidence and expert opinion, are not given and are also likely to have differed between each successive change resulting from the EU enlargement. As recognized by many authors (e.g. Trochet & Schmeller, 2013), this has resulted in a process that depended too strongly on governmental politics and was limited by economic and cultural criteria. In other words, there is no question that all Natura 2000 sites have high conservation value, but the methodology to its designation does not assure that all high conservation values are included in the network. Studies based on comprehensive analysis have, therefore, highlighted gaps in coverage of the Natura 2000 network. Lisón et al. (2013), for instance, used ecological niche models to assess the effectiveness of the SAC system for protecting the roosts of six species of cave-dwelling bats in Murcia, Spain, concluding that the protection offered to suitable and optimal habitats was lower than 40% in all cases. Using distribution data from dead wood beetles listed in the European Red List, D’Amen et al. (2013) performed an irreplaceability analysis and noted that, in Italy, conservation targets are achieved for only 7% of the considered species. Furthermore, they found that 13 species are not represented in any protected area, including two that are globally threatened. In a final example from the botanical field, Rubio-Salcedo et al. (2013) have shown, using habitat suitability maps of Spanish lichen species, that the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 was quite low, particularly for species found in coastal, drier and warmer areas. In this context the KBA methodology, with its basis on documented threatened species and its comprehensive site selection criteria, is expected to highlight some of the gaps in the Natura 2000 process. In fact, a recent vision for the Natura 2000 network put forward by Hochkirch et al. (2013) addresses exactly this point, by calling for “a maximized number of Red List assessments of European species and a regular adaptation of the annexes in order to focus on those sites with the highest conservation value”. Thematic Priorities This chapter describes the most critical areas for action in the Macaronesian region, identified during stakeholder consultations. 1. Baseline data collection & species assessment Species records for all Macaronesian archipelagos are incomplete in terms of spatial distribution, abundance and assessment of conservation status. A significant number 230 of species (especially marine species, for which data is extremely limited) were not taken into account for the definition of Macaronesia KBAs due to these gaps, which highlights a pressing need for an improved knowledge base. Without it, meaningful conservation action cannot be undertaken. In the future, an improved baseline data may lead to redrawing KBAs or creating new ones. 2. Mapping of marine habitats and redesign of MPAs The need for a comprehensive mapping of marine habitats and species distribution has been highlighted during stakeholder consultation in the Canary Islands. In this regard, a study undertaken by Martín-García, González-Lorenzo, Brito-Izquierdo, and Barquín-Dieza (2013) in the MPA of La Palma is taken as a reference and could be applied to the other Canarian and Macaronesian islands. As an outcome there is already a database full of geo-referenced information about marine habitat distribution, communities, endangered species and human activities around La Palma. The authors have then analysed this information, using GIS tools and the algorithm Marxan, and presented seven alternative MPA zones in the sublittoral environment around La Palma (Martín-García, Sangil, Brito, & Barquín-Diez, 2015). This was the first time that an objective and systematic process, combining knowledge about human activities as well as conservation status, has been used to establish the suitable placement of MPAs in the Canary Islands. The zoning recommended by this study differs significantly from that currently in place, which highlights the need to redesign outdated conservation strategies by redefining the size, shape and location of MPAs. This can be of extreme importance taking into account that the Azores, Madeira and Canary Archipelagos contribute with the largest marine surface to the EU, which is vital for conservation and sustainable management policies. 3. Improving Biodiversity Databanks The existing Biodiversity databanks in the Azores and the Canary Islands provide access to the detailed distribution of all Azorean and Canarian plant and animal species mapped in a 500x500 m. These have proved being a unique means for fundamental research in systematics, biodiversity, conservation management and education. Despite the Interreg Bionatura project had foreseen the development of a databank also for Madeira, it has not been completed and brought online. The intention to join PORBIOTA (Portuguese E-Infrastructure for Information and Research on Biodiversity) could address this issue. The Azores Biodiversity Database, in turn, needs to be brought up to date for many taxonomic groups, particularly in the marine realm. A more institutional framing, similar to the one in the Canary Islands, could improve the situation. 4. Species conservation and recovery plans The importance of creating a legal coverage to the conservation of threatened species has been stressed for the Azores and Madeira. In these archipelagos most protected species have this status as a result of the implementation at national level of European Habitats and Birds Directives. However, these Directives do not cover many threatened and endemic species occurring on the Macaronesian islands that 231 have restricted distributions. Conservation/recovery plans similar to the ones existing in the Canary Islands, addressing local priority species, could be implemented. Baseline work for some species is already available. In the Canaries, where such plans have already been implemented as an outcome of the Spanish and Canarian catalogues of threatened species, supported by a legal framework, it’s necessary to extend them to all listed species. In addition, the implementation of complementing monitoring plans has been suggested. These plans should monitor the distribution, phenology and dynamics of the terrestrial threatened populations. Table 86 lists specific conservation actions raised by the stakeholders. Table 86. Stakeholder-recomended conservation actions Bats • • • • • • Identification, preservation and monitoring of shelters. Development of campaigns to raise awareness among the owners of bat shelters. Preliminary evaluation before starting reconstruction interventions to check if there are bats in there. Conservation of natural habitats (e.g. Laurisilva) and recovery of degraded habitats (e.g. habitat restoration on the island of Porto Santo, Madeira, with particular emphasis on reforestation measures, may prove to be essential for the conservation of Pipistrellus maderensis in this island). Maintenance of mercury lamps in street lighting. Reduction of the use of chemical methods in agricultural or farming practices. Cetaceans • Implementation of actions targeting whale-watching operators to disseminate good practices to reduce noise, or even lead to replacement of boats and/or engines for more silent solutions as well as less harmful propellers. • Application of measures to mitigate the risk of vessel-whale collisions, in particular in the Canary Islands, acknowledged as a hot spot for vessel-whale collisions (Carrillo & Ritter, 2010). The main mitigation measures appointed have already been described in published literature, e.g. Fais et al. (2016); Carrillo and Ritter (2010); Ritter (2001); Ritter (2010); WWF and SECAC (2015): reduction in vessel speed, placing dedicated observers onboard, the shift of shipping lanes, remote sensing of cetaceans via night vision, laser, sonar or infrared techniques and passive acoustic monitoring systems, among others. However, a conservation applied research could help defining the most cost-effective measures to be implemented in specific areas of higher whale density within the archipelago that overlap with high shipping activity. Fish • • Adaptation of fishing techniques and gear (e.g. changing fish hooks and launch speed). Awareness campaigns for fishermen addressing waste disposal at sea. Marine Turtles • Placing observers on board of longliner fishing boats to diffuse good practices and reduce the impact on marine turtles (while collecting important data for fisheries management). • Implementation of dynamic conservation measures to avoid by-catch of marine turtles. 232 Plants • Marking and delimitation of trails used for tourism and leisure activities to avoid involuntary trampling of specimens (usual in plants that grow close to trails and paths). • Reinforcement of the populations of various taxa, the definition of essential methods of propagation and conservation of ex situ populations. Land invertebrates • Habitat protection maintenance and habitat surveillance, which involves reinforcing the areas already protected and safeguarding that, not only large areas of forest, even secondary, are preserved but also coastal, dry and warm areas, are left untouched. • Reinforcement of the populations of various taxa, through an essential ex-situ breeding program to enhance critically endangered species conservation. • Implementation of monitoring schemes address to endangered taxa. • Conditioning anthropic activities around volcanic cavities where many arthropods occur. 5. Invasive Alien Species control and eradication Invasive Alien Species (IAS), introduced deliberately or accidentally, particularly threatens islands ecosystems, as the Macaronesian, which are very rich in endemic species, often with small, isolated populations, that due to the island environment free of predators and competitors have lost defensive behaviours. Control measures include the introduction of nets and other forms of control of herbivores (rabbits, goats, sheep, etc.) that affect plant populations, as well as eradication or reduction of populations of alien species, both introduced vertebrates (rats, mice, cats, etc.) that prey on endangered animal species, and invasive plants that colonize natural and semi-natural habitats. A more recent approach is that of using certain invasive species for economic benefits, which contributes to control the infestation, and helps to confine them to certain areas (Pittosporum undulatum, for example, that reproduces only by seed, can be cut and sold as biomass, which helps to control the spread). In addition to control measures, biosecurity frameworks, which are lacking in region, should be implemented to contribute to mitigating new invasions. The research undertaken for the “TOP 100 invasive terrestrial flora and fauna of Macaronesia” highlights that the control of the large majority of the IAS demand medium to long duration projects with a moderate to large investment (L. Silva et al., 2008). Furthermore, the study suggests the institution of a Macaronesian Observatory for Biological Invasions. This initiative would involve different entities working or related to this phenomenon, at local, archipelagic, and Macaronesian levels. The observatory would be responsible for integrating the information related to the occurrence of biological invasions in Macaronesia and would maintain a communications network between the archipelagos, quickly delivering the available information to the decision makers and to the general public. 233 6. Creation of Micro-Reserves in areas of severely fragmented habitats Since the preservation of certain types of habitats may be difficult in certain areas (e.g., urban areas, coastal areas due to tourism pressure), the creation of public or private Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs) can be implemented. The PMR approach has been under discussion in Madeira Island but not implemented to date. These reserves could facilitate the implementation of erradication activities, delimitation, recolonization, etc., and would contribute also to the conservation of other taxa, in particular molluscs and arthropods. Box 7. Micro-Reserves The first formulation of the term ‘micro-reserve’ as a legally protected site was first established in the Valencia region (Spain) back in 1990 with a focus on the conservation of wild flora, under the name of Plant Micro Reserve (PMR). The concept of PMRs was then successfully implemented in other EU countries within the LIFE / LIFE+ framework. The PMR approach has been proven a successful method for the conservation of endemic, rare and threatened plants, in several European countries (Kadis, Thanos, Lumbreras, & (eds), 2013). The European Commission has acknowledged and promoted the PMR approach as a valuable tool towards plant diversity conservation in Europe. 7. Mapping and assessment of ecosystems and their services Considering the importance of the services of island ecosystems it’s of common agreement that there is a need to identify and quantify the services of natural and modified ecosystems of the Macaronesia so as to understand their relative contribution in food production, clean water, carbon sequestration, ground maintenance, recreation and tourism. These assessments are scarse in the region but are essential not only to sustain conservation proposals but also to inform the development and implementation of related policies on water, climate, agriculture, forest and regional planning. 8. Information and environmental awareness campaigns Information and environmental awareness campaigns are also considered essential as the conservation of species necessarily involves knowledge and understanding by the public about the importance of their natural heritage. The local population of the islands should be more involved and made more aware of the problems of nature conservation and biodiversity, and of possible solutions. There is a need for significant investments in capacity development in governmental as well as nongovernmental organizations. These actions can facilitate the recovery of threatened species and thereby allow a more participatory management by the public, for example in creating micro-reserves. 234 11. CONCLUSIONS The biodiversity value of the Macaronesia region is well recognized, in particular its richness in endemic species. There are over 5,300 endemic species in a territory of 10,600 km2. A considerable number of the endemics are ancient relict endemics, with a great affinity with Tertiary flora and fauna. However, species populations in the region have become increasingly fragmented and isolated as a result of pressures caused by human activities, namely intensive urban and tourism development and agriculture and livestock breeding activities. In addition, many alien species have been introduced. The Ecosystem Profile allows a crucial assessment of priorities in biodiversity conservation in the region, highlighting its value in global terms. The development of this comprehensive Ecosystem Profile was made possible by extensive consultation with stakeholders. More than 83 stakeholders from government/public organizations, academia and civil society participated in the process. In total, 194 KBAs were identified, covering 656 globally threatened, restricted range and congregatory species. Ninety percent of these species are endemic to the region. Forty-six KBAs are the only known sites (globally) for one or more CR or EN species, which means that the loss of any of them would result in the global extinction of at least one species. Most of the financial resources used for nature conservation and biodiversity are provided by the regional authorities, and there is also a long and effective tradition in the use of co-financing from European programmes such as LIFE, INTERREG and MAC. However, current investments do not always target the highest conservation priorities or promote the most effective approaches, and the potential to engage civil society in biodiversity conservation has yet to be fully realized. Despite the EU financing support targeting Natura 2000 Network, a large number of globally threatened species do not occur in these sites. Further, many globally threatened species are not listed as ‘priority species’ under the Birds and Habitats Directives (and many priority species are not threatened at the global level), and therefore are not considered as priorities for conservation at the EU level. This highlights the need for financing beyond for the Natura 2000 to tackle further biodiversity loss in the Macaronesian region. In this context, there are various opportunities for funders to support biodiversity conservation in ways that deliver significant and meaningful benefits to the region. The results of this Ecosystem Profile are the basis for the elaboration of the accompanying regional BEST strategy, which provides a clear picture of what the conservation priorities are, identifying the niche where investment can provide the greatest incremental value for conservation, highlighting the funding opportunities and recommending an investment strategy. 235 12. REFERENCES Abecasis, R. C., Afonso, P., Colaço, A., Longnecker, N., Clifton, J., Schmidt, L., & Santos, R. S. (2015). Marine Conservation in the Azores: Evaluating Marine Protected Area Development in a Remote Island Context. Front. Mar. Sci., 2, 104. doi:10.3389/fmars.2015.00104 Abreu, C., & Teixeira, D. (2008). The Molluscs (Mollusca) of the Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos. In P. A. V. Borges, C. Abreu, A. M. F. Aguiar, P. Carvalho, R. Jardim, I. Melo, P. Oliveira, C. Sergio, A. R. M. Serrano, & P. Vieira (Eds.), A list of terrestrial fungi, flora and fauna of Madeira and Salvages archipelagos. Funchal and Angra do Heroismo: Direcção Regional do Ambiente da Madeira and Universidade dos Açores. Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Rodríguez Martín, A., Rodríguez Martín, B., Siverio Hernández, M., & Siverio Hernández, F. (2011). Limonium spectabile. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162166A5551477. Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Rodríguez Martín, A., & Siverio Hernández, M. (2011). Teline salsoloides. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162173A5553147. Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Rodríguez Martín, B., Hernández Luís, A., & Rodríguez Martín, A. (2004). Teline pallida subsp. silensis del Arco. Pp: 536-537. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Afonso P, M. N., Machete M (2014). Dynamics of whale shark occurrence at their fringe oceanic habitat. PLoS ONE, 9(7), e102060. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0102060 Aguilar, M.-J. d. A., González-González, R., Garzón-Machado, V., & PizarroHernández, B. (2010). Actual and potential natural vegetation on the Canary Islands and its conservation status. Biodiversity Conservation, 19, 3089–3140. doi:10.1007/s10531-010-9881-2 Aguilar, R., Torriente, A. d. l., Peñalver, J., López, J., Greenberg, R., & Calzadilla, C. (2009). Propuesta de areas marinas de importancia ecológica: Islas Canarias. Madrid: Oceana. Aguin-Pombo, D., & Carvalho, M. (2010). Madeira Archipelago. In R. Gillespie & D. Clagu (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Islands (pp. 582-585). California: University of California Press. Alcover, J. A., Pieper, H., Pereira, F., & Rando, J. C. (2015). Five new extinct species of rails (Aves: Gruiformes: Rallidae) from the Macaronesian Islands (North Atlantic Ocean). Zootaxa, 4057(2), 151-190. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4057.2.1 Allan, G. J., Francisco-Ortega, J., Santos-Guerra, A., Boerner, E., & Zimmer, E. A. (2004). Molecular phylogenetic evidence for the geographic origin and classification of Canary Island Lotus (Fabaceae: Loteae). Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 32(1), 123-138. 236 Alliance for Zero Extinction. (2010). List of Sites and Species. Retrieved from www.zeroextinction.org/sitesspecies.htm Almada, V., Almada, F., Henriques, M., Santos, R. S., & Brito, A. (2002). On the phylogenetic affinities of Centrolabrus trutta and Centrolabrus caeruleus (Perciformes: Labridae) to the genus Symphodus: molecular, meristic and behavioural evidences. Arquipelago, Life and Marine Sciences, 19A, 85-92. Alves, F., Chícharo, L. M., Serrao, E., & Abreu, A. D. . (2001). Algal cover and sea urchin spatial distribution at Madeira Island (NE Atlantic). Scientia Marina, 65(4), 383-392. Ancochea, E., Fuster, J., Ibarrola, E., Cendrero, A., Coello, J., Hernan, F., . . . Jamond, C. (1990). Volcanic evolution of the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands) in the light of new K-Ar data. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 44(3), 231-249. Araujo, M. B., Alagador, D., Cabeza, M., Nogues-Bravo, D., & Thuiller, W. (2011). Climate change threatens European conservation areas. Conservation Letters, 14, 484-492. Arechavaleta, M., Rodríguez, S., Zurita, N., & Gracía, A. c. (2010). Lista de especies silvestres de Canarias. Hongos, plantas y animales terrestres. 2009: Gobierno de Canarias. Autonomous Region of the Azores. (2013). Assumptions and context for the Action Plan 2014 – 2020. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/policy/themes/outermostregions/pdf/azores_en.pdf Ávila, S. P., Goud, J., & Frias Martins, A. M. (2012). Patterns of diversity of the Rissoidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean region. The Scientific World Journal, 2012. Azevedo, M. (1999). Centrolabrus caeruleus sp.nov., a long unrecognized species of marine fish (Teleostei, Labridae) from the Azores. Bocagiana, 196, 1-11. Bañares Baudet, A., Carqué Álamo, E., & Marrero Gómez, M. V. (2011a). Monanthes wildpretii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162232A5562124. Bañares Baudet, A., Carqué Álamo, E., & Marrero Gómez, M. V. (2011b). Silene nocteolens. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T165122A5976394. Barcelos, L., Rodrigues, P., Bried, J., Mendonça, E., Gabriel, R., & Borges, P. A. V. (2015). Birds from the Azores: An updated list with some comments on species distribution. Biodiversity Data Journal, 3: e6604. doi:10.3897/BDJ.3.e6604 Barrera Acosta, J., González González, R., & Beltrán ejera, E. (2011). Kunkeliella subsucculenta. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T161943A5517012. 237 Bateman, R. M., James, K. E., Luo, Y.-B., Lauri, R. K., Fulcher, T., Cribb, P. J., & Chase, M. W. (2009). Molecular phylogenetics and morphological reappraisal of the Platanthera clade (Orchidaceae: Orchidinae) prompts expansion of the generic limits of Galearis and Platanthera. Annals of Botany, mcp089. Bateman, R. M., Rudall, P. J., & Moura, M. (2013). Systematic revision of Platanthera in the Azorean archipelago: not one but three species, including arguably Europe’s rarest orchid. PeerJ, 1, e218. Benzaken, D., & Renard, Y. (2011). Future Directions for Biodiversity Action in Europe Overseas: Outcomes of the Review of the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity, December 2010. Retrieved from Gland, Switzerland: https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/2011-024.pdf Bilz, M. (2011a). Euphorbia stygiana. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162422A5589507. Bilz, M. (2011b). Pericallis malvifolia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T165276A5998791. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20111.RLTS.T165276A5998791.en BirdLife International. (2014). Species factsheet: Hydrobates monteiroi. Retrieved from http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=32544 BirdLife International. (2015). Endemic Bird Area factsheet: Madeira and the Canary Islands. Retrieved from http://www.birdlife.org Bolton, M., Smith, A. L., Gómez-Dí-az, E., Friesen, V. L., Medeiros, R., Bried, J., . . . Furness, R. W. (2008). Monteiro's Storm-petrel Oceanodroma monteiroi: a new species from the Azores. Ibis, 150(4), 717-727. Borges, P. A. V., Abreu, C., Aguiar, A. M. F., Carvalho, P., Jardim, R., Melo, I., . . . (eds). (2008). A list of terrestrial fungi, flora and fauna of Madeira and Salvages archipelagos. Funchal and Angra do Heroismo: Direcção Regional do Ambiente da Madeira and Universidade dos Açores. Borges, P. A. V., Amorim, I. R., Cunha, R., Gabriel, R., Martins, A. F., Silva, L., . . . Vieira, V. (2009). Azores. In R. Gillespie & D. Clague (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Islands (pp. 70-75). California: University of California Press. Borges, P. A. V., Azevedo, E. B., Borba, A., Dinis, F. O., Gabriel, R., & Silva, E. (2004). Ilhas oceânicas. In H. M. Pereira, T. Domingos, & L. Vicente (Eds.), Ecossistemas e Bem-Estar Humano: Resultados da Avaliação para Portugal do Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Centro de Biologia Ambiental, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa. Borges, P. A. V., Bried, J., Costa, A., Cunha, R., Gabriel, R., Gonçalves, V., . . . Boieiro, M. (2010). Description of the terrestrial and marine biodiversity of the Azores. In P. A. V. Borges, A. Costa, R. Cunha, R. Gabriel, V. Gonçalves, A. F. Martins, I. Melo, M. Parente, P. Raposeiro, P. Rodrigues, R. S. Santos, L. Silva, P. Vieira, & V. Vieira (Eds.), A list of the terrestrial and marine biota from the Azores (pp. pp. 9-33). Cascais: Princípia. 238 Borges, P. A. V., Cunha, R., Gabriel, R., Martins, A. F., L. Silva, L., Vieira, V., & (eds). (2005). A list of terrestrial fauna (Mollusca and Arthropoda) and flora (Briophyta, Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta) from the Azores. Retrieved from Horta, Angra do Heroismo and Ponta Delgada: Borges, P. A. V., Cunha, R., Gabriel, R., Martins, A. F., Silva, L., Vieira, V., . . . Pinto, N. (2005). Description of the terrestrial Azorean biodiversity. In P. A. V. Borges, R. Cunha, R. Gabriel, A. M. F. Martins, L. Silva, & V. Vieira (Eds.), A list of the terrestrial fauna (Mollusca and Arthropoda) and flora (Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta) from the Azores (pp. pp. 21-68). Horta, Angra do Heroísmo and Ponta Delgada: Direcção Regional de Ambiente and Universidade dos Açores. Borges, P. A. V., & Hortal, J. (2009). Time, area and isolation: Factors driving the diversification of Azorean arthropods. Journal of Biogeography, 36, 178-191. Borges, P. A. V., & Myles, T. G. (2007). Térmitas dos Açores. Lisboa: Princípia. Bouchet, P., Falkner, G., & Seddon, M. B. (1999). Lists of protected land and freshwater molluscs in the Bern Convention and European Habitats Directive: are they relevant to conservation? Biological Conservation, 90(1), 21-31. Brito, A., Falcón, J. M., & Herrera, R. (2007). Características zoogeográficas de la ictiofauna litoral de las Islas de Cabo Verde y comparación con los archipiélagos macaronésicos. Rev. Acad. Canar. Cienc, 18, 93-109. Brochmann, C., Borgen, L., & Stabbetorp, O. E. (2000). Multiple diploid hybrid speciation of the Canary Island endemicArgyranthemum sundingii (Asteraceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution, 220(1-2), 77-92. Cabildo de Gran Canaria. (2015). Memoria plan de recuperación de la especie vegetal Yerbamuda de Jinámar (Lotus kunkelii)- Año 2014. Retrieved from Cabral, M. J., (coord.), Almeida, J., Almeida, P. R., Dellinger, T., Almeida, N. F. d., . . . Santos-Reis, M. (2005). Livro Vermelho dos Vertebrados de Portugal. Lisboa: Instituto da Conservação da Natureza. Calado, H., Ng, K., Lopes, C., & Paramio, L. (2011). Introducing a legal management instrument for offshore marine protected areas in the Azores - The Azores Marine Park. Environmental Science & Policy, 14(18), 1175-1187. Caldas, F. B. (2011). Argyranthemum thalassophilum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162019A5531773. Cameron, R. A. D., & Cook, L. M. (1992). The development of diversity in the land snail fauna of the Madeiran archipelago. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 46, 105-114. Cardigos, F., Tempera, F., Ávila, S., Gonçalves, J., Colaço, A., & Santos, R. S. (2006). Non indigenous marine species of the Azores. Helgoland Marine Research, 60(2), 160-169. Cardoso, P. (2014). Hogna ingens. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T58048571A58061007. 239 Cardoso, P., Borges, P. A. V., Triantis, K. A., Ferrández, M. A., & Martín, J. L. (2012). Letter to the Editor. The underrepresentation and misrepresentation of invertebrates in the IUCN Red List. Biological Conservation, 149, 147–148. Carranza, S., Arnold, E., Mateo, J., & López-Jurado, L. (2000). Long-distance colonization and radiation in gekkonid lizards, Tarentola (Reptilia: Gekkonidae), revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequences. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 267(1444), 637-649. Carrillo, M., & Ritter, F. (2010). Increasing numbers of ship strikes in the Canary Islands: Proposals for immediate action to reduce risk of vessel-whale collisions. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 11(2), 131-138. Carvalho, J. A. (2011a). Pittosporum coriaceum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T37853A10081921. Carvalho, J. A. (2011b). Polystichum drepanum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162178A5553603. Carvalho, J. A. (2011c). Sorbus maderensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T30337A9538035. CBD. (n.d.). Convention on Biological Diversity. Ceia, R. S., Ramos, J. A., Heleno, R. H., Hilton, G. M., & Marques, T. A. (2011). Status assessment of the critically endangered Azores bullfinch Pyrrhula murina. Bird Conservation International, 21(4), 477-489. CEPF. (2015). Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Retrieved from http://www.cepf.net Climate Atlas. (2012). Climate atlas of the archipelagos of the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. Retrieved from http://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/publicaciones/2Atl as_climatologico/Atlas_Clima_Macaronesia___Baja.pdf CMS. (2015). Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Retrieved from http://www.cms.int/ Connor, S. E., Leeuwen, J. F. N. V., Rittenour, T. M., Knaap, W. O. V. d., Ammann, B., & BjÖrck, S. (2012). The ecological impact of oceanic island colonization – a palaeoecological perspective from the Azores. Journal of Biogeography, 39, 1007-1023. Cooper, G., Benzaken, D., Collin, A., Renard, Y., & Tyack, O. (2011). Regional Perspective on Future Directions for Biodiversity Action in Europe Overseas: Outcomes of the Review of the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved from Gland, Switzerland: Crespo, L. C., Boieiro, M., Cardoso, P., Aguiar, C. A. S., Amorim, I. R., Barrinha, C., . . . Serrano, A. R. M. (2014). Spatial distribution of Madeira Island Laurisilva endemic spiders (Arachnida: Araneae). Biodiversity Data Journal, 2: e1051. doi:10.3897/BDJ.2.e1051 240 Crespo, L. C., Silva, I., Borges, P. A. V., & Cardoso, P. (2014). Assessing the conservation status of the strict endemic Desertas wolf spider, Hogna ingens (Araneae, Lycosidae). Journal for Nature Conservation, 22(6), 516-524. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2014.08.005 Cropper, T. E., & Hanna, E. (2014). An analysis of the climate of Macaronesia, 1865– 2012. International Journal of Climatology, 34(3), 604-622. Cruz, M. J., Avelar, D., Sousa, A., Vasconcelos, F., Jardim, R., & Pulquério, M. (2014). Elaboração do Estudo sobre as Vulnerabilidades e Respostas às Alterações Climáticas no Arquipélago da Madeira. Relatório da fase 1: Vulnerabilidades [Setor Biodiversidade]. CLIMA-Madeira. Dezembro 2014. Retrieved from De la Cruz López, S., López Hernández, H., & Morales Delgado, E. M. (2011). Parmacella tenerifensis Alonso, Ibáñez y Díaz, 1985. Pp: 995-1000. In J. Verdú, C. Numa, & E. Galante (Eds.), Atlas y libro rojo de los invertebrados amenazados de España (especies vulnerables) (Vol. II, pp. 1314). Madrid: Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Medio Rural y Marino. Decreto 82/2007, de 23 de abril, por el que se aprueba el Plan de Conservación del Hábitat del Canutillo de Sabinosa (Silene sabinosae). Boletín Oficial de Canarias nº 90. Sábado 5 de Mayo C.F.R. (2007). Dellinger, T. (2000). Conservation Support Project for North Atlantic Caretta caretta sea turtles—Life Nature Project contract no. B4-3200/96/541 (Life96Nat/P/3019). Final Technical Activity Report. Retrieved from Funchal: Dias, E. (2010). Lista de Referência da Flora dos Açores: Herbário da Universidade dos Açores (AZU). Departamento de Ciências Agrárias. Universidade dos Açores. Dias, E., Elias, R. B., Melo, C., & Mendes, C. (2007). Biologia e ecologia das florestas das ilhas. Açores. In J. S. Silva (Ed.), Açores e Madeira. A floresta das ilhas (pp. 51-80): Fundação Luso Americana / Público / Liga para a Protecção da Natureza. Doney, S. C. (2006). The Dangers of Ocean Acidification, Scientific American 58-65. EBCD (2007), Maritime and coastal tourism workshop Report. Retrieved from Barcelona: DREM. (2012). Censos - Série retrospetiva. População Residente nos Recenseamentos de 1864 a 2011, por Freguesia. Retrieved from http://estatistica.govmadeira.pt/index.php/download-now/social/popcondsoc-pt/popcondsoccensos-pt/popcondsoc-censos-serie-pt DREM. (2015). Anuário Estatístico da Região Autónoma da Madeira 2014. Retrieved from http://estatistica.gov-madeira.pt/index.php/downloadnow/multitematicas-pt/mutitematicas-anuario-pt/multitematicas-anuariopublicacoes-pt/finish/196-anuario-publicacoes/4946-anuario-estatistico-daram-2014 DREM. (2016). Estatísticas do Emprego – Série retrospetiva 2011-2015. Retrieved from http://estatistica.gov-madeira.pt/index.php/download241 now/social/merctrab-pt/merctrab-ie-pt/merctrab-ie-serie-pt/serieslongas/finish/576-inquerito-ao-emprego-series-longas/5425-serieretrospetiva-das-estatisticas-do-emprego-2011-2015 Dudley, N., Boucher, J. L., Cuttelod, A., Brooks, T. M., Langhammer, P. F., & (Eds.). (2014). Applications of Key Biodiversity Areas: End-user consultations. Retrieved from United Kingdom and Gland, Switzerland: EEA. (2002). Europe's biodiversity - biogeographical regions and seas. EEA Report No 1/2002. Retrieved from http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909 EEA. (2010). Assessing biodiversity in Europe — the 2010 report. EEA Report No 5/2010. Retrieved from Copenhagen: https://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=we b&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwiIjYZpazMAhUFLB4KHXyuC7MQFgghMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eea.europ a.eu%2Fpublications%2Fassessing-biodiversity-in-europe84%2Fdownload&usg=AFQjCNEwUnY-EkKW2GlsTyHqRrCW0QOAg&sig2=7j_TGL8JxvKbNfF29qCs-Q EEA. (2014). EU Overseas entities and their natural capital. Retrieved from https://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2 &cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjU7MunvpXMAhUBVhoKHeQYBEoQFggrMA E&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eea.europa.eu%2Fpublications%2Feu-overseasentities-and-their%2Fdownload&usg=AFQjCNHKRzQthzVHXs6YEWvRlPOLdu_TQ&sig2=WbT4BLyz4mJjxpJhPuWUEA Elias, R., & Ferreira, M. T. (2015). IMPACTBIO: Implications of Climate Change for Azorean Biodiversity. Paper presented at the Workshop a conservação da natureza nos açores: informar a estratégia para o horizonte 2015-2020 a partir de resultados de investigação. Emerson, B. C. (2002). Evolution on oceanic islands: molecular phylogenetic approaches to understanding pattern and process. Molecular ecology, 11(6), 951-966. ERDF. (2014). PCT - MAC 2014-2010. Retrieved from http://macinterreg.org/arbol/index.jsp?nivel=0&idPadre=9459f7d0f00a61a8f77ce369e3 03a462&id=9459f7d0f00a61a8f77ce369e303a462 European Commission. (2005). Natura 2000 in the Macaronesian region. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/brochures/na t2000_macaronesian.pdf European Commission. (2008). Business and Biodiversity: Opportunities for Natura 2000. European Commission DG Env Nature Newsletter. European Commission. (2010). European Commission - Press Release Database. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-10-1205_en.htm European Commission. (2011). Investing in Natura 2000: delivering benefits for nature and people. Commission stuff working paper, SEC(2011) 1573 final. Retrieved from 242 European Commission. (2014a). Atlantic Area Transnational Programme. Retrieved from http://atlanticarea.ccdr-n.pt/atlantic-area-2020/about-aa-2020/aboutaa-2020/ European Commission. (2014b). The economic impact of climate change and adaptation in the Outermost Regions. Supplementary Report: Outermost Regions summary information for inclusion in CLIMATE-ADAPT. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/activity/outermost/doc/cli mate_adapt_suppl_en.pdf European Commission. (2015a). European Commission - Environment LIFE Programme. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/project/Projects/index.cfm European Commission. (2015b). The mid-term review of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. Retrieved from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52015DC0478 European Parliament. (2011a). The agriculture of the Canary Islands. Retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2011/4600 50/IPOL-AGRI_NT%282011%29460050_EN.pdf European Parliament. (2011b). The role of Regional Policy in Adressing the Effects of Climate Change in Outermost Regions. Retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2011/46 0056/IPOL-REGI_ET%282011%29460056_EN.pdf Fais, A., Lewis, T. P., Zitterbart, D. P., Álvarez, O., Tejedor, A., & Aguilar Soto, N. (2016). Abundance and Distribution of Sperm Whales in the Canary Islands: Can Sperm Whales in the Archipelago Sustain the Current Level of Ship-Strike Mortalities? PLoS ONE, 11(3): e0150660. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150660 Febles Hernández, R., Naranjo Suárez, J., & Fernández-Palacios Acosta, O. (2013). Tanacetum oshanahanii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T165126A5977975. Fernandes, F. (2011a). Andryala crithmifolia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T161942A5516846. Fernandes, F. (2011b). Geranium maderense. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162102A5537899. Fernandes, F. (2011c). Jasminum azoricum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162250A5564173. Fernández-Palacios, J. M. (2010). The islands of Macaronesia (chapter 1). In A. R. M. Serrano, P. A. V. Borges, M. Boieiro, & P. Oromí (Eds.), Terrestrial Artrhropods of Macaronesia - Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution. Fernández-Palacios, J. M., & de Nascimento, L. (2011). Political erosion dismantles the conservation network existing in the Canary Islands. Frontiers of Biogeography, 3(3). Frontiers of Biogeography, 3(3). Fernández-Palacios, J. M., Otto, R., Delgado, J. D., Arévalo, J. R., Naranjo, A., González-Artiles, F., . . . Barone, R. (2008). Los bosques termófilos de 243 Canarias. Proyecto LIFE04/NAT/ES/000064. Retrieved from Santa Cruz de Tenerife: Fernández-Palacios, O., Vilches, B., & Ortega, C. (2004). Parolinia glabriuscula Montelongo & Bramwell. Pp: 432-433. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Fernández-Palacios, J. M., Nascimento, L. d., Otto, R., Delgado, J. D., García-del-Rey, E., Arévalo, J. R., & Whittaker, R. J. (2011). A reconstruction of PalaeoMacaronesia, with particular reference to the long-term biogeography of the Atlantic island laurel forests. Journal of Biogeography, 38(2), pp. 226-246. Ferraz, R. R., Menezes, G. M., & Santos, R. S. (2001). Limpet (Patella sp.) (Mollusca: Gastropoda) exploitation in the Azores, during the period 1993-1998. Arquipelago, Life and Marine Sciences, Supp 2 (B), 59-65. Ferreira, M. Z. (2016). Biosystematics of the Genus Andryala L. (Asteraceae). (PhD thesis), University of Madeira. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10400.13/1186 Ferreira, S., Kaufmann, M., Neto, A., Izaguirre, J. P., Wirtz, P., & de Clerck, O. (2012). New records of Macroalgae from Madeira Archipelago. Paper presented at the FLORAMAC 2012, Funchal, Portugal Fontinha, S., & Sim-Sim, M. (2011). Será a Madeira um hotspot no Atlântico, inclusive para os briófitos? Ecologi@(1), 11-16. Foster, G. (1996). Hydrotarsus compunctus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1996: e.T10338A3194845. Francisco-Ortega, J., Jansen, R. K., & Santos-Guerra, A. (1996). Chloroplast DNA evidence of colonization, adaptive radiation, and hybridization in the evolution of the Macaronesian flora. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(9), 4085-4090. Francisco-Ortega, J., Santos-Guerra, A., & Bacallado, J. J. (2010). Canary Islands, Biology. In R. Gillespie & D. Clagu (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Islands (pp. 127133). California: University of California Press. Frias Martins, A. M. (2011a). Leptaxis minor. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T156987A5025738. Frias Martins, A. M. (2011b). Plutonia angulosa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T156812A5001532. Gangoso, L., Donázar, J. A., Scholz, S., Palacios, C. J., & Hiraldo, F. (2006). Contradiction in conservation of island ecosystems: plants, introduced herbivores and avian scavengers in the Canary Islands. Biodiversity & Conservation, 15(7), 2231-2248. Garilleti, R. A., B. (Coord.),. (2012). Atlas y Libro Rojo de los Briófitos Amenazados de España. Retrieved from Madrid: 244 Gaspar, C., Borges, P. A. V., & Gaston, K. J. (2008). Diversity and distribution of arthropods in native forests of the Azores archipelago. Arquipél Life Mar Sci, 25, 1-30. Gobierno de Canarias. (2010). LEY 4/2010, de 4 de junio, del Catálogo Canario de Especies Protegidas. Boletín Oficial de Canarias núm. 112. Gobierno de Canarias: Consejería de Obras Públicas, T. Y. P. t. (2014). Categorías de Protección de los Espacios Naturales Protegidos. Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/cmayot/espaciosnaturales/categor ias/index.html González González, R., Pérez de Paz, P. L., León Arencibia, M. C., & Reyes Betancort, J. A. (2011a). Lotus pyranthus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T165236A5994336. González González, R., Pérez de Paz, P. L., León Arencibia, M. C., & Reyes Betancort, J. A. (2011b). Sideritis cystosiphon. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162371A5580892. González González, R., Reyes Betancort, J. A., Pérez de Paz, P. L., & León Arencibia, M. C. (2011). Micromeria glomerata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T195484A8973171. González, M. N., Rodrigo, J. D., & Suárez, C. (1986). Flora y Vegetación del Archipiélago Canario: EDIRCA S.L. Goodfriend, G. A., Cameron, R. A. D., & Cook, L. M. (1994). Fossil evidence of recent human impact on the land snail fauna of Madeira. Journal of Biogeography, 21, 309-320. Gouveia, P., & Carvalho, J. A. (2009). Conservation status of the Madeira Island endemic species Teucrium abutiloides L'Her.(Lamiaceae). Bocagiana, 228, 116. Government of the Azores. (2014). Diretiva Quadro Estratégia Marinha – Subdivisão Açores. Versão Consulta Pública. Retrieved from http://servicossraa.azores.gov.pt/grastore/DRAM/DQEM/DQEM_Final_Acores.pdf Government of the Azores. (2015). Marine Protected Areas. Retrieved from http://www.azores.gov.pt/Gra/SRMCTMAR/menus/secundario/%C3%81reas+Marinhas+Protegidas/ Government of the Azores. (2016). Launch Seminar 1st Call of the Operational Programme Territorial Cooperation INTERREG V-A 2014-2020, Angra do Heroismo, Terceira, Azores. Groh, K. (2011). Hemicycla efferata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T156766A4993985. Groh, K. (2013). Plutonia machadoi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T10835A3221208. Groh, K., & Alonso, R. (2011). Hemicycla mascaensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T9876A13023870. 245 Groh, K., & Alonso, R. (2013a). Canariella jandiaensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T172011A6820312. Groh, K., & Alonso, R. (2013b). Napaeus exilis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T156986A5025609. Groh, K., & Alonso, R. (2013c). Napaeus osoriensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T156425A4942999. Groh, K., & Neubert, E. (2011). Napaeus teobaldoi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T193418A8858293. Hausdorf, B. (2001). Macroevolution in progress: competition between semislugs and slugs resulting in ecological displacement and ecological release. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 74(3), 387-395. Hausdorf, B. (2002). Phylogeny and biogeography of the Vitrinidae (Gastropoda: Stylommatophora). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 134(3), 347358. Hutterer, R. (2008). Crocidura canariensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T5560A11333820. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T5560A11333820.en Ibáñez, M., & Rosario Alonso, M. (2009). Hemicycla plicaria (Lamarck, 1816).pp: 295298. In J. R. Verdú & E. Galante (Eds.), Atlas de los invertebrados amenazados de España:(especies en peligro crítico y en peligro) (pp. 340). Madrid: Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. ICNF. (2015). 5º Relatório Nacional à Convenção sobre Biodiversidade Biológica. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/pt/pt-nr-05-pt.pdf Illera, J. C., Rando, J. C., Richardson, D. S., & Emerson, B. C. (2012). Age, origin and extinctions of the avifauna of Macaronesia: a synthesis of phylogenetic and fossil information. Quaternary Science Reviews, 50, 14-22. ISTAC. (2015a). Canarias en Cifras 2014. Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/jaxiistac/menu.do?uripub=urn:uuid:301ccd99-ad78-42e0-81e8-9c61c16acbbb ISTAC. (2015b). Cifras Oficiales de Población / Series anuales. Municipios por islas de Canarias. 2000-2014. Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/jaxi-istac/tabla.do ISTAC. (2016a). Contabilidad Regional de España / Series anuales del PIB y sus componentes según el enfoque funcional. Comunidades autónomas. 20002015. 02 PIB. Indicadores según ramas de actividad para Canarias. . Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/jaxiistac/menu.do?uripub=urn:uuid:2753ca84-8b23-42fd-8c35-2deb67857a17 ISTAC. (2016b). Contabilidad Regional de España / Series anuales del PIB y sus componentes según el enfoque funcional. Comunidades autónomas. 20002015. 04 Empleo. Empleo total y asalariado (personas y horas) para Canarias. Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/jaxiistac/menu.do?uripub=urn:uuid:2753ca84-8b23-42fd-8c35-2deb67857a17 246 ISTAC. (2016c). FRONTUR-Canarias/ Series mensuales de entradas de turistas y excursionistas. Islas de Canarias. 2009-2015. Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/jaxiistac/menu.do?uripub=urn:uuid:6b42b90e-b71f-41a5-b2e6-363e854bfdc9 ISTAC. (2016d). Tasas de paro según indicadores. Comarcas de Canarias y trimestres. Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/buscador/busca?userQuery= tasa+paro+2015&Buscar=Buscar&typeResult=&subject_areas_ff=&survey_titl e_ff=&coverage_spatial_ff=&coverage_temporal_ff=&formato=&ff_select=& sort= Izquierdo, I., Martín, J. L., Zurita, N., & Arechavaleta, M. (2001). Lista de Especies Silvestres de Canarias (Hongos, Plantas y Animales Terrestres). Retrieved from Santa Cruz de Tenerife: Izquierdo, I., Martín, J. L., Zurita, N., Arechavaleta, M., & (eds). (2004). Lista de especies silvestres de Canarias (hongos, plantas y animales terrestres). Retrieved from Santa Cruz de Tenerife: Jaén Molina, R., Mora Vicente, S., & Tapia, F. (2004). Echium sventenii Bramwell. Pp: 236-237. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Jakobs, D. (2012). Acrostira tenerifae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2012: e.T16896959A16897043. Jardim, R., Fernandes, F., Carvalho, J. . (2006). Fauna e Flora da Madeira. Espécies endémicas ameaçadas: vertebrados e flora vascular. Retrieved from http://www.sra.pt/Jarbot/files/PDF/Livros/Fauna-e-flora-damadeira.pdf Jardim, R., & Sequeira, M. M. (2008). As plantas vasculares (Pteridophyta e Spermatophyta) dos arquipélagos da Madeira e das Selvagens. In P.A.V. Borges, C. Abreu, AMF Aguiar, P. Carvalho, R. Jardim, I. Melo, P. Oliveira, C. Sérgio, A. R. M. Serrano, & P. Vieira (Eds.), A list of the terrestrial fungi, flora and fauna of Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos (pp. 157-178). Funchal and Angra do Heroísmo: Direcção Regional do Ambiente da Madeira and Universidade dos Açores. Jesus, J. (2008). Reptilia. In Borges PAV, C Abreu, AMF Aguiar, P Carvalho, R Jardim, I Melo, P Oliveira, C Sérgio, A. Serrano, & P. Vieira (Eds.), A list of the terrestrial fungi, flora and fauna of Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos (pp. 368-369). Funchal and Angra do Heroísmo: Direcção Regional do Ambiente da Madeira and Universidade dos Açores. Jesus, J., Teixeira, S., Teixeira, D., Freitas, T., & Russo, D. (2009). Vertebrados terrestres autoctones dos arquipelagos da Madeira e Selvagens. Funchal, Portugal: Direção Regional do Ambiente. Jiménez, M. (2007). The Environmental Movement in Spain: A Growing Force of Contention. South European Society and Politics, 12(3), 359-378. 247 Kadis, C., Thanos, C. A., Lumbreras, E. L., & (eds). (2013). Plant Micro-Reserves: from theory to practice. Experiences gained from EU LIFE and other related projects. Karamanlidis, A. D., P. . (2015). Monachus monachus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T13653A45227543. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T13653A45227543.en Kay, A. e. (1995). The Conservation Biology of Molluscs: Proceedings of a Symposium held at the 9th International Malacological Congress. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Kell, S. P. (2011). Sinapidendron rupestre. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162258A5565500. Kettunen, M., Baldock, D., Adelle, C., & al., e. (2009). Biodiversity & The EU Budget: making the case for conserving biodiversity. A report commissioned by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) to the Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP), Brussels. Retrieved from http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/wwfbiodiversityandeubudget.p df Klügel, A. (2009). ATLANTIC REGION Encyclopedia of Islands (1 ed., pp. 63-67): University of California Press. Langhammer, P. F., Bakarr, M. I., Bennun, L. A., Brooks, T. M., Clay, R. P., Darwal, W., . . . Tordoff, A. W. (2007). Identification and Gap Analysis of Key Biodiversity Areas: Targets for Comprehensive Protected Area Systems. Gland, Switerzland: IUCN. Life Madeira Monkseal. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.lifemadeiramonkseal.com Lobo, C. (2014). Recuperaçao e conservaçao de espécies e habitats no Maciço Montanhoso Central da Madeira. Paper presented at the Investigación, gestión y técnica forestal, en la región de la Macaronesia. Lobo, J. M., & Borges, P. A. V. (2010). The provisional status of arthropod inventories in the Macaronesian islands A.R.M. Serrano, P.A.V. Borges, M. Boieiro & P. Oromí (Eds.). Terrestrial arthropods of Macaronesia – Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution (pp. 33-47). Lisbon: Sociedade Portuguesa de Entomologia. López, H., Pérez, A. J., Oromí, P., Acevedo, A. J., Rodríguez, B., & Hernández, A. (2005). Un nuevo Pamphagidae de Tenerife (Orthoptera, Caelifera). Vieraea, 33, 419-434. Loureiro, A., N, F. D. A., M, C., & O, P. (2008). Atlas dos Anfíbios e Répteis de Portugal. Lisbon: Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e da Biodiversidade. Lung, T., Meller, L., Teeffelen, A. J. A. v., Thuiller, W., & Cabeza, M. (2014). Biodiversity Funds and Conservation Needs in the EU Under Climate Change. Conservation Letters, July/August 2014, 7(4), 390-400. 248 Maca-Meyer, N., Arnay, M., Rando, J. C., Flores, C., González, A. M., Cabrera, V. M., & Larruga, J. M. (2004). Ancient mtDNA analysis and the origin of the Guanches. European journal of human genetics, 12(2), 155-162. Machado, A. (1998). Biodiversidad. Un paseo por el concepto y las Islas Canarias. Retrieved from Machado, M. (1979). Os Lobos Marinhos (Género Monachus, Fleming 1822). Cascais, Portugal. Magalhães, S., Prieto, R., Silva, M. A., Gonçalves, J., Afonso-Dias, M., & Santos, R. S. (2013). Short-term reactions of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) to whale-watching vessels in the Azores. Aquatic Mammals, 28(3), 267–274. MAGRAMA. (2014a). Marco de acción prioritaria para la Red Natura 2000 en España para el periodo de financiación 2014-2020. Julio 2014 (Versión 2.1). Retrieved from http://prioridadrednatura2000.es/sites/default/files/map_version_2.pd f MAGRAMA. (2014b). Quinto Informe Nacional sobre la Diversidad Biológica - España. Retrieved from https://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1 &cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjyz7HjKLMAhVBuBoKHfigAk8QFggcMAA&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbd.int%2Fdo c%2Fworld%2Fes%2Fes-nr-05es.pdf&usg=AFQjCNGWx9BhEDXGXpALMGBfOauYWg5Olg&sig2=7MNdEACu 9RLniAHY8vjVxw Maiorano, L., Falcucci, A., Zimmermann, N. E., & al, e. (2011). The future of terrestrial mammals in the Mediterranean basin under climate change. Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B, 336, 2681-2692. Marrero, Á., & Almeida, R. (2008). Limonium benmageci Marrero Rodr. Pp: 44-45. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España. Adenda 2008 (pp. 155). Madrid: Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino)-Sociedad Española de Biología de la Conservación de Plantas. Marrero, A., & Migueles, A. (2004). Helianthemum bramwelliorum Marrero Rodr. Pp: 280-281. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Marrero Gómez, M. V., Carqué Álamo, E., & Bañares Baudet, A. (2004). Ilex perado subsp. lopezlilloi (G. Kunkel) A. Hansen & Sunding Pp: 324-325. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Marrero Gómez, M. V., Carqué Álamo, E., & Bañares Baudet, A. (2006). Echium acanthocarpum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2006: e.T61655A12533958. 249 Marrero Gómez, M. V., Carqué Álamo, E., & Bañares Baudet, Á. (2004). Helianthemum juliae Wildpret. Pp: 288-289. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 170). Madrid: Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino)-Sociedad Española de Biología de la Conservación de Plantas. Marrero Gómez, M. V., Carqué Álamo, E., & Bañares Baudet, Á. (2010). Helianthemum aganae Marrero Rodr. & R. Mesa. Pp: 36-37. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España. Adenda 2010 (pp. 170). Madrid: Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino)-Sociedad Española de Biología de la Conservación de Plantas. Marrero Gómez, M. V., Mesa Coello, R., Bañares Baudet, Á., & Carqué Álamo, E. (2010). Teucrium heterophyllum subsp. hierrense Gaisberg. Pp: 94-95. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España. Adenda 2010 (pp. 170). Madrid: Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino)-Sociedad Española de Biología de la Conservación de Plantas. Marrero Gómez, M. V., Oostermeijer, J. G. B., Carqué Álamo, E., & Bañares Baudet, Á. (2007). Population viability of the narrow endemic Helianthemum juliae (Cistaceae) in relation to climate variability. Biological Conservation, 136(4), 552-562. Marrero Rodríguez, Á. (2013). Sideritis discolor. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T162348A5577581. Marrero Rodríguez, Á., & Almeida Pérez, R. S. (2013). Globularia ascanii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T162225A5560690. Marrero Rodríguez, Á., & Naranjo Morales, M. (2013). Isoplexis chalcantha. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T161967A5521614. Martín-Esquivel, J. L., M.C. Marrero, G., N. Zurita, P., M. Arechavaleta, H., & I. Izquierdo, Z. (2005). Biodiversidad en gráficas. Especies silvestres de las Islas Canarias. Retrieved from Martín-García, L., González-Lorenzo, G., Brito-Izquierdo, I. T., & Barquín-Dieza, J. (2013). Use of topographic predictors for macrobenthic community mapping in the Marine Reserve of La Palma (Canary Islands, Spain). Ecological Modelling, 263(2013), 19-31. Martín-García, L., Sangil, C., Brito, A., & Barquín-Diez, J. (2015). Identification of conservation gaps and redesign of island marine protected areas. Biodiversity and Conservation, 24(3), 511-529. Martín Cáceres, K., Mesa Coello, R., & Santos Guerra, A. (2004a). Argyranthemum sundingii L. Borgen. Pp: 118-119. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada 250 de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Martín Cáceres, K., Mesa Coello, R., & Santos Guerra, A. (2004b). Cheirolophus santos-abreui A. Santos. Pp: 184-185. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Martín Cáceres, K., Mesa Coello, R., & Santos Guerra, A. (2011). Lotus eremiticus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T165218A5991682. Martín Cáceres, K., Santos Guerra, A., & Marrero Gómez, M. V. (2011). Kunkeliella psilotoclada. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T165205A5989964. Martín, J. L., Arechavaleta, M., Borges, P. A. V., & Faria, B. (2008). Top 100. Las 100 especies amenazadas prioritarias de gestión en la región europea biogeográfica de la Macaronesia: Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación Territorial, Gobierno de Canarias. Martín Osorio, V. E., & Wildpret de la Torre, W. (2004). Micromeria rivas-martinezii Wildpret. Pp: 404-405. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Martín Osorio, V. E., & Wildpret de la Torre, W. (2011). Hypochaeris oligocephala. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162074A5528438. Martín Osorio, V. E., Wildpret de la Torre, W., & Hernández Bolaños, B. (2011). Bencomia sphaerocarpa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162117A5542293. Martín Osorio, V. E., Wildpret de la Torre, W., & Marrero Rodríguez, A. (2004). Helianthemum bystropogophyllum Svent. Pp: 282-283. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Masseti, M. (2010). Mammals of the Macaronesian islands (the Azores, Madeira, the Canary and Cape Verde islands): redefinition of the ecological equilibrium. Mammalia, 74, 3–34. doi:10.1515/MAMM.2010.011 Mendes, C., & Dias, E. (2013). Classification of Sphagnum peatlands in Azores - cases from Terceira Island. Suoseura — Finnish Peatland Society, 64(4), 147–163. Mesa Coello, R., Marrero Gómez, M. V., Carqué Álamo, E., & Bañares Baudet, A. (2008). Limonium relicticum R. Mesa & A. Santos Pp: 46-47. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España. Adenda 2008 (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Mesa Coello, R., Marrero Gómez, M. V., Romero Manrique, P., & Oval, J. P. (2004). Apollonias barbujana subsp. ceballosi (Svent.) G. Kunke. Pp: 104-105. In Á. 251 Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Message from Reunion Island. (2008). Message from the Conference “The European Union and its Overseas Entities: Strategies to counter Climate Change and Biodiversity Loss”, Reunion Island, 7-11 July 2008. Ministerio de Agricultura, A. y. M. A. (2014). Reservas marinas de Espãna. Retrieved from http://www.magrama.gob.es/es/pesca/temas/proteccion-recursospesqueros/reservas-marinas-de-espana/rmarinas-intro.asp Miras, J. A. M., & Martínez-Solano, I. (2009). Gallotia auaritae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2009: e.T61501A12492629. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009.RLTS.T61501A12492629.en Monteiro, L. R., Ramos, J. A, Pereira, J. C, Monteiro, P. R, Feio, R. S, Thompson, D. R, Bearhop, S, Furness, R. W, Laranjo, M, Hilton, G, Neves, V. C, Groz, M. P, Thompson, K. R. . (1999). Status and distribution of fea's petrel, bulwer's petrel, manx shearwater, little shearwater and band-rumped storm-petrel in the azores archipelago. Waterbirds, 22, 358-366. Morales Valverde, R. (1993). Sinopsis y distribución del género Micromeria Bentham. Botanica Computensis, 18, 157-168. Moreno, J. C., coord. (2008). Lista Roja 2008 de la flora vascular española. Retrieved from Madrid: Moreno, V., Picazo, I., Vázquez-Dodero, I., & Hidalgo, R. C. (2013). Valoración de los costes de conservación de la Red Natura 2000 en España. Retrieved from Madrid: http://www.magrama.gob.es/es/biodiversidad/publicaciones/Valora cion_costes_RN_tcm7-309107.pdf Moro, L., Martín, J. L., Garrido, M. J., & Izquierdo, I. (2003). Lista de especies marinas de Canarias (algas, hongos, plantas y animales). Retrieved from http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/medioambiente/piac/descargas/Bi odiversidad/Listas-Especies/listaespeciesmarinascanarias.pdf Morton, B., & Britton, J. C. (2003). The origins of the coastal and marine flora and fauna of the Azores. Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review, 38, 13-84. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Fonseca, G. A. B., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservations priorities. Nature, 403, 853-858. Navarro Denis, J., Navarro Valdivielso, B., & Naranjo Suárez, J. (2004). Lotus kunkelii (Esteve) Bramwell & Davis. Pp: 396-397. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Navarro Denis, J., Navarro Valdivielso, B., & Naranjo Suárez, J. (2013). Teline nervosa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T165118A5975479. . 252 Neves, H. C., & Pires, R. (1999). O Lobo Marinho no Arquipelago da Madeira. Funchal, Portugal. Nogales, M., Rodríguez Luengo, J. L., & Marrero, P. (2006). Ecological effects and distribution of invasive non-native mammals on the Canary Islands. Mammal Rev, 36(1), 49-65. Ojeda, I., Santos-Guerra, A., Jaén-Molina, R., Oliva-Tejera, F., Caujapé-Castells, J., & Cronk, Q. (2012). The origin of bird pollination in Macaronesian Lotus (Loteae, Leguminosae). Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 62(1), 306318. Ojeda Land, E., Oval de la Rosa, J. P., Marrero Gómez, M. V., & Mesa Coello, R. (2011). Helianthemum teneriffae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T165149A5982726. Oliveira, M. E., Brito, J. C., Dellinger, T., Ferrand de Almeida, N., Loureiro, A., Martins, H. R., . . . Teixeira, J. (2005). Tartaruga-comum Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758). In M. J. c. Cabral, J. Almeida, P. R. Almeida, T. Dellinger, N. Ferrand de Almeida, M. E. Oliveira, J. Palmeirim, A. I. Queiroz, L. Rogado, & M. SantosReis (Eds.), Livro Vermelho dos Vertebrados de Portugal (pp. 123-124). Lisboa: Instituto da Conservação da Natureza. Oliveira, P. (2008). The vertebrates (Chordata) of the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos. In P. A. V. Borges, C. Abreu, A. M. F. Aguiar, P. Carvalho, R. Jardim, I. Melo, P. Oliveira, C. Sérgio, Arm, Serrano, & P. Vieira (Eds.), A list of the terrestrial fungi, flora and fauna of Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos (pp. 357-370). Funchal and Angra do Heroísmo: Direcção Regional do Ambiente da Madeira and Universidade dos Açores. Oliveira, P., & Menezes, D. (2004). Birds of the Archipelago of Madeira. Funchal, Madeira: Serviço do Parque Natural da Madeira / Arquipélago Verde. Oliveira, R. M. (2015, October 7). Ambiente cria 4 novos parques marinhos. Diário de Notícias, p. 5. Oromí, P. (2009). Maioreus randoi Ramble, 1993. Pp:76-80. In J. R. Verdú & E. Galante (Eds.), Atlas de los invertebrados amenazados de España:(especies en peligro crítico y en peligro) (pp. 340). Madrid: Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. OSPAR Commission. (2015). 2014 Status Report on the OSPAR Network of Marine Protected Areas. Retrieved from http://www.ospar.org/documents?v=33572 Petit, J., & Prudent, G. (2010). Climate Change and Biodiversity in the European Union Overseas Entities. Retrieved from https://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1 &cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwitgYqbtKLMAhVJPBoKHSmOBs0QFggfMAA& url=https%3A%2F%2Fportals.iucn.org%2Flibrary%2Fefiles%2Fedocs%2F2010064.pdf&usg=AFQjCNFSilxFRvBNHC_tuaV7BkMxadfxg&sig2=p9qod9Oj1UCAhKTU-xxu2w PIC-INTERREG IIIB-2000/2006. (2001). PIC-INTERREG IIIB-2000/2006. Retrieved from 253 Pires, R., Neves, H. C., & Karamanlidis, A. A. (2008). The critically endangered Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus in the archipelago of Madeira: Priorities for conservation. Oryx, 42(02), 278-285. Quintal, R. (2013). Pico do Areeiro - Ilha da Madeira. Uma experiência de recuperação da biodiversidade: Biblioteca Pública Regional. RAA. (2013). Prioritised Action Framework (PAF) for Natura 2000 for the EU Multiannual Financing Period 2014-2020 (Agosto 2013). Rainho, A., Marques, J. T., & Palmeirim, J. M. (2002). Os morcegos dos arquipélagos dos Açores e da Madeira: um contributo para a sua conservação. Retrieved from Lisboa: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280624369_Os_morcegos _dos_arquipelagos_dos_Acores_e_da_Madeira_Um_contributo_para_a_sua _conservacao RAM. (2014). Quadro de Ação Prioritário para a Rede Natura 2000 (2014-2020). Paper presented at the Workshop Financiamento da Rede Natura 2000 2000-2014/2020, Lisboa. Ramírez, I., Paiva, V. H., Menezes, D., Silva, I., Phillips, R. A., Ramos, J. A., & Garthe, S. (2013). Year-round distribution and habitat preferences of the Bugio petrel. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 476, 269-284. Ramsar Sites Information Service. (2016). Retrieved from https://rsis.ramsar.org/rissearch/?f[0]=regionCountry_en_ss%3AEurope&f[1]=regionCountry_en_ss%3 ASpain Rando, J. C., & Alcover, J. A. (2008). Evidence for a second western Palaearctic seabird extinction during the last millennium: the lava shearwater Puffinus olsoni. Ibis, 150, 188–192. Rando, J. C., Alcover, J. A., Galván, B., & Navarro, J. F. (2014). Reappraisal of the extinction of Canariomys bravoi, the Giant Rat from Tenerife (Canary Islands). Quaternary Science Reviews, 94, 22-27. Rando, J. C., Alcover, J. A., Michaux, J., Hutterer, R., & Navarro, J. F. (2012). LateHolocene asynchronous extinction of endemic mammals on the eastern Canary Islands. The Holocene, 22, 801–808. Rando, J. C., Alcover, J. A., Olson, S. L., & Pieper, H. (2013). A new species of extinct scops owl (Aves: Strigiformes: Strigidae: Otus) from São Miguel Island (Archipelago of Azores, North Atlantic Ocean). Zootaxa, 3647, 343–357. Rankou, H. (2011). Goodyera macrophylla. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T162070A5527443. Rebelo, R. (2010). Tarentola bischoffi. In A. Loureiro, N. Ferrand de Almeida, M. Carretero, & O. Paulo (Eds.), Atlas dos anfíbios e répteis de Portugal (pp. 256). Lisboa: Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e da Biodiversidade. Rego, C., Boieiro, M., Vieira, V., & Borges, P. A. V. (2015). The biodiversity of terrestrial arthropods in Azores. IDE@ - SEA(nº 5B (30-06-2015): 1–24), 1-24. 254 Reyes Betancort, J. A., González González, R., León Arencibia, M. C., & Pérez de Paz, P. L. (2013). Sideritis marmorea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T162240A5562882. Reyes Betancort, J. A., Martín Cáceres, K., Marrero Gómez, M. V., & Santos Guerra, A. (2011). Plantago famarae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T165239A5994732. Ribera, I., Bilton, D. T., Balke, M., & Hendrich, L. (2003). Evolution, mitochondrial DNA phylogeny and systematic position of the Macaronesian endemic Hydrotarsus Falkenström (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae). Systematic Entomology, 28(4), 493-508. Ritter, F. (2001). Twenty-one Cetacean Species off La Gomera (Canary Islands): Possible Reasons for an extraordinary Species Diversity. Poster presented at the Annual Conference of the ECS, Rome, Italy 5-7 May 2001. Ritter, F. (2010). Quantification of ferry traffic in the Canary Islands (Spain) and its implications for collisions with cetaceans. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 11(2), 139-146. Robinson, G. S., Ackery, P. R., Kitching, I. J., Beccaloni, G. W., & Hernández, L. M. (2016). HOSTS - A Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants. Natural History Museum, London. http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosts. . Rodrigues, P., & Michielsen, G. (2010). Birdwatching in the Azores. Ponta Delgada. Rodríguez Delgado, O., García Gallo, A., Cruz Trujillo, G. M., & Pérez de Paz, P. L. (2011). Cheirolophus junonianus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T161882A5508530. Sangster, G., Rodríguez-Godoy, F., Roselaar, C. S., Robb, M. S., & Luksenburg, J. A. (2015). Integrative taxonomy reveals Europe’s rarest songbird species, the Gran Canaria blue chaffinch Fringilla polatzeki. Journal of Avian Biology, 46: 001–008. doi:10.1111/jav.00825 Santos, F. D., & Aguiar, R. (2006). CLIMAAT II. Impactos e Medidas de Adaptação às Alterações Climáticas no Arquipélago da Madeira. Retrieved from Funchal: Santos Guerra, A. (2011). Crambe feuillei. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T180557A7647557. Santos Guerra, A., Martín Cáceres, K., & Marrero Gómez, M. V. (2004). Tolpis crassiuscula Svent.. Pp: 552-553. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069 pp.). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Santos, R., Hawkins, S., Monteiro, L. R., Alves, M., & Isidro, E. J. (1995). Marine research, resources and conservation in the Azores. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 4(4), 311-354. Santos, R. S., Porteiro, F. M., & Barreiros, J. P. (1997). Marine fishes of the Azores: Annotated checklist and bibliography : a catalogue of the Azorean marine ichthyodiversity. Horta: Universidade dos Açores. 255 Schaefer, H., Moura, M., Belo, M. M., Silva, L., Rumsey, F., & Mark, A. C. (2011). The Linnean shortfall in oceanic island biogeography: a case study in the Azores. Journal of Biogeography, 38: 1345–1355. Schäfer, H. (2005). Endemic vascular plants of the Azores: an updated list. Hoppea, 66, 275-283. Scholz, S. (2013a). Echium handiense. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T61658A12518563. Scholz, S. (2013b). Onopordum nogalesii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T161936A5515838. Schwartz, M. W. (1999). Choosing the appropriate scale of reserves for conservation. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 30, 83-108. Seddon, M. B. (2000). Cecilioides eulima. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2000: e.T4091A10375179. Seddon, M. B. (2011a). Discula testudinalis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T6722A12800171. . Seddon, M. B. (2011b). Idiomela subplicata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T10789A3216278. Seddon, M. B. (2011c). Leiostyla cassidula. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T11456A3279061. Seddon, M. B. (2011d). Leiostyla gibba. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T11458A3279526. Segers, W., Swinnen, F., & Prins, R. D. (2009). Marine Molluscs of Madeira. Heule, Belgium: Snoeck Publishers. Sérgio, C., Sim-Sim, M., Fontinha, S., & Figueira, R. (2008). Chapter 5: The Bryophytes (Bryophyta) of the Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos. In P. A. V. Borges, C. Abreu, A. M. F. Aguiar, P. Carvalho, R. Jardim, I. Melo, P. Oliveira, C. Sergio, A. R. M. Serrano, & P. Vieira (Eds.), A list of the Terrestrial Fungi, Flora and Fauna of Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos (pp. 1325). Funchal and Angra do Heroísmo: Direção Regional do Ambiente da Madeira and Universidade dos Açores. Silva, A. A., Duarte, P. C., Giga, A., & Menezes, G. (1998). First record of the spined pygmy shark, Squaliolus laticaudus (Smith & Radcliffe, 1912) in the Azores, extending its distribution in the North-eastern Atlantic. Arquipelago. Life and Marine Sciences, 16A, 57-62. Silva, L., Ojeda-Land, E., & Rodríguez-Luengo, J. L. (2008). Flora e Fauna Terrestre Invasora na Macaronésia. TOP 100 nos Açores, Madeira e Canárias. Retrieved from Ponta Delgada: Silva, M. A., Prieto, R., Jonsen, I., Baumgartner, M. F., & Santos, R. S. (2013). North Atlantic Blue and Fin Whales Suspend Their Spring Migration to Forage in Middle Latitudes: Building up Energy Reserves for the Journey? . PLoS ONE, 8 (10): e76507. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076507 256 Sim-Sim, M., Ruas, S., Fontinha, S., Hedenäs, L., Sérgio, C., & Lobo, C. (2014). Bryophyte conservation on a North Atlantic hotspot: threatened bryophytes in Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos (Portugal). Systematics and Biodiversity, 12(3), 315-330. doi:10.1080/14772000.2014.918063 Spalding, M. D., Fox, H. E., Allen, G. R., Davidson, N., Ferdaña, Z. A., Finlayson, M., . . . Robertson, J. (2007). Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. BioScience, 57 (7). Sperling, N., Washington, R., & Whittaker, R. J. (2004). Future climate change of the subtropical north Atlantic: Implications for the cloud forests of Tenerife Climatic change, 65(1-2), 103-123. SRA. (2014). Estratégia Marinha para a subdivisão da Madeira. Diretiva Quadro Estratégia Marinha. Retrieved from SREA. (2012). Séries Estatísticas: 2000-2010. Retrieved from http://estatistica.azores.gov.pt/Conteudos/Relatorios/lista_relatorios.a spx?idc=392&idsc=3271&lang_id=1 SREA. (2015a). Anuário Estatístico da Região Autónoma dos Açores 2014. Retrieved from http://estatistica.azores.gov.pt/Conteudos/relatorios/lista_relatorios.as px?idc=392&idsc=4680&lang_id=1 SREA. (2015b). Os Açores em Números 2014. Retrieved from http://www.estatistica.azores.gov.pt/upl/%7B119e7ec6-2716-4ab894ef-1a52b55b6263%7D.pdf SREA. (2015c). Séries Estatisticas 2003-2013. Q.02.01 - População residente e famílias nos vários Recenseamentos, desde 1900 por freguesia. Retrieved from http://www.estatistica.azores.gov.pt/conteudos/Relatorios/lista_relato rios.aspx?idc=392&idsc=4623&lang_id=1 SREA. (2015d). Séries Estatísticas 2003-2013. Q.06.11-Pesca descarregada, por espécie e por ano. SREA. (2016). Principais Indicadores Estatísticos: Mercado de Trabalho-Emprego e Desemprego - Q5. Taxa de emprego por grupo etário, sexo e nível de escolaridade completo e Taxa de desemprego. Retrieved from http://www.estatistica.azores.gov.pt/upl/%7B00dd7795-763c-4c96be4d-823c3912264b%7D.htm Suaréz García, S., Roca, A., & Vilches, B. (2004). Limonium ovalifolium subsp. canariense Pignatti. Pp: 366-367. In Á. Bañares, G. Blanca, J. GÜemes, J. C. Moreno, & S. Ortiz (Eds.), Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (pp. 1.069 pp.). Madrid: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Triantis, K. A., Borges, P. A. V., Hortal, J., & Whittaker, R. J. (2010). The Macaronesian province: patterns of species richness and endemism of arthropods. In A. R. M. Serrano, P. A. V. Borges, M. Boieiro, & P. Oromí (Eds.), Terrestrial Artrhropods of Macaronesia - Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution: Sociedade Portuguesa de Entomologia. 257 Triantis, K. A., Borges, P. A. V., Ladle, R. J., Hortal, J., Cardoso, B., Miguel, P., . . . Whittaker, R. J. (2010). Extinction debt on oceanic islands. Ecography, 33(2), 285–294. Tuya, F., Boyra, A., Sanchez-Jerez, P., Barbera, C., & Haroun, R. J. . (2004). Relationships between rocky-reef fish assemblages, the sea urchin Diadema antillarum and macroalgae throughout the Canarian Archipelago. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 278, 157-169. UNESCO. (1999). World Heritage list. Retrieved from http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/934 UNESCO. (2016). UNESCO MAB Biosphere Reserve Directory. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?code=PO R+02&mode=all Van Riel, P., Jordaens, K., Van Houtte, N., Martins, A. M. F., Verhagen, R., & Backeljau, T. (2005). Molecular systematics of the endemic Leptaxini (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) on the Azores islands. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 37(1), 132-143. van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J. . (2010). Pieris wollastoni. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010: e.T39483A10240995. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-1.RLTS.T39483A10240995.en Verdú, J., & Galante, E. (2009). Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España (Especes en peligro critico y en peligro) (pp. 340). Madrid: Direccion General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Wahlberg, N. (2001). The phylogenetics and biochemistry of host-plant specialization in melitaeine butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Evolution, 55(3), 522537. Wakeham-Dawson, A., Aguiar, A. M. F., & Martin, G. (2002). The distribution of endemic butterflies (Lepidoptera) on the island of Madeira, Portugal since 1850 with comments on their current conservation status. Entomologist's Gazette, 53, 153-180. Whittaker, R. J., & Fernández-Palacios, J. M. (2007). Island biogeography: ecology, evolution, and conservation, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wirtz, P., Fricke, R., & Biscoito, M. J. (2008). The coastal fishes of Madeira Island— new records and an annotated check-list. Zootaxa, 1715, 1-26. WWF. (2015a). Canary Islands dry woodlands and forests. Retrieved from http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1203 WWF. (2015b). Mediterranean Acacia-Argania Dry Woodland and Succulent Thicket. Retrieved from http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1212 WWF. (2015c). Madeira evergreen forest. Retrieved from http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0425 258 WWF. (2015d). Azores temperate mixed forests. Retrieved from http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0403 WWF, & SECAC. (2015). Conservación del Cachalote en Canarias. Retrieved from http://www.wwf.es/que_hacemos/especies/especies_prioritarias/cetac eos/cachalote/proyecto/ 259 APPENDICES Appendix 1. List of participants on the first workshops (November 2014) Name Session* Sector KR NG I O P/T P/T P/T P/T 1 1 1 1 Entity Azores (Terceira Island, Nov. 10) Cândida Mendes Diana Pereira Eduardo Dias Enésima Pereira Mendonça Azores University - Geva Azores University Azores University Azores University - Azorean Biodiversity Group Environmental management and Nature Conservation Maria Conceição Rodrigues Society (AZORINA) Maria Teresa Ferreira Azores University Nuno Vaz Álvaro Azores University - PhD student Paulo Borges Azorean Biodiversity Group - Azores University Rui Bento Elias Azores University Sub-total Azores (São Miguel Island Island, Nov. 11) Afonso Prestes University of the Azores University of the Azores - Research Centre in Ana C. Costa Biodiversity and Genetic Resources (CIBIO) University of the Azores - Natural Resources Ana Isabel Neto Research Centre (CIRN) Regional Secretariat of Agriculture and Environment Ana Moreira Planning Office 260 P/T PRV 1 P/T P/T P/T P/T 9 1 1 1 1 8 P 1 P 1 P 1 T PUB 0 1 1 0 Name António Frias Martins Artur Gil Diogo Caetano Emanuel Verissimo Eva Cacabelos Fátima Melo Fernando Diogo Helena Calado Jessica Coulon João Faria Santos Joaquim Teodósio José Simas Luz Paramio Mafalda Sousa Moniz Manuel Leitão Maria Isabel Condessa Maria João Pereira Maria Vale Marta Vergílio Mónica Moura Rosa Neves Simas Sílvia Pontes de Oliveira Session* Sector KR NG I O P 1 P T P/T 1 P 1 P/T P 1 1 P 1 P P P/T 1 1 Entity University of the Azores - Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources (CIBIO) Private Amigos dos Açores DSCNSA - Regional Environment Directorate University of the Azores - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR) University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores - Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources (CIBIO) University of the Azores University of the Azores - PhD Student Society for the Study of Birds, Azores (SPEA-Azores) Environmental management and Nature Conservation Society (AZORINA) Private Environmental Management and Nature Conservation Society (AZORINA) Regional Directorate of Forestry Resources DCE; University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores University of the Azores - Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources (CIBIO) DLLM, University of the Azores SRTT / DSE 261 1 1 1 P P PUB 1 1 P/T 1 P P T P T 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 P P 1 1 PRV Name Entity Virginie Leyendecker University of the Azores Sub-total Canary Islands (Gran Canaria Island, Nov. 18) Alejandro Padrón Padrón DRACAENA Consultants Almudena Suárez FCPCT - University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Bruno Berheide Spanish Bank of Algae Carlos Garcia-Verdugo Canarian Botanic Garden Cristian Ortiz García Student ULPGC Geography and Spatial Planning Fernando Tuya Cortés University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Government of the Canary Islands - Biodiversity Isabel Santana López Service Javier Rodríguez Fundación Canaria Parque Científico Tecnológico Juan Martinez Government of the Canary Islands Servicio Información Ambiental. Viceconsejería de Mª Rafela Rivero Suárez Medio Ambiente Marimar Villagarcia Oceanic Platform of the Canary Islands (PLOCAN) Territorial and Environmental Management and Marta Martínez Pérez Planning (Gesplan) – Gov. Canary Is. Pablo Manent University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Pedro Sosa University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Sub-total Canary Islands (Tenerife Island,Nov. 19) Alberto Brito Hernández University of La Laguna Carlos Sangil Hernández University of La Laguna Fabiana Private Giuseppe Nerilli University of La Laguna Jorge Alfredo Reyes Betancort Instituto Canario ee Investigaciones Agrarias José María Fernández-Palacios University of La Laguna 262 Session* P 27 P P P P P P Sector KR NG I O 1 19 2 PRV 6 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 P/T P P/T PUB 1 1 1 P 1 P 1 P 1 P/T P 14 1 1 8 P/T P/T T T P/T P/T 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 5 1 Name Session* P Sector KR NG I O 1 P/T 1 P/T P 1 1 Entity José Ramón Arévalo University of La Laguna Juana María Gonzalez- University of La Laguna Mancebo Laura Martín University of La Laguna Manuel Arbelo Perez University of La Laguna Government of the Canary Islands - Biodiversity María Nieves Pérez Service Mariano Hernandez Ferres University of La Laguna Marta Sansón Acedo University of La Laguna Natacha Aguilar de Soto University of La Laguna Sonia Ramos Maura SEO/Birdlife Sub-total Madeira Island (Nov. 24) Ana Margarida Salgueiro CIERL-University of Madeira, Research Centre on Rodrigues Regional and Local Studies Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (Gov. Carolina Santos Madeira) Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (Gov. Dília Menezes Madeira) Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (Gov. Dinarte Teixeira Madeira) Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (Gov. Duarte Barreto Madeira) Humberto Nóbrega ISOPlexis – University of Madeira Luis Freitas Madeira Whale Museum (Machico Municipality) Marine Biology Station of Funchal (Municipality of Mafalda Freitas Funchal) 263 P/T PUB PRV 1 P P/T T P 15 1 1 1 P/T 1 12 1 2 1 P/T 1 P/T 1 P/T 1 P 1 P/T P 1 1 P/T 1 0 Name Manfred Kaufmann Manuel Filipe Pedro Diniz Ricardo Araújo Rita Ferreira Sandra Hervías Parejo Sara Freitas Session* Sector KR NG I O P/T 1 Entity University of Madeira; Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMAR-Madeira) Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (Gov. Madeira) ITB - Investigação e Transferência de Biotecnologia, Lda Museum of Natural History of Funchal (Municipality of Funchal) Madeira Whale Museum / OOM-ARDITI Society for the Study of Birds, Madeira (SPEAMadeira) Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (Gov. Madeira) Sub-total TOTAL * Session: Public (P); Technical (T) 264 P P 1 1 1 P/T 1 P/T 15 80 PRV 1 T P PUB 1 7 54 1 5 7 20 0 1 Appendix 2. Feedback from evaluation forms of the first round of workshops (November 2014) Public session – 64 participants (Terceira - 10; São Miguel – 22; Gran Canaria – 6; Tenerife –12; Madeira - 14) Score* 1 2 3 1 5 8 5 Questions Public session dissemination Clarity of the information presented Potential benefits of the project for the region Credibility of the project to reach its 1 objectives and implement its results Average rating – 4,1 / 5 * Scores go from 1 (bad) to 5 (excellent) 1 Comments 4 5 23 19 22 29 Positive - Opportunity to clarify objectives; interdisciplinary nature of the project; multi-stakeholder consultation process; potential funding. 12 21 20 Negative - Dissemination of the event; information made available previously; not clear the benefits for the region. 16 27 9 Technical session – 41 participants (Terceira – 9; São Miguel – 9; Gran Canaria – 3; Tenerife – 11; Madeira – 10) Questions Score 1 2 Workshop information provided in advance (e.g. 2 dates, venue, programme) Workshop venue (adequacy of the room where the workshop took place) Materials used during the workshop to support the sessions Attainment of the objectives of the workshop Positive and collaborative 1 1 1 3 4 5 6 11 12 4 15 13 6 11 16 4 16 14 14 20 Comments Positive - Knowledge/information exchange; inclusive/participatory process of KBA definition; cooperation between institutions; identification of information gaps. Negative - Lack of applicability of methods to islands; generalization of IUCN Red List criteria to all taxonomic groups; dissemination of the event; information made available previously; low participation of researchers and public administration officers of relevant departments. 265 Questions Score 1 2 atmosphere among participants Duration of the workshop Opportunity for individual participation and input in the workshop Clear explanation of next 1 steps and tasks after the workshop Average rating – 4,4 / 5 * Scores go from 1 (bad) to 5 (excellent) 3 4 5 5 14 14 10 24 15 14 4 Comments 266 Appendix 3. List of participants on the second round of workshops (October 2015: Madeira and Canary Islands; February 2016: Azores) Madeira (Madeira Island, Oct. 5-6 ) Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMARAna Dinis Madeira) Cátia Gouveia Society for the Study of Birds, Madeira (SPEA-Madeira) Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMARCláudia Ribeiro Madeira); Oceanic Observatory of Madeira (OOM) Dinarte Teixeira Regional Directorate of Forestry and Nature Conservation (Government of Madeira) Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira (CIIMARFilipe Alves Madeira); Madeira Nature Park José Jesus University of Madeira Juan Silva Museum of Natural History of Funchal (Municipality of Funchal) Luís Freitas Madeira Whale Museum (Machico Municipality) Mafalda Freitas Marine Biology Station of Funchal (Municipality of Funchal) Rúben Faria da Paz Museum of Natural History of Funchal (Municipality of Funchal) Sérgio Teixeira Madeira Fauna & Flora Susana Fontinha ISOplexis Germobanco, University of Madeira Thomas Dellinger University of Madeira Ysabel Gonçalves Museum of Natural History of Funchal (Municipality of Funchal) Sub-total Canary Islands (Tenerife, Oct. 8-9 ) Alejandro Escárez Pérez Asociación Toniña, Tenerife Ana Crespo Torres Asociación Toniña, Tenerife Esther Martín González Museum of Natural Science of Tenerife Jacopo Marrero Pérez Asociación Toniña, Tenerife 267 PUB NGO Entity KRI Name PRV Sector 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 University of La Laguna PRV José Luis Martin Esquivel José-Maria Fernandez Palacios Juan Ramón Acebes Ginovés Marcelino José Del Arco Aguilar Nieves Zurita Pérez PUB Entity KRI Name NGO Sector 1 University of La Laguna 1 University of La Laguna 1 University of La Laguna 1 Government of the Canary Islands, Biodiversity Service Sub-total Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, Oct. 13 ) Agustín Naranjo Cigala University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Francisco Otero-Ferrer University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Juan Martínez Barrio Government of the Canary Islands - Biodiversity Service Ricardo Haroun University of Las Palmas of Gran Canaria Sub-total Azores (S. Miguel, Feb 2-5) Amélia Fonseca University of the Azores Ana Rainho University of Lisbon - Faculty of Science Anunciação Ventura University of the Azores Artur Gil University of the Azores Conceição Rodrigues Environmental management and Nature Conservation Society (AZORINA) Eduardo Dias (by skype) University of the Azores Emanuel Veríssimo DSCNSA - Regional Environment Directorate Joaquim Teodósio Society for the Study of Birds, Azores (SPEA-Azores) Mafalda Moniz Environmental management and Nature Conservation Society (AZORINA) Marco Santos Regional Directorate for the Environment and the Sea 268 4 3 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 3 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 University of the Azores University of the Azores – DOP, Institute of Marine Research University of the Azores University of the Azores – DOP, Institute of Marine Research Sub-total TOTAL 269 1 1 1 1 9 22 1 5 4 13 PRV Mónica Moura Mónica Silva Paulo Borges Verónica Neves PUB Entity KRI Name NGO Sector 0 1 Appendix 4. Species outcomes: globally threatened, restricted-range and congregatory species in the Macaronesian region Arthropods Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Acrostira euphorbiae Acrostira tenerifae Arthrodeis obesus gomerensis Calacalles droueti Calathus amplius Calathus lundbladi Palma Stick Grasshopper Tenerife Stick Grasshopper Calliphona alluaudi Calliphona gomerensis Calliphona koenigi Calliphona palmensis Canariola nubigena Canarobius oromii Carabus coarctatus Chrysolina fragariae Cionus canariensis Cixius cavazoricus Colletes dimidiatus Colletes moricei Crotchiella brachyptera Cycloptiloides canariensis Delagrangeus schurmanni Dericorys minutus Deucalion oceanicum Dicrodontus alluaudi Evergoderes cabrerai Gietella faialensis Gonepteryx cleobule Gonepteryx maderensis Graptodytes delectus Hipparchia bacchus Hipparchia tilosi Hogna ingens Hydroporus compunctus Hydroporus pilosus Hymenoptila lanzarotensis Ischnura hastata Leipaspis lauricola Leipaspis pinicola Loboptera subterranea Gran Canaria Green Bushcricket Gomera Green Bush-cricket Tenerife Green Bush-cricket Palma Green Bush-cricket Canarian Laurel Bush-cricket Longhorn beetle Canarian Tiny Cricket Maspalomas Bow-legged Grasshopper Gran Canaria Bush-cricket Canary Brimstone Madeiran Brimstone El Hierro Grayling La Palma Grayling Desertas Wolf Spider Lanzarote Malpais Cricket Damselfly, citrine forktail 270 CAN CAN RedList category CR CR CAN RR AZO CAN AZO RR EN loc RR CAN EN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN AZO CAN CAN AZO CAN CAN CAN EN VU EN VU RR RR RR CR loc RR VU VU EN VU VU CR MAD CAN CAN AZO CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN No CAN CAN CAN RR CR loc CR RR VU EN EN VU VU CR CR EN VU VU VU EN EN loc Endemic Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Macarorchiestia martini Maiorerus randoi Meladema imbricata Meladema lanio Morlockia ondinae Paradeucalion desertarum Paradromius tamaranus Pararge xiphia Pieris cheiranthi Pieris wollastoni Pimelia fernandezlopezi Pimelia radula radula Pseudoblothrus oromii Purpuraria erna Purpuraria magna Beachflea Sphingonotus guanchus Sphingonotus picteti Sphingonotus rugosus Thalassophilus azoricus Trechus detersus Trechus isabelae Trechus jorgensis Trechus oromii Turinyphia cavernicola Madeiran Speckled Wood Canary Islands Large White Madeiran Large White Purpurarian Stick Grasshopper Lanzarote Stick Grasshopper Gran Canaria Sand Grasshopper Tenerife Sand Grasshopper Rugose Sand Grasshopper Ground beetle Dwarf spider AZO CAN CAN MAD CAN MAD CAN MAD CAN MAD CAN CAN AZO CAN CAN RedList category RR EN loc CR VU RR RR RR EN EN CR VU loc RR RR EN EN CAN EN CAN CAN AZO CAN AZO AZO AZO AZO VU VU RR CR loc RR RR RR RR Endemic Birds Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Endemic Anthus berthelotii berthelotii Buteo buteo rothschildi Bulweria bulwerii Calonectris borealis Chlamydotis undulata Columba bollii Columba junoniae Columba trocaz Corvus corax canariensis Fringilla teydea polatzeki Fringilla teydea teydea Hydrobates castro Hydrobates monteiroi Marmaronetta angustirostris Neophron percnopterus Pelagodroma marina Pterodroma deserta Pterodroma madeira Puffinus lherminieri Anthus berthelotii Azores Buzzard Bulwer's Petrel Cory's Shearwater African Houbara Bustard Dark-tailed Laurel-pigeon White-tailed Laurel-pigeon Madeira Laurel-pigeon Canary Islands Chaffinch Teyde finch Band-rumped Storm-petrel Monteiro's Storm-petrel Marbled Teal MACAR AZO No No No CAN CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN No AZO No RedList category VU loc ssp RR CONGR CONGR VU RR RR RR RR RR RR CONGR VU VU Undulate Ray White-faced Storm petrel Desertas Petrel Zino's Petrel Barolo shearwater No No MAD MAD MACAR EN CONGR VU EN RR Common Raven (Canarian) 271 Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Puffinus yelkouan Yelkouan Shearwater Pyrrhula murina Azores Bullfinch Regulus regulus sanctae Santa Maria Goldcrest mariae Saxicola dacotiae dacotiae No AZO AZO RedList category VU EN CR loc ssp CAN RR No No CAN CONGR CONGR RR RedList category CR CR CR CR CR CR CR VU EN EN EN EN EN EN EN VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU Endemic Fuerteventura Stonechat Sterna dougallii Sterna hirundo Tyto alba gracilirostris Roseae tern Common tern Barn Owl Fishes Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Endemic Dipturus batis Squatina aculeata Squatina oculata Squatina squatina Anguilla anguilla Lamna nasus Squalus acanthias Sardinella maderensis Raja undulata Rostroraja alba Sphyrna mokarran Epinephelus marginatus Mycteroperca fusca Rhinobatos rhinobatos Thunnus thynnus Carcharhinus obscurus Carcharhinus plumbeus Centrophorus granulosus Centrophorus lusitanicus Galeorhinus galeus Isurus paucus Leucoraja circularis Manta alfredi Oxynotus centrina Sphyrna zygaena Alopias superciliosus Alopias vulpinus Bodianus scrofa Carcharhinus longimanus Carcharodon carcharias Centrophorus squamosus Cetorhinus maximus Gymnura altavela Isurus oxyrinchus Kajikia albida Blue Skate Sawback Angelshark Smoothback Angel Shark Angel Shark European Eel No No No No No No No No No No No No MACAR No No No No No No No No No No No No No No MACAR No No No No No No No Spiny Dogfish Madeiran Sardinella Undulate Ray Bottlenose Skate Great Hammerhead Dusky Grouper Island Grouper Common Guitarfish Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Dusky Shark Sandbar Shark Gulper Shark Lowfin Gulper Shark Tope Longfin Mako Sandy Skate Reef Manta Ray Angular Rough Shark Smooth Hammerhead Bigeye Thresher Shark Common Thresher Shark Barred hogfish Oceanic Whitetip Shark Great White Shark Deepwater Spiny Dogfish Basking shark Spiny butterfly ray Shortfin Mako White Marlin 272 Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Makaira nigricans Manta birostris Mustelus mustelus Odontaspis ferox Blue Marlin Giant Manta Ray Common Smoothhound Small-tooth Sand Tiger Shark Scalloped Hammerhead Bigeye tuna Whale shark Gray Triggerfish Sphyrna lewini Thunnus obesus Rhincodon typus Balistes capriscus Endemic No No No No RedList category VU VU VU VU No No No No VU VU VU VU Crustaceans Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Endemism Palinurus elephas Megabalanus azoricus European Spiny Lobster Giant barnacle No MACAR RedList category VU RR Mammals Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Endemism Balaenoptera borealis Balaenoptera musculus Balaenoptera physalus Crocidura canariensis Eubalaena glacialis Monachus monachus Nyctalus azoreum Nyctalus leisleri verrucosus Physeter macrocephalus Pipistrellus maderensis Plecotus teneriffae Sei Whale Blue Whale Fin Whale Canarian Shrew North Atlantic Right Whale Mediterranean Monk Seal Azores Bat Leisler's Bat Sperm whale Madeira Pipistrelle Canary Big-eared Bat No No No CAN No No AZO MAD No MACAR CAN RedList category EN EN EN EN EN EN EN CR loc ssp VU EN EN Molluscs Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Actinella actinophora Actinella armitageana Actinella arridens Actinella carinofausta Actinella giramica Actinella laciniosa Actinella littorinella Actinella obserata Amphorella cimensis Amphorella hypselia Amphorella iridescens Endemism MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD 273 RedList category VU VU CR EN VU VU VU CR VU VU VU Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Amphorella melampoides Atlantica gueriniana Canariella bimbachensis Canariella eutropis Canariella fortunata Canariella hispidula Canariella huttereri Canariella jandiaensis Canariella leprosa Canariella pontelirae Canariella pthonera Canariella ronceroi Caseolus baixoensis Caseolus calculus Caseolus calvus Caseolus galeatus Caseolus leptostictus Caseolus subcalliferus Cecilioides eulima Craspedopoma lyonnetianum Cryptella susannae Cylichnidia ovuliformis Discula bulverii Discula lyelliana Discula pulvinata Discula tabellata Discula tectiformis Discula testudinalis Discula tetrica Disculella spirulina Geomitra delphinuloides Geomitra grabhami Geomitra moniziana Geomitra tiarella Hemicycla efferata Hemicycla eurythyra Hemicycla inutilis Hemicycla mascaensis Hemicycla modesta Hemicycla paeteliana Hemicycla plicaria Hemicycla pouchadan Hemicycla pouchet Hemicycla saulcyi Hystricella leacockiana Hystricella turricula Idiomela subplicata Lampadia webbiana Leiostyla abbreviata Leiostyla arborea Endemism MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD CAN MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD 274 RedList category VU CR VU EN VU VU EN CR VU VU VU CR VU VU EN CR VU CR CR VU EN loc VU CR CR EN CR EN CR CR VU CR CR EN EN CR VU VU CR CR CR CR EN VU CR VU VU CR EN CR VU Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Leiostyla cassida Leiostyla cassidula Leiostyla colvillei Leiostyla corneocostata Leiostyla falknerorum Leiostyla ferraria Leiostyla filicum Leiostyla gibba Leiostyla heterodon Leiostyla laurinea Leiostyla macilenta Leiostyla simulator Leptaxis caldeirarum Leptaxis furva Leptaxis minor Leptaxis simia ssp. portosancti Leptaxis wollastoni Monilearia arguineguinensis Monilearia granostriata Monilearia pulverulenta Monilearia tumulorum Moreletina obruta Napaeus boucheti Napaeus doliolum Napaeus elegans Napaeus esbeltus Napaeus exilis Napaeus isletae Napaeus lichenicola Napaeus myosotis Napaeus nanodes Napaeus ornamentatus Napaeus osoriensis Napaeus roccellicola Napaeus rupicola Napaeus tagamichensis Napaeus taguluchensis Napaeus teobaldoi Obelus despreauxii Obelus discogranulatus Obelus moratus Oxychilus agostinhoi Oxychilus lineolatus Parmacella tenerifensis Patella candei Plutonia albopalliata Plutonia angulosa Plutonia dianae Plutonia falcifera Plutonia machadoi Endemism MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD AZO MAD AZO MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN AZO CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN AZO AZO CAN MACAR MAD AZO CAN CAN CAN 275 RedList category CR CR VU VU EN VU VU CR VU VU VU CR EN VU EN VU EN CR CR CR CR VU VU EN VU VU CR CR VU EN EN VU CR VU VU VU VU CR VU EN VU VU VU EN RR VU CR VU CR CR Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Plutonia reticulata Sculptiferussacia clausiliaeformis Serratorotula coronata Spirorbula squalida Theba arinagae Theba grasseti Theba impugnata Xerotricha pavida Endemism CAN CAN MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN RedList category CR EN EN VU CR EN VU EN Plants Scientific Name Adenocarpus ombriosus Aeonium balsamiferum Aeonium gomerense Aeonium saundersii Agrostis congestiflora oreophila Agrostis gracililaxa var. mutica Agrostis obtusissima Agrostis reuteri ssp. botelhoi Aichryson tortuosum Aichryson bituminosum Aichryson dumosum Aichryson pachycaulon spp. praetermissum Aichryson pachycaulon ssp. pachycaulon Aichryson porphyrogennetos Aichryson villosum Alophosia azorica Ammi huntii Ammi trifoliatum Ammi seubertianum Ammodaucus leucotrichus ssp. nanocarpus Amphidium curvipes Anagyris latifolia Andoa berthelotiana Androcymbium hierrense ssp. hierrense Androcymbium hierrense ssp. macrospermum Androcymbium psammophilum Andryala crithmifolia Angelica lignescens Anthyllis lemanniana Aphanolejeunea azorica Aphanolejeunea madeirensis Common Name (EN) Bird’s-nest moss Azorean pouncewort Pouncewort 276 Endemism CAN CAN CAN CAN AZO AZO MAD AZO CAN CAN MAD CAN RedList category EN VU EN VU EN loc ssp EN loc RR EN loc ssp RR EN loc CR EN loc ssp CAN CR loc ssp CAN MACAR MACAR AZO AZO AZO CAN VU loc CR loc VU loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN loc ssp MACAR CAN MACAR CAN VU loc EN EN loc EN loc ssp CAN EN loc ssp CAN MAD AZO MAD MACAR MACAR VU CR EN loc RR VU loc VU loc Scientific Name Apollonias barbujana ssp. ceballosi Arachniodes webbianum Arbutus canariensis Argyranthemum adauctum ssp. erythrocapon Argyranthemum adauctum ssp. jacobaeifolium Argyranthemum adauctum ssp. palmensis Argyranthemum dissectum Argyranthemum haematomma Argyranthemum lidii Argyranthemum pinnatifidum ssp. succulentum Argyranthemum sundingii Argyranthemum thalassophilum Argyranthemum winteri Armeria maderensis Armeria maritima ssp. azorica Asparagus arborescens Asparagus fallax Asparagus nesiotes Asparagus plocamoides Asparagus umbellatus subsp. lowei Asplenium anceps Asplenium trichomanes ssp. maderense Atractylis arbuscula Atractylis preauxiana Azorina vidalii Bellis azorica Bencomia brachystachya Bencomia exstipulata Bencomia sphaerocarpa Berberis maderensis Beta patula Brachymenium notarisii Bryoxiphium madeirense Bunium brevifolium Bupleurum handiense Bystropogon maderensis Camptoloma canariensis Canariothamnus hermosae Cardamine caldeirarum Carduus bourgeaui Carduus volutarioides Carex perraudieriana Cerastium azoricum Common Name (EN) Moss 277 Endemism CAN RedList category CR ssp MAD CAN CAN RR VU CR loc ssp CAN EN loc ssp CAN CR loc ssp MAD MAD CAN MAD RR RR EN VU ssp CAN MAD CAN MAD AZO CAN CAN MACAR CAN MAD CR loc EN CR RR EN loc ssp VU EN EN VU RR MACAR MAD EN loc RR CAN CAN AZO AZO CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD MACAR MAD MAD CAN MAD CAN CAN AZO CAN CAN CAN AZO EN EN EN CR loc CR VU CR RR CR VU loc EN RR EN RR VU loc VU EN loc CR loc EN loc CR loc CR loc Scientific Name Cerastium sventenii Cerastium vagans var. vagans Ceropegia dichotoma ssp. krainzii Ceterach lolegnamense Chaerophyllum azoricum Chamaemeles coriacea Cheilolejeunea cedercreutzii Cheirolophus arboreus Cheirolophus arbutifolius Cheirolophus duranii Cheirolophus falcisectus Cheirolophus ghomerythus Cheirolophus junonianus Cheirolophus massonianus Cheirolophus metlesicsii Cheirolophus santos-abreui Cheirolophus satarataensis Cheirolophus sventenii gracilis Cheirolophus tagananensis Chenopodium coronopus Cicer canariense Cistus chinamadensis Cistus osbeckiifolius ssp. osbeckiifolius Cololejeunea schaeferi Convolvulus glandulosus Convolvulus lopezsocasii Convolvulus massonii Convolvulus scoparius Convolvulus subauriculatus Convolvulus volubilis Corema album ssp. azoricum Crambe arborea Crambe feuillei Crambe gomerae Crambe laevigata Crambe microcarpa Crambe pritzelii Crambe scaberrima Crambe scoparia Crambe sventenii Crambe tamadabensis Crambe wildpretii Crepis noronhaea Crepis vesicaria andryaloides Dactylis metlesicsii Daphne laureola Delphinium maderense Dendriopoterium pulidoi Common Name (EN) Spurge laurel 278 Endemism CAN MAD CAN RedList category EN RR EN ssp MAD AZO MAD AZO CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN RR CR loc VU RR EN loc VU loc CR EN EN EN EN CR CR VU RR VU CR loc EN EN EN loc ssp MACAR CAN CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN AZO CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD CAN AZO MAD CAN VU loc EN loc EN VU VU loc CR loc EN loc CR loc ssp VU CR VU EN EN EN VU EN CR CR CR RR RR EN loc CR loc RR VU Scientific Name Deschampsia maderensis Descurainia artemisioides Diphasiastrum madeirense Dorycnium broussonetii Dorycnium spectabile Dracaena draco Dracaena tamaranae Dryopteris affinis Echinodium renauldii Echinodium setigerum Echinodium spinosum Echium acanthocarpum Echium callithyrsum Echium decaisnei purpuriense Echium gentianoides Echium handiense Echium onosmifolium spectabile Echium pininana Echium sventenii Echium wildpretii trichosiphon Elaphoglossum semicylindricum Erysimum arbuscula Erysimum maderense Euphorbia anachoreta Euphorbia bourgeana Euphorbia bravoana Euphorbia handiensis Euphorbia piscatoria Euphorbia stygiana santamariae Euphorbia stygiana stygiana Euphrasia azorica Euphrasia grandiflora Ferula latipinna Fissidens coacervatus Fissidens nobreganus Frangula azorica Frullania sergiae Fumaria muralis muralis var. laeta Gaudinia coarctata Genista benehoavensis Geranium maderense Geranium rubescens Gesnouinia arborea Globularia ascanii Globularia sarcophylla Goodyera macrophylla Grimmia curviseta Common Name (EN) Canary Island Dragon Tree Moss Pocket-moss 279 Endemism MAD CAN MACAR CAN CAN MACAR RedList category RR EN loc CR loc CR loc EN EN CAN AZO AZO MAD MACAR CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MACAR MAD MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN MAD AZO CR loc VU loc VU VU CR loc CR VU EN ssp VU CR EN ssp EN CR loc VU loc ssp RR RR RR RR VU VU loc VU RR CR ssp AZO AZO AZO CAN MACAR MAD AZO MAD MAD EN loc ssp CR loc CR loc VU VU loc VU loc EN loc VU loc RR AZO CAN MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN VU loc VU CR RR VU loc CR VU CR VU loc Scientific Name Heberdenia excelsa Hedenasiastrum percurrens Helianthemum aganae Helianthemum bramwelliorum Helianthemum bystropogophyllum Helianthemum gonzalezferreri Helianthemum inaguae Helianthemum juliae Helianthemum teneriffae Helianthemum tholiforme Helichrysum alucense Helichrysum devium Helichrysum gossypinum Helichrysum monizii Helichrysum monogynum Himantoglossum metlesicsianum Holcus azoricus Hymenophyllum maderense Hypericum coadunatum Hypochaeris oligocephala Ilex perado ssp. azorica Ilex perado ssp. lopezlilloi Ilex perado ssp. platyphylla Isoetes azorica Isoplexis chalcantha Isoplexis isabelliana Isoplexis sceptrum Jasminum azoricum Juniperus brevifolia Juniperus cedrus Kunkeliella canariensis Kunkeliella psilotoclada Kunkeliella subsucculenta Lactuca watsoniana Laphangium teydeum Lavandula stoechas maderensis Lejeunea canariensis Leptodon longisetus Leucodon canariensis Leucodon treleasei Limonium benmageci Limonium bourgeaui Limonium brassicifolium macropterum Limonium brassicifolium ssp.brassicifolium Limonium dendroides Common Name (EN) Metlesics' Himantoglossum Cresta de Gallo Azores Juniper Canary Islands Juniper White-tooth 280 Endemism MACAR MAD CAN CAN CAN RedList category VU VU loc CR loc CR loc CR CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN MAD CAN CAN CR loc CR loc CR loc CR EN loc CR loc RR VU RR EN EN AZO MAD CAN CAN AZO CAN CAN AZO CAN CAN MAD MAD AZO MACAR CAN CAN CAN AZO CAN MAD VU loc RR CR loc CR VU loc ssp CR ssp VU ssp VU CR EN RR CR VU EN CR loc CR CR EN EN loc RR MACAR MAD MACAR MACAR CAN CAN CAN VU loc VU loc VU loc VU loc CR loc CR loc EN loc ssp CAN EN loc ssp CAN CR Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Limonium fruticans Limonium imbricatum Limonium macrophyllum Limonium ovalifolium canariense Limonium ovalifolium pyramidatum Limonium papillatum var.callibotryum Limonium perezii Limonium preauxii Limonium puberulum Limonium redivivum Limonium relicticum Limonium spectabile Limonium sventenii Limonium vigaroense Lobularia canariensis rosulaventi Lobularia canariensis succulenta Lophochloa azorica Lotus arinagensis Lotus azoricus Lotus berthelotii Lotus callis-viridis Lotus eremiticus Lotus kunkelii Lotus loweanus Lotus macranthus Lotus maculatus Lotus pyranthus Lotus spartioides Luzula seubertii Malva canariensis Marcetella maderensis Melanoselinum decipiens Micromeria densiflora Micromeria glomerata Micromeria leucantha Micromeria pineolens Micromeria rivas-martinezii Misopates salvagense Monanthes lowei Monanthes wildpretii Monizia edulis Musschia wollastonii Myosotis azorica Myosotis maritima Myrica rivas-martinezii 281 Endemism CAN CAN CAN CAN RedList category EN EN loc VU loc CR loc ssp MAD RR MAD RR CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD VU EN EN loc EN loc CR loc CR CR CR loc RR MAD RR AZO CAN AZO CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD CAN MAD MAD AZO AZO CAN EN loc CR loc CR loc CR loc EN CR CR RR RR CR CR VU loc RR EN loc EN RR EN loc CR EN EN loc CR RR RR CR CR EN VU EN loc CR Scientific Name Normania triphylla Ononis christii Onopordum carduelium Onopordum nogalesii Orchis scopulorum Orthotrichum handiense Parafestuca albida Parolinia filifolia Parolinia glabriusucula Parolinia platypetala Parolinia schizogynoides Patellifolia webbiana Pelekium atlanticum Pericallis hadrosoma Pericallis malvifolia malvifolia Pericallis malvifolia caldeirae Peucedanum lowei Phalaris maderensis Picconia azorica Picconia excelsa Pittosporum coriaceum Plagiochila maderensis Plantago afra var. obtusata Plantago famarae Plantago malato-belizii Platanthera azorica Platanthera micrantha Platanthera pollostantha Pleiomeris canariensis Polystichum drepanum Prunus azorica Prunus hixa Pteris incompleta Pulicaria canariensis canariensis Pulicaria canariensis ssp. lanata Radula jonesii Radula wichurae Rhamnus integrifolia Rhynchostegiella bourgaeana Riccia atlantica Rubus grandifolius Rumex azoricus Rumex obtusifolius obtusifolius Rumex simpliciflorus maderensis Ruta microcarpa Ruta oreojasme Salvia broussonetii Salvia herbanica Common Name (EN) butterfly-orchid Bitter Dock 282 Endemism MAD CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MACAR CAN AZO AZO MAD MAD AZO MACAR MAD MACAR MAD CAN MAD AZO AZO AZO CAN MAD AZO No No CAN RedList category RR CR loc CR CR RR EN loc RR EN loc CR loc CR loc VU CR VU loc CR CR loc ssp CR ssp RR VU VU loc VU CR VU loc RR CR RR CR loc EN RR EN CR CR loc VU VU EN loc ssp CAN MACAR MACAR CAN MACAR MAD MAD AZO AZO MAD EN loc ssp VU CR loc VU VU loc VU RR CR loc EN loc ssp RR CAN CAN CAN CAN EN VU loc EN loc CR Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Sambucus lanceolata Sambucus nigra ssp. palmensis Sanicula azorica Saxifraga portosanctana Scabiosa nitens Schizogyne glaberrima Scilla madeirensis var. melliodora Scrophularia calliantha Scrophularia lowei Scrophularia racemosa Sedum brissemoretii Sedum fusiforme Semele gayae Siderites candicans var. crassifolia Siderites candicans var. multiflora Sideritis cystosiphon Sideritis discolor Sideritis guayedrae Sideritis infernalis Sideritis marmorea Sideritis nervosa Sideritis pumila Sideritis sventenii Sideroxylon canariensis Sideroxylon mirmulans Silene nocteolens Silene sabinosae Silene uniflora cratericola Sinapidendron angustifolium Sinapidendron frutescens Sinapidendron rupestre Sinapidendron sempervivifolium Smilax divaricata Solanum lidii Solanum patens Solanum vespertilio doramae Solanum vespertilio vespertilio Sonchus gandogeri Sonchus wildpretii Sorbus maderensis Stemmacantha cynaroides Sventenia bupleuroides Tanacetum oshanahanii Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum Telaranea azorica Teline maderensis var. paivae Teline nervosa 283 Endemism MAD CAN AZO MAD AZO CAN MAD RedList category RR EN ssp EN loc VU EN loc EN loc RR CAN MAD MAD MAD MAD CAN MAD CR loc RR RR VU RR VU loc RR MAD RR CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MACAR CAN CAN AZO MAD MAD MAD MAD AZO CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN MACAR MAD CAN CR CR EN loc VU CR EN loc EN loc CR loc VU loc VU CR EN loc CR loc ssp CR EN CR EN EN loc CR RR CR loc ssp CR loc ssp CR CR loc CR EN EN CR EN EN loc RR CR Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Teline pallida allida Teline pallida ilensis Teline rosmarinifolia Teline salsoloides Teucrium abutiloides Teucrium heterophyllum heterophyllum Teucrium heterophyllum hierrense Thamnobryum fernandesii Tolpis crassiuscula Tolpis glabrescens Tolpis succulenta Tortella limbata Tylimanthus madeirensis Urtica morifolia Veronica dabneyi Viburnum treleasei Vicia capreolata Vicia costae Vicia ferreirensis Viola palmensis Viola paradoxa Volutaria bollei Aichryson santamariensis Gelidium canariense Endemism CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD RedList category VU loc ssp CR loc ssp EN CR CR RR CAN EN loc MAD CAN CAN MACAR MACAR MAD MACAR AZO AZO MAD MAD MAD CAN MAD CAN AZO CAN EN CR loc EN EN loc VU loc VU loc CR loc CR loc EN loc EN CR CR RR RR CR loc CR loc RR Endemism RedList category EN EN EN VU CR CR CR VU loc Reptiles Scientific Name Common Name (EN) Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle No Chalcides simonyi CAN Chelonia mydas Green Turtle No Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback Turtle No Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill Turtle No Gallotia auaritae La Palma Giant Lizard CAN Gallotia bravoana La Gomera Giant Lizard CAN Gallotia galloti Tenerife Lizard CAN insulanagae Gallotia intermedia Tenerife Speckled Lizard CAN CR Gallotia simonyi El Hierro Giant Lizard CAN CR Tarentola bischoffi Boettger's Wall Gecko MAD VU loc Lepidochelys kempii Kemp's Ridley Turtle No CR Lepidochelys olivacea Olive Ridley Turtle No VU CR= Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; RR = Restricted range; ssp = sub-species The suffix “loc” indicates that the species is listed as threatened in a sub-global Red List using the IUCN guidelines. 284 Restricted range species are endemic species that do not fall under the previous categories, but are listed as endangered in sub-global Red Lists and check lists, using other criteria than IUCN’s. 285 VU EN CR RR CONGR Priority Level Reptiles Plants Fish Molluscs Mammals Crustaceans Key Biodiversity Area Artrophods Code Birds Appendix 5. Key Biodiversity Areas in the Macaronesian region 4 4 6 4 2 2 1 2 4 1 3 3 Protection Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) AZORES COR1 COR2 COR3 FAI1 FAI2 FAI3 FAI4 FLO1 FLO2 GRA1 GRA2 GRA3 GRA4 PIC1 PIC2 PIC3 PIC4 SJG1 Coast of Corvo island Central area of Corvo island Oceanic area north of Corvo and Faial islands Oceanic coastal areas of Faial Central area of Faial Great crater of Faial Castelo Branco Marine area of Corvo and Flores Flores islands and adjacent islets Coastal areas and islets of Graciosa island Marine area of Graciosa island Southwest area of Graciosa island North and northeast area of Graciosa island Oceanic coastal areas of Pico Faial-Pico channel Central area of Pico island Pico mountain crater Western marine area of S. Jorge island 5 2 1 1 11 10 1 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 7 5 7 5 7 1 5 Whole 2,607 0 Little/none Some Whole Whole Whole Some 33 62 1 1 2,104 143 33 62 1 0 0 141 10 23 12 1 4 3 7 11 5 1 3 8 4 4 4 1 2 1 33 8 15 10 1 3 2 4 3 3 1 4 5 3 1 10 6 5 1 2 4 2 Some 6 5 4 3 2 3 2 4 2 Whole Little/none 277 13 0 13 1 3 5 Most Some 4 4 1 7 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 Little/none 20 20 20 7 5 1 2 36 5 9 10 2 17 3 10 1 5 1 3 4 3 1 5 Some Whole Some Some Little/none 80 241 184 4 331 80 0 184 4 0 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 2 286 Priority Level VU Reptiles Plants Fish Molluscs Mammals Crustaceans Artrophods Some 80 80 1 4 1 4 3 3 3 3 2 Some Little/none Little/none Little/none Some Little/none Little/none 32 1 1 7 33 9 19 32 1 1 7 33 9 19 5 1 3 2 Little/none 18 18 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 4 1 1 4 2 4 1 4 4 4 2 Little/none Whole Little/none Whole Most Little/none Little/none Some Some Some Whole Whole Whole Little/none 32 506 1 36 1 3 95 63 64 145 9 20 1 21 32 0 1 9 1 3 95 63 64 145 9 0 0.2 21 3 11 5 21 5 7 1 7 15 4 10 1 3 3 1 5 10 1 2 3 8 3 5 1 4 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 10 3 6 12 4 8 1 1 5 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 9 10 13 20 15 14 3 3 1 3 6 5 3 2 10 3 1 2 2 17 6 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 4 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 CONGR SMA3 SMA4 SMA5 SMA6 SMA7 SMA8 SMG1 SMG2 SMG3 SMG4 SMG5 SMG6 TER1 TER2 RR SMA2 1 1 1 2 CR SJG3 SJG4 SJG5 SJG6 SJG7 SJG8 SMA1 6 EN SJG2 Key Biodiversity Area Topo islet and coastal areas of S. Jorge island Pico da Esperança Beira Pico do Pedro Silveira Topo ridge Toledo Vila islet and west coast of Santa Maria Lagoinhas islet and east coast of Santa Maria Santa Barbara-Santo Espirito Marine area of Santa Maria São Pedro Formigas islet and Dollabarat reef Pico Alto São Lourenço Coastal areas of S. Miguel Sete Cidades Massif Fogo-Congro Massif Pico da Vara Furnas Ferraria tip - Bretanha tip Contendas Coastal areas of Terceira island Birds Code 1 1 287 1 7 5 8 11 10 10 3 1 1 6 4 6 4 5 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 Protection Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) 7 5 4 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 6 5 2 1 4 1 2 1 9 22 12 30 1 4 18 1 7 15 6 30 1 1 1 13 4 1 1 MAD8 MAD9 PSA1 PSA2 PSA3 PSA4 PSA5 SEL1 Ponta do Pargo Santana Coastal cliffs of Madeira island Santa Cruz Creek Camacho and Caniço São Vicente São João creek - Santa Luzia creek João Gomes creek Funchal - São Roque Pico Branco Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo Porto Santo - west Northeast area of Porto Santo Porto Santo Beach Selvagens Islands 3 2 4 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 3 7 1 2 1 1 4 3 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 4 3 2 2 6 1 1 1 5 MADEIRA 15 62 1 7 2 2 5 4 5 2 1 2 Priority Level 1 CONGR 1 Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) RR 1 Reptiles 15 Plants 10 Fish 33 Molluscs 1 Mammals 2 MAD12 Coastal marine area of Madeira island MAD2 MAD3 MAD4 MAD5 MAD6 MAD7 Crustaceans 1 Protection CR DES1 Desertas Islands MAD1 Madeira Nature Park (enlarged) MAD10 Machico EN TER5 VU TER4 Artrophods TER3 Key Biodiversity Area S. Barbara and Misterios Negros ridge Biscoitos da Ferraria Matela-Cinco Picos-Biscoito das Fontinhas South coastal areas of Terceira island Birds Code 7 5 5 Some 127 127 1 3 Little/none 42 42 2 3 Little/none 6 6 3 2 1 1 4 Whole Most Little/none 765 475 5 14 475 5 4 Whole 42 0 5 2 1 2 2 2 Whole Little/none Little/none Little/none Little/none Little/none 12 31 32 6 9 5 8 31 32 6 9 5 1 1 Little/none 15 15 Little/none Whole 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 6 2 1 4 3 6 12 1 5 1 2 1 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 11 9 4 2 2 1 Whole 27 0 3 1 6 6 17 6 6 12 3 2 6 3 4 1 4 3 1 17 2 1 1 4 2 1 2 1 Whole Little/none Little/none Whole 9 11 8 1,246 9 11 8 3 14 7 8 11 1 288 1 1 GCA18 Las Palmas 2 GCA19 GCA2 GCA20 GCA3 GCA4 Sardina Los Marteles Marine coastal area of Gran Canaria Guiguí Tamadaba - south 1 2 24 2 2 8 1 3 6 7 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 3 9 26 1 9 8 289 1 7 6 1 2 10 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 3 14 2 7 6 2 3 1 1 7 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 10 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 Priority Level 11 6 3 1 7 5 1 4 1 13 1 1 5 1 2 3 5 2 CONGR VU Reptiles 1 4 1 6 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 Plants 1 1 RR 1 9 1 2 1 5 4 2 1 2 8 2 2 3 1 CR 1 1 Fish Crustaceans Artrophods 2 1 1 4 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 1 CANARY ISLANDS 6 19 6 1 3 2 9 1 3 1 EN 7 4 4 4 8 8 5 6 Molluscs Jandía Peninsula Cardón mountain La Lajita Tarajalejo mountain range Central area of Fuerteventura North area of Fuerteventura Tesejerague Island of Lobos Marine coastal are of Fuerteventura La Solana Tufia Arinaga - El Burrero Amurga - Fataga Jinámar Mogane Tauro Pilancones San Agostin - Castillo del Romeral Mammals FUE1 FUE2 FUE3 FUE4 FUE5 FUE6 FUE7 FUE8 FUE9 GCA1 GCA10 GCA11 GCA12 GCA13 GCA14 GCA15 GCA16 GCA17 Key Biodiversity Area Birds Code 1 3 2 2 3 1 4 1 5 1 2 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 Protection Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) Most Most Little/none Some Most Some Little/none Whole Most Whole Little/none Little/none Most Little/none Whole Some Some Little/none 178 15 2 3 456 222 4 5 474 110 7 8 42 2 13 45 131 20 178 15 2 3 456 222 4 5 5 110 7 8 42 2 13 45 131 20 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Most 3 3 1 2 3 1 4 3 1 Little/none Some Some Whole Most 1 124 427 23 18 1 124 0 23 18 1 3 2 2 2 7 2 4 2 5 3 3 4 4 2 6 2 5 5 5 4 1 7 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 8 1 1 5 10 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 10 8 11 3 1 15 290 1 1 1 21 4 10 1 6 2 7 1 2 3 6 3 7 4 6 3 6 2 4 2 2 6 5 6 2 1 7 1 6 2 12 2 3 9 2 1 2 2 1 1 4 1 3 1 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 4 1 3 3 3 3 1 2 6 4 1 3 1 1 4 2 8 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 Priority Level 17 6 11 2 4 14 3 6 1 3 1 4 1 1 CONGR VU Reptiles Plants 22 8 22 3 5 38 4 19 1 10 4 9 1 1 1 1 2 Fish Molluscs Mammals Crustaceans Artrophods 3 1 7 1 1 3 RR 5 1 1 CR Tamadaba - north Barrial - Becerril Santo Andrés - Valle Seco Cruz de Pineda - Barranco del Pino Pino Santo Garajonay- Chejelipes La Fortaleza Epina Alojera Taguluche Argaga gully Garajonay - Central Risco de La Merica Arguayoda Punta del Espino Cabrito gully Igualero - Antocojo Coast of Vale Hermoso Majona Coast of Agulo Los Chapines Tazo Los Organos Frontera - central area Frontera - east EN GCA5 GCA6 GCA7 GCA8 GCA9 GOM1 GOM10 GOM11 GOM12 GOM13 GOM14 GOM15 GOM16 GOM17 GOM18 GOM2 GOM3 GOM4 GOM5 GOM6 GOM7 GOM8 GOM9 HIE1 HIE10 Key Biodiversity Area Birds Code 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 4 1 5 4 5 2 2 5 4 2 1 3 4 1 4 Protection Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) Some Little/none Most Some Some Some Some Most Little/none Some Most Whole Some Some Whole Some Some Whole Most Some Some Some Whole Most Some 47 25 61 11 11 58 5 13 1 19 3 14 1 2 22 9 15 2 8 9 9 9 0.4 0.4 3 47 25 61 11 11 58 5 13 1 19 3 14 1 2 0 9 15 2 8 9 9 9 0.4 0.4 3 HIE11 HIE12 HIE13 HIE2 HIE3 HIE4 HIE5 HIE6 HIE7 HIE8 HIE9 LAN1 LAN10 LAN11 LAN12 LAN13 LAN14 LAN15 LAN16 LAN17 LAN18 LAN19 LAN2 LAN20 LAN21 Roques de Salmor Southwest marine area of El Hierro Northeast marine area of El Hierro Echedo Timijiraque Las Playas - south Frontera - west Valverde Garoe Las Playas - north Frontera - south Chinijo archipelago Arrefice Cable Beach White Mountain The Islet Montañas de Fuego Los Volcanes - north Tinguatón Tegoyo - Masdache Los Volcanes - east Yaiza Famara sandy plain North of Los Hervideros North of El Cuchillo 2 2 4 8 1 1 1 3 2 2 3 3 1 6 5 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 1 1 6 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 291 1 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 Priority Level CONGR RR 1 1 1 3 CR EN VU 1 1 2 1 2 6 3 Reptiles Plants Fish Molluscs Mammals Crustaceans Artrophods Key Biodiversity Area Birds Code 3 5 3 1 3 3 3 1 5 2 2 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 5 3 2 4 4 3 Protection Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) Whole Whole Little/none Little/none Some Some Whole Most Whole Some Most Whole Little/none Little/none Whole Whole Whole Whole Some Most Whole Little/none Most Most Little/none 0.5 99 4 5 5 3 9 5 0.4 3 27 1,426 1 1 1 5 1 1 4 4 1 1 97 30 0.4 0.5 0 0 5 5 3 9 5 0.4 3 27 39 1 1 1 5 1 1 4 4 1 1 97 30 0.4 2 1 18 6 7 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 29 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 13 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 4 5 Whole Little/none Some 7 16 53 7 16 0 14 5 4 1 1 Some 106 106 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 4 3 3 2 2 1 3 2 1 2 4 1 5 2 3 5 3 3 4 Most Most Whole Whole Little/none Little/none Most Some Little/none Most Some Most Most Whole Little/none Most Some Some Little/none Some 41 12 8 3 0.4 0.4 270 1 1 2 2 1 20 1 1 10 73 8 1 0.4 41 12 8 3 0.4 0.4 270 1 1 2 2 1 20 1 1 10 0 8 1 0.4 1 15 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 2 1 5 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 292 Priority Level 3 2 1 CONGR 5 Land area 2 (km ) 2 2 1 1 1 4 1 2 1 2 Total area 2 (km ) RR 5 7 3 1 6 1 1 1 2 4 5 1 2 3 Reptiles Plants Fish Molluscs 1 2 2 4 Protection CR 1 EN LAN4 LAN5 LAN6 LAN7 LAN8 LAN9 PAL1 PAL10 PAL11 PAL12 PAL13 PAL14 PAL15 PAL16 PAL17 PAL18 PAL19 PAL2 PAL20 PAL21 1 1 VU LAN3 6 4 1 Mammals Los Ajaches - north Tias Marine coastal area of Lanzarote PLains of Corona - La Hondura - Tegala Grande and Famara crag Plains of Mareta-Hoya de la Yegua Los Ajaches- south El Mojón Caleta del Mariscadero Tenesar Caldera del Agua La Palma Central-northeast Azufre Mountain Tigalate Teneguia Vucanos El Remo Coast of Hiscaguán Coast of Garafía Monte de Luna Puerto Tamanca San Pedro El Paso Risco de La Concepción Los Canarios Crustaceans LAN22 LAN23 LAN24 Artrophods Key Biodiversity Area Birds Code 1 2 3 2 1 3 4 3 2 1 1 4 3 1 1 3 1 3 6 8 5 4 7 8 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 2 5 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 4 6 1 2 12 1 293 2 1 6 4 1 1 1 4 3 10 9 2 3 25 8 1 2 1 1 2 5 5 4 1 1 9 4 1 1 1 1 7 8 4 2 17 9 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 4 6 3 1 4 1 1 2 2 2 2 5 2 1 1 1 5 2 1 2 12 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 Priority Level 1 3 3 4 CONGR EN VU Reptiles Plants Fish Molluscs Mammals Crustaceans Artrophods 1 2 2 7 3 2 1 1 1 11 6 1 2 1 5 2 16 14 3 1 40 RR Tinisara Punta Gorda Santo Domingo El Jurado Gully Cumbre Vieja La Laguna La Sabina La Centinela El Teíde Granadilla La Tejita San Miguel de Tajao Abades - Ponta Prieta La Medida Malpaís de Guimar Guimar - La Esperanza Los Realejos - El Pris Coast of Acentejo La Viuda - Añaza Anága Los Andenes Garachico - La Montañeta El Reventon Montana Roja San Cristoval de La Laguna Punta Brava CR PAL3 PAL4 PAL5 PAL6 PAL7 PAL8 PAL9 TEN1 TEN10 TEN11 TEN12 TEN13 TEN14 TEN15 TEN16 TEN17 TEN18 TEN19 TEN2 TEN20 TEN21 TEN22 TEN23 TEN24 TEN25 Key Biodiversity Area Birds Code 4 3 4 3 3 2 4 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 5 1 4 Protection Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) Most Most Some Most Some Some Little/none Whole Some Some Little/none Little/none Little/none Some Some Some Whole Little/none Most Little/none Some Little/none Whole Little/none Little/none 2 10 3 12 1 0.4 4 252 43 1 4 7 12 6 47 68 3 30 159 1 45 6 2 5 3 2 10 3 12 1 0.4 4 252 43 1 4 7 12 6 47 68 3 30 159 1 45 6 2 5 3 7 7 3 3 3 4 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 3 4 5 1 28 15 6 12 1 1 3 294 1 1 1 1 15 9 3 7 1 1 2 13 8 6 4 1 1 1 1 2 7 8 2 2 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 Priority Level CONGR EN VU Reptiles Plants Fish Molluscs Mammals Crustaceans Artrophods 5 RR Rasca Marine coastal area of Tenerife Northern Buenavista Los Carrizales Tejina Adeje Las Americas Beach Roque de Jama Las Rosas - Coromoto CR TEN26 TEN27 TEN3 TEN4 TEN5 TEN6 TEN7 TEN8 TEN9 Key Biodiversity Area Birds Code 3 5 1 1 3 1 2 4 2 Protection Total area 2 (km ) Land area 2 (km ) Whole Some Most Some Some Some Little/none Some Little/none 1 119 50 45 20 20 1 1 8 1 0 50 45 20 20 1 1 8 Archip. Appendix 6. KBAs qualifying as AZE Sites in Macaronesia Code SEL1 Name Selvagens Islands MAD DES1 Desertas Islands MAD MAD1 Madeira Nature Park MAD MAD4 Coastal cliffs Madeira island MAD8 São João creek - Santa Luzia creek - João Gomes creek Network of Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo Northeast area of Porto Santo Frontera - central area PSA2 PSA4 HIE1 of MAD MAD Taxonomic group Plant Arthropod Mollusc Arthropod Bird Mollusc Mollusc Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Mollusc Mollusc Mollusc MAD Cecilioides eulima Idiomela subplicata Mollusc Mollusc MAD Discula testudinalis Mollusc CAN Argyranthemum adauctum ssp. erythrocapon Bencomia sphaerocarpa Crambe feuillei Teucrium heterophyllum ssp. Hierrense Silene sabinosae Cheirolophus santos-abreui Lotus pyranthus Cheirolophus junonianus Lotus eremiticus Plutonia falcifera Aeonium gomerense Echium acanthocarpum Helichrysum alucense Sideritis marmorea Plant HIE2 Echedo CAN HIE6 PAL1 Valverde La Palma Centralnortheast Teneguia Vucanos Coast of Garafía Garajonay- Chejelipes CAN CAN PAL12 PAL15 GOM1 AZE Trigger Species Argyranthemum thalassophilum Hogna ingens Discula lyelliana Gonepteryx maderensis Pterodroma madeira Actinella carinofausta Leiostyla abbreviata Geranium maderense Goodyera macrophylla Marcetella maderensis Musschia wollastonii Pittosporum coriaceum Polystichum drepanum Sinapidendron rupestre Sorbus maderensis Teucrium abutiloides Jasminum azoricum Andryala crithmifolia Discula tabellata Leiostyla cassidula Leiostyla gibba CAN CAN CAN 295 Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Mollusc Plant Plant Plant Plant Archip. Code GOM7 GOM11 Name Los Chapines Epina CAN CAN GOM13 Taguluche CAN GOM15 LAN3 Garajonay - Central CAN PLains of Corona - La CAN Hondura Tegala Grande and Famara crag FUE1 FUE6 Jandía Peninsula CAN FUE8 North area Fuerteventura Island of Lobos of CAN TEN1 El Teide CAN TEN2 Anága CAN TEN3 Northern Buenavista CAN TEN4 Los Carrizales CAN CAN AZE Trigger Species Hemicycla efferata Apollonias barbujana ssp. Ceballosi Helianthemum aganae Limonium relicticum Hydroporus compunctus Convolvulus lopezsocasii Helianthemum bramwelliorum Helianthemum gonzalezferreri Limonium puberulum Plantago famarae Canariella eutropis Canariella jandiaensis Cryptella susannae Obelus discogranulatus Aichryson pachycaulon ssp. pachycaulon Argyranthemum winteri Carduus bourgeaui Echium handiense Ononis christii Onopordum nogalesii Orthotrichum handiense Maiorerus randoi Limonium ovalifolium ssp. canariense Dactylis metlesicsii Helianthemum juliae Laphangium teydeum Silene nocteolens Stemmacantha cynaroides Napaeus doliolum Argyranthemum sundingii Micromeria glomerata Micromeria rivas-martinezii Monanthes wildpretii Tolpis glabrescens Hypochaeris oligocephala Limonium fruticans Micromeria densiflora Sideritis nervosa Teline pallida ssp silensis Teline salsoloides Tolpis crassiuscula Acrostira tenerifae Calathus amplius 296 Taxonomic group Mollusc Plant Plant Plant Arthropod Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Mollusc Mollusc Mollusc Mollusc Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Arthropod Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Arthropod Arthropod Archip. Code Name TEN6 TEN16 Adeje Guimar - La Esperanza CAN CAN TEN19 La Viuda - Añaza CAN TEN21 Garachico Montañeta TEN24 San Cristoval de La CAN Laguna La Solana CAN GCA1 - La CAN GCA2 Los Marteles CAN GCA4 GCA5 Tamadaba - south Tamadaba - north CAN CAN GCA7 Santo Andrés - Valle CAN Seco GCA8 GCA9 Cruz de Pineda Barranco del Pino Pino Santo GCA13 GCA18 Jinámar Las Palmas CAN CAN SMA7 Pico Alto AZO - CAN CAN AZE Trigger Species Hemicycla mascaensis Crambe laevigata Kunkeliella psilotoclada Limonium spectabile Sideritis cystosiphon Echium sventenii Napaeus nanodes Helianthemum teneriffae Hemicycla plicaria Hemicycla pouchadan Napaeus teobaldoi Loboptera subterranea Carduus volutarioides Kunkeliella subsucculenta Parmacella tenerifensis Taxonomic group Mollusc Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Mollusc Plant Mollusc Mollusc Mollusc Arthropod Plant Plant Mollusc Crambe scoparia Helianthemum bystropogophyllum Helianthemum inaguae Limonium vigaroense Micromeria leucantha Aichryson bituminosum Bencomia brachystachya Kunkeliella canariensis Onopordum carduelium Parolinia platypetala Pericallis hadrosoma Limonium benmageci Globularia ascanii Sventenia bupleuroides Tanacetum oshanahanii Napaeus osoriensis Plutonia machadoi Isoplexis chalcantha Sideritis discolor Solanum vespertilio doramae Teline nervosa Plant Plant Napaeus exilis Parolinia glabriusucula Lotus kunkelii Monilearia tumulorum Napaeus isletae Theba grasseti Leptaxis minor Plutonia angulosa Mollusc Plant Plant Mollusc Mollusc Mollusc Mollusc Mollusc 297 Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Mollusc Mollusc Plant Plant Plant Plant Archip. Code SMA8 Name São Lourenço AZO SMG4 SJG3 PIC4 FAI3 Pico da Vara Pico da Esperança Pico mountain crater Great crater of Faial AZO AZO AZO AZO AZE Trigger Species Euphorbia stygiana santamariae Pyrrhula murina Platanthera azorica Silene uniflora cratericola Pericallis malvifolia caldeirae 298 Taxonomic group Plant Bird Plant Plant Plant Appendix 7. List of Natura 2000 sites in Macaronesia Regio n AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO Classifi Total area cation Name (ha.) SAC Costa e Caldeirão - Ilha do Corvo 973 SAC Caldeira e Capelinhos - Ilha do Faial 2,086 SAC Monte da Guia - Ilha do Faial 383 SAC Ponta do Varadouro - Ilha do Faial 18 SAC Morro do Castelo Branco - Ilha do Faial 126 SAC Zona Central - Morro Alto - Ilha das 2,931 Flores SAC Costa Nordeste - Ilha das Flores 1,251 SAC Ilhéu de Baixo - Restinga Ilha Graciosa 244 SAC Ponta Branca - Ilha Graciosa 69 SAC Ponta dos Rosais - Ilha de S. Jorge 307 SAC Costa NE e Ponta do Topo - Ilha de S. 3,965 Jorge SAC Lagoa do Fogo - Ilha de S. Miguel 1,263 SAC Caloura-Ponta da Galera - Ilha de S. 200 Miguel SAC Banco D. João de Castro (Canal 1,648 Terceira - S. Miguel) SAC Baixa do Sul (Canal do Faial) 50 SAC Montanha do Pico, Prainha e Caveiro - 8,463 Ilha do Pico SAC Ponta da Ilha - Ilha do Pico 398 SAC Lajes do Pico - Ilha do Pico 142 SAC Ilhéus da Madalena - Ilha do Pico 143 SAC Ponta do Castelo - Ilha de Sta. Maria 317 SAC Ilhéu das Formigas e Recife Dollabarat 3,594 (Canal S. Miguel - Sta. Maria) SAC Serra Santa Bárbara e Pico Alto - Ilha 4,731 da Terceira SAC Costa das Quatro Ribeiras - Ilha 267 Terceira SCI Lucky Strike 19,126 SCI Menez Gwen 9,523 SCI Tronqueira-Graminhais 2,011 SPA Costa e Caldeirão - Ilha do Corvo 700 SPA Costa Sul e Sudoeste - Ilha das Flores 254 SPA Costa Nordeste - Ilha das Flores 142 SPA Caldeira e Capelinhos - Ilha do Faial 2,047 SPA Lajes do Pico - Ilha do Pico 65 SPA Ponta da Ilha - Ilha do Pico 294 SPA Furnas / Sto.António - Ilha do Pico 13 SPA Zona Central do Pico - Ilha do Pico 6,019 SPA Ilhéu do Topo e Costa Adjacente - Ilha 370 de S. Jorge 299 Land Area (ha.) 745 1,856 99 18 23 2,931 Marine Area (ha.) 228 230 284 0 103 0 209 32 69 167 3,576 1,042 212 0 140 389 1,263 19 0 181 0 1,648 0 0 50 8,463 106 11 5 137 0 292 131 138 180 3,594 4,731 0 57 210 0 0 2,011 700 254 142 2,047 65 294 13 6,019 370 19,126 9,523 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Regio n AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Land Classifi Total area Area cation Name (ha.) (ha.) SPA Ilhéu de Baixo - Ilha Graciosa 32 32 SPA Ilhéu da Praia - Ilha Graciosa 10 10 SPA Ponta das Contendas - Ilha Terceira 91 91 SPA Ilhéu das Cabras - Ilha Terceira 28 28 SPA Pico da Vara / Ribeira do Guilherme 6,067 6,067 Ilha de S. Miguel SPA Ilhéu da Vila e Costa Adjacente - Ilha 57 57 de Sta. Maria SAC Laurissilva da Madeira 15,367 15,367 SAC Maciço Montanhoso Central da Ilha da 8,212 8,212 Madeira SAC Achadas da Cruz 184 184 SAC Moledos - Madalena do Mar 7 7 SAC Pináculo 34 34 SAC Ilhéus do Porto Santo 209 209 SAC Pico Branco - Porto Santo 127 127 SAC Ponta de S. Lourenço 2,042 427 SAC Ilhéu da Viúva 1,822 2 SAC Ilhas Selvagens 9,432 281 SAC Ilhas Desertas 12,586 1,397 SPA Laurissilva da Madeira 15,366 15,366 SPA Maciço Montanhoso Oriental da Ilha da 3,050 3,050 Madeira SPA Ponta de São Lourenço 2,412 312 SPA Ilhas Desertas 76,485 1,398 SPA Ilhas Selvagens 124,606 281 SAC Ojeda, Inagua y Pajonales 3,528 3,528 SAC Caldera de Taburiente 4,355 4,355 SAC Garajonay 3,785 3,785 SAC Pozo Negro 9,995 9,995 SAC Garoé 1,124 1,124 SAC Los Órganos 150 150 SAC Tamadaba 7,449 7,449 SAC Juncalillo del Sur 186 186 SAC Macizo de Tauro 1,244 1,244 SAC Parque Nacional de Timanfaya 5,181 5,181 SAC Barranco Oscuro 33 33 SAC El Brezal 109 109 SAC Azuaje 456 456 SAC Los Tilos de Moya 89 89 SAC Los Marteles 2,804 2,804 SAC Las Dunas de Maspalomas 360 360 SAC Güigüí 2,898 2,898 SAC Pilancones 5,782 5,782 SAC Amagro 488 488 SAC Bandama 593 593 SAC Cueva de Lobos 7,613 585 SAC Riscos de Tirajana 750 750 SAC Roque de Nublo 446 446 300 Marine Area (ha.) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,616 1,820 9,151 11,189 0 0 2,099 75,087 124,325 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7,027 0 0 Regio n CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Classifi cation Name SAC Área marina de La Isleta SAC Franja marina de Mogán SAC Malpaís de la Arena SAC Vega de Río Palmas SAC Fataga SAC Jinámar SAC Tufia SAC Islote de Lobos SAC Corralejo SAC Jandía SAC Montaña Cardón SAC Sebadales de La Graciosa SAC Punta del Mármol SAC Sebadales de Guasimeta SAC Barranco de La Virgen SAC El Nublo II SAC Hoya del Gamonal SAC Barranco de Guayadeque SAC La Playa del Matorral SAC Los Islotes SAC Archipiélago Chinijo SAC Los Volcanes SAC La Corona SAC Arinaga SAC Punta de la Sal SAC Sebadales de Corralejo SAC Playa de Sotavento de Jandía SAC Amurga SAC Bahía del Confital SAC Betancuria SAC Nublo SAC Ancones-Sice SAC Malpaís del Cuchillo SAC Bahía de Gando SAC Los Risquetes SAC Pino Santo SAC Macizo de Tauro II SAC Mencáfete SAC Roques de Salmor SAC Tibataje SAC Risco de Las Playas SAC Timijiraque SAC Pinar de Garafía SAC Guelguén SAC Las Nieves SAC Cumbre Vieja SAC Montaña de Azufre SAC Risco de la Concepción SAC Costa de Hiscaguán 301 Land Total area Area (ha.) (ha.) 8,562 0 29,993 0 850 850 366 366 2,726 2,726 31 31 51 51 453 453 2,689 2,689 14,973 14,973 1,234 1,234 1,192 0 30 29.9 1,276 1,276 559 559 13,956 13,956 627 627 709 709 96 96 151 151 8,865 8,865 9,986 9,986 2,602 2,602 92 92 136 136 1,947 0 5,461 0 5,341 5,341 634 0 3,329 3,329 7,108 7,108 223 223 55 55 478 0 9 41,883 1,565 1,565 5,118 5,118 455 455 4 4 593 593 967 967 375 375 1,028 1,028 1,062 1,062 5,115 5,115 7,522 7,522 76 76 66 66 250 250 Marine Area (ha.) 8,562 29,993 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,192 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,947 5,461 0 634 0 0 0 0 478 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Regio n CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Classifi cation Name SAC Barranco del Jorado SAC Playa del Cabrón SAC Tubo volcánico de Todoque SAC Tablado SAC Barranco de las Angustias SAC Tamanca SAC Juan Mayor SAC Barranco del Agua SAC La Caldereta SAC Benchijigua SAC Puntallana SAC Majona SAC Roque Cano SAC Roque Blanco SAC La Fortaleza SAC Barranco del Cabrito SAC Lomo del Carretón SAC Orone SAC Charco del Conde SAC Charco de Cieno SAC Parque Nacional del Teide SAC Ijuana SAC Pijaral SAC Los Roques de Anaga SAC Pinoleris SAC Malpaís de Güímar SAC Montaña Roja SAC Malpaís de la Rasca SAC Barranco del Infierno SAC Chinyero SAC Las Palomas SAC Corona Forestal SAC Barranco de Fasnia y Güímar SAC Montaña Centinela SAC Los Jameos SAC Montañas de Ifara y Los Riscos SAC Roque de Jama SAC Los Sables SAC Montaña de Tejina SAC Roque de Garachico SAC La Rambla de Castro SAC Las Lagunetas SAC Barranco de Erques SAC Montaña de la Centinela SAC Montaña de la Breña SAC Los Acantilados de la Culata SAC Los Campeches, Tigaiga y Ruiz SAC La Resbala SAC Riscos de Bajamar 302 Land Total area Area (ha.) (ha.) 98 98 956 0 2 2 224 224 1,699 1,699 2,073 2,073 28 28 74 74 18 18 483 483 286 286 1,976 1,976 57 57 30 30 53 53 1,160 1,160 249 249 1,707 1,707 9 9 5 5 18,993 18,993 902 902 296 296 10 10 178 178 286 286 164 164 313 313 1,824 1,824 2,380 2,380 583 583 41,068 41,068 151 151 131 131 235 31 285 285 93 93 3 3 168 167.7 3 3 45 45 3,568 3,568 263 263 15 15 26 26 441 441 544 544 591 591 26 26 Marine Area (ha.) 0 956 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 203 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Regio n CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Land Classifi Total area Area cation Name (ha.) (ha.) SAC Acantilado de la Hondura 33 33 SAC Tabaibal del Porís 48 48 SAC Interián 100 100 SAC Barranco de Ruiz 95 95 SAC Barlovento, Garafía, El Paso y Tijarafe 5,562 5,562 SAC El Paso y Santa Cruz de La Palma 1,391 1,391 SAC Santa Cruz de La Palma 216 216 SAC Breña Alta 61 61 SAC Sabinar de Puntallana 14 14 SAC Sabinar de La Galga 81 81 SAC Monteverde de Don Pedro-Juan Adalid 483 483 SAC Monteverde de Gallegos-Franceses 1,409 1,409 SAC Monteverde de Lomo Grande 495 495 SAC Monteverde de Barranco Seco1,939 1,939 Barranco del Agua SAC Monteverde de Breña Alta 823 823 SAC Anaga 10,341 10,341 SAC Teno 6,120 6,120 SAC Teselinde-Cabecera de Vallehermoso 2,341 2,341 SAC Montaña del Cepo 1,162 1,162 SAC Frontera 8,807 8,807 SAC Cueva del Viento 138 138 SAC Laderas de Enchereda 683 683 SAC Barranco de Charco Hondo 392 392 SAC Barranco de Argaga 187 187 SAC Valle Alto de Valle Gran Rey 707 707 SAC Barranco del Águila 164 164 SAC Cabecera Barranco de Aguajilva 140 140 SAC Cuenca de Benchijigua-Guarimiar 1,341 1,341 SAC Taguluche 140 140 SAC Barrancos del Cedro y Liria 584 584 SAC Barranco de Niágara 39 39 SAC Barranco de Orchilla 18 18 SAC Barranco de las Hiedras-El Cedro 166 166 SAC Acantilado costero de Los Perros 66 66 SAC Riscos de Lara 103 103 SAC Laderas de Chío 197 197 SAC Barranco de Icor 37 37 SAC Lomo de Las Eras 2 2 SAC Barranco Madre del Agua 10 10 SAC Sebadales de Playa del Inglés 2,722 0 SAC Costa de Sardina del Norte 1,427 0 SAC Cagafrecho 633 0 SAC Risco de la Mérica 38 38 SAC Sebadales de Güigüí 7,220 0 SAC Piña de mar de Granadilla 1 1 SAC Franja marina Teno-Rasca 69,500 0 SAC Mar de Las Calmas 9,898 0 SAC Sebadales del sur de Tenerife 2,693 0 303 Marine Area (ha.) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,722 1,427 633 0 7,220 0 69,500 9,898 2,693 Regio n CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Classifi Total area cation Name (ha.) SAC Cueva marina de San Juan 1 SAC Sebadal de San Andrés 583 SAC Franja marina de Fuencaliente 7,055 SAC Franja marina Santiago-Valle Gran Rey 13,139 SAC Costa de Garafía 3,475 SAC Costa de los Órganos 1,164 SAC Costa de San Juan de la Rambla 1,603 SAC Sebadales de Antequera 273 SCI Banco de la Concepción 610,067 SCI Espacio marino del oriente y sur de 1,432,808 Lanzarote-Fuerteventura SPA Jandía 15,232 SPA Islotes del norte de Lanzarote y 17,864 Famara SPA Espacio marino de la zona occidental 22,359 de El Hierro SPA Espacio marino de los Roques de 659 Salmor SPA Espacio marino del norte de La Palma 39,160 SPA Espacio marino de La Gomera-Teno 209,318 SPA Espacio marino de los Acantilados de 2,111 Santo Domingo y Roque de Garachico SPA Espacio marino del Roque de la Playa 189 SPA Espacio marino de Anaga 773 SPA Espacio marino de Mogán-La Aldea 18,712 SPA Espacio marino de La Bocayna 83,413 SPA Espacio marino de los Islotes de 130,184 Lanzarote SPA ZEPA Banco de la Conceptión 452,305 SPA Ojeda, Inagua y Pajonales 3,528 SPA Dunas de Corralejo e Isla de Lobos 3,144 SPA Caldera de Taburiente 4,355 SPA Garajonay 3,785 SPA Tigaiga 633 SPA Pozo Negro 9,995 SPA Betancuria 16,673 SPA Salinas de Janubio 163 SPA Los Ajaches 2,961 SPA La Geria 15,305 SPA Lajares, Esquinzo y costa del Janubio 7,286 SPA Garoé 1,124 SPA El Hierro 12,406 SPA Gorreta y Salmor 595 SPA Acantilados de Alajeró, La Dama y 668 Valle Gran Rey SPA Teno 8,016 SPA Montes y cumbre de Tenerife 68,023 SPA Anaga 14,266 SPA Ayagaures y Pilancones 9,689 304 Land Area (ha.) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Marine Area (ha.) 1 583 7,055 13,139 3,475 1,164 1,603 273 610,067 1,432,80 8 15,121 111 11,918 5,945 0 22,356 0 658 0 0 0 39,156 209,309 2,111 0 0 0 0 0 189 773 18,712 83,389 130,178 0 3,528 3,144 4,355 3,785 633 9,995 16,673 163 2,961 15,305 7,286 1,124 12,406 595 668 452,305 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8,016 63,023 14,266 9,689 0 0 0 0 Land Marine Classifi Total area Area Area cation Name (ha.) (ha.) (ha.) SPA Juncalillo del Sur 186 186 0 SPA Macizo de Tauro 1,244 1,244 0 SPA Cumbres y acantilados del norte de la 22,701 22,701 0 Palma CAN SPA Parque Nacional de Timanfaya 5,181 5,181 0 CAN SPA Llanos y cuchillos de Antigua 9,913 9,913 0 CAN SPA Acantilado de Las Traviesas 46 46 0 CAN SPA Roques de Garafía 3 3 0 CAN SPA Roque Negro 2 2 0 CAN SPA Los Órganos 183 183 0 CAN SPA Costa de Majona, El Águila y Avalo 168 168 0 CAN SPA Acantilados de Santo Domingo 9 9 0 CAN SPA Roque de La Playa 1 1 0 CAN SPA Rasca y Guaza 1,030 1,030 0 CAN SPA Tamadaba 8,558 8,558 0 CAN SPA Costa del norte de Fuerteventura 1,426 1,426 0 CAN SPA Vallebrón y valles de Fimapaire y 5,803 5,803 0 Fenimoy CAN SPA Llanos de La Corona y Tegala Grande 2,751 2,751 0 CAN SPA Llanos de La Mareta y cantil del 2,395 2,395 0 Rubicón CAN SPA La Playa del Matorral 96 96 0 CAN SPA Montaña Roja 163 163 0 CAN SPA Roque de Garachico 3 3 0 CAN SPA Barrancos del Cedro y Liria 584 584 0 SCI = Site of Community importance; SAC = Special Area of Conservation; SPA = Special Protection Area Regio n CAN CAN CAN 305 Appendix 8. List of Protected Areas in Macaronesia Region Classification Code Name AZO AZO AZO IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I FAI02 SMG01 PICO01 AZO IUCN - I TER01 AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I TER03 FLO03 FAI01 PICO04 TER02 PICO02 GRA02 SMA02 GRA01 FLO01 PICO03 FLO02 FAI03 SMG02 SMA01 PMA01 AZO IUCN - I PMA03 Reserva Natural da Caldeira do Faial Reserva Natural da Lagoa do Fogo Reserva Natural da Montanha do Pico Reserva Natural da Serra de Santa Bárbara e dos Mistérios Negros Reserva Natural da Terra Brava e Criação das Lagoas Reserva Natural das Caldeiras Funda e Rasa Reserva Natural das Caldeirinhas Reserva Natural das Furnas de Santo António Reserva Natural do Biscoito da Ferraria e Pico Alto Reserva Natural do Caveiro Reserva Natural do Ilhéu da Praia Reserva Natural do Ilhéu da Vila Reserva Natural do Ilhéu de Baixo Reserva Natural do Ilhéu de Maria Vaz Reserva Natural do Mistério da Prainha Reserva Natural do Morro Alto e Pico da Sé Reserva Natural do Morro do Castelo Branco Reserva Natural do Pico da Vara Reserva Natural dos Ilhéus das Formigas Reserva Natural Marinha do Banco D. João de Castro Reserva Natural Marinha do Campo Hidrotermal Lucky Strike 306 Total area (ha.) 313 507 1341 Land Area (ha.) 313 507 1341 1587 1587 369 426 10 .2 709 266 219 8 139 10 716 1,593 16 786 52,393 1,631 369 426 30,052 Marine Area (ha.) 10 .2 709 266 10 8 10 10 716 1,593 16 786 209 129 52,393 1631 30,052 Region Classification Code AZO IUCN - I PMA02 AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III PMA04 PMA05 GRA03 SMG03 PICO05 SMG04 AZO IUCN - III SMA03 AZO AZO AZO AZO IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III SJO01 FLO04 TER05 TER04 AZO IUCN - III SMG05 AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV PMA10 PMA08 PMA09 PMA06 PMA07 AZO IUCN - IV SMA06 AZO IUCN - IV TER10 AZO IUCN - IV SJO04 Total area (ha.) Name Reserva Natural Marinha do Campo Hidrotermal Menez Gwen Reserva Natural Marinha do Campo Hidrotermal Rainbow Reserva Natural Marinha do Monte Submarino Sedlo Monumento Natural da Caldeira da Graciosa Monumento Natural da Caldeira Velha Monumento Natural da Gruta das Torres Monumento Natural da Gruta do Carvão Monumento Natural da Pedreira do Campo, do Figueiral e Prainha Monumento Natural da Ponta dos Rosais Monumento Natural da Rocha dos Bordões Monumento Natural das Furnas do Enxofre Monumento Natural do Algar do Carvão Monumento Natural do Pico das Camarinhas - Ponta da Ferraria Área Marinha Protegida do MARNA Área Marinha Protegida do Monte Submarino Altair Área Marinha Protegida do Monte Submarino Antialtair Área Marinha Protegida Oceânica do Corvo Área Marinha Protegida Oceânica do Faial Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Baía do Cura Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Costa das Quatro Ribeiras Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Costa das Velas 307 Land Area (ha.) Marine Area (ha.) 26,448 26,448 2,215 412,050 120 13 64 33 2,215 412,050 120 13 64 33 230 230 170 10 14 39 170 10 14 39 40 40 9,379,497 438,090 285,543 267,975 260,958 9,379,497 438,090 285,543 267,975 260,958 186 186 57 57 62 62 Region Classification Code AZO IUCN - IV SJO07 AZO IUCN - IV COR01 AZO IUCN - IV FLO05 AZO IUCN - IV SJO02 AZO IUCN - IV SJO03 AZO IUCN - IV SMA04 AZO IUCN - IV FLO07 AZO IUCN - IV SJO06 AZO IUCN - IV SMG15 AZO IUCN - IV PICO06 AZO IUCN - IV SMG16 AZO IUCN - IV TER08 AZO IUCN - IV GRA05 AZO IUCN - IV GRA06 Name Área Protegida para a Gestão Costa do Topo Área Protegida para a Gestão Costa e Caldeirão do Corvo Área Protegida para a Gestão Costa Nordeste Área Protegida para a Gestão Costa Noroeste Área Protegida para a Gestão Costa Sudoeste Área Protegida para a Gestão Costa Sudoeste Área Protegida para a Gestão Costa Sul e Sudoeste Área Protegida para a Gestão Fajã das Almas Área Protegida para a Gestão Ferraria Área Protegida para a Gestão Lagoa do Caiado Área Protegida para a Gestão Lagoa do Congro Área Protegida para a Gestão Matela Área Protegida para a Gestão Ponta Branca Área Protegida para a Gestão Ponta da Barca de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da de Habitats ou Espécies da 308 Total area (ha.) Land Area (ha.) 388 388 777 777 884 884 702 702 207 207 47 47 497 497 97 97 5 5 136 136 38 38 27 27 102 102 42 42 Marine Area (ha.) Region Classification Code AZO IUCN - IV SMG13 AZO IUCN - IV FLO06 AZO IUCN - IV GRA04 AZO IUCN - IV TER06 AZO IUCN - IV SMG10 AZO IUCN - IV SMA05 AZO IUCN - IV SMG09 AZO IUCN - IV SMG12 AZO IUCN - IV SMG07 AZO IUCN - IV PICO09 AZO IUCN - IV PICO11 AZO IUCN - IV SMG08 AZO IUCN - IV PICO13 AZO IUCN - IV SMG11 Name Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta da Bretanha Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta da Caveira Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta da Restinga Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta das Contendas Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta do Arnel Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta do Castelo Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta do Cintrão Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Ponta do Escalvado Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Serra de Água de Pau Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Silveira Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Terra Alta Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Tronqueira e Planalto dos Graminhais Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies da Zona do Morro Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies das Feteiras 309 Total area (ha.) Land Area (ha.) 77 77 74 74 70 70 91 91 22 22 137 137 25 25 68 68 1670 1670 13 13 112 112 5373 5373 37 37 44 44 Marine Area (ha.) Region Classification Code AZO IUCN - IV PICO08 AZO IUCN - IV PICO07 AZO IUCN - IV PICO12 AZO IUCN - IV TER09 AZO IUCN - IV FAI04 AZO IUCN - IV SMG14 AZO IUCN - IV SMG06 AZO IUCN - IV SJO08 AZO IUCN - IV PICO10 AZO IUCN - IV SMA07 AZO IUCN - IV SJO05 AZO IUCN - IV TER12 AZO IUCN - IV TER11 AZO IUCN - IV FAI05 Name Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies das Furnas de Santo António Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies das Lajes do Pico Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies das Ribeiras Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Biscoito das Fontinhas Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Cabeço do Fogo Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Faial da Terra Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Ilhéu de Vila Franca do Campo Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Ilhéu do Topo Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Mistério de São João Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Pico Alto Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Pico da Esperança e Planalto Central Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Pico do Boi Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies do Planalto Central e Costa Noroeste Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies dos Capelinhos, Costa Noroeste e Varadouro 310 Total area (ha.) Land Area (ha.) 22 22 76 76 89 89 105 105 27 27 206 206 8 6 12 12 38 38 121 121 1,087 1,087 217 217 3,933 3,933 407 407 Marine Area (ha.) 2 Region Classification Code AZO IUCN - IV TER07 AZO IUCN - IV FAI07 AZO IUCN - IV FAI06 AZO AZO IUCN - V IUCN - V SMA10 SMA09 AZO IUCN - V PICO14 AZO IUCN - V PICO15 AZO IUCN - V PICO17 AZO IUCN - V PICO16 AZO IUCN - V PICO18 AZO AZO IUCN - V IUCN - V FAI09 PICO19 AZO IUCN - V FLO08 AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V SJO09 SMG18 SMG17 TER13 SMA08 FAI08 Name Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies dos Ilhéus das Cabras Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies Lomba Grande Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats ou Espécies Varadouro - Castelo Branco Área de Paisagem Protegida da Baía da Maia Área de Paisagem Protegida da Baía de São Lourenço Área de Paisagem Protegida da Cultura da Vinha - Ponta da Ilha Área de Paisagem Protegida da Cultura da Vinha - Ponta do Mistério Área de Paisagem Protegida da Cultura da Vinha - São Mateus/São Caetano Área de Paisagem Protegida da Cultura da Vinha - Zona Norte Área de Paisagem Protegida da Cultura da Vinha - Zona Oeste Área de Paisagem Protegida da Zona Central Área de Paisagem Protegida da Zona Central Área de Paisagem Protegida da Zona Central e Falésias da Costa Oeste Área de Paisagem Protegida das Fajãs do Norte Área de Paisagem Protegida das Furnas Área de Paisagem Protegida das Sete Cidades Área de Paisagem Protegida das Vinhas dos Biscoitos Área de Paisagem Protegida do Barreiro da Faneca Área de Paisagem Protegida do Monte da Guia 311 Total area (ha.) Land Area (ha.) 28 28 275 275 99 99 55 60 55 60 297 297 88 88 151 151 1,747 1,747 1,009 1,009 1799 9,518 1,799 9,518 2,565 2,565 2,926 3,150 2,173 165 835 74 2,926 3,150 2,173 165 835 74 Marine Area (ha.) Region Classification Code AZO IUCN - VI TER19 AZO IUCN - VI TER16 AZO IUCN - VI TER18 AZO IUCN - VI TER15 AZO IUCN - VI TER20 AZO IUCN - VI TER17 AZO IUCN - VI PMA11 AZO IUCN - VI SMA11 AZO IUCN - VI TER14 AZO IUCN - VI SMG19 AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI SJO12 SMG20 GRA08 FLO09 SMA12 SJO10 GRA07 SMA13 Total area (ha.) Name Área Marinha Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Baixa da Vila Nova Área Marinha Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa das Contendas Área Marinha Protegida de Gestão de Recursos das Cinco Ribeiras Área Marinha Protegida de Gestão de Recursos das Quatro Ribeiras Área Marinha Protegida de Gestão de Recursos do Monte Brasil Área Marinha Protegida de Gestão de Recursos dos Ilhéus das Cabras Área Marinha Protegida do Banco D. João de Castro Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Baía de São Lourenço Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Caldeira de Guilherme Moniz Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Caloura - Ilhéu de Vila Franca do Campo Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa das Fajãs Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa Este Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa Noroeste Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa Norte Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa Norte Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa Oeste Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa Sudeste Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Costa Sul 312 Land Area (ha.) Marine Area (ha.) 42 42 181 181 3 3 357 357 48 48 112 112 34,869 34,869 178 178 1218 1218 1,349 1,349 876 363 283 3,974 2,458 209 136 2,160 876 363 283 3,974 2,458 209 136 2,160 Region Classification Code AZO IUCN - VI SMG23 AZO IUCN - VI PICO21 AZO IUCN - VI SMG21 AZO IUCN - VI SJO11 AZO IUCN - VI FAI10 AZO IUCN - VI PICO22 AZO IUCN - VI SMG22 AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI IUCN - VI PICO20 SJO13 FAI12 FAI13 FAI11 AZO IUCN - VI COR02 CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I ES702051 ES702078 ES701029 ES701056 ES702081 Total area (ha.) Name Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Ponta da Ferraria - Ponta da Bretanha Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Ponta da Ilha Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos da Ponta do Cintrão - Ponta da Maia Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos de Entre Morros Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos do Canal FaialPico/Sector Faial Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos do Canal FaialPico/Sector Pico Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos do Porto das Capelas - Ponta das Calheta Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos do Porto das Lajes Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos do Topo Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos dos Capelinhos Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursos dos Cedros Área Protegida de Gestão de Recursosdo Castelo Branco Área Protegida para a Gestão de Recursos da Costa do Corvo Reserva Marina Isla de La Palma Reserva Marina Isla Graciosa e Islotes del norte de Lanzarote Reserva Marina LA RESTINGA - MAR DE LAS CALMAS Reserva Natural Integral de Benchijigua Reserva Natural Integral de Ijuana Reserva Natural Integral de Inagua Reserva Natural Integral de Los Islotes Reserva Natural Integral de Los Roques de Anaga 313 Land Area (ha.) Marine Area (ha.) 1,955 1,955 595 595 2,310 2,310 247 247 17,386 17,386 6,689 6,689 1,499 1,499 153 610 500 891 133 153 610 500 891 133 25,738 25,738 3,455 70,700 1,180 491 919 3,920 165 10 3,455 70,700 1,180 491 919 3,920 165 10 Region Classification Code Name CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Reserva Natural Integral de Mencafete Reserva Natural Integral de Pinoleris Reserva Natural Integral de Roques de Salmor Reserva Natural Integral del Barranco Oscuro Reserva Natural Integral del Pijaral Reserva Natural Integral del Pinar de Garafía Parque Nacional de Garajonay Parque Nacional de La Caldera de Taburiente Parque Nacional de Timanfaya Parque Nacional del Teide Parque Natural de Corona Forestal Parque Natural de Corralejo Parque Natural de Cumbre Vieja Parque Natural de Jandía Parque Natural de Las Nieves Parque Natural de Los Volcanes Parque Natural de Majona Parque Natural de Pilancones Parque Natural de Tamadaba Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo Parque Natural del Islote de Lobos Monumento Natural de Ajuí Monumento Natural de Amagro Monumento Natural de Arinaga Monumento Natural de Bandama Monumento Natural de Caldera de Gairía Monumento Natural de Cuchillos de Vigán IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - I IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - II IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III ES702079 ES702080 ES702082 ES701033 ES702077 ES702052 ES702003 ES702002 ES701001 ES702001 ES702026 ES701041 ES702062 ES701025 ES702074 ES701049 ES702039 ES701026 ES701012 ES701002 ES701048 ES701058 ES701003 ES701004 ES701035 ES701006 ES701038 314 Total area (ha.) 464 181 4 35 301 984 3,984 4,690 5107 18,990 46,613 2,669 7500 14,319 5,094 10,158 1,757 5,794 7,539 46,005 468 32 408 91 326 241 6,090 Land Area (ha.) 464 181 4 35 301 984 3,984 4,690 5,107 18,990 46,613 2,669 7,500 14,319 5,094 10,158 1,757 5,794 7,539 9,112 468 32 408 91 326 241 6,090 Marine Area (ha.) 36,893 Region Classification Code Name CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Monumento Natural de Idafe Monumento Natural de La Caldera Monumento Natural de La Caldera del Rey Monumento Natural de La Corona Monumento Natural de La Costa de Hiscaguán Monumento Natural de La Cueva de Los Naturalistas Monumento Natural de La Fortaleza Monumento Natural de La Montaña Amarilla Monumento Natural de La Montaña Centinela Monumento Natural de La Montaña Colorada Monumento Natural de La Montaña de Guaza Monumento Natural de La Montaña de Los Frailes Monumento Natural de La Montaña de Tejina Monumento Natural de Las Montañas de Ifara y Los Riscos Monumento Natural de Las Montañas del Fuego Monumento Natural de Las Playas Monumento Natural de Los Ajaches Monumento Natural de Los Derriscaderos Monumento Natural de Los Órganos Monumento Natural de Los Roques Monumento Natural de Los Volcanes de Aridane Monumento Natural de Los Volcanes de Teneguía Monumento Natural de Montaña Cardón Monumento Natural de Montaña de Azufre Monumento Natural de Montaña Pelada Monumento Natural de Montaña Tindaya Monumento Natural de Roque Blanco IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III ES702059 ES702009 ES702010 ES701007 ES702011 ES701037 ES702060 ES702023 ES702012 ES702013 ES702014 ES702015 ES702024 ES702017 ES701039 ES702018 ES701008 ES702020 ES702021 ES702061 ES702022 ES702087 ES701010 ES702016 ES702025 ES701011 ES702029 315 Total area (ha.) 0.4 39 181 1,797 253 2 53 28 132 515 726 26 170 288 393 985 3,010 268 154 107 100 857 1,267 75 153 187 27 Land Area (ha.) 0.4 39 181 1,797 253 2 53 28 132 515 726 26 170 288 393 985 3,010 268 154 107 100 857 1,267 75 153 187 27 Marine Area (ha.) Region Classification Code Name CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Monumento Natural de Roque Cano Monumento Natural de Tauro Monumento Natural del Barranco de Fasnia Y Güímar Monumento Natural del Barranco de Guayadeque Monumento Natural del Barranco del Cabrito Monumento Natural del Barranco del Draguillo Monumento Natural del Barranco del Jorado Monumento Natural del Islote de Halcones Monumento Natural del Lomo del Carretón Monumento Natural del Malpaís de La Arena Monumento Natural del Montañón Negro Monumento Natural del Risco de La Concepción Monumento Natural del Roque de Aguayro Monumento Natural del Roque de Garachico Monumento Natural del Roque de Jama Monumento Natural del Roque Nublo Monumento Natural del Teide Monumento Natural del Tubo Volcánico de Todoque Monumento Natural Riscos de Tirajana Reserva Natural Especial de Azuaje Reserva Natural Especial de El Brezal Reserva Natural Especial de Guelguén Reserva Natural Especial de Güigüi Reserva Natural Especial de Las Dunas de Maspalomas Reserva Natural Especial de Las Palomas Reserva Natural Especial de Los Marteles Reserva Natural Especial de Los Tilos de Moya IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - III IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV ES702030 ES701017 ES702004 ES701005 ES702005 ES701059 ES702006 ES701036 ES702019 ES701009 ES701040 ES702028 ES701016 ES702007 ES702008 ES701050 ES702064 ES702065 ES701042 ES701051 ES701052 ES702045 ES701053 ES701034 ES702076 ES701054 ES701055 316 Total area (ha.) 58 1,257 152 726 1,180 235 99 11 244 871 194 66 807 5 94 452 3,607 0.5 772 61 107 1,074 2,921 404 584 3,569 92 Land Area (ha.) 58 1,257 152 726 1,180 235 99 11 244 871 194 66 807 5 94 452 3,607 0.5 772 61 107 1,074 2,921 404 584 3,569 92 Marine Area (ha.) Region Classification Code Name CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Reserva Natural Especial de Montaña Roja Reserva Natural Especial de Puntallana Reserva Natural Especial de Tibataje Reserva Natural Especial del Barranco del Infierno Reserva Natural Especial del Chinyero Reserva Natural Especial del Malpaís de Güímar Reserva Natural Especial del Malpaís de La Rasca Sitio de Interés Científico de Acantilados de Alajeró Sitio de Interés Científico de Interian Sitio de Interés Científico de Jinámar Sitio de Interés Científico de Juan Mayor Sitio de Interés Científico de Juncalillo del Sur Sitio de Interés Científico de La Caleta Sitio de Interés Científico de Las Salinas de Fuencaliente Sitio de Interés Científico de Los Acantilados de Isorana Sitio de Interés Científico de Los Jameos Sitio de Interés Científico de Playa del Matorral Sitio de Interés Científico de Tufia Sitio de Interés Científico del Acantilado de La Hondura Sitio de Interés Científico del Barranco de Ruíz Sitio de Interés Científico del Barranco del Agua Sitio de Interés Científico del Charco de Cieno Sitio de Interés Científico del Charco del Conde Sitio de Interés Científico del Janubio Sitio de Interés Científico del Roque de Gando Sitio de Interés Científico del Tabaibal del Porís Paisaje Protegido de Costa de Acentejo IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - IV IUCN - V ES702048 ES702049 ES702050 ES702044 ES702075 ES702046 ES702047 ES702058 ES702086 ES701031 ES702054 ES701032 ES702031 ES702063 ES702083 ES701057 ES701013 ES701015 ES702057 ES702084 ES702055 ES702085 ES702053 ES701030 ES701014 ES702027 ES702034 317 Total area (ha.) 166 292 4 1,843 2,379 290 315 297 102 30 29 192 78 7 24 31 116 54 38 96 75 6 11 169 0.5 49 401 Land Area (ha.) 166 292 4 1,843 2,379 290 315 297 102 30 29 192 78 7 24 31 116 54 38 96 75 6 11 169 0.5 49 401 Marine Area (ha.) Region Classification Code Name CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Paisaje Protegido de Fataga Paisaje Protegido de Ifonche Paisaje Protegido de La Geria Paisaje Protegido de La Isleta Paisaje Protegido de La Rambla de Castro Paisaje Protegido de La Resbala Paisaje Protegido de Las Cumbres Paisaje Protegido de Las Lagunetas Paisaje Protegido de Las Siete Lomas Paisaje Protegido de Lomo Magullo Paisaje Protegido de Los Acantilados de La Culata Paisaje Protegido de Los Campeches, Tigaiga Y Ruíz Paisaje Protegido de Malpaís Grande Paisaje Protegido de Montaña de Agüimes Paisaje Protegido de Orone Paisaje Protegido de Pino Santo Paisaje Protegido de Tafira Paisaje Protegido de Tamanca Paisaje Protegido de Tenegüime Paisaje Protegido de Timijiraque Paisaje Protegido de Vallebrón Paisaje Protegido de Ventejís Paisaje Protegido del Barranco de Erques Paisaje Protegido del Barranco de Las Angustias Paisaje Protegido del Remo Paisaje Protegido del Tablado Parque Rural de Anaga IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V IUCN - V, VI ES701044 ES702068 ES701045 ES701018 ES702035 ES702069 ES701019 ES702070 ES702071 ES701046 ES702056 ES702072 ES701047 ES701020 ES702036 ES701021 ES701022 ES702073 ES701023 ES702037 ES701024 ES702038 ES702032 ES702033 ES702066 ES702067 ES702040 318 Total area (ha.) 3,005 775 5,255 462 46 777 4,329 3,800 1,014 176 552 691 3,245 285 1,788 3,012 1,414 2,007 421 383 1,680 1,143 238 1,696 183 222 14,419 Land Area (ha.) 3,005 775 5,255 462 46 777 4,329 3,800 1,014 176 552 691 3,245 285 1,788 3,012 1,414 2,007 421 383 1,680 1,143 238 1,696 183 222 14,419 Marine Area (ha.) Region Classification Code Name CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Parque Rural de Betancuria Parque Rural de Doramas Parque Rural de Frontera Parque Rural de Teno Parque Rural de Valle de Gran Rey Parque Rural del Nublo Reserva Natural das Ilhas Desertas Reserva Natural das Ilhas Selvagens Reserva Natural Parcial do Garajau Rede de Áreas Marinhas Protegidas do Porto Santo Reserva Natural da Rocha do Navio Parque Natural da Madeira IUCN - V, VI IUCN - V, VI IUCN - V, VI IUCN - V, VI IUCN - V, VI IUCN - V, VI IUCN - Ia IUCN - Ia IUCN - Ia IUCN - Ib IUCN - Ib several ES701027 ES701028 ES702041 ES702042 ES702043 ES701050 - 319 Total area (ha.) 16,544 3,586 12,488 8,064 1,993 26,307 11,460 9,437 375 2,675 1710 44,396 Land Area (ha.) 16,544 3,586 12,488 8,064 1,993 26,307 1,398 281 210 2 44,396 Marine Area (ha.) 10,063 9,157 375 2,466 1,709 Appendix 9. List of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Macaronesia Region AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO Code PT055 PT058 PT054 PT067 PTM05 PT052 PT053 PT071 PTM06 PT079 PT065 PT076 PT074 PTM10 PT061 PT060 PT068 PT081 PT069 PT059 PT064 PT082 PT057 Total area (ha) 111 995 215 90 210,400 937 374 209 38,500 254 55 63 53 27,700 39 11 8 28 210 74 230 68 265 Name Baía do Varadouro Cabeço do Fogo Capelinhos Contendas Corvo e Flores Costa das Flores Costa do Corvo Costa Sudoeste do Pico Faial Faial da Terra e Ponta do Arnel Fajã das Almas Feteiras Furnas - Santo António Graciosa Ilhéu da Baleia e Ponta da Barca Ilhéu da Praia - Ilha Graciosa Ilhéu da Vila Ilhéu das cabras Ilhéu das Lagoínhas e Costa Adjacente Ilhéu de Baixo e Costa Adjacente Ilhéu do Topo e Costa Adjacente Lajes do Pico Lomba Grande 320 Land Area (ha) Marine Area (ha) 0 210,400 0 38,500 0 27,700 Region AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO AZO MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD MAD Code PT073 PT077 PTM14 PTM15 PT080 PTM07 PT072 PT070 PT078 PT063 PT066 PT056 PTM13 PTM09 PTM08 PTM12 PT062 PTM11 PT075 PTM16 PT085 PT089 PT083 PT084 PT087 PT088 PT090 Total area (ha) 73 295 268,900 260,700 6,083 9,200 194 128 29 979 71 91 38,600 7,100 31,100 10,800 95 27,300 5,832 45,500 1,384 204 15,242 3,411 321 1,161 929 Name Mistério da Prainha Mosteiros – Bretanha Norte do Corvo - oceânica Norte do Corvo e Faial - oceânica Pico da Vara Pico Norte Ponta da Ilha e Terra Alta Ponta da Malbusca e Ponta do Castelete Ponta do Cintrão Ponta dos Rosais - Urzelina Raminho – Pesqueiro Velho Ribeirinha Santa Maria São Jorge - Nordeste São Jorge - Oeste São Miguel - sul Serra Branca Terceira Zona Central do Pico Desertas Ilhas Desertas Ilhéus do Porto Santo Laurissilva Maciço Montanhoso Oriental Ponta de São Lourenço Ponta do Pargo Porto Santo Oeste 321 Land Area (ha) Marine Area (ha) 0 0 268,900 260,700 0 9,200 0 0 0 0 38,600 7,100 31,100 10,800 0 27,300 0 45,500 15,242 3,411 321 0 0 0 Region MAD MAD CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Code PT086 PTM17 367 364 400 381 327 391 475 346 CAN 347 CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN 339 368 330 351 350 374 377 378 389 395 CAN 340 CAN CAN CAN 380 372 333 Name Selvagens Selvagens - oceânica Acantilado de Los Gigantes Acantilados de Santo Domingo y Roque de Garachico Aguas de La Gomera - Teno Aguas y Acantilados del Norte de La Palma Archipiélago Chinijo (Islotes al Norte de Lanzarote) Bahía de Naos - Hoya de Tacorón Banco de La Concepción Barranco de Ajuí - Betancuria Barranco de Los Molinos - Llano de La Laguna - Alto de Matías Barranco de Río Cabras - Reserva de Tesjuate Barranco de Tágara Barranco de Tenegüime Costa de Arinaga - Castillo del Romeral Costa de Corralejo a Tostón Costa de Majona Costa de Vallehermoso Costa meridional de La Gomera Costa Ocidental de El Hierro Costa y Aguas de Mogán - La Aldea Cuchilete de Buenavista - Barranco de La Torre - Los Alares El Canal y Los Tiles El Médano El Mojón 322 Total area (ha) 265 84,500 1,219 26 210,549 41,618 140,010 207 452,321 14,698 4,145 Land Area (ha) Marine Area (ha) 0 1,219 26 0 1,188 3,903 207 0 14,698 4,145 84,500 0 0 210,549 40,431 136,108 0 452,321 0 0 1,016 1,280 274 749 1,442 163 526 709 22,998 29,247 8,675 1,016 1,280 274 749 1,442 163 526 709 668 10,502 8,675 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22,330 18,746 0 526 1,287 141 526 1,287 141 0 0 0 Region CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Code 384 401 329 336 345 337 332 390 363 392 331 335 386 360 341 342 385 CAN 373 CAN CAN 371 471 CAN 366 CAN CAN CAN CAN 357 388 379 362 Name El Roque Estrecho de la Bocaina Haría - Tabayesco Isla de Lobos Jable del Istmo de Jandía Jamble de Corralejo Jamble de Famara La Dehesa Ladera de Tigaiga Llano Grande - Malpaís Grande - Malpaís Chico Llanos de La Corona - La Hondura - Tegala Grande Llanos de Las Maretas - Hoya de la Yegua (El Rubicón) Llanos de Nizdafe Los Rodeos - La Esperanza Macizo de Pozo Negro - Vigán Macizo de Tarajalejo Macizo de Ventejís Malpaís de Rasca - Montaña de Guaza - Llano de las Mesas Montaña Centinela y Llano de La esquina Montaña El Cardón - Jable de Bigocho Monte del Agua, Barranco de Los Cochinos y Barranco de Cuevas Negras Monteverde de Anaga Monteverde de Frontera Monteverde de La Palma Monteverde de Santa Úrsula y La Victoria 323 Total area (ha) 46 83,832 2,545 455 4,504 2,695 6,952 2,057 966 9,177 2,748 3,337 1,855 1,286 10,572 2,281 1,290 1,489 Land Area (ha) 46 0 2,545 455 4,504 2,695 6,952 2,057 966 9,177 2,748 3,337 1,855 1,286 10,572 2,281 1,290 1,489 Marine Area (ha) 0 83,832 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,679 8,685 2,415 1,679 8,685 2,415 0 0 0 3,447 2,448 31,354 1,850 3,447 2,448 31,354 1,850 0 0 0 0 Region CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN Code 376 383 344 370 355 353 352 369 354 343 CAN 348 CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN CAN 349 328 375 361 356 387 334 CAN 338 Name Parque Nacional de Garajonay Parque Nacional de La Caldera de Taburiente Península de Jandía Pinar de Arico Pinar de Tamadaba Pinar de Tauro Pinar de Tirajana Pinar de Vilaflor Pinares de Pajonales, Ojeda, Inagua, La Data y la Cumbre Playa de Sotavento Playa del Castilo - Costa de Esquinzo Y Tebeto - Puertito de Los Molinos Reserva de Lajares - Cotilo - Ezquinzo Riscos de Famara Riscos de Hermigua y Agulo Roque de La Playa Roques de Anaga Roques de Salmor Salinas de Janubio Vallebrón-Montaña Escanfraga-Llanos de GuisgueyLaderas del Time 324 Total area (ha) 4,824 4,355 13,339 5,949 3,501 867 3,551 5,577 8,446 372 321 Land Area (ha) 4,824 4,355 13,339 5,949 3,501 867 3,551 5,577 8,446 372 321 Marine Area (ha) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8,146 1,391 751 1 10 661 162 9,237 8,146 1,391 751 1 10 4 162 9,237 0 0 0 0 0 657 0 0

Log In

Macaronesia's Ecosystem Profile 2016.pdf

Macaronesia's Ecosystem Profile 2016.pdf

Related Papers

RELATED PAPERS