THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY IN THE ARABIAN PENINSULA ARABIAN PENINSULA Compiled by Nieves García, Ian Harrison, Neil Cox and Marcelo F. Tognelli The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessment About IUCN IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the world ind pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. IUCN’s work focuses on valuing and conserving nature, ensuring effective and equitable governance of its use, and deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges in climate, food and development. IUCN supports scientiic research, manages ield projects all over the world, and brings governments, NGOs, the UN and companies together to develop policy, laws and best practice. IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest global environmental organization, with more than 1,200 government and NGO Members and almost 11,000 volunteer experts in some 160 countries. IUCN’s work is supported by over 1,000 staff in 45 ofices and hundreds of partners in public, NGO and private sectors around the world. About the Species Survival Commission The Species Survival Commission (SSC) is the largest of IUCN’s six volunteer commissions with a global membership of around 7,500 experts. SSC advises IUCN and its members on the wide range of technical and scientiic aspects of species conservation, and is dedicated to securing a future for biodiversity. SSC has signiicant input into the international agreements dealing with biodiversity conservation. About Conservation International Building upon a strong foundation of science, partnership and ield demonstration, Conservation International (CI) empowers societies to responsibly and sustainably care for nature and its global biodiversity to promote the long-term well-being of people. Founded in 1987 and marking its 25th anniversary in 2012, CI is head quartered in the Washington, D.C. area. CI employs 900 staff in more than 25 countries on four continents and works with more than 1,000 partners around the world. About the Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi The Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi (EAD) is a governmental agency that was established in 1996 with the overall function of protecting and conserving the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The Agency is responsible for assisting the UAE Ministry of Environment and Water in implementing environmental laws and putting forth regulation orders in the capital. The IUCN Species Survival Commission and the IUCN Global Species Programme have enjoyed a close working relationship with Abu Dhabi for the last 20 years particularly on issues such as species conservation and re-introduction as well as Red List assessment and training. EAD has been a long-time supporter of the SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group and hosted the meeting of the SSC Specialist Group Chairs in 2008 and 2012. THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY IN THE ARABIAN PENINSULA Compiled by Nieves García, Ian Harrison, Neil Cox and Marcelo F. Tognelli he designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. he views expressed in this publication do not necessarily relect those of IUCN, or other participating organizations. Published by: Copyright: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Arlington, USA © 2015 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the sources are fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. Red List logo: Citation: © 2008 García, N., Harrison, I., Cox, N. and Tognelli, M.F. (compilers). (2015). he Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula. Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK and Arlington, USA: IUCN. ISBN: 978-2-8317-1706-7 DOI: 10.2305/IUCN.CH.2015.MRA.4.en Cover design: Cover photo: Chadi Abi Faraj © Nashat A. Hamidan. he conluence of the two Wadies Tarj and Tarjes in Saudi Arabia, habitat of Cyprinion mhalensis All photographs used in this publication remain the property of the original copyright holder (see individual captions for details). Photographs should not be reproduced or used in other contexts without written permission from the copyright holder. Layout by: Produced by: Printed by: Available from: Chadi Abi Faraj IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit Solprint, Mijas, (Málaga) IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Environment Agency- ABU DHABI PO Box:45553 Al Mamoura Building Murour Road Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Tel +971 (2) 4454777 launay@ead.ae www.ead.ae www.iucn.org/knowledge/publications_doc/publications he text of this book is printed on 115 gsm environmentally-friendly paper. Nieves García IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Ian Harrison CI Center for Environment and Peace, U.S.A. Neil Cox IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Marcelo F. Tognelli IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. William Darwall IUCN Species Programme, United Kingdom Kevin Smith IUCN Species Programme, United Kingdom Khaldoun Al Omari IUCN West Asia Middle East Regional Oice Simon N. Stuart IUCN Species Survival Commission Johannes Els Breeding Center for Endangerd Arabian Wildlife Jörg Freyhof Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Germany Nashat A. Hamidan Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, Jordan Gary R. Feulner he Chadbourne & Parke, United Arab Emirates Ian Harrison Center for Environment and Peace, Conservation International, U.S.A. Jörg Freyhof Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Germany Gary R. Feulner he Chadbourne & Parke, United Arab Emirates Eike Neubert Naturhistorisches Museum der Burgergemeinde, Switzerland Zuhair Amr Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan Dirk van Damme University of Ghent, Belgium Nieves García IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Mary B. Seddon IUCN/SSC Mollusc Specialist Group, United Kingdom Dirk van Damme University of Ghent, Belgium Wolfgang Schneider Senckenberg Research Institute, Germany Boudjéma Samraoui University of Guelma, Algeria Compiler: Jean-Pierre Boudot Université de Lorraine, France Reviewers: Marcelo F. Tognelli IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Nieves García IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Chapter author: Neil Cumberlidge Northern Michigan University, U.S.A. Reviewer: Anna McIvor IUCN Species Programme, United Kingdom Annette Patzelt Oman Botanic Garden, Sultanate of Oman Richard V. Lansdown Ardeola Environmental Services, United Kingdom Sabina G. Knees Centre for Middle Eastern Plants, United Kingdom Marcelo F. Tognelli IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Nieves García IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Tulia Defex IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, U.S.A. Edited by: With the support of: Contributors: Fishes Chapter authors: Reviewers: Molluscs Chapter authors: Reviewers: Odonata Chapter authors: Crabs Plants Chapter authors: Reviewers: Contents Foreword .................................................................................................................................................... x Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................................... xi Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1. Background. Harrison, I., García, N., Freyhof, J., Neubert, E., Amr, Z., Van Damme, D. and Cumberlidge, N. ........................................................................................................................ 1.1 Biophysical characteristics ................................................................................................. 1.2 Aquatic Biodiversity .......................................................................................................... 1.3 Regional hreats ............................................................................................................... 1.4 Precautionary Principle ..................................................................................................... 1.5 Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 1.6 References ......................................................................................................................... 1 1 3 4 5 5 5 Chapter 2. Assessment methodology. Harrison, I. J., García, N., Darwall, W.R.T. and Smith, K. ............. 2.1 Selection of priority taxa ................................................................................................... 2.1.1 Fishes ....................................................................................................................... 2.1.2 Molluscs .................................................................................................................. 2.1.3 Odonates ................................................................................................................. 2.1.4 Aquatic plants .......................................................................................................... 2.2 Delineation of the Arabian Peninsula assessment region .................................................... 2.3 Data collation and quality control .................................................................................... 2.4 Species mapping and analysis ............................................................................................ 2.5 Assessment of species threatened status ............................................................................. 2.6 Overlap with other Red List assessment projects ............................................................... 2.7 Nomenclature ................................................................................................................... 2.8 References ......................................................................................................................... 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 13 13 13 Chapter 3. he status and distribution of freshwater ishes of the Arabian Peninsula. Freyhof, J., Hamidan, N.A., Feulner, G.R. and Harrison, I. ......................................................................... 3.1 Overview of the regional ish fauna ................................................................................... 3.1.1 Freshwater Fish Diversity ......................................................................................... 3.1.2 Geographical factors afecting the distribution of freshwater ishes ........................... 3.1.3 Taxonomic issues ..................................................................................................... 3.1.4 Limitations of data availability and reliability ........................................................... 3.2 Conservation status ........................................................................................................... 3.3 Patterns of species richness in the Arabian Peninsula ......................................................... 3.3.1 All ish species .......................................................................................................... 3.3.2 hreatened species ................................................................................................... 3.3.3 Restricted range and endemic species ....................................................................... 3.3.4 Data Deicient species .............................................................................................. 3.3.5 Extirpated /Extinct species ....................................................................................... 16 16 16 17 18 19 19 21 21 21 21 22 22 vii 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Major threats to freshwater ishes .......................................................................... Uses and Livelihood values ................................................................................... Conservation actions and recommendations ......................................................... References ............................................................................................................. 22 26 26 28 Chapter 4. he status and distribution of freshwater molluscs in the Arabian Peninsula. Neubert, E., Amr, Z. and Van Damme, D. ..................................................................... 4.1 Overview of the regional fauna ............................................................................. 4.2 he taxonomic and ecological impediments .......................................................... 4.3 Conservation status (IUCN Red List Criteria: Regional scale) .............................. 4.4 Patterns of species richness .................................................................................... 4.4.1 All species .................................................................................................... 4.4.2 hreatened species ....................................................................................... 4.4.3 Endemic freshwater molluscs ....................................................................... 4.4.4 Data Deicient species .................................................................................. 4.5 Major threats to freshwater molluscs ..................................................................... 4.6 Conclusions and conservation recommendations .................................................. 4.7 References ............................................................................................................. 30 30 31 31 32 33 34 35 37 37 38 38 Chapter 5. he status and distribution of dragonlies and damsellies (Odonata) in the Arabian Peninsula. Schneider, W. and Samraoui, B. ...................................................... 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 5.1.1 Number of Odonata species within the area of the Arabian Peninsula .......... 5.2 Overview of the Regional Odonata ....................................................................... 5.3 Conservation Status (IUCN Red List Criteria: Regional Scale .............................. 5.4 Patterns Of Species Richness ................................................................................. 5.4.1 Species richness ............................................................................................ 5.4.2 Distribution of endemic species ................................................................... 5.4.3 Distribution of threatened species richness .................................................. 5.5 Major threats to Odonata of the Arabian Peninsula .............................................. 5.5.1. General overview of threats ......................................................................... 5.6 Conservation Recommendations .......................................................................... 5.7 References ............................................................................................................. 39 39 39 41 44 49 49 49 49 51 51 51 53 Chapter 6. he status and distribution of freshwater crabs. Cumberlidge, N. .............................. 6.1 Overview of the regional fauna ............................................................................. 6.1.1 Crab Distribution and Ecoregions ............................................................... 6.2 Assessment of species threatened status (IUCN Red List Criteria: Regional Scale) 6.2.1 Case Studies ................................................................................................. 6.3 Patterns of species richness .................................................................................... 6.3.1. Extirpated species ....................................................................................... 6.4 Major threats to crabs in the freshwater ecosystems of the Arabian Peninsula ........ 6.5 Conservation recommendations ............................................................................ 6.6 References ............................................................................................................. 56 56 56 57 58 60 62 62 62 63 viii Chapter 7. he status and distribution of wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula. Patzelt, A., Lansdown, R.V., Knees, S.G. ................................................................................................. 7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 7.2 Overview of the regional aquatic lora ............................................................................... 7.3 Conservation status (IUCN Red List criteria: regional scale) ............................................. 7.4 Major threats to wetland dependent plants of the Arabian Peninsula ................................ 7.4.1 General overview of threats ...................................................................................... 7.4.2 Habitat loss and degradation .................................................................................... 7.4.3 Modiication of water sources and changes to low regime. ...................................... 7.4.4 Over-abstraction of water ........................................................................................ 7.4.5 Water pollution ........................................................................................................ 7.4.6 Climate change and extreme weather events ............................................................ 7.4.7 Invasive alien plants ................................................................................................. 7.5 Conservation .................................................................................................................... 7.5.1 Develop Action Plans for the conservation of wetland-dependent plants .................. 7.5.2 Incorporate plant conservation requirements and actions into national strategies and legislation ........................................................................................... 7.5.3 Follow a landscape and catchment level approach .................................................... 7.5.4 Develop capacity building and public awareness campaigns ..................................... 7.5.5 Conduct research to expand the knowledge on wetland-dependent plants of the Arabian Peninsula .................................................................................................... 7.5.6 Improve information management ........................................................................... 7.5.7 Establish ex-situ conservation programmes ............................................................. 7.7 References ......................................................................................................................... Chapter 8. Regional synthesis for all taxa García, N., Harrison, I. and Tognelli, M. .................................. 8.1 Red List status .................................................................................................................. 8.2 Patterns of species richness ................................................................................................ 8.2.1 Centers of species richness ....................................................................................... 8.2.2 Distribution of threatened species ............................................................................ 8.2.3 Distribution of endemic species ............................................................................... 8.2.4 Distribution of Data Deicient species ..................................................................... 8.3 hreats to freshwater biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula ................................................. 8.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 8.4.1 Patterns of species richness and endangerment ......................................................... 8.4.2 Conservation priorities ............................................................................................ 8.4.3 Application of project outputs ................................................................................. 8.4.4. Future work ............................................................................................................ 8.5 References .......................................................................................................................... 65 65 67 72 79 79 80 80 81 81 82 82 82 82 83 83 83 83 84 84 84 86 86 86 86 87 88 88 90 91 91 91 93 93 93 Annexes Appendix 1. Freshwater ishes of the Arabian Peninsula ............................................................ Appendix 2. Freshwater molluscs of the Arabian Peninsula ....................................................... Appendix 3. Dragonlies and Damsellies (Odonata) of the Arabian Peninsula ......................... Appendix 4. Freshwater Crabs of the Arabian Peninsula ........................................................... Appendix 5. Wetland Dependent Plants of the Arabian Peninsula ............................................ Appendix 6. CD ....................................................................................................................... ix 94 95 96 98 99 104 Foreword Freshwater habitats and biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula are unique and highly valued for the essential role they play in people’s survival, as well as that of its native lora and fauna. Some of the various goods and services provided by the region’s freshwater species that beneit people in a direct or indirect way are isheries, lood prevention and water puriication. Also as a consequence of this close relationship between man and freshwater systems, the majority of impacts afecting freshwater taxa have also consequent efects on the economy and people’s livelihood. he Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi (EAD) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) worked together for this project that aims to provide an accurate picture of the present conservation status and distribution of Arabian freshwater species, as well as to identify the main threats that afect them and action requirements for their successful long term conservation. he Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi expects this document to guide conservation planning, and represent an important step in building capacity for Red Listing and the identiication of priority areas for conservation action in the region. H.E. Razan Khalifa Al Mubarak, Secretary General of the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi (EAD). x Acknowledgements ‫شكر وتقدير‬ All of IUCN’s global Red Listing processes rely on the willingness of scientists to contribute and pool their collective knowledge to make the most reliable estimates of species conservation status. Without their enthusiastic commitment to species conservation, this kind of regional overview would not be possible. ‫تعتمد جميع عمليات القامة الحمراء العامية التابعة لاتحاد الدوي‬ ‫لصون الطبيعة عى رغبة العلاء ومساهمتهم ي جمع معرفتهم‬ ‫ ومن‬.‫الجاعية لجعل التقديرات عن حالة حفظ اأنواع أكر مصداقية‬ ‫دون التزامهم وحاسهم للحفاظ عى اأنواع فإن هذە النظرة عى‬ .‫امستوى اإقليمي م يكن باإمكان تحقيقها‬ We would like to thank the following people who gave their time and valuable expertise to evaluate all of the assessments at the workshop held at the Senckenberg Research Institute and Museum of Nature in Frankfurt, Germany, asking forgiveness from anyone whose name is inadvertently omitted or misspelled. ‫ونود أن نشكر اأشخاص التالية أساؤهم الذين ضحوا بوقتهم‬ ‫وخرتهم الثمينة لتقييم جميع التقييات ي ورشة العمل التي عقدت‬ ،‫ أمانيا‬/ ‫ي معهد بحوث سينكنرج ومتحف الطبيعة ي فرانكفورت‬ ‫ونعتذر من أي شخص م يذكر اسمه سهوا أو احتوى اسمه عى خطأ‬ .‫إماي‬ he authors of the various chapters, assessors and participants to the workshop: Annette Patzelt (aquatic plants), Boudjéma Samraoui (Odonata), Eike Neubert (freshwater molluscs), Fareed A. Krupp Gary R. Feulner and Jörg Freyhof (freshwater ishes), Wolfgang Schneider and Khaldoun Al Omari (Odonata), Nashat A. Hamidan (freshwater ishes), Neil Cumberlidge (freshwater crabs), Richard Lansdown (aquatic plants), Sabina G. Knees (aquatic plants), and Zuhair Amr (freshwater molluscs). Jean-Pierre Boudot compiled the preliminary assessments for dragonlies and damsellies. ‫ونخص بالذكر مؤلفي الفصول امختلفة وامقييّمن وامشاركن ي ورشة‬ )‫ أنيت باتزلت (النباتات امائية) وبودجيا سمراوي (يعسوبيات‬:‫العمل‬ ‫ فيولر‬.‫ كروب وغاري ر‬.‫وإيك نوبرت (رخويات امياە العذبة) وفريد ا‬ ‫ويورغ فرايهوف (أساك امياە العذبة) وفولفغانغ شنايدر وخلدون‬ ‫العمري (يعسوبيات) ونشأت حميدان (أساك امياە العذبة) ونيل‬ ‫كامرلدج (رطانات امياە العذبة) وريتشارد انسداون (النباتات‬ ‫ نييز (النباتات امائية) وزهر عمرو (رخويات امياە‬.‫امائية) وسابينا ج‬ ‫ وقد قام جان بير بودو بجمع التقييات اأولية لليعسوبيات‬.)‫العذبة‬ .‫ومقرنات اأجنحة‬ he assessment of the Arabian Peninsula biodiversity was coordinated by Nieves García, Ian Harrison and Neil Cox from the IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit, a shared initiative between IUCN Global Species Programme and Conservation International. We received extensive expert advice and assistance from the following IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Specialist Groups: IUCN/SSC Mollusc Specialist Group, IUCN/ SSC Dragonly Specialist Group, IUCN/SSC-Wetlands International Freshwater Fish Specialist Group, IUCN/ SSC Freshwater Crab and Crayish Specialist Group and IUCN/SSC Freshwater Plant Specialist Group. We also thank the IUCN Regional Oice for West Asia, and in particular Khaldoun Al Omari for his dedicated support at the workshop. ‫تم تنسيق تقييم التنوع البيولوجي ي الجزيرة العربية من قبل نيفيس‬ ‫غارسيا وإيان هاريسون ونيل كوكس من وحدة تقييم التنوع‬ ‫البيولوجي التابع لإتحاد الدول لصون الطبيعة ومنظمة الحفظ‬ ‫ وهي مبادرة مشركة بن الرنامج العامي‬،)IUCN-CI( ‫الدولية‬ ‫) ومنظمة الحفظ‬IUCN( ‫لأنواع التابع لإتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة‬ ‫ كا تلقينا مشورة ومساعدة واسعة من خراء‬.)CI( ‫الدولية‬ ‫امجموعات امتخصصة التالية التابعة للجنة بقاء اأنواع التابعة‬ ‫ امجموعة‬:)SSC( ‫لاتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة واموارد الطبيعية‬ ‫امتخصصة ي الرخويات وامجموعة امتخصصة ي اليعسوبيات‬ ‫وامجموعة امتخصصة وهم ي أساك امياە العذبة وامجموعة‬ ‫امتخصصة ي رطان وجراد البحر امياە العذبة وامجموعة امتخصصة‬ ‫ كا نشكر امكتب اإقليمي لغرب آسيا التابع‬.‫ي نباتات امياە العذبة‬ ‫لإتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة وعى وجه الخصوص خلدون العمري‬ .‫لدعمه امتفاي ي ورشة العمل‬ All analysis was carried out by Marcelo Tognelli from the IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit. he species distribution maps were digitalized through the combined eforts of the IUCN-CI Biodiversity Assessment Unit with the technical support of Celia Navarro. Lindsay I. B. Williams and Sophie Neale from the Royal Botanic ‫وقد أجريت جميع التحاليل من قبل مارسيلو توغنلي من وحدة‬ ‫تقييم التنوع البيولوجي التابع لإتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة ومنظمة‬ xi Garden Edinburgh provided key distributional data and generated maps for the aquatic plants assessment. Mark Mulligan (King’s College London) kindly provided data on dams from the DAMS database. ‫ تم تحويل خرائط توزيع اأنواع إى‬.)IUCN-CI( ‫الحفظ الدولية‬ ‫خرائط رقمية من خال تضافر جهود وحدة تقييم التنوع البيولوجي‬ ‫التابع لإتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة ومنظمة الحفظ الدولية‬ ‫) والدعم التقني من سيليا نافارو وقد قدمت ليندي‬IUCN-CI( ‫وليامز وصوي نيل من الحديقة النباتية املكية (ادنرە) بيانات التوزيع‬ ‫ كا قدم مارك‬.‫الرئيسية وأنتجت خرائط لتقييم النباتات امائية‬ .‫موليجان من كينجز كوليدج (لندن) بيانات عن السدود‬ We would like to thank the staf at the Senckenberg Research Institute and Museum of Nature in Frankfurt, particularly Wolfgang Schneider, Eike Neubert, and Horst Zetzsche for providing logistical and administrative support and making sure the communications and evaluation workshop ran smoothly. Workshop facilitators in Frankfurt were Nieves García, Ian Harrison, Khaldoun AlOmari. ‫ونود أن نشكر اموظفن ي معهد سينكنرج للبحوث ومتحف الطبيعة‬ ‫ي فرانكفورت وخصوصا وولفجانج شنايدر وإيك نوبرت وهورست‬ ‫زيتي لتوفر الدعم اللوجستي واإداري والتأكد من سر ورشة عمل‬ ‫ كا نود أن نشكر نيفيس غارسيا‬،‫ااتصاات والتقييم عى نحو سلس‬ ‫ميسي ورشة العمل ي‬ ّ ‫وإيان هاريسون وخلدون العمري‬ .‫فرانكفورت‬ We also would like to thank Simon Stuart, Chair of IUCN Species Survival Commission, for his good advice and guidance. Experienced support and advice was also provided by Will Darwall, Kevin Smith and David Allen, from IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, and Johannes Els from the Breeding Center for Endangered Arabian Wildlife. Meryl Cohen and Marion Salaun Fairbanks and Carly Silverman (Conservation International) provided helpful administrative assistance in planning the budget for the project. ‫كا نود أن نشكر سامون ستيوارت رئيس لجنة بقاء اأنواع التابعة‬ ‫ وقد تم‬.‫لاتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة لنصائحه وتوجيهاته الجيدة‬ ‫تقديم الدعم وامشورة أيضا من قبل ويل داروول وكيفن سميث‬ ‫وديفيد ألن من وحدة التنوع البيولوجي للمياە العذبة التابعة لاتحاد‬ ‫الدوي لصون الطبيعة واموارد الطبيعية ويوهانس إلس من مركز‬ ‫ كا تم تقديم‬.‫تناسل الحياة الرية العربية امهددة باانقراض‬ ‫امساعدة اإدارية امفيدة للتخطيط ميزانية هذا امروع من قبل‬ ‫مريل كوهن وماريون سااون فربانكس وكاري سيلفرمان (منظمة‬ .)‫الحفظ الدولية‬ Ian Harrison is grateful to the Department of Ichthyology, American Museum of Natural History, New York for granting Research Associate status, and to the staf of the Museum library (in particular Tom Baione [Harold Boeschenstein Director] and Mai Qaraman Reitmeyer [Librarian]), for assisting in locating published materials. Ian Harrison is also grateful to Columbia University, New York for granting Adjunct Research Scientist Status (for Center for Environmental Research and Conservation) and External Ailiate Status (Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology) and allowing access the library facilities. ‫كا يشكر إيان هاريسون وزارة علم اأساك وامتحف اأمريي‬ ‫للتاريخ الطبيعي ي نيويورك منحه مرتبة باحث مشارك وموظفي‬ ]‫مكتبة امتحف (وا سيا توم بايون [مدير هارولد بوشينستاين‬ ‫وماي قرمان ريتاير [أمينة امكتبة لخدمات البحوث]) للمساعدة ي‬ )‫ كا يشكر أيضا جامعة كولومبيا (نيويورك‬.‫تحديد مكان امنشورات‬ ‫منحه مرتبة مساعد باحث علمي (مركز البحوث البيئية وامحافظة‬ ‫عى البيئة) ومرتبة منتسب خارجي (قسم البيئة والتطور وعلم‬ .‫اأحياء البيئي) والساح له أيضا بالوصول إى مرافق امكتبة‬ Ian Harrison, Nieves García and Neil Cox reviewed and text edited this report. Chadi Abi Faraj produced the present project publication، Nashat A. Hamidan helped in editing the Acknowledgments and Executive Summary sections. ‫تم مراجعة وتحرير نص هذا التقرير من قبل إيان هاريسون ونيفيس‬ ‫ ويعود انتاج مروع نر التقرير الحاي لشادي‬.‫غارسيا ونيل كوكس‬ .‫ نشأت حميدان ساعد ي تنقيح النص العري‬.‫اي فرج‬ he contribution of each expert is fully acknowledged in each of the detailed individual species assessments. Globally completed assessments are available on the IUCN Red List of hreatened Species website (http:// www.iucnredlist.org). ‫لقد تم ذكر مساهمة كل خبر بالكامل ي كل من التقييات الفردية‬ ‫ كا تتوفر التقييات امستكملة عاميا عى موقع‬.‫امفصلة لأنواع‬ :‫القامة الحمراء لأنواع امهددة باانقراض‬ . )http://www.iucnredlist.org( his project has been carried out thanks to the generous grant to IUCN by the Environment Agency of Abu xii Dhabi, including its report and workshop in Frankfurt. We are grateful to HE Razan Khalifa Al Mubarak and Frédéric Launay for the Agency´s hugely generous support to IUCN´S Species Survival Commision. Cofunding for data compilation, workshop facilitation and data editing was provided through he Betty and Gordon Moore Center for Ecosystem Science and Economics of Conservation International. Any opinion, indings, denominations and conclusions expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily relect the views of the Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, Conservation International or the project partners. ‫وقد تم تنفيذ هذا امروع بفضل امنحة السخية امقدمة من قبل‬ ‫ ما ي ذلك‬،‫هيئة البيئة ي أبوظبي إى ااتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة‬ .‫تقريرها وورشة العمل ي فرانكفورت‬ ‫كا وأننا ممتنون لسعادة رزان خليفة امبارك وفريديريك لوي‬ ‫لدعمهم السخي والكبر إى لجنة بقاء اأنواع التابعة لاتحاد الدوي‬ ‫لصون الطبيعة وممتنون أيضا اى مركز بيتتي وجوردون مور لعلوم‬ ‫النظام اإيكولوجي وااقتصاد التابع منظمة الحفظ الدولية لتقدمه‬ ‫التمويل امشرك لتجميع البيانات وتسهيل ورشة العمل وتحرير‬ .‫البيانات‬ ‫إن أي رأي أو نتائج أو تسميات أو استنتاجات واردة ي هذا التقرير‬ ‫هي تابعة آراء كاتبيها وا تعكس بالرورة وجهات نظر كل من‬ ‫هيئة البيئة ي أبوظبي أو ااتحاد الدوي لصون الطبيعة أو منظمة‬ .‫الحفظ الدولية أو الركاء ي امروع‬ xiii Executive Summary he Arabian Peninsula Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment addresses the limited information currently available on the status and distribution of freshwater species in the region. he present IUCN Red List publication compiles the results of the project, identifying those species at risk of regional extinction and providing the irst overview of their conservation status in accordance with the IUCN regional Red List guidelines. By compiling this existing information and updating it where possible the report provides an important resource for current and future decisionmaking on the management and conservation of inland waters. west Saudi Arabia and Oman in Dhofar. hese areas, identiied as centres of freshwater biodiversity and threat, can help focus development and conservation actions in ways that aim to minimise impacts to freshwater species throughout the region. Habitat loss and degradation due to modiication of the natural systems (e.g. unsustainable water abstraction) and agriculture intensiication are together with pollution and the current trend of atmospheric temperature increase and rainfall decline, the major causes of species decline in the Arabian Peninsula. he proposed conservation measures to reduce the probability of future declines in freshwater biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula will be through better, basin-scale programs of landscape management that integrate conservation programs across terrestrial and aquatic systems. his should include increased representation of freshwater ecosystems in networks of protected areas and implementation of Integrated River Basin Management programs. Additional conservation actions should include the use of sustainable agricultural techniques and waste management, law enforcement, habitat protection, action plans for species and environmental education. he project evaluates the conservation status of 292 species belonging to ive taxonomic groups – 18 ish taxa, 30 molluscs taxa, 59 dragonlies and damsellies taxa (odonates), 3 freshwater crabs taxa and 182 wetlanddependent plants taxa. Freshwater crabs and ish show a high degree of endemism, with 100% and 83% of the species respectively in these groups not being found anywhere else outside of the region. Overall, 17% of the Arabian freshwater taxa assessed are threatened with extinction at the regional scale, with a further 3% assessed as Near hreatened and 20% as Data Deicient. Also, the success of conservation planning in order to guarantee the future sustainability of livelihoods, as well as the resources and services provided by functioning wetland ecosystems depends critically on the adequate involvement of communities in the long-term future of freshwater species and habitats across the region. he limited number and area of wetland systems within the region, and the restricted size of many of them, constrains the distribution of species and the abundance of species in many basins. he greatest numbers of freshwater species and threatened species are found in the mountains of Yemen, the Socotra archipelago, south- xiv ‫املخص التنفيذي‬ ‫سقطرى وجنوب غرب امملكة العربية السعودية وي محافظة ظفار‬ ‫ي سلطنة عان‪ .‬ومكن لهذە امناطق التي تم تحديدها كمراكز‬ ‫للتنوع البيولوجي للمياە العذبة ان تساعد عى تركيز التنمية وأعال‬ ‫الحاية بهدف تقليل من اآثار عى أنواع امياە العذبة ي جميع‬ ‫أنحاء امنطقة‪.‬‬ ‫يعالج تقييم التنوع البيولوجي للمياە العذبة ي الجزيرة العربية‬ ‫امعلومات امحدودة امتاحة حاليا عن حالة وتوزيع أنواع امياە العذبة‬ ‫ي امنطقة‪ .‬يجمع التقرير الحاي للقامة الحمراء التابعة لإتحاد‬ ‫الدوي لصون الطبيعة نتائج امروع وتحديد تلك اأنواع امعرضة‬ ‫لخطر اانقراض إقليمياً وتوفر نظرة أوى عن حالة حفظها وفقا‬ ‫للمبادئ التوجيهية للقامة الحمراء اإقليمية التابعة لإتحاد الدوي‬ ‫لصون الطبيعة‪ .‬يقدم هذا التقرير من خال تجميع هذە امعلومات‬ ‫القامة وتحديثها ‪-‬كلا أمكن‪ -‬موردا هاما اتخاذ القرارات الحالية‬ ‫وامستقبلية إدارة وحفظ امياە الداخلية‪.‬‬ ‫ان اأسباب الرئيسية انخفاض اأنواع ي شبه الجزيرة العربية هي‬ ‫فقدان اموائل وتدهورها‪ ،‬وذلك بسبب التعديل ي النظم الطبيعية‬ ‫(مثل استخراج امياە غر امستدام) وتكثيف الزراعة‪ ،‬باإضافة إى‬ ‫التلوث وزيادة درجة حرارة الغاف الجوي وانخفاض هطول اأمطار‪.‬‬ ‫إن تدابر الحاية امقرحة للحد من احتال انخفاض مستقبي للتنوع‬ ‫البيولوجي للمياە العذبة ي شبه الجزيرة العربية ستكون من خال‬ ‫تحسن برامج إدارة اأراي عى نطاق اأحواض التي تعمل عى دمج‬ ‫برامج امحافظة عر النظم اأرضية وامائية‪ ،‬وينبغي أن تشمل زيادة‬ ‫ي مثيل النظم اإيكولوجية للمياە العذبة ي شبكات امناطق امحمية‬ ‫وتنفيذ برامج اإدارة امتكاملة أحواض اأنهار‪ .‬يجب أن تتضمن‬ ‫إجراءات الحفظ اإضافية استخدام التقنيات الزراعية امستدامة‬ ‫وإدارة النفايات وتطبيق القانون وحاية اموائل وخطط عمل للتعليم‬ ‫البيئي والتعرف عى اأنواع‪.‬‬ ‫يقيّيم امروع وضع الحفاظ عى ‪ 292‬نوعا من اأنواع تنتمي إى‬ ‫خمس مجموعات تصنيفية ‪ 18 -‬من أصناف اأساك‪ 30 ،‬من أصناف‬ ‫الرخويات‪ 59 ،‬من أصناف اليعسوبيات ومقرنات اأجنحة‬ ‫(‪ 3 ،)odonates‬من أصناف رطانات امياە العذبة‪ 182 ،‬من أصناف‬ ‫النباتات التي تعتمد عى اأراي الرطبة‪ .‬كا تبن أن لدى رطانات‬ ‫وأساك امياە العذبة درجة عالية من التوطن بلغت منها نسبة ‪%83‬‬ ‫من اموجود أما السطانات فبلغت نسبة ‪ %100‬من هذە امجموعات‪.‬‬ ‫وعموما‪ ،‬فإن ‪ %17‬من أصناف امياە العذبة ي الجزيرة العربية التي‬ ‫تم تقييمها مهددة باانقراض عى امستوى اإقليمي مع ‪ %3‬أخرى‬ ‫اعترت تحت التهديد و ‪ %20‬ا يتوفر عنها معلومات‪.‬‬ ‫باإضافة إى ذلك‪ ،‬فإن نجاح التخطيط لحاية التنوع البيولوجي من‬ ‫أجل ضان استدامة مستقبلية لسبل العيش‪ ،‬فضا عن اموارد‬ ‫والخدمات التي تقدمها نظم إيكولوجية فعالة لأراي الرطبة يعتمد‬ ‫بشكل حاسم عى امشاركة الكافية للمجتمعات ي مستقبل أنواع‬ ‫امياە العذبة واموائل ي جميع أنحاء امنطقة‪.‬‬ ‫ان العدد وامساحة امحدودة أنظمة اأراي الرطبة ي امنطقة‬ ‫والحجم امحدود للكثر منها يحد من توزيع اأنواع ووفرتها ي‬ ‫العديد من اأحواض‪ .‬وقد تم العثور عى أكر عدد من أنواع امياە‬ ‫العذبة واأنواع امهددة باانقراض ي جبال اليمن وي أرخبيل‬ ‫‪xv‬‬ xvi Chapter 1. Background Harrison, I.1, García, N.2, Freyhof, J.3, Neubert, E.4, Amr, Z.5, Van Damme, D.6, and Cumberlidge, N.7 Yemen (including the Socotran archipelago). he area covers more than 3 million km² (see Figure 1.1). Mountains rise steeply from the sea along the western, much of the southern, and the south-eastern coasts, and they shelve more gradually towards the desert interior. he highest part of the Arabian Peninsula is in the western mountains at Jebel An Nabi Shu’ayb (3,666 m) 1.1 Biophysical characteristics Cox et al. (2012) give a good overview of the geography of the Arabian Peninsula, and much of their information is summarized here. he Arabian Peninsula is deined on political grounds, comprising Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Figure 1.1 Map showing the Arabian Peninsula region covered in this project and the freshwater ecoregions included within this region (source: Abell et al. 2008) 1 Center for Environment and Peace, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA 2 IUCN/Conservation International Biodiversity Assessment Unit, Betty & Gordon Moore Center for Ecosystem Science & Economics, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA 3 Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, Leibniz Institute for Animal Biodiversity, Adenauerallee 160, 53113 Bonn, Germany 4 Naturhistorisches Museum der Burgergemeinde Bern, Bernastr 15, CH-3005 Bern, Switzerland. 5 Jordan University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid. 22110, Jordan. 6 University of Ghent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 25, B 9000 Ghent, Belgium 7 Department of Biology, Northern Michigan University. Marquette, MI 49855-5376, USA 1 in Yemen. he southern part of the western mountains, located in south-west Saudi Arabia and Yemen, receives summer monsoon rainfall, from June to September, and the western escarpment is cut by many steep wadis. he mountains of the Dhofar governorate of southern Oman, extending into the Mahra region of eastern Yemen, attain elevations of 1,400-1,800 m and also receive the summer monsoon. he southwest monsoon that afects southern Oman and adjacent Yemen creates tropical fog that permits the development of a deciduous cloud forest. he forest is also noted as supporting high plant diversity (see chapter 7). widespread in the Peninsula’s karstic area, and large caves are known at least in Oman (for example the al-Houta cave near Nizwa). here are also brackish salt lats (sabkha) along the coasts and in some inland areas, such as the Umm as Samim in Oman. Fresh groundwater mixes with saltwater in the delta areas of larger drainage systems producing more or less brackish water bodies that are inhabited by some species marking the transition to marine systems. In parts of the Arabian Peninsula, such as Oman, artiicial irrigation channel systems, called alaj or qanats, provide important freshwater habitat for plants and animals, especially where there are no natural wetland areas. In addition to the alaj, artiicial dams form lakes (some of which are large) in the Arabian Peninsula, and these provide freshwater habitats for some species (but the dams and modiied geomorphology and hydrology of the river basins represent signiicant threats to many An extensive limestone plateau, the jol, lies between Dhofar and the south-west mountains, and this is deeply incised by the large Wadi Hadhramaut-Wadi Masilah system. he Hajar Mountains stretch for about 700 km between the Musandam Peninsula and Ras al Hadd in the south-east of the Arabian Peninsula, reaching 3,009 m at their highest point at Jebel Al Akhdar. he interior of the Arabian Peninsula comprise sand and gravel deserts, intersected by numerous shallow wadis. Sand dunes occupy about 27% of the Arabian Peninsula, with the extensive Rub al Khali (Empty Quarter) in the southeast itself covering about 640,000 km². Black basalt lava lows (harrat) cover about 30,000 km² in northern Saudi Arabia and extend into Syria and Jordan. Irrigation ditch at Al Ahsa in Saudi Arabia. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui While arid habitats cover most of the Arabian Peninsula, the region has several freshwater systems that are crucial for the survival of people as well as for many animals and plants. he coastal mountainous regions have seaward lowing drainages, otherwise drainages are typically internal and endorheic. Many of the natural streams, wadis and shallow pools are ephemeral, occurring after sporadic rainfall, and the lows frequently do not reach their terminal basins. Permanently lowing freshwater systems also exist, though they tend to be restricted to a few mountain wadis (such as in south west Saudi Arabia and Yemen), and they may show high variation in low rates that include periodic loods. he deciduous forests of the monsoon regions of southwestern Saudi Arabia , Yeman and Oman support permanent springs and other freshwater bodies. he springs are usually situated in the foothills of the coastal mountains, and ofer high quality habitats for all kinds of freshwater organisms hermal springs are found in some mountainous regions, such as the Jebel Al Akhdar mountains; some of these springs may release brine water. Some of the more notable freshwater systems (with high species numbers) are present in various parts of southern Arabia (e.g. the Wadi Hadhramaut system). Subterranean water systems are 2 species). he FAO (2013) Aquastat database lists 216 dams in the region (29 in Oman, 46 in Yemen, 68 in the United Arab Emirates, and 73 in Saudi Arabia). Several of these do not have geographic coordinates, but the others are shown in igure 1.2, along with data from Mulligan et al. (2009). his total number of dams is likely to be an underestimate because even by the end of 2006 the number of dams in Saudi Arabia alone was estimated to be as high as 230. Sixty-one of the dams listed in Aquastat (FAO 2013) qualify as large dams (over 15 m); the highest being the 103 m King Fahad dam in the southwest of Saudi Arabia near BishahKhamis Mushayt, with a reservoir size of 325 million m3. In terms of water impoundment, the 40 m high Ma’areb dam near Ma’areb city in Yemen is the largest, impounding 400 million m3. Other large reservoirs in the Arabian Peninsula include that behind the Wadi Abhar dam (213 million m3), the reservoir behind the Wadi Najran dam (86 million m3), and the reservoir behind the Wadi Jazan dam (51 million m3); all of which are in Saudi Arabia. Other large artiicial water bodies include Al Asfar Lake located east of Al-Hassa, which extends for several kilometers. his artiicial lake receives excess drainage water from the surrounding farmland. deined by Abell et al. (2008): the Southwestern Arabian coast, Oman Mountains, Arabian Interior, and the Lower Tigris and Euphrates ecoregions (Fig. 1.1). he Southwestern Arabian coast freshwater ecoregion, which shows ainities with Africa and the TigrisEuphrates basin, is characterized by high endemism of its ish fauna. Most of the Oman Mountains freshwater ecoregion is extremely hot and dry, with few freshwater habitats. he artiicial irrigation channels (alaj or qanats) are important additional habitats for various species (see above). he large Arabian Interior freshwater ecoregion has very few freshwater habitats, and the drainages are all internal and endorheic. he ecoregion extends beyond the political boundary of the Arabian Peninsula, north into Jordan and Syria, including the important and highly threatened ecosystems of the Azraq Oasis (not covered in this analysis). he species of the northern part of the Arabian Interior have Palearctic ainities (speciically with the Tigris-Euphrates regions) whereas some of those in the southern part of the ecoregion show Afrotropical ailiations. he Arabian Peninsula (as deined here) includes only a very small portion of the Lower Tigris and Euphrates ecoregion in Kuwait, covering the marine coastal areas of the northeastern part of Al Jahrah district adjacent to Bubiyan Island. hus, the ish fauna that is typical of the lower Tigris and Euphrates catchments is represented by one species only in the Arabian Peninsula. he Arabian Peninsula as deined here also includes Socotra, however this is not recognized as part of an ecoregion because there were no freshwater ish documented or data available at the time that the ecoregions were delineated (hieme et al. pers. comm.). Nevertheless, the islands are well known for their endemic lora and fauna and were declared a World Heritage site in 2008. he islands of the Socotran archipelago have a continental geological origin but became separated during the Miocene. hey are now separated from one another and from Africa by relatively shallow seas and from the Arabian Peninsula to the north by a deep trench of about 2,500 m (Birse et al. 1997). Socotra is the largest of these islands (with an area of 3,625 km2), and lies 240 km east of the Horn of Africa and 480 km south of the Arabian Coast. he second largest island is Abd al Kuri (216 km2, 850 m above sea level), has low hills rather than mountains, and very little surface water. he other two islands of the archipelago, Samha (45 km2, 779 m asl) and Darsa (10 km2, 57 m asl), are both small, arid, and barren. Samha has only a few areas with freshwater, while Darsa has no available freshwater and is uninhabited. he Socotran islands have a summer annual monsoon like other parts of Yemen and Oman (discussed above). 1.2 Aquatic Biodiversity he overall diversity of freshwater species through the region is relatively low, due to the small volume of permanent water bodies. However, this may be partly an underestimate, due to incomplete surveying. he richness of species tends to be greatest in the mountains that are less arid than the latter sand dunes and gravel deserts, especially in the interior. he Arabian Peninsula lies at the junction of three biogeographic realms (using the zoogeographic regions adopted by the Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment; Balian et al. 2008): the western part of the Palearctic, the Afrotropical, and the Oriental. Hence the region has a mixed lora and fauna that includes representatives of both Asian and African groups. he Arabian Peninsula includes all or part of four freshwater ecoregions, as Among the aquatic plants there is a high diversity of species in permanent freshwater systems, with 182 species represented on the Arabian Peninsula (including a small number of endemics). Many of these are 3 concentrated in southern Arabia, although species diversity is likely underestimated in some areas as it remains quite poorly known. Apart from the freshwater crabs (100% endemic), the aquatic invertebrates studied as part of this report (molluscs, dragonlies and damsellies) also appear to be quite species poor in the region, with only a few endemic species. However further studies are needed for all groups to establish a complete record of the region’s freshwater fauna. Perhaps the freshwater ishes are the better known group for the Arabian Peninsula, and of the 19 recognized species many are endemic to the region. wetlands for conversion to agricultural land or for regional development activities (including increased recreational use). Very much related to habitat loss is the physical modiication of water sources and changes to low regimes, frequently through (but not limited to) either channelization of streams and rivers, or dam construction for either electricity generation or the creation of water storage reservoirs (see Figure 1.2). In addition to the water body itself, associated habitats such as riparian vegetation (essential for many freshwater species) will also be impacted. Unsustainable abstraction of water, generally to support agricultural or domestic needs, is having a considerable impact on the freshwater species that rely on the region’s freshwaters. Both surface and groundwater resources are exploited and perhaps most clearly threaten those species, such as freshwater ishes, that rely on the availability of permanent water-bodies to complete their life-cycles. 1.3 Regional Threats Freshwater habitats in the generally dry Arabian Peninsula are notably sensitive to several threats that are often associated with overuse or mismanagement of these resources. Perhaps the overriding threat to freshwater species of the Arabian Peninsula comes from habitat loss and degradation. his is often linked to the drainage of he quality of water available to many freshwater organisms is also being compromised. Water pollution is Fig. 1.2. Dams and water withdrawal in the Arabian Peninsula. Based on data from Alcamo (2002), Mulligan et al. (2009), FAO (2013). 4 a serious issue in many basins, ranging from large waste (plastic bottles etc.) to chemical pollution (for example, anti-malarial biocides (Van Damme and Banield 2011) and agrochemicals). he eutrophication and reduction in dissolved oxygen for many wadis, springs, rivers and other water-bodies on the Arabian Peninsula can be largely attributed to run-of of fertilizers from irrigated farmed land. irreversible damage, lack of full scientiic certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-efective measures to prevent environmental degradation. his principle is a critical part of species conservation and should be applied in circumstances where there are reasonable grounds for concern that an activity may cause harm to the environment but where there is uncertainty about the probability of the risk and the degree of harm. While the impacts of ongoing climate change for the Arabian Peninsula as a whole are diicult to predict, it is clear that the limited freshwater habitats and associated species of the Peninsula will be vulnerable to any lengthening of drought. his may particularly be the case where water-bodies are already heavily afected by overabstraction of water. While some species may be able to tolerate small increases in dry periods, there will be those (often highly aquatic species such as freshwater ishes) that cannot adapt to these changes. 1.5 Objectives Dryland and desert environments have frequently been overlooked during conservation priority setting exercises; however they contain a wealth of biodiversity adapted to the harsh conditions. his is particularly the case for the Arabian Peninsula, where assessments of the global conservation status of charismatic species groups such as mammals and birds exist, but are lacking for important species of freshwater taxa. he lack of basic information on species distributions and threatened status in these systems has been a key obstacle facing freshwater ecosystem managers in the region. Invasive species have been recorded in many of the region’s freshwaters. It appears that the best documented invasive species are often non-native ishes, and the impact of these aliens on native ish populations is outlined in Chapter 3. Invasive species can be expected to result in habitat loss and degradation, or predation and competition with a variety of freshwater taxa. he project reported here aimed to address these issues by collating information for assessments of conservation status and distributions of biodiversity throughout the inland waters of the Arabian Peninsula. his report provides a synthesis of the data, with recommendations for conservation priorities. he collated data are stored and made publicly available through the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) data management system, the Species Information Service (SIS) at www.iucnredlist. org. 1.4 Precautionary Principle Darwall et al. (2009) stated that, even when the economic value of a wetland and its associated biodiversity has been determined as high, it may still remain a diicult task to justify the need to conserve all species in those wetlands. For example, in some circumstances ishery managers may argue that it is easier to focus their management on a few species, or on alien species that are commercially valuable than to try to manage native or all species. However, Darwall et al. (2009) showed that this approach may be misguided, especially when we do not know enough about the species-ecosystem interactions to fully understand the efect of loss of a single species, or a group of species, from the system. his is likely to be the case in the wadi systems of the Arabian Peninsula. In those ecosystems, it is important to take a precautionary approach and assume that all species may play a critical role in the ecosystem foodwebs and function. 1.6 References Abell, R., hieme, M.L., Revenga, C., Bryer, M., Kottelat, M., Bogutskaya, N., Coad, B., Mandrak, N., Contreras Balderas, S., Bussing, W., Stiassny, M.L.J., Skelton, P., Allen, G.R., Unmack, P., Naseka, A., Ng, R., Sindorf, N., Robertson, J., Armijo, E., Higgins, J.V., Heibel, T.J., Wikramanayake, E., Olson, D., López, H.L., Reis, R.E., Lundberg, J.G., Sabaj Pérez, M.H., and Petry, P. (2008). Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: a new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. BioScience 58 (5): 403-414 Hence, the basis of the Precautionary Principle is that, where potential threats could lead to serious or 5 Alcamo, J., Döll, P., Flörke, M. and Märker, M. (2002). World Water Assessment Programme: Map 4. Water withdrawals according to drainage basins. Center for Environmental Systems Research, University of Kassel. http://www.usf.uni-kassel.de/wwap/results. htm#map4. Downloaded May 28, 2014. Balian, E.V., Segers, H., Lévêque, C. and Martens, K. 2008a. An introduction to the Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment (FADA) project. Hydrobiologia 595: 3–8. Cox, N.A., Mallon, D., Bowles, P. and Tognelli, M.F. (compilers). (2012). he Conservation Status and Distribution of Reptiles of the Arabian Peninsula. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, and Sharjah, UAE: Environment and Protected Areas Authority. Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G., Tweddle, D. and Skelton, P. (eds) (2009). he Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Grahamstown, South Africa: SAIAB. viii+120pp. FAO (2013). AQUASTAT – Geo-referenced database on dams in the Middle East. http://www.fao.org/nr/ water/aquastat/dams/index.stm. Downloaded September 9, 2013. Mulligan, M. Saenz-Cruz , L., van Soesbergen, A., Smith,V.T. and Zurita,L (2009) Global dams database and geowiki. Version 1. http://geodata.policysupport. org/dams. Version 1. Van Damme, K. and Banield, L. (2011) Past and present human impacts on the biodiversity of Soqotra Island (Yemen): implications for future conservation. Zoology in the Middle East. Supplementum 3 (Biodiversity Conservation in the Arabian Peninsula): 31-88. 6 Chapter 2. Assessment methodology Harrison, I. J.,1, García, N.2, Darwall, W.R.T.3, and Smith, K.3 assessment of their status, either within any one selected region or globally. hese repeated assessments then have the potential to serve as an indicator of the efects of environmental change within the region, where pressures such as rapid development and high population growth can signiicantly alter wetland systems. Indeed, many of the selected species are particularly good indicators of environmental health in freshwater systems and the adjacent riparian habitat (see information on taxonomic groups in sections 2.1.1-4). 2.1 Selection of priority taxa When making an assessment of the condition of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems, it is important to consider species that are essential to the maintenance of healthy ecological functions as well as those species that are used by human communities to provide food and other ecosystem goods. It is, however, impractical to assess all freshwater species due to inancial and knowledge constraints. herefore, a number of priority taxonomic groups were selected. hese groups are: freshwater ishes, freshwater molluscs, odonates (dragonlies and damsellies) and freshwater plants. Assessments have focused on these groups for several reasons. he groups cover a wide range of trophic levels within the foodwebs that underlie and support wetland ecosystems. Given this range of trophic levels and ecological roles encompassed within the four focal taxonomic groups, information on their distributions and conservation status, when combined, will provide a useful indication of the overall status of the associated wetland ecosystems. he species in the selected taxonomic groups also provide important services in support of the surrounding ecosystems and human livelihoods (JufeBignoli and Darwall 2012) For example, ishes provide an important beneit to the livelihoods of many people throughout the world, as a source of income or as a valuable source of nutrition. Beneits provided by the other taxa may be indirect and are often poorly appreciated but, nonetheless, are equally important. (eg., water iltration and removal of metals, provision of medicinal materials; Maine et al. 2004, Khan et al. 2009). he groups were also selected because they include taxa for which there is suicient existing information and scientiic expertise to ensure that comprehensive and accurate assessments can be completed. he selected groups have been assessed for other parts of the world, beyond the Arabian Peninsula, by IUCN’s Freshwater Biodiversity Unit (FBU). his has been achieved through several regionally focused assessment projects since 2004 (for example see Darwall et al. 2005, 2009, 2011; Allen et al. 2010, 2012; Molur et al. 2011). Other freshwater groups (for example, crabs; Cumberlidge et al. 2009), and freshwater shrimps (IUCN in progress) are being assessed comprehensively at the global scale. his report focuses on assessment of the four selected groups (ishes, odonates, molluscs, and plants from freshwaters) through the Arabian Peninsula. In addition to those taxonomic groups, freshwater crabs are included here because they have been globally assessed by Cumberlidge et al (2009) as part of an earlier stage of IUCN’s freshwater-speciic biodiversity assessments. 2.1.1 Fishes Fishes are probably the most important wetland product on a global scale; providing the primary source of protein for nearly one billion people worldwide (FAO 2002) and food security for many more (FAO 2002, UNEP 2010). However, freshwater isheries in the Arabian Peninsula Because the focal groups are relatively well-studied and easily surveyed it will be possible to make repeated 1 Center for Environment and Peace, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA 2 IUCN/Conservation International Biodiversity Assessment Unit, Betty & Gordon Moore Center for Ecosystem Science & Economics, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA 3 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK CB3 0DL. 7 are relatively small and are mainly dependent on the introduced Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (FAO 2012). good representation of the freshwater molluscan diversity across the region. 2.1.3 Odonates For the purposes of this assessment freshwater ishes are deined as those that spend all or a critical part of their lifecycle in fresh waters, or are conined to brackish waterbodies. A total of 21 taxa were selected for this assessment. Fifteen of the species are restricted to the area under consideration (see section 2.2). he remaining taxa are more widespread. he IUCN Red List (IUCN 2012) and FishBase (Froese and Pauly 2012) include some additional brackish water species for the countries of the Arabian Peninsula; however, these are not covered in the current analysis because there is insuicient information to conirm that they are found in the rivers or lakes of the Arabian Peninsula. Only three of the species assessed here had been previously assessed using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria at the global scale (IUCN 2012). Larvae of almost all of the 5,680 species of the insect order Odonata (dragonlies and damsellies) are dependent on freshwater habitats, with only a few not utilising freshwater. Larvae that develop in water play a critical role with regards to water quality, nutrient cycling, and aquatic habitat structure, whilst also being voracious predators, often considered important in the control of insect pest species. Odonata are unique amongst the groups assessed in not being restricted to the aquatic environment for their entire lifecycle, and this gives them some mobility between habitat types, however they are susceptible to changes in wetland conditions (water low, turbidity, or loss of aquatic vegetation; Trueman and Rowe 2009) and loss of terrestrial habitat and prey species. Odonata are relatively easily surveyed (though some expertise is required for correct identiication), and a full array of ecological requirements are represented within the group, which has led to their use as a bio-indicator for wetland quality. Fifty-nine species are included in this assessment (see Chapter 5) 2.1.2 Molluscs he value of molluscs to wetland ecosystems is poorly appreciated. Nevertheless, freshwater molluscs are essential to the maintenance of wetland ecosystems, primarily due to their control of water quality and nutrient balance through ilter-feeding and algal-grazing and, to a lesser degree, as a food source for predators including a number of ish species. 2.1.4 Aquatic plants Aquatic plants are the building blocks of wetland ecosystems, providing food, oxygen and habitats for many other species. hey are also a hugely important natural resource, providing direct beneits to human communities across the world. Numerous aquatic and wetland plants are highly valued for their nutritional, medicinal, cultural, structural or biological properties. hey are also key species in the provision of wetland ecosystem services, such as water iltration and nutrient recycling. Globally, molluscs are one of the most threatened groups of freshwater taxa (Kay 1995, Darwall et al. 2011). he impact of developments such as dams, and siltation caused by agricultural practices has not been adequately researched. Many species are also restricted to microhabitats, such as the rapids and riles (areas of fast current velocity, shallow depth, and broken water surface) between pools and runs (areas of rapid nonturbulent low) which can be lost through habitat modiication. In this study the deinition of an aquatic plant is based on that of Cook (1996), and includes plants “whose photosynthetically active parts are permanently or, at least, for several months each year, submerged in water or loat on the surface of water .” However, the deinition is adapted also to include species that are restricted to the edges of shallow semi-permanent and permanent water courses (see Chapter 7). According to Cook (1996) aquatic plants represent between one and two percent of the approximately 300,000 species of vascular plants, equivalent to between 2,900 and 5,800 species hirty species were selected for this assessment (see Chapter 4), following two distinctive biogeographic regions based on the composition of the communities at the beginning of the Holocene (Van Damme 1984); the Palearctic portion in the north of the Arabian Peninsula, and the small Afrotropical portion in the south. However, there is great taxonomic uncertainty surrounding many of the taxa known to be present and some of the more problematic species had to be omitted from this study. Nevertheless, the assessment provides a 8 (Chambers et al. 2008, Vié et al. 2008). For this project, the conservation status of 182 aquatic plant species was assessed (see Chapter 7). watersheds it houses, and there is a particular need to advance the identiication and prioritization of key biodiversity areas in the Arabian part of this hotspot (Birdlife International 2012). 2.2 Delineation of the Arabian Peninsula assessment region 2.3 Data collation and quality control he Arabian Peninsula, as deined for this project, includes the political borders according to the United Nations of the countries: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman and Yemen (including the islands of the Socotra archipelago in the northwestern Indian Ocean) (Fig. 1.1). he boundaries and designations used in this study do not imply any oicial endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN. he northern part of the Arabian Peninsula is situated within the Palaearctic zoogeographical region, whereas the southern part, including the islands of the Socotra archipelago is in the Afrotropical region. his region includes the Asir Mountains of Saudi Arabia and the highlands of Yemen that are part of the Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot (Mittermeier et al. 2004). Among the most important ecosystem services the hotspot provides is fresh water via the major he biodiversity assessments required sourcing and collating the best information on all known species within the priority taxa (see Section 2.1). Data for the molluscs were compiled by N. García (IUCNConservation International Biodiversity Assessment Unit) in consultation with members of the IUCN SSC Mollusc Specialist Group; data for ishes were compiled by I. Harrison (IUCN-Conservation International Biodiversity Assessment Unit and IUCN SSC/Wetlands International Freshwater Fish Specialist Group) in consultation with members of the Freshwater Fish Specialist Group and other international experts; data for odonates were compiled by J.-P. Boudot (IUCN SSC Odonate Specialist Group); data for plants were compiled by R.V. Lansdown (IUCN SSC Freshwater Plant Specialist Group) in consultation with other international experts. All data compilers had experience Regional and international expert participants at the species assessment review workshop, Senckenberg Research Institute and Museum of Nature, Frankfurt, Germany: Photo © Nieves García. 9 information for ishes (which included a small number of species) was reviewed through email consultation with three experts. he purpose of the reviews was to ensure that i) the information presented was both complete and correct; and ii) the Red List criteria had been applied correctly. in use of IUCN’s Species Information Service (SIS), application of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (IUCN 2001) to assess a species’ risk of extinction in the wild, and in mapping freshwater species distributions using a Geographic Information System (GIS). Initially, lists were compiled of all species of odonates, freshwater ishes, freshwater molluscs, and freshwater plants (according to the criteria discussed in 2.1.4) known to be present within the Arabian Peninsula. hese taxon lists were then screened against those species already assessed against the IUCN Red List Criteria and published on the IUCN Red List. he data compilers then collated all available information on each of the selected species, input this to the SIS database, and assessed each species’ Red List status. he data compilers also gathered spatial data (species locality data, in decimal degrees latitude/longitude) for the production of species distribution maps (see Section 2.4). he assessments for molluscs, odonates, and plants were then reviewed by a separate group of at least two experts for each taxonomic group at a workshop held from April 30th to May 4th, 2012 at the Senckenberg Research Institute and Museum of Nature in Frankfurt. he Following this review, the data were edited and consistency in the use of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria was checked by the IUCN Global Species Programme team. After data gathering, collation and corrections, IUCN experts from the Red List Unit integrated the various data sets in order to draft this regional report. 2.4 Species mapping and analysis Species global distributions were mapped to river subcatchments as delineated by the HydroSHEDS (Hydrological data and maps based on SHuttle Elevation Derivatives at multiple Scales) (Lehner et al. 2006) (Figure 2.1) using ArcMap GIS software. River sub- Fig. 2.1 River subcatchments as delineated by HydroSHEDS used to map and analyse species distributions. 10 catchments were selected as the spatial unit for mapping and analysing species distributions because it is widely accepted that the river/lake catchment is the most appropriate management unit for inland waters. It is recognised that species ranges may not always extend throughout a river sub-catchment, but presence within the river sub-catchment is either ‘known’ or ‘inferred’ (either Extant: presence is known from ield survey or recent literature, or Probably Extant: presence inferred based on expert opinion). For many of the globally widespread plant species there was insuicient information to accurately map the distribution. In these cases, species were mapped coarsely, at the country level (rather than catchment level) for countries that are known to fall inside the species total range. 2.5 Assessment of species threatened status he risk of extinction was assessed for each species at the global scale, according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 (IUCN 2001; see Figure 2.2), and this information included in the IUCN Red List of hreatened Species. In order to avoid an over- or underestimation of the regional risk of extinction, the Guidelines for Application of the Red List Criteria at Regional Level (IUCN 2003) were also applied, and the data for each species was used to make an assessment of the regional risk of their extinction, within the boundaries of the Arabian Peninsula. herefore, this report presents both results, global and regional, of the species risk of extinction. Where possible, point localities (the latitude and longitude where the species has been recorded), were used to identify which sub-catchments are known to contain the species (‘known’ sub-catchments). When point localities were not available for some taxa, maps were drawn based on expert knowledge and the literature. Connected sub-catchments, where a species is expected to occur, although presence is not yet conirmed, are labeled as ‘inferred catchments.’ hese inferred distributions were determined through a combination of expert knowledge, course scale distribution records, and unpublished information. he preliminary species distribution maps were digitized and then further edited at the review workshop or during online consultation, and errors or dubious records were deleted from the maps. he categories of threat relect the risk that a species will go extinct within a speciied time period. A species assessed as “Critically Endangered” is considered to be Figure 2.2 IUCN Red List Categories at the global level. 11 Table 2.1 Summary of the ive criteria (A–E) used to determine the category of threat for a species. A. Population size reduction. Population reduction (measured over the longer of 10 years or 3 generations) based on any of A1 to A4 Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable A1 ≥ 90% ≥ 70% ≥ 50% A2, A3 & A4 ≥ 80% A1 Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND have ceased. A2 Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible. A3 Population reduction projected, inferred or suspected to be met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) [(a) cannot be used for A3]. A4 An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population reduction where the time period must include both the past and the future (up to a max. of 100 years in future), and where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible. ≥ 50% ≥ 30% (a) direct observation [except A3] (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon (c) a decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence based on (EOO) and/or habitat quality any of the (d) actual or potential levels of following: exploitation (e) effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites. B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) AND/OR B2 (area of occupancy) Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable B1. Extent of occurrence (EOO) < 100 km2 < 5,000 km2 < 20,000 km2 B2. Area of occupancy (AOO) < 10 km2 < 500 km2 < 2,000 km2 =1 ≤5 ≤ 10 AND at least 2 of the following 3 conditions: (a) Severely fragmented OR Number of locations (b) Continuing decline observed, estimated, inferred or projected in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat; (iv) number of locations or subpopulations; (v) number of mature individuals (c) Extreme fluctuations in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) number of locations or subpopulations; (iv) number of mature individuals C. Small population size and decline Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable < 250 < 2,500 < 10,000 25% in 3 years or 1 generation (whichever is longer) 20% in 5 years or 2 generations 10% in 10 years or 3 generations (whichever is longer) (whichever is longer) ≤ 50 ≤ 250 ≤ 1,000 90–100% 95–100% 100% Critically Endangered Endangered < 50 < 250 - - Critically Endangered Endangered Number of mature individuals AND at least one of C1 or C2 C1. An observed, estimated or projected continuing decline of at least (up to a max. of 100 years in future): C2. An observed, estimated, projected or inferred continuing decline AND at least 1 of the following 3 conditions: (a) (i) Number of mature individuals in each subpopulation (ii) % of mature individuals in one subpopulation = (b) Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals D. Very small or restricted population D. Number of mature individuals D2. Only applies to the VU category Restricted area of occupancy or number of locations with a plausible future threat that could drive the taxon to CR or EX in a very short time. Vulnerable D1. < 1,000 typically: AOO < 20 km2 or number of locations ≤ 5 D2. E. Quantitative Analysis Indicating the probability of extinction in the wild to be: 1 ≥ 50% in 10 years or 3 ≥ 20% in 20 years or 5 generations, whichever generations, whichever is longer (100 years is longer (100 years max.) max.) Vulnerable ≥ 10% in 100 years Use of this summary sheet requires full understanding of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria and Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Please refer to both documents for explanations of terms and concepts used here. 12 facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. A species assessed as “Endangered” is considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. A species assessed as “Vulnerable” is considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. All taxa listed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) or Vulnerable (VU) are described as “threatened”. To distinguish between the three threatened categories there are ive criteria with quantitative thresholds (Table 2.1). 2011), the HighARCS project (ongoing; www.higharcs. org), and the Sampled Red List Index (SRLI) project (ongoing). In these cases, information that was compiled for the species in the Arabian Peninsula was added to the existing assessment information from elsewhere and, if necessary, any adjustment of the global threat status of the species was made. As noted above, the information that was speciic to the Arabian Peninsula was used to make an assessment of the regional risk of extinction within the Peninsula. A species is assessed as «Near hreatened» (NT) when it is close to meeting the thresholds for a threatened category either now or in the near future. A species is assessed as «Least Concern» (LC) if it fails to meet, or be close to meeting any of the criteria for the threatened categories. A species is «Data Deicient» (DD) when there is inadequate information to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on the current knowledge of the species. Species assessed as DD are highlighted as priorities for additional research and are acknowledged as being potentially threatened. 2.7 Nomenclature he taxonomic placement of species and their higher taxonomy often changes as a result of new information from ongoing studies of the species, especially with the introduction of molecular techniques. In addition, the taxonomy of many species is complicated, and diferent researchers may have diferent opinions on taxonomic boundaries of those species; i.e., whether some individuals should be recognized as the same or diferent species, or should be placed in diferent genera. herefore, it can sometimes be diicult to ind universally agreed taxonomic hypotheses and nomenclatural hierarchy. In the case of this project, the taxonomic nomenclature follows the protocols of the IUCN Red List which, where possible, employs existing published taxonomic authorities as the source of information. Fish classiication generally follows the online Catalog of Fishes (Eschmeyer 2012). Odonate classiication generally follows the World Odonata List (Schorr and Paulson 2012). here is currently no widely accepted single taxonomy for molluscs, and we therefore follow the standards recommended by the IUCN SSC Mollusc Specialist Group. For plants, where appropriate, we follow the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families hosted by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (WCSP 2010). For more information on the taxonomic standards of the IUCN Red List, visit: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ technical-documents/information-sources-andquality#standards. For an explanation of the full range of categories and the criteria that must be met for a species to qualify under each category, please refer to the following documentation: he IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1, Version 3.0, which can be downloaded from www.iucnredlist.org/technicaldocuments/categories-and-criteria. he following criteria for the inclusion of a species in the assessment were and were applied in the completion of this Red List assessment: 1. Any species having less than 5% of its range within the project area should not be assessed through this project. 2. Species present in the project area prior to 1500 were treated as being “naturalised” and subject to a Red List assessment. hose species arriving in the region post 1500 were not assessed. 2.6 Overlap with other Red List assessment projects 2.8 References Some species that are present within the Arabian Peninsula region, and therefore of interest to this project, have already been assessed through other ongoing assessments in adjacent regions of Africa (Darwell et al. 2011), the Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspots (Allen et al. 2010, Molur et al. Abell, R., hieme, M.L., Revenga, C., Bryer, M., Kottelat, M., Bogutskaya, N., Coad, B., Mandrak, N., Balderas,S.C., Bussing, W., Stiassny, M.L.J., Skelton, P., Allen, G.R., Unmack, P., Naseka, A., Ng, R., Sindorf, N., Robertson, J., Armijo, E., Higgins, J.V., Heibel, T.J., Wikramanayake, E., Olson, D., 13 researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/ catalog/ishcatmain.asp FAO. 2002. he state of world isheries and aquaculture 2002. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Fisheries Department, Rome, Italy. FAO 2012. Total Fishery Production 1950-2010 (Release date: April 2012). Dataset for FishStat Plus. Froese, R. and Pauly. D. Editors. 2012. FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. www.ishbase.org, version (10/2012). Holland, R.A., Darwall, W.R.T. and Smith, K.G. 2012. Conservation priorities for freshwater biodiversitv: the key biodiversity area approach reined and tested for continental Africa. Biological Conservation 148,(1): 167-179. IUCN. 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 3.1. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. IUCN. 2003. Guidelines for application for IUCN Red List criteria at regional levels: version 3.0. IUCN Species Survival Commission, IUCN. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. IUCN. 2012. IUCN Red List of hreatened Species. Version 2012.12. http://www.iucnredlist.org. IUCN and UNEP-WCMC. 2010. he World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA): Annual Release [On-line]. Cambridge, UK: UNEPWCMC. Available at: www. wdpa.org. Accessed: 3 November 2010. Jufe-Bignoli D. and Darwall W.R.T (eds.) 2012. Assessment of the socio-economic value of freshwater species for the northern African region. Gland, Switzerland and Málaga, Spain: IUCN. IV + 84 pages Kay, E.A. 1995. Status Report on Molluscan Diversity. In: he Conservation Biology of Molluscs. Proceedings of a Symposium held at the 9th International Malacological Congress, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1986. Khan, S., Ahmad, I., Shah, M.T., Rehman, S. and Khaliq, A. 2009. Use of constructed wetland for the removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewater. Journal of Environmental Management 90: 34513457 Langhammer, P.F., Bakarr, M.I., Bennun, L.A., Brooks, T.M., Clay, R.P., Darwall, W., De Silva, N., Edgar, G.J., Eken, G., Fishpool, L.D., da Fonseca, G.A., Foster, M.N., Knox, D.H., Matiku, P., Radford, E.A., Rodrigues, A.S., Salaman, P., Sechrest, W. and Tordof, A.W. 2007. Identiication and Gap Analysis of Key Biodiversity Areas .Targets for Comprehensive ProtectedArea Systems. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Lehner, B., Verdin, K., and Jarvis, A. 2006. HydroSHEDS Technical Documentation. World Lopez, H.L., Reis, R.E., Lundberg, J.G., Sahaj Pérez, M.H. and Petry, P. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. BioScience 58 (5):403-414. Allen, D..J., Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. (Compilers). 2010. he Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalaya. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, and Coimbatore, India: Zoo Outreach Organisation. Allen, D.J., Smith, K.G., and Darwall, W.R.T. (Compilers). 2012. he Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Indo-Burma. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. x+158pp+4pp cover. Birdlife International 2012. Eastern African Montane Biodiversity Hotspot. Ecosystem Proile. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Final Version 24 January 2012. http://www.cepf.net/Documents/ Eastern_Afromontane_Ecosystem_Proile_FINAL. pdf Chambers, P.A., Lacoul, P., Murphy, K.J. and homaz, S.M. 2008. Global diversity of aquatic macrophytes in freshwater. Hydrobiologia 595: 9-26 Cook, C.D.K. 1996. Aquatic Plant Book. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam/New York. Cumberlidge, N., Ng, P.K.L., Yeo, D.C.J., Magalhaes, C., Campos, M.R., Alvarez, F., Naruse, T., Daniels, S.R., Esser, L.J., Attipoe, F.Y.K., Clotilde-Ba, F.-L., Darwall, W., Mclvor, A., Ram, M. and Collen, B. 2009. Freshwater crabs and the biodiversity crisis: importance, threats, status, and conservation challenges. Biological Conservation 142:1665-1673. Darwall, W., Smith, K., Lowe, T. and Vié J.-C. 2005. he status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in eastern Africa. IUCN SSC Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment Programme. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G., Tweddle, D. and Skelton, P. 2009. he status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in southern Africa. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Grahamstown, South Africa: SAIAB. Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G., Allen, D.J, Holland, R.A, Harrison, I.J. and Brooks, E.G.E. (eds.). 2011. he Diversity of Life in African Freshwaters: Under Water, Under hreat. An analysis of the status and distribution of freshwater species throughout mainland Africa. Cambridge, United Kingdom and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Eschmeyer, W.N. (ed). 2012. Catalog of Fishes. Electronic version. Accessed on 2nd October 2012. http:// 14 Wildlife Fund US, Washington, DC. Available at http://hydrosheds.cr.usgs.gov. Maine, M.A., Suñé, N.L. and Lagger, S.C. 2004. Chromium bioaccumulation: comparison of the capacity of two loating aquatic macrophytes. Water Research 38, 1494-1501. Mittermeier, R.A., Robles Gil, P., Hofmann, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J. and da Fonseca, G.A.B. 2004. Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Ecoregions. Mexico City, Mexico: CEMEX. Molur, S., Smith, K.G., Daniel, B.A. and Darwall, W.R.T. 2011. he status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in the Western Ghats, India. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, and Coimbatore, India: Zoo Outreach Organisation. Schorr, M. and Paulson, D. 2012. World Odonata List. University of Puget Sound. Available at: http://www. pugetsound.edu/academics/academic-resources/ slater-museum/biodiversity-resources/dragonlies/ world-odonata-list/ Trueman, J.W.H. and Rowe, R.J. 2009. Odonata. Dragonlies and Damsellies. Version 16 October 2009. http://tolweb.org/odonata. UNEP 2010. Blue Harvest: Inland Fisheries as an Ecosystem Service. WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia Van Damme, D. 1984. Freshwater Mollusca of Northern Africa. Developments in Hydrobiology 25: 164p. Dordrecht, Netherlands. Dr. W. Junk Publishers. Vié,J.-C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. 2008. Wildlife in a changing world: An analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of hreatened Species. Gland, Switzerland. IUCN. WCSP. 2012. World Checklist of Selected Plants. he Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: http://apps.kew.org/wcsp. 15 Chapter 3. The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Fishes of the Arabian Peninsula Freyhof, J.1, Hamidan, N.A.2, Feulner, G.R.3 and Harrison, I.4 coast. here is also one species of euryhyaline killiish (Cyprinodontidae), which occurs all along the coast in marine environments but also ventures relatively far inland. Two species of catadromous eels (Anguillidae) are found locally in freshwaters of the Arabian Peninsula. But by far the majority of species (16 species, or 76% of the total number) are barbs (Cyprinidae). he cyprinid genus Garra is the most species rich genus in the region, including 9 of the 21 freshwater species present. 3.1 Overview of the regional ish fauna 3.1.1 Freshwater Fish Diversity he Arabian Peninsula includes three freshwater ecoregions, as deined by Abell et al. (2008): the Southwest Arabian coast, the Oman Mountains and the Arabian Interior ecoregions (see Chapter 1 and Fig. 1). he region includes Socotra, although this is not recognized as part of an ecoregion (see Chapter 1). All ishes found in the freshwaters of Socotra are estuarine or marine species entering the streams and estuaries for foraging, and are not assessed here. he greatest number of species are found in the Southwest Arabian Coast ecoregion, with 15 taxa (Table 3.1). Eleven of the species present in the Southwest Arabian Coast ecoregion (73%) are endemic to the ecoregion. Despite the fact that the Arabian Interior ecoregion has relatively few freshwater habitats, and the drainages are endorheic and usually intermittent, this ecoregion contains 10 species. Eight species (80% of the taxa present) are endemic to the Arabian Interior ecoregion. he Oman Mountains ecoregion has ive species. Two species (40% of the taxa present) are endemic to the Oman Mountains ecoregion. he cyprinid species in this ecoregion show closer ainity to Iranian fauna across the Straits of Hormuz than to the rest of the Arabian Peninsula. he huge surface of the Arabian Peninsula is almost devoid of freshwater habitats. Saudi Arabia, with a surface cover of more than two million km2, is inhabited by only eight species of primary freshwater ishes, fewer than in a small catchment in adjacent Iran or Syria. According to this study, 21 species of freshwater ish are present in the Arabian Peninsula. Fifteen species are endemic to the Arabian Peninsula, and six species have a wider distribution. here are also some marine species which occasionally enter freshwater bodies in the countries of the Arabian Peninsula (e.g, Acanthopagrus spp., Ambassis gynmocephakus, Megalops cyprinoides, Pellona ditchela, Sillago sihama, Strongylura strongylura), but freshwater habitats are not an essential element of the life cycle of these species, and they are excluded from the current analysis. he 21 recognized freshwater species are restricted to ive families. here is one species of catadromous goby (Gobiidae) and one species of estuarine mullet (Mugilidae), which are found in freshwaters near the 1 2 3 4 Table 3.1. Species numbers in the three ecoregions (please note that some species may be present in more than one ecoregion) Species number hreatened species Endemic species Arabian Interior 10 4 8 Oman Mountains 5 0 2 SW Arabian Coast 15 6 11 Ecoregion German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig Deutscher Platz, 5e 04103 Leipzig, Germany he Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature - Conservation Division, P.O.Box 1215, Jubaiha 11941, Jordan. E-mail: nashat.hamidan@rscn.org.jo Chadbourne & Parke, P.O. Box 23927, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. E-mail: grfeulner@gmail.com Center for Environment and Peace, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA. E-mail: iharrison@conservation.org 16 he impounded water of Qusaiba’a Dam, an ancient dam in Saudi Arabia in Khaibar. One of the few habitats of Acanthobrama hadiyahensis (CR) Photo © N. A. Hamidan studied well in G. barreimiae. his species is typically found in small rock or gravel pools, shallow sections of larger pools with slow-moving water, springs, and fast running perennial rivers. Garra barriemiae can survive almost complete disappearance of surface water from its habitat (Feulner 1998) and can travel short distances out of water, even ascending steep, damp rock surfaces (e.g., near waterfalls or during rain). It can tolerate water temperatures up to ca. 40°C and salinity up to one-third that of sea water (Haas 1982). Such physiological and behavior adaptations might be also found in other Arabian freshwater ishes but have not yet been reported. 3.1.2 Geographical factors affecting the distribution of freshwater ishes Two taxa are especially widespread in their distribution, mainly along the coastal basins of the Arabian Peninsula. he Arabian Killiish Aphanius dispar (LC) is found along the entire coastal part of the Arabian Peninsula; usually it is abundant in numbers. It has been regularly introduced (and re-introduced) into artiicial and natural freshwater bodies for mosquito control in the United Arab Emirates and northwestern Oman. Some observers consider that all current populations of A. dispar in the mountains of the United Arab Emirates, and along the interior lank of the Oman mountains, are introduced (Feulner 2005). Some species are restricted to a single river drainage only, like the several endemic species of Wadi Hadramaut (Yemen). For example, Garra lautior (EN) is distributed throughout much of the Wadi Hadramaut drainage, but it is restricted to relatively few sites within that range. Such species are very vulnerable to threats like invasive alien species, water extraction and upriver pollution. Some species are regionally relatively widespread across diferent drainages. For example, Garra barriemiae (LC) is found throughout most of the mountains of the United Arab Emirates and Oman. Garra tibanica (LC) and Cyprinion acinaces (LC) are widespread in western SaudiArabia and Yemen. Each of these widespread species is represented by numerous, small populations that are isolated from each other. hat isolation means that individual populations can be severely impacted by threats that operate even at a local scale (see section 3.4). he isolation of populations is also likely to promote genetic diversiication between them. he extent of isolation and resulting genetic diferentiation is still poorly studied. In several instances subspecies have previously been named and several “cryptic” species might yet be discovered (see Section 3.1.3). here are also a few species that are represented by a single population at a single location where there is almost no opportunity for dispersal. For example, Garra dunsirei (EN) is known only from one sinkhole at Tawi Atair, in the Jebel Qara mountains, Dhofar, Oman. his sinkhole is extremely isolated (Banister 1987, Romero and Paulson 2001) and the ish is found in a side passage 200 m down the sinkhole. According to the EPAA (2002) report the population of G. dunsirei includes fewer than 250 mature individuals, although this may be an underestimate based on the diiculty of thoroughly exploring the sinkhole. Some species seem to be specially adapted to the often extreme conditions in their habitats, but this is only 17 Wadi Al Ghassah in Saudi Arabia. Photo © N. A. Hamidan barreimiae on opposite lanks of the Oman Mountains by Kruckenhauser et al. (2011). 3.1.3 Taxonomic issues Although there has been a reasonable amount of taxonomic research on the ishes of the Arabian Peninsula, the taxonomy of some species is still not completely resolved. For example, three Arabian cyprinids are often placed in the genus Barbus. However, Barbus apoensis and B. exulatus have been placed in Carasobarbus by Ekmekçi and Bănărescu (1998). As to the third species, B. arabicus, it has been recognized for decades that it does not belong to Barbus. his species has been included in the new genus Arabibarbus by Borkenhagen (2014). A cave dwelling ‘blind’ population of G. barreimiae, recorded from a single location of less than 10 km2 by Banister (1984) is often referred to as the ‘Omani blind cave ish,’ and there has been discussion of its taxonomic status. Kruckenhauser et al. (2011) found that it is not genetically removed from adjacent surface dwelling populations of G. barreimiae. Because the Omani blind cave ish is not accepted as an independent species, but included in G. barreimiae, it is categorized as LC. It has previously been categorized as threatened, but there is no speciic threat to the population or indication of decline to justify categorizing it as threatened. Some species (e.g., Garra barreimiae, G. tibanica, G. sahilia and Cyprinion mhalensis) have widely separated populations that are totally isolated from each other today. Although during intermittent pluvial intervals, the river network of the Arabian Peninsula was much denser and several species might have been more widespread and individual populations more continuous, it cannot be excluded that there may currently be several “cryptic” species to be discovered, especially in morphologically conservative genera such as Garra, as indicated for G. Garra tibanica (LC), is treated as an independent species, distinct from G. quadrimaculata from the adjacent African mainland. his judgment is based upon recent morphological and molecular studies (Krupp and Wicker, pers. comm.) despite the earlier suggestion that both might be conspeciic (Stiassny and Getahun 2007). 18 Acanthobrama hadiyahensis, endemic to the Arabian Peninsula and Critically Endangered. Photo © N. A. Hamidan At the type locality of Garra longipinnis in Oman (Jabal al Akhdar) and in areas adjacent to the type locality, only ishes identiied as G. barreimiae have subsequently been found, all since 2001; ishes agreeing with the long-inned types of G. longipinnis were absent. It remains unclear whether G. longipinnis has become extinct or whether the original species description (otherwise consistent with G. barreimiae) was based on atypical specimens. he species is therefore assessed as Data Deicient due to its unresolved taxonomy. of availability and current reliability. Most current information comes from personal communications and recent, but very limited, ieldwork by the authors and Fareed Krupp (Doha). Contemporary ieldwork is strongly recommended to gain up-to-date data on the conservation status of Arabian freshwater ishes. his is also true for threats in the region which seem to be little known in their distribution and severity, especially the extent of water extraction. Data limitations also were a major problem in attempting to assess the widespread catadromous eels (Anguilla bicolor, A. bengalensis). he number of records of these eels entering the few streams of the Arabian Peninsula is negligible, although both species have very large global ranges reaching from the East African coast to Southeast Asia. For this reason we leave the regional assessment of these two species as Not Evaluated (NE). An additional open taxonomic case comprises the species of the Cyprinion watsoni species group. Cyprinion watsoni (LC) was described from the Indus drainage in Pakistan and C. microphthalmum is a species of neighbouring Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Cyprinion microphthalmum is treated as a valid species by Eschmeyer (2013). he Arabian populations have sometimes been treated as a separate species (C. muscatensis), as a subspecies of C. microphtalmum or sometimes as a synonym of C. watsoni. Eschmeyer (2013) lists C. muscatensis as a synonym of C. watsoni. he authors disagree with this conclusion, since they ind that C. muscatensis is clearly distinguished by morphology from C. watsoni and by (unpublished) molecular data from C. microphthalmum. However, there has been no comprehensive review of the genus Cyprinion, so we are constrained by IUCN rules to follow the nomenclature set out in Eschmeyer (2013), and therefore to treat C. muscatensis as a synonym of C. watsoni. 3.2 Conservation status his assessment considered the global and regional risk of extinction for 21 species of freshwater ishes that are present in the Arabian Peninsula. It is important to note that although several of the species are categorized as Least Concern across the region, many of the isolated populations that are distributed within their range might be facing some serious threats. Data clearly demonstrating this are lacking for Yemen and Saudi Arabia, but from Oman and the United Arab Emirates it is reported that several of the populations of Cyprinion watsoni (Oman: Wadi Sharm and Wadi Al-Ramthah; UAE: upper Wadi Hatta watershed) have been impacted by water extraction, habitat modiication and the use of pesticides, 3.1.4 Limitations of data availability and reliability For most of Arabia, published information is scarce and dates from a decade or more ago, e.g., Krupp (1983) and EPAA (2002). his presents problems in terms 19 to the point of extirpation in some areas (Feulner, own unpublished data). categorizing it as threatened. Nevertheless, consistent with earlier proposals (EPAA 2002) it is recommended that for conservation purposes, ‘Omani blind cave ish’ should be protected and managed separately in order to conserve this unique population. In Oman, there has been great attention to the ‘blind’ population of G. barreimiae, known as the ‘Omani blind cave ish’. his population has been demonstrated genetically to be closely related to adjacent surface dwelling populations of G. barreimiae (Kruckenhauser et al. 2011). As it does not represent a distinct species, it was assessed against the IUCN Red List criteria together with all other populations of G. barreimiae. It has previously been categorized as threatened, but there is no speciic threat to the population or indication of decline to justify Of the 21 species evaluated here, 38% (8 species) are considered threatened (assessed as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable), and 4.8% (1 species) are considered Near hreatened (Table 3.2, Figure 3.1). All eight threatened species are endemic to the Arabian Peninsula. Only one species is assessed as Critically Endangered. hat is Acanthobrama hadiyahensis, being endemic to Wadi Hadiya in Saudi Arabia (Table 3.2). he species has a very small range and was rediscovered in 2013 after having not been found for 30 years (Hamidan and Aloui 2014). Within its inferred permanently inhabited range of less than 10 km2, it faces serious threats due to water extraction and dams, which leave no water downstream. Figure 3.1. he proportions (%) of freshwater ish species in each regional Red List category in the Arabian Peninsula. he most important locality for threatened freshwater ishes in the Arabian Peninsula is Wadi Hadramaut in Yemen. 33.3% (7 species) are assessed as Least Concern, being relatively widespread and often inhabiting many independent streams. 9.5% (2 species) are considered Data Deicient (because there was insuicient information available to make an assessment due to unresolved taxonomic problems). Table 3.2. he number of freshwater ish species in each Red List Category in the Arabian Peninsula region. hreatened categories Regional Red List Category Regional Assessment Global Assessment Number of Regional Endemics Critically Endangered (CR) 1 1 1 Endangered (EN) 5 5 5 Vulnerable (VU) 2 2 2 Near hreatened (NT) 1 2 0 Least Concern (LC) 7 10 6 Data Deicient (DD) 2 1 1 Not Evaluated 3 0 0 Total number of taxa assessed* 21 21 15 20 Hadramaut is large and has a lot of water seasonally, it is a single wadi (hence its ishes are assessed to exist in only one independent site when it comes to the threats active in the area). Furthermore, during dry seasons, almost all freshwater bodies dry out, so that the area of occupancy permanently occupied by the species is estimated as being more than 10 km2 but less than 500 km2. Krupp (pers. comm. 2012) found a single pool of about 10 km length inhabited by native ishes in Wadi Hadramaut. Although the ish stocks there were reported as being still healthy in 2011-2012 (Krupp, pers. comm.), there is strong evidence that the habitat is threatened by water extraction (EPAA 2002) and pollution by pesticides from the intensive agriculture in the wadi. 3.3 Patterns of species richness in the Arabian Peninsula 3.3.1 All ish species From a global perspective, the freshwater ish fauna of the Arabian Peninsula is extremely depauperate. At most freshwater sites in Arabia, usually only one or two primary freshwater species are found if the ubiquitous, euryhyaline or catadromous species are not considered. Wadi Hadramaut in Yemen, having six species of primary freshwater ishes, is the most species rich drainage basin of the Peninsula. Several wadis in Yemen and South-west Saudi Arabia host up to ive species, but most have a much lower species total (Figure 3.2). 3.3.3 Restricted range and endemic species 3.3.2 Threatened species Besides the species endemic to Wadi Hadramaut mentioned above, there are three more species with very limited distribution (Figure 3.4). Acanthobrama hadiyahensis (CR) is endemic to Wadi Hadiya in Saudi Arabia where it faces severe threats. here are two range restricted species endemic to the Dhofar region of Oman. he most important hotspot for threatened freshwater ishes in the Arabian Peninsula is Wadi Hadramaut in Yemen (Figure 3.3). All three species endemic to that Wadi (Carasobarbus exulatus, Garra mamshuqa, G. lautior) have been assessed as Endangered. While Wadi Figure 3.2. he distribution of freshwater ish species across the Arabian Peninsula region. 21 he tiny global population of the subterranean Garra dunsirei (EN) is known from only a single sinkhole at Tawi Atair, in the Jebel Qara (Jebel Samhan) mountains, and the dwarf Garra smarti (VU) is restricted seasonally to few permanent pools in Wadi Hasik. Both local endemic species of Omani Garra seem to inhabit pristine or only little impacted waters and seem not to be of major conservation concern. hey are mostly vulnerable due to the very tiny area inhabited and could be the victim of unexpected accidents. However, the development of water use and evolution of climate change in the Dhofar Region of Oman is poorly understood and the populations of both species should be carefully monitored. 3.4 Major threats to freshwater ishes here are a number of threats to the freshwater ishes of the Arabian Peninsula (see below), most of them coming from human development (Figure 3.5). he threats include increased water extraction, the development of dams, habitat loss, and increased pollution of freshwater systems from domestic eluent (washing etc.) and from local agricultural runof. Although the threats are not particularly intense in many parts of the region, they are acting upon populations that are frequently small, and isolated from each other. Even relatively low environmental stress on these small populations can signiicantly impact their overall condition and likelihood of survival. 3.3.4 Data Deicient species Water extraction and dams Garra longipinnis and Awaous aeneofuscus have been assessed as DD in the region due to unresolved taxonomic problems. Water extraction is a signiicant threat for many of the freshwater ishes in arid and semiarid landscapes, mainly because many of the wadis are ephemeral or have periods of low low, and any additional extraction can result in signiicant loss of habitat. Water extraction results not only in lowering the amount of surface water in the wadis, in some areas pumping can lower the water table to the 3.3.5 Extirpated /Extinct species None known. Figure 3.3. he distribution of threatened freshwater ish species across the Arabian Peninsula 22 Dam construction in Wadi Turabah, Saudi Arabia. Photo © N. A. Hamidan Figure 3.4. he distribution of endemic freshwater ish species across the Arabian Peninsula. 23 extent that springs don’t low anymore. For example, Yemen is facing a severe water crisis, with some estimates suggesting the capital, Sanaa, could run dry in 10 years. With little being done to harness rainfall in the country, farmers are drilling deeper than ever for water without any government regulation. Agriculture uses around 90% of the country’s water resources and fast growing human population will soon take all available water resources. here are no current assessments dealing with water and biodiversity. In the past, water extraction for domestic use may have caused a reduction of up to 50% in available habitat for Carasobarbus apoensis (EPAA 2002). he available habitat is estimated to have decreased in area by 21-50% in the ive years prior to 2002, due to water extraction for domestic use (EPAA 2002). All Arabian freshwater ish species are adapted to periods of droughts and loods, but the impacts of loods and droughts become most severe when the local populations have already been compromised by other threats (such as water extraction). Under these circumstances the populations might be too small, or the individuals too stressed, for them to recover normally from a period of lood and drought. Habitat loss and degradation. Unsurprisingly, habitat loss is a particular problem adjacent to areas of human development. For example, the main habitat of Cyprinion watsoni is deep wadi pools, and these are usually found in the lower courses of wadis where human settlement is not only well established but is also increasing. Consequently, these pools are becoming extensively modiied and degraded (G. Feulner, own unpublished data). Extensive clearance of native trees for irewood and agriculture is reported from Wadi Hajr (Scott 1995) and may be a widespread problem. If dams are constructed to capture runof that would otherwise be unavailable for human use, rivers often run dry below the dams leaving no water behind for freshwater biodiversity. Such dams reduce the area of occurrence of freshwater ishes even in ecosystems which are adapted to seasonal droughts and survival of ishes in small refuge pools. Less and less water leads to the desiccation of those refuge pools and inally to the extirpation of the ishes. Locally, dams are thought to be hindering the recruitment into rivers of species that have a marine dispersal phase, such as Anguilla bengalensis (Scott 1995) and Awaous aeneofuscus (Feulner 2006). For example, Wadi Hajr, the only site where Anguilla bengalensis is known in Arabia, is dammed 3-4 km from its mouth, creating a small lake with marsh vegetation (Scott 1995). he dam might prevent immigration of the eels further upstream. Pollution here seem to be no comprehensive data available about chemical and biological water quality. Furthermore, there is no continuous monitoring system about the quality and quantity of open surface waters. herefore, little is known about the extent and intensity of industrial and rural pollution across the Arabian Peninsula. Local observations conirm that pollution from agriculture and human settlements is a problem, which is locally serious, especially in relatively densely inhabited wadis such as Wadi Hadramaut and others. As water is a scare resource, Figure 3.5. Percentage of freshwater ish in the Arabian Peninsula afected by major categories of threat 24 water in the wadis is extensively used for all kinds of purposes. Some wadis in Oman, and perhaps elsewhere, are sprayed or powdered with pesticide to control mosquito larvae. Local residents themselves attribute short-term declines in the ish populations to the efects of pesticides (G. Feulner, own unpublished data). trend (47.8 mm per decade) since the mid-1990s, although with a relatively large inter-annual variability. he efects of climate change to the unique and highly endemic freshwater biodiversity of the Arabian Peninsula should be carefully monitored to be able to react to changes in rainfall before tiny ish populations go extinct. Climate impacts Introductions Global climate change seems not to have been a major problem on the Arabian Peninsula generally until the new millennium, but recent studies show temperature increases and less rainfall in some areas. AlSarmi and Washington (2011) have examined trends in temperature and precipitation parameters for the Arabian Peninsula during the last 2 to 3 decades at 21 stations. he mean annual temperature trend is one of warming, with 14 of 21 stations showing statistically signiicant warming. he highest statistically signiicant mean annual warming trends are found in Oman and the UAE. Trends in mean annual precipitation are signiicant at only two stations, which show a decrease in precipitation. At least 11 species of alien freshwater ishes are reported to be introduced and naturalized to the Arabian Peninsula. hese are mostly common “global invaders” such as the cyprinids Carassius auratus, Cyprinus carpio and Pseudorasbora parva, the cichlids Coptodon zillii, Oreochromis mossambicus, O. spilurus and O. niloticus, and the poecilids Gambusia holbrooki, Poecilia latipinna, P. reticulata and Xiphophorus maculatus. Although there are no speciic reports of impacts of these species on the native fauna, it must be expected that they will compete with them, at least in certain circumstances. Research on the efects and distribution of alien species is strongly recommended to better understand their impacts, their behavior and how to limit their dispersal. Aphanius dispar, a native to the Arabian Peninsula, might represent a threat to other ishes where it has been introduced to ecosystems within the region for mosquito control. While it usually feeds near the surface and is an eicient Almazroui et al. (2012) analysed the rainfall and temperature climatology over Saudi Arabia from its 27 stations from 1978–2009. Over Saudi Arabia, the observed annual rainfall showed a signiicant decreasing Wadi Turabah stream. Photo © N. A. Hamidan 25 Garra buettikeri (VU) an endemic species to Saudi Arabia. Photo © N. A. Hamidan Oman and the UAE, local mountain residents catch wadi ish using channels and weirs, but only Garra barreimiae is eaten, being part of the traditional local diet (Feulner 1998, 2006; EPAA 2003). However, there is no evidence that this small scale isheries is a real threat to the local ish populations. In most areas of the Arabian Peninsula, local human populations appreciate having ish in their waters not as a source of food but for the enjoyment of seeing living creatures, which are sometimes interpreted as a sign of good water quality and ecosystem health. In other areas, ish are just ignored and seem to have no value for local people. predator on mosquito larvae (Haas 1982), it will readily shift to become a mid-water or bottom feeder if suitable near-surface food resources are not available. Under those circumstances it might compete strongly with other freshwater species (EPAA 2002). Harvesting Relatively few native freshwater ish species are harvested in the Arabian Peninsula; and this does not generally represent a signiicant risk to biodiversity. Two species which reach larger body sizes than many of the other species present are Arabibarbus arabicus (reaching 34.5 cm standard length; Banister and Clarke 1977) and Carasobarbus apoensis (reaching 21.3 cm standard length). Both used to be popular game ishes (EPAA 2002) but are now very rare, hard to ind, and no longer targeted. At least one species may have been impacted by the habitat modiication and/or indiscriminate harvesting that is associated with artisanal isheries. Improved vehicular access to some of the sites in Oman where the goby Awaous aeneofuscus had been found resulted in increased ishing activity (although not targeted at the goby), with damming and channeling of the streams, and construction of ish weirs occurring contemporaneously with the disappearance of the goby population (Feulner 2006). 3.6 Conservation actions and recommendations Conservation actions In-situ conservation actions for most of the threatened species had earlier been suggested by EPAA (2002, 2003, 2004), but to date there seem to be few speciic conservation actions in place for the species listed as threatened by this Red List assessment. Legal protection for the ishes themselves is in place in most areas, but this helps little to protect freshwater habitats from the threats described above. At the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (Sharjah, UAE), conservation breeding programs are in place for four species assessed as threatened (Garra buettikeri, G. dunseri, G. smarti, Carasobarbus apoensis). All these species have bred continuously since 2009, without the need to supplant new specimens into the captive stock from the wild or from other institutions. No captive broodstocks of threatened Arabian species seem to exist outside of the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife and it is strongly recommended to establish such stocks to 3.5 Uses and Livelihood values Freshwater ishes are seldom directly used by humans in the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. he larger species, such as Arabibarbus arabicus and Carasobarbus apoensis used to be taken as game and food ishes by local human populations and this might threaten those species, but the situation has been little explored. In areas of northernmost 26 reduce the risk of species extinction should the existing captive populations fail, especially for Garra dunseri and G. smarti, where only single, small wild populations seem to exist. Great care must be given to maintain genetic diversity in the captive broodstocks and to avoid genetic bottlenecks. linked to GBIF, to have up-to-date distribution data. Furthermore, a citizen scientists recording system for freshwater ishes based on smart-phone technologies could be implemented, to allow local scientists and citizens to add their own data. he IUCN-SSC/Wetlands International Freshwater Fish Specialist Group is already coordinating an online portal (via iNaturalist) for the public to upload photographs and locality information on freshwater ishes in the wild. hese data will be added to GBIF. For more information see the Global Freshwater BioBlitz (www.iucnfsg.org). Recommendations Recommendations for in-situ conservation actions for most of the threatened species, including management of habitat, and monitoring and management of populations, have been detailed by EPAA (2002). his IUCN Red List assessment reveals how many gaps remain in the exploration and understanding of the freshwater ish fauna of the Arabian Peninsula. Although there are so few native species in the area, they are still very poorly known. Among the resources generally lacking are accessible identiication literature and accessible, comprehensive data on species distribution and environmental threats. Key Biodiversity Areas Ideally a network of Freshwater Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) should be developed in the Arabian Peninsula following IUCN methodology and reviewed by regional stakeholders and experts. hese eforts to identify sites of critical biodiversity will be a collaborative activity with national protected area authorities and should be integrated with landscape management. From these data, conservation management should be implemented comprehensively, and following standardized methods, at the whole ecosystem scale that includes management of the habitats around the wadis. Here, analysis and maintenance of natural low regimes are essential, because even small anthropogenic disruptions of the often sporadic lows can have devastating efects on the populations present. Exploration and taxonomic studies Field surveying is essential in order to provide upto-date knowledge on the overall distribution of species and threats, and the abundance of populations and connectivity between them. hat a species like Acanthobrama hadiyahensis (CR) had not been recorded for 30 years best demonstrates that freshwater ishes are a forgotten part of biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula. he taxonomy of the few freshwater ish species should be resolved by applying an integrated molecular and morphological approach by well-trained taxonomists. Monitoring Critical sites for freshwater ish biodiversity and threatened species such as Wadi Hadiya in Saudi Arabia, Wadi Hadramaut in Yemen, Wadi Hasik in Oman as well as the sinkhole at Tawi Atair in Oman, must be visited regularly and ish populations have to be monitored following standardized protocols. Sites assessed as KBAs should also be included in the monitoring. Such sites should be regularly visited to assess the population status of freshwater ishes and to collect long term population trend data. Public data availability It is strongly recommended to bring together all site scale records of all Arabian freshwater ish species in a public database like the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) to make them available for analysis and all conservation activities. To do so, an active data mobilization strategy should be worked out. Data and metadata should also be published in open access data journals. Impact studies Regular monitoring will lead to concrete questions about limiting factors for ish populations such as the spread of alien species, pollution, water extraction or habitat modiication. hese questions are fertile ground for research. Documentation he freshwater ish biodiversity of the Arabian Peninsula is poorly documented and much information is no longer valid. As a complement to further exploration and taxonomic study, we strongly recommend publication of an online ield guide of the freshwater ishes of the Arabian Peninsula. In such an online ield guide, photographs of ishes and sites, and information about the distribution, ecology, identiication characters and threats are made publicly available. he online guide should be directly Training and Dissemination Primary research should be facilitated, and studies of direct interest to the local people should be translated into local languages and distributed freely. Too frequently, 27 the results of studies are not made widely available, and are therefore never used to beneit conservation. In the context of biodiversity conservation there is an urgent need to train specialists in ‘secondary’ taxonomy. hat is, we need scientists to train others in identiication, and write local identiication tools (including translation into local languages), thereby making identiication of species possible for researchers in a variety of disciplines. At key sites (as Wadi Hadiya, Wadi Hadramaut, Wadi Hasik as well as the sinkhole at Tawi Atair), local awareness raising is strongly recommended and local conservation projects can focus on raising awareness of the endemic ishes of these sites. of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. BioScience, 58:403-414 Almazroui, M., Nazrul Islam, M., Athar, H., Jones, P. D., Ashfaqur Rahman M. 2012. Recent climate change in the Arabian Peninsula: annual rainfall and temperature analysis of Saudi Arabia for 1978–2009. International Journal of Climatology, 32: 953–966. DOI: 10.1002/ joc.3446 AlSarmi, S. and Washington, R. 2011. Recent observed climate change over the Arabian Peninsula. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 116: DOI: 10.1029/2010JD015459 Banister, K.E. 1984. A subterranean population of Garra barreimiae (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) from Oman, with comments on the concept of regressive evolution. Journal of Natural History 18(927-938) Banister, K.E. 1987. Two new species of Garra (TeleosteiCyprinidae) from the Arabian peninsula. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Zoology Series) 52(1): 59-70. Banister, K. E. and Clarke, M. A. 1977. he freshwater ishes of the Arabian Peninsula. Pp.: 111-154 In: he scientiic results of the Oman lora and fauna survey 1975. Journal Oman Studies (Special Report). Ekmekçi, F. G. and P. M. Bănărescu 1998 A revision of the generic position of Barynotus (Systomus) verhoei, and the validity of the genera Carasobarbus, Kosswigobarbus and Mesopotamichthys (Pisces, Cyprinidae). Folia Zoologica: international journal of vertebrate zoology. v. 47 (suppl. 1): 87-96. Environment and Protected Areas Authority (EPAA). 2002. Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) for the hreatened Fauna of Arabia’s Mountain Habitat. BCEAW/EPAA, Sharjah; UAE. Environment and Protected Areas Authority (EPAA) 2003. Fourth International Conservatio Workshop for the hreatened Fauna of Arabia. Final Report. BCEAW/EPAA, Sharjah; UAE. Environment and Protected Areas Authority (EPAA) 2004. Fifth International Conservatio Workshop for the hreatened Fauna of Arabia. Final Report. BCEAW/EPAA, Sharjah; UAE. Eschmeyer, W. N. (ed). Catalog of ishes: Genera, Species, References. (http://research.calacademy.org/research/ ichthyology/catalog/ishcatmain.asp). Electronic version accessed 14 November 2013. Feulner, G.R. 1998. Wadi ish of the UAE. Tribulus 8(2): 16-22. Feulner, G.R. 2005. Freshwater ishes. In: Hellyer, P., and Aspinall, S. (eds), he Emirates – A natural History. pp. 257-259. Trident Press. Acknowledgements Special thanks are due to Dr. Fareed Krupp (Qatar Natural History Museum, Doha; and former Regional Chair for Southwest Asia, IUCN-SSC/WI Freshwater Fish Specialist Group), who assisted in compiling and reviewing the information on which the assessments are based. We are also pleased to thank: Dr. Mohammed Shobrak, from Taif University, who facilitated and guided the ield trip of NAH and made full resources available; Taif University, which funded the work of NAH in KSA and provided him with laboratory and other facilities; Saudi Wildlife Authority and especially Dr. Ahmed al Bouq, and Mr. Abdullah al-Shihri, who facilitated the trip of NAH to the south of the country; Dr. Abdulhadi al-Aoui and Tabuk University who facilitated and funded the trip of NAH to Taouk; Fujairah Municipality and especially H.E. Eng. Mohammed Saif al-Afkham, and Ms. Aseelah al-Mua’allah, who funded and facilitated ield work in Wadi Wurayah National Park; Mr. Maral Al-Shuraiqi, who coordinated logistics for the work by NAH on G barreimiae, participated in all ield trips and made many independent collections; the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife in Sharjah, and especially Ms. Hana Suwaidi, Mr. Paul Vercammen, and Mr. Johannes Els, for their contribution of information. 3.7 References Abell, R., M. hieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, N. Mandrak, S. ContrerasBalderas, W. Bussing, M. L. J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, G. R. Allen, P. Unmack, A. Naseka, R. Ng, N. Sindorf, J. Robertson, E. Armijo, J. Higgins, T. J. Heibel, E. Wikramanayake, D. Olson, H. L. Lopez, R. E. d. Reis, J. G. Lundberg, M. H. Sabaj Perez, and P. Petry. 2008. Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map 28 Feulner, G.R. 2006. Goby Gone for Good? Tribulus 16.2: 34 Haas, R. 1982. Notes on the ecology of Aphanius dispar (Pisces, Cyprinodontidae) in the Sultanate of Oman. Freshwater Biology 12: 89-95. Hamidan, N. A. and Aloui, al A., Rediscovery of Acanthobrama hadiyahensis (Cyprinidae) in Saudi Arabia. J Fish Biol. 2014 Mar 7. doi: 10.1111/ jfb.12315. [Epub ahead of print] J Fish Biol. 2014 Mar 7. doi: 10.1111/jfb.12315. [Epub ahead of print] Kottelat, M. and Freyhof, J. 2012. Mugil cephalus. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of hreatened Species. Version 2013.1. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 20 September 2013. Kruckenhauser, L., Haring, E., Seemann, R., and Sattmann, H. 2011. Genetic diferentiation between cave and surface dwelling populations of Garra barreimiae (Cyprinidae) in Oman. BMC Evolutionary Biology 11: 172-186. Krupp, F. (1983). “Fishes of Saudi Arabia. Freshwater ishes of Saudi Arabia and adjacent regions of the Arabian Peninsula” Fauna of Saudi Arabia 5:568636. Romero, A. and Paulson, K.M. 2001. It’s a Wonderful Hypogean Life: A Guide to the Troglomorphic Fishes of the World. Environmental Biology of Fishes 62: 1341. Scott, D.A. 1995. A Directory of Wetlands in the Middle East. Gland, Switzerland; and Slimbridge, U.K.IUCN and IWRB.xvii + 560pp. http://www.wetlands.org/ RSIS/WKBASE/MiddleEastDir/Title1.htm Stiassny, M.L.J. and Getahun, A. 2007. An overview of labeonin relationships and the phylogenetic placement of the Afro-Asian genus Garra Hamilton, 1922 (Teleostei: Cyprinidae), with the description of ive new species of Garra from Ethiopia, and a key to all African species. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 150(1): 41-83. 29 Chapter 4. The status and distribution of freshwater molluscs in the Arabian Peninsula Neubert, E.1, Amr, Z.2 and Van Damme, D.3 Ancient al-Alaj irrigation channels in Misfah al Abriyyin, Jebel Akhdar, Oman. Photo © R. Bonifer 4.1 Overview of the regional fauna Molluscs are found in many of the permanent freshwater bodies such as wadis, oases, highland creeks and thermal springs that are distributed through the Arabian Peninsula region, but mainly in the southwestern part of the peninsula (see Chapter 1 for further discussion of the distribution of these freshwater systems). he subterranean water systems that are widespread in the Peninsula’s karstic areas (for example the al-Houta cave near Nizwa in Oman) represent one of the potential habitats particularly for hydrobiid snails, also known as mud snails. However, additional ieldwork is required to document more precisely the freshwater mollusc fauna that might be present in these systems. he Socotran Archipelago (Yemen), known for its endemic lora and fauna, harbors a few endemic freshwater molluscan species. he ancient al-Alaj irrigating system in Oman forms a man-made habitat for freshwater molluscs, and many species survive even periods of drought in small water pockets (Neubert pers. obs. 2012). Additionally, this system transports and displaces molluscs over larger distances in the mountains down to the oases in the foothills. he oasis of Nizwa, Oman. Photo © R. Bonifer coastline of the Emirates. At the same time, the ever increasing abstraction of freshwater in wadi systems means that the volume of freshwater reaching the coast has declined and salinity is increasing and moving inland. his, in turn, threatens the freshwater species in the downstream parts of drainages. he lakes formed behind artiicial dams (see Chapter 1) are also suitable habitats for freshwater molluscs. For example, three dams were constructed in the Ha’il area (Saudi Arabia) and attracted several species of freshwater snails including Bulinus truncatus. he populations of the brackish water molluscs of the Arabian Peninsula are known to be in decline due to the rapid disappearance of the mangal (a saline woody tree and shrub environment) biotopes and swamps along the On one hand, scarcity of suitable freshwater habitats explains the small number of freshwater molluscan species being recorded from the Peninsula. From its area 1 Naturhistorisches Museum der Burgergemeinde Bern, Bernastr 15, CH-3005 Bern, Switzerland. 2 Jordan University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid. 22110, Jordan. 3 University of Ghent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 25, B 9000 Ghent, Belgium. 30 of 3,237,500 km2 only 30 species are known so far, and only nine of them are considered to be endemic. On the other hand, many probably suitable areas remain underexplored, and even in easily accessible (and clearly promising) regions like the mountain systems in Oman, there have been no systematic research activities focusing on freshwater molluscs so far. his is quite astonishing, because some gastropod species in particular are well known vector species for serious diseases like schistosomiasis (= bilharziosis). he known value of molluscs as helpful indicator species for sustainable water management has not being reviewed anywhere on the Peninsula. whether specimens collected from the Arabian Peninsula and assigned to this species are correctly identiied. hus, the taxonomic status remains unchanged since 1874 and is probably incorrect. By ‘ecological impediment’ we mean that there has been no focused investigation on the autecology and biology of the Arabian populations of freshwater molluscs so far. No data are available on population sizes and trends, and long term monitoring projects yielding data for a trend analysis are missing as well. 4.3 Conservation status (IUCN Red List Criteria: Regional scale) 4.2 The taxonomic and ecological impediments Data for 30 species are presented in this summary. Large areas of the Peninsula are still hard to access, barrages as artiicial systems are usually not checked for molluscs, and even for the highlands of Jebel Akhdar in Oman or in Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia, no systematic research for freshwater molluscs has been conducted. For this reason, we consider the assessments presented here to be preliminary baseline ones that should be updated on a regular basis. Although there are relatively few freshwater species living on the Arabian Peninsula, almost all are seriously underexplored (Brown and Wright 1980, Brown and Gallagher 1985, Neubert 1998). he taxonomic impediment is well exempliied by the putative species Hydrobia lactea. Although described by Mousson in 1874, this species has not being subject to any serious, subsequent taxonomic research, and remains ailiated to the genus Hydrobia only due to a lack of research. hough this species undoubtedly belongs to another hydrobiid genus, there have been no eforts to collect living specimens from its type locality in Mossul, Iraq to address this problem, nor was there ever any investigation Only a small proportion (16.7 %) of the freshwater molluscs fall into one of the IUCN threatened categories (Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.1). Almost half of the species are considered to be LC (Least Concern). his could be considered a positive result, but might also be biased by Table 4.1. he number of freshwater mollusc species in each Red List Category in the Arabian Peninsula region. Regional Assessment Global Assessment Number of Regional Endemics 0 0 0 3 1 1 Vulnerable 2 1 0 Near hreatened 2 1 1 Least Concern 14 23 3 Data Deicient 9 4 4 Not Applicable 9 0 0 Total* 30 30 9 IUCN Red List Categories Critically Endangered hreatened Categories Endangered * he total igure does not include NA (Not Applicable) species. he following species were assessed as NA because they are not native to the region (Helisoma duryi, Cerithidea decollata and Pseudosuccinea columella) or belong to marine habitats (Cerithidea cingulata, Iravadia quadrasi, Pirenella conica, Potamides conicus, Telescopium telescopium and Terebralia palustris). All species assessed as regionally threatened that are endemic to the region are also globally threatened 31 personal estimation rather than the result of targeted scientiic research. his may explain the diferences with the much more dramatic situation of freshwater systems in other regions, where Europe with 43.7 % of threatened species is a quite contrasting example. he value of ~30 % DD species (Data Deicient) is consistent with results from other parts of the world (Cuttelod et al. 2011, Köhler et al. 2012). Figure 4.1. he proportions (%) of freshwater mollusc species in each regional Red List category in the Arabian Peninsula. 4.4 Patterns of species richness he distribution of freshwater molluscs is shown in Fig. 4.2. As can be expected from the geomorphological structure of the Peninsula, the highest species richness is found in mountainous regions which capture enough moisture during the year. he regions with the highest diversity are the highlands of Yemen and the Jebel Akhdar area in Oman. Two other regions are of particular interest: in eastern Saudi Arabia, the large Oasis of al- Figure 4.2. he distribution of freshwater mollusc species across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river subcatchments. 32 Galba truncatula is a common snail in the mountainous areas of the Arabian Peninsula. his amphibious snail can frequently be found in mud along irrigation canals. It is listed as Least Concern. Photo © Z. Amr and E. Neubert he snail Haitia acuta is associated with slow running water and can often be found along with Bulinus truncatus. It is listed as Least Concern. Photo © Z. Amr and E. Neubert Melanoides tuberculatus lives usually in freshwater, but can also inhabit brackish waters. It is a common species all over the Arabian Peninsula, listed as Least Concern. Photo © Z. Amr and E. Neubert Plotia scabra can often be found associated with M. tuberculatus, but it is less common. It is listed as Least Concern. Photo © Z. Amr and E. Neubert Hufuf collects the groundwater of the Central Arabian Plate and thus supports a large freshwater system; and the summer monsoon area of Dhofar, Oman. freshwater systems. Species richness is highest in the catchment of the central mountains of Yemen and the al-Hufuf Oasis, where nine to 12 species have been recorded. he Jebel Akhdar area is less rich with a maximum of four or ive species, while in Dhofar six to eight species are recorded. It must be stressed that in the last case, catchment areas are extremely restricted with some permanent springs feeding small and usually short creeks, which are heavily used for agricultural and other purposes. 4.4.1 All species With 30 species recorded, the region is poor in the number of freshwater molluscs relecting the fact that drylands form the most extensive environments on the Peninsula, and thus cannot compete with tropical Table 4.2. hreatened freshwater mollusc species in the Arabian Peninsula region. Regional Red List Category Red List Criteria Endemic? Gyraulus cockburni EN B2ab(ii,iii) Yes ASSIMINEIDAE Assiminea nitida EN B2ab(iii) No MELANOPSIDAE Melanopsis costata EN B2ab(iii) No LYMNAEIDAE Stagnicola palustris VU D2 No PLANORBIDAE Gyraulus convexiusculus VU B2ab(iii) No Family Species PLANORBIDAE 33 his species was found in two small creeks on Socotra Island that are highly threatened due to unsustainable water management practices and the uncontrolled use of insecticides (Van Damme and Banield 2011). Two species with the category Endangered (EN) live in the oasis of Oasis of al-Hufuf in Saudi Arabia, which is also 4.4.2 Threatened species he threatened freshwater molluscs from the Arabian Peninsula are listed in Table 4.2. he only endemic taxon qualifying as Endangered (EN) is the Socotran species Gyraulus cockburni. he Endangered species Gyraulus cockburni from Socotra Island, Yemen. Photo © NHMUK Melanopsis costata is known from many places in the Middle East. he shell exhibits diferent colour patterns that range from light brown to deep dark. It is listed Endangered in the Arabian Peninsula. Photo © Z. Amr and E. Neubert Figure 4.3. he distribution of threatened freshwater mollusc species across the Arabian Peninsula, mapped to river subcatchments. 34 Assiminea nitida collected in a freshwater course of the Al-Qatif oasis, Eastern Province, Saudia Arabia. hreatened by changes in irrigation schemes and eutrophication as a consequence of the use of fertilizers in the Arabian region, this species is assessed Endangered. Photo © E. Neubert Wadi Kilisan in the southeast of Socotra Island, habitat of the Endangered (EN) species Gyraulus cockburni; Socotra, February 1999. Photo © E. Neubert under pressure due to water extraction and use of pesticides. he areas with the highest water withdrawal clearly coincide with the areas where threatened species of molluscs are living. 4.4.3 Endemic freshwater molluscs beccarii, and Bulinus wrighti. On the Socotran Archipelago, only a few permanent running water bodies are present (exclusively on the main island of Socotra), which harbour two planorbid species, Gyraulus cockburni and ?Ceratophallus socotrensis. A third species, “Hydrobia” Endemic species are concentrated in areas with the highest species richness (compare Figs 4.2 and 4.4). In continental Yemen, three endemic planorbid freshwater species can be found, namely Bulinus arabicus, Bulinus Figure 4.4. he distribution of endemic freshwater mollusc species across the Arabian Peninsula, mapped to river subcatchments. 35 balfouri, has not been observed or collected since its description by Godwin-Austen in 1881, and there are doubts whether this might be a freshwater, brackish or even marine species. In Oman, “Hydrobia” glaucovirens from the Dhofar region can be considered a local endemic freshwater species. ?Ceratophallus socotrensis has only been found once in the 19th Century and has not been collected since, though surface and underground waters on Socotra were systematically sampled during the last decades. It is, therefore, considered to probably be extinct. he Arabian Peninsula endemic species ?Ceratophallus socotrensis from Socotra Island (Yemen), where only the igured type specimen is known. Photo © NHMUK Clouds from the Red Sea and the Tihama plain transporting moisture to the highlands of the south-western Arabian Peninsula; view to the escarpment West of Abha, Saudi Arabia. Photo © E. Neubert Figure 4.5. he distribution of Data Deicient freshwater mollusc species across the Arabian Peninsula, mapped to river sub-catchments. 36 4.4.4 Data Deicient species 4.5 Major threats to freshwater molluscs Nine species match this category, which is almost a third of the total number of species recorded from the area. he main reasons for such a classiication are serious doubts on the correct identiication of the species (see also chapter 4.2), or the lack of any additional records since their description. Natural freshwater habitats in arid areas are a pivotal subject to human use since ancient times, and their value can be estimated from the fact that many of these localities have had a religious status. However, in times of human population increase combined with signiicant changes in water use and technical capabilities for extraction, these Figure 4.6. Percentage of freshwater mollusc species known to be afected by each threat. Note that many species may have more than one threat listed. Small pond in the Oasis of al-Hufuf in Saudi Arabia. Photo © E. Neubert 37 resources are often overexploited. Unsustainable use of all types of water bodies including ground water, landscape modiications and damage by increasing livestock and agriculture drives many freshwater species towards extinction (Strong et al. 2008). Taking this evolution into account it is no wonder that the recently published European Red List of non-marine molluscs lists freshwater molluscs as one of the most endangered organism groups with a proportion of 43.7 % species having a threatened status (Cuttelod et al. 2011). More research is needed to explore the freshwater diversity on the Peninsula. It is highly recommended to put in place a monitoring system that is able to follow the changes in the aquatic biotopes and to develop strategies towards sustainable water management in the area. 4.7 References Brown, D.S. and Gallagher, M.D. (1985). Freshwater snails of Oman, South Eastern Arabia. Hydrobiologia, 127: 125–149. Brown D.S. and Wright, C.A. (1980). Freshwater Mollusks, Fauna of Saudi Arabia, 2: 341–358. Cuttelod, A., Seddon, M. and Neubert, E. (2011): European Red List of Non-marine Molluscs. 96 pp.; Luxembourg: Publications Oice of the European Union. Köhler, F., Seddon, M., Bogan A. E., Tu, D. V., SriAroon, D. and Allen, D. J (2012): he status and distribution of freshwater molluscs of the IndoBurma region. In: Allen, D. J., Smith, K. G. and Darwall, W. R. T. (Eds): he status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in Indo-Burma: 66–88. Mousson, A. (1874): Coquilles terrestres et luviatiles recueillies par M. le Dr Alex. Schlæli en Orient. Journal de Conchyliologie 22: 5–60. Neubert, E. (1998). Annotated checklist of the terrestrial and freshwater molluscs of the Arabian Peninsula with descriptions of new species. Fauna of Arabia, 17: 333–461. Strong, E. E., Gargominy, O., Ponder, W. F. and Bouchet, P. (2008): Global diversity of gastropods (Gastropoda; Mollusca) in freshwater. Hydrobiologia, 595: 140–166. Van Damme, K. and Banield, L. (2011) Past and present human impacts on the biodiversity of Soqotra Island (Yemen): implications for future conservation. Zoology in the Middle East. Supplementum 3 (Biodiversity Conservation in the Arabian Peninsula): 31–88. he major threat to freshwater molluscs on the Arabian Peninsula is the overexploitation of surface and ground waters, e.g. for irrigation and for the ever increasing water demand of the fast growing cities. Next to the complete extraction of water from wells and water courses, the countless artiicial alterations such as drains, culverts, channels and dams reduce the habitat suitability for the species. Large amounts of freshwater are withdrawn from the mountains in the southwestern region of Saudi Arabia, the southern Hijaz and Jizan area, and the al-Hufuf oasis in the Eastern province (Saudi Arabia), where several of the threatened species like Assiminea nitida and Melanopsis costata are living. Pest control activities may destroy complete freshwater ecosystems, as has been exempliied quite recently on Socotra, where an uncontrolled malaria prevention program has contaminated highly sensitive creeks on the island, eradicating several endemic freshwater organisms (Van Damme and Banield 2011). Other threats concern accumulation of agricultural fertilizers that change the water chemistry, resulting in algal blooms and subsequent de-oxygenation during decomposition of the algal masses. Occasionally, raw sewage may be discharged into freshwater systems, or wells and karstic sinkholes are used as garbage dumps for all kinds of household and industrial waste. 4.6 Conclusions and conservation recommendations For the future it is strongly recommended to develop management plans for the sustainable use of the remaining natural water resources on the Arabian Peninsula. heir exploitation should not only be economically driven but the welfare of all freshwater organisms should also be take into consideration as these are the best indicators for good water quality. 38 Chapter 5. The status and distribution of dragonlies and damsellies (Odonata) in the Arabian Peninsula Schneider, W.1 and Samraoui, B.2 region was previously assessed by Jödicke et al. (2004) who provided an initial list of critical species and conservation priorities. 5.1 Introduction Dragonlies and damsellies (Odonata) are a fascinating order of insects with a complex lifecycle (Corbet 1999). heir displays of contrasting colours and aerial acrobatics have endeared them to scientists and laymen alike. he close dependence of Odonata on wetlands has made them worthy ambassadors of freshwater conservation (Riservato et al. 2009, Clausnitzer et al. 2012). As guardians of the watershed (Clausnitzer and Jödicke 2004), dragonlies help us monitor global changes sweeping past our planet (Hooftman et al. 2003, Crick 2004). his is particularly true in an excessively arid region undergoing strong anthropogenic pressure that is a cause of much concern (Krupp et al. 1990). 5.1.1 Number of Odonata taxa within the area of the Arabian Peninsula he number of dragonlies and damsellies of the Arabian Peninsula and the Socotra Archipelago amounts to 59 taxa with 5 additional species, Pseudagrion niloticum, Anax tristis, Sympetrum sinaiticum, Trithemis pallidinervis, and Tramea basilaris not evaluated. Pseudagrion niloticum has not been assessed because it was only recently discovered in Wadi Hadhramout (Schneider and Nasher 2013). For Sympetrum sinaiticum there is only a single record in northern Saudi Arabia at the southernmost border of the species’ distribution. Although a female was collected during oviposition, its he odonatofauna of the Arabian Peninsula and the Socotra Archipelago was not well known until the twentieth century (McLachlan 1903, Longield 1931, 1932) and systematic studies were initiated much later by Waterston (1980, 1981, 1984, 1985) and extended by Schneider (1987, 1988). Recent decades have witnessed a steady progress of our knowledge of the Odonata of Yemen (Waterston 1984, 1985, Al-Safadi 1990, Dumont and Al-Safadi 1991, 1993, Cari et al. 1995, Schneider and Parr 1998, Krupp et al. 2006) and Socotra (Kimmins 1961, Schneider and Dumont 1998, Schneider and Nasher 2013), Oman (Waterston 1981, Schneider 1988, Schneider and Dumont 1995, 1997, Waterston and Pittaway 1991, van der Weide and Kalkman 2008), United Arab Emirates (Feulner 1999, 2001, Feulner et al. 2007, Giles 1998, Reimer 2008, 2009, Reimer et al. 2009, Wilson 2008), Saudi Arabia (Waterston 1980, 1985; Pittaway, 1983; Schneider and Krupp 1993; Lambret and Boudot 2009) and Kuwait (Al-Houty 1985). he status of the Odonata of the Anax parthenope (LC) is often on patrol across the numerous canals and wadi of the region. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui 1 Senckenberg Research Institute, Entomology II, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt (Germany). 2 Laboratoire de Recherche et de Conservation des Zones Humides, University of Guelma, Guelma, Algeria/Center of Excellence for Research in Biodiversity, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 39 true status is unknown. he same holds true for the remaining three species: Anax tristis and Tramea basilaris are common migrants often spotted in the desert plains or far ofshore. In Arabia Trithemis pallidinervis is only known from a single specimen collected in northern Oman. It is likely that the occurrence of this Indian species originated from a windborne migration. he species has obviously not established stable populations in Arabia. An artiicial canal that crosses the arid eastern part near Al Ahsa in Saudi Arabia. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui he validity of some taxa and their precise distribution deserves further investigation, with the larvae of several species insuiciently described or even unknown (Jödicke et al. 2004). he highest diversity of Odonata in the region is concentrated in the southern Arabian Peninsula, including parts of Yemen (67.2%), Saudi Arabia (64.1%) and Oman (64.1%) (Table 5.1, Fig. 5.1). he south-west of Saudi Arabia, a hotspot of Odonata diversity in the region, contrasts sharply with the much drier rest of the country. Figure 5.1. he distribution of Odonata across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river sub-catchments. 40 5.2 Overview of the Regional Odonata Table 5.1. Number of Odonata taxa within diferent countries of the Arabian Peninsula1. Number of recorded species % of total Yemen2 43 67.2 Saudi Arabia 41 64.1 Oman 41 64.1 UAE 23 35.9 Qatar 13 20.3 Kuwait 12 18.8 Bahrain 6 9.4 Countries he huge Arabian land mass connects the two continents Asia and Africa. With 3.2 million km², it has the same size as India and may be regarded as a subcontinent of its own. Despite the fact that, as a continuation of the Saharan desert belt, Arabia predominantly consists of semiarid to hyperarid lands, its odonatofauna is comparatively rich with 64 taxa recorded so far (compared to 83 in northern Africa, Samraoui et al. 2010) and seven endemics (similarly seven endemics in northern Africa). High species densities are found in pluvial refugia, the high mountains in the southwestern Saudi Arabia, Yemen) and the southeast (northern Oman), and in intercalated Afrotropical relict pockets of Dhofar (Oman) and the neighbouring al-Mahra region in Yemen, which are both inluenced by the monsoon rains. It was suggested that the faunas of these regions were formed during the same moist period (Schneider 1987), probably the early Holocene pluvial phase, approx. 12,500 – 10,000 years BP (Samraoui et al. 1993). 1 Including ive species recorded but not evaluated: Pseudagrion niloticum, Anax tristis, Sympetrum sinaiticum, Trithemis pallidinervis, and Tramea basilaris. 2 Including the Socotra Archipelago with two species not recorded from mainland Yemen: Azuragrion granti (endemic) and Tramea basilaris. Ceriagrion glabrum (LC) is an African species found on Socotra and in the Southwest and Southeast of Arabia. Photo © Friedhelm Krupp 41 Recent progress in African odonatology has included revision and taxonomic changes for east African species (Dijkstra et al. 2011) and this has direct implications on the status and known ranges of several Arabian odonate populations. Prominent examples are the species pairs Orthetrum taeniolatum versus O. kollmanspergeri, Brachythemis leucosticta versus Brachythemis impartita, and Trithemis donaldsoni versus hrithemis dejouxi. Wadi Hanifa just south of Riyadh , in Saudi Arabia. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui With more than 60% of all recorded species also found on the African continent, the odonatofauna of Arabia has to be classiied as predominantly Afrotropical. In addition six out of the seven regional endemics evolved from African lineages, including the monotypic genus Arabicnemis (Gassmann 2004). sanguinolenta, Orthetrum julia, Trithemis stictica (replaced by T. dejouxi in Arabia), Zosteraeschna minuscula (replaced by Pinheyscha yemenensis in Arabia), Anax speratus, and Pseudagrion kersteni (plus P. arabicum in Arabia). here is a striking similarity between dragonly assemblages in perennial mountain springs in Namibia (Suhling et al. 2006, Martens et al. 2010) and southwestern Arabia, in terms of the species present and their ecological characteristics. hese habitats sustain a number of perennial stream dwellers: Crocothemis here is a weak but remarkable penetration of Oriental/ south-east Asian species in the extreme east of the A male of Pseudagrion decorum, an Oriental element in the odonate fauna of Arabia. It is categorized by IUCN as Near hreatened in the Arabian Peninsula and Least Concern at global level. Photo © Friedhelm Krupp 42 Arabian Peninsula, e.g. Agriocnenis pygmaea, Pseudagrion decorum, and Macrodiplax cora. endemic, Azuragrion granti. Afrotropical and migrant species predominate. It is striking that the genus Pseudagrion is obviously not represented on Socotra, but is on other western Indian Ocean islands. A major freshwater crisis on Socotra in the past, with species’ extinctions, is a possible explanation. he absence of primary freshwater ish and amphibians points in the same direction (Schneider and Nasher 2013) Besides Arabicnemis, the other endemic and monotypic genus for Arabia, Arabineura remains an enigma: Arabineura khalidi is the only protoneurid known between south-east Asia and Africa (Schneider 1988). It may represent the relict of an older but yet unrecognised faunal exchange between Asia and Africa. Tandem oviposition of the endemic (genus and species) hreadtail Arabineura khalidi (EN), the only known protoneurid between the Indian subcontinent and Africa. he male is only supported by his grip on the female’s prothorax. Photo © Robert W. Reimer Due to the huge and arid desert belt in the north of Arabia, the inlux of Palearctic species is rather weak. Only two of them, Selysiothemis nigra and Lindenia tetraphylla, have penetrated deep into Arabia. his is explained by their capacity to migrate and to breed in diferent types of stagnant waters, even in ephemeral and brackish ones. Other Palearctic species, like Orthetrum coerulescens, Orthetrum taeniolatum, and Sympetrum sinaiticum are restricted to suitable habitats with enough permanent freshwaters in the north of Arabia, as around the Shat al-Arab on the Iraq/Iran border and the Jabal Lauz mountains of the northern Hijaz in Saudi Arabia. Compared to other oceanic islands and considering its large size (3,625 km²), Socotra has an impoverished odonatofauna with a total of 21 species and only one Selysiothemis nigra (LC) is a well known migrant, even found far ofshore. his female was part of a migrating swarm along the Red Sea coast in Jordan. Photo © Wolfgang Schneider 43 5.3 Conservation Status (IUCN Red List Criteria: Regional Scale) 5.3.1 Regionally Extinct species One species Azuragrion vansomereni, known from a single site in Saudi Arabia is now considered to be Regionally Extinct (RE), following the demise of its habitat, the Laila lakes (Krupp et al. 1990, Kempe and Dirks 2008, Jennings 2010). Of the 59 assessed taxa (i.e., not including ‘Not Applicable and Not Evaluated’ species) of the Arabian Peninsula, one species is assessed as Regionally Extinct and 15 (25.4%) are classiied as threatened (CR, EN, VU). he Layla Lakes in al-Alaj (Central Saudi Arabia) were the only known natural freshwater lakes in Arabia. he Afrotropical species Azuragrion vansomereni, collected here in the 1980s, is now listed as Regionally Extinct. he two pictures represent the situation of the main lake in 1992 (top) and 1995 (bottom). Photos © Michael C. Jennings 44 Irrigated palm grove, home of Crocothemis chaldaeorum (DD). Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui 5.3.2 Threatened taxa 1.7% of the assessed taxa are Critically Endangered (CR), 15.2% are Endangered (EN) and 8.5% are Vulnerable (VU) (Table 5.2, Fig. 5.2). 5.3.3 Near Threatened taxa Four species (6.8%) are considered as Near hreatened (NT). Although the status of these species could not it the criteria of threatened species, further monitoring, especially of Azuragrion granti, may uncover a decline if no conservation steps are adopted to halt habitat losses. Figure 5.2. he proportions (%) of Odonata taxa in each regional Red List category in the Arabian Peninsula. Table 5.2. he number of Odonata taxa in each Red List Category in the Arabian Peninsula. Regional Assessment Global Assessment Number of Regional Endemics Regionally Extinct (RE)** 1 0 0 Critically Endangered (CR) 1 0 0 Endangered (EN) 9 0 3 Vulnerable (VU) 5 0 2 Regional Red List Category hreatened categories Near hreatened (NT) 4 1 1 Least Concern (LC) 32 57 1 Data Deicient (DD) 7 1 0 Not Applicable Not Evaluated 4 0 0 1 0 0 Total number of taxa assessed* 59 59 7 * Taxa considered Not Applicable (Anax tristis, Sympetrum sinaiticum, Tramea basilaris, Trithemis pallidinervis) and Not Evaluated (Pseudagrion niloticum, see Schneider and Nasher 2013) are excluded from total. All species assessed as regionally threatened which are endemic to the region are de facto globally threatened. ** he species Azuragrion vansomereni is listed Regionally Extinct in the Arabian Peninsula. 45 he range of Trithemis kirbyi (LC) has changed fast in the Mediterranean region and its distribution may be worth monitoring in the Arabian Peninsula. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui 5.3.4 Data Deicient taxa Not enough is known about the distribution and/or population trend of seven taxa (11.9%) which were evaluated as Data Deicient (DD). Fig. 5.4 indicates that more efort needs to be devoted to the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, where the DD taxa tend to be concentrated. 5.3.5 Least Concern taxa A total of 32 taxa (54.2%) were considered as widespread with no hint of pending threats leading to their assessment as Least Concern (LC). 5.3.6 Not Applicable species A total of 4 species were considered as Not Applicable (Anax tristis, Sympetrum sinaiticum, Tramea basilaris, Trithemis pallidinervis). Because Arabian records of Pseudagrion niloticum were published only after the assessment process, it could not be evaluated. he conservation status of threatened taxa is almost evenly split between the two sub-orders, with eight Zygoptera and seven Anisoptera. he threatened zygopterans are made up mainly by the family Coenagrionidae (six taxa) while the Libellulidae (six taxa, all listed as EN) dominate the other sub-order (Table 5.3). It is important to bear in mind that due to the fast rate of local development, especially in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula where the overall species richness and number of threatened species are greatest (Figs. 5.1 and 5.3), this evaluation may change rapidly and many species, actually assessed as LC, may become threatened. he impact of freshwater reservoirs like Jisan Dam in southwest Saudi Arabia on the regional biodiversity deserves a thorough investigation. It is the only known locality in Arabia of the African species Palpopleura deceptor (DD in the Arabian Peninsula and LC globallly). Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui 46 Trithemis annulata (LC), common in palm groves and irrigation ditches. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui Crocothemis erythraea (LC) is common outside the palm groves. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui. Figure 5.3. he distribution of threatened Odonata across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river sub-catchments. 47 Table 5.3. hreatened Odonata in the Arabian Peninsula. Regional Red Criteria List Category Family Taxon COENAGRIONIDAE Agriocnemis pygmaea CR B2ab(iii) COENAGRIONIDAE Azuragrion nigridorsum EN B2ab(iii) COENAGRIONIDAE Pseudagrion arabicum EN LIBELLULIDAE Acisoma panorpoides ssp. ascalaphoides EN LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum abbotti EN LIBELLULIDAE Rhyothemis semihyalina EN LIBELLULIDAE Trithemis dejouxi EN B2ab(iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) B2ab(iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) B2ab(iii) LIBELLULIDAE Urothemis edwardsii EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LIBELLULIDAE Urothemis thomasi ssp. thomasi EN B2ab(iii) yes PROTONEURIDAE Arabineura khalidi EN B2b(iii,iv) yes AESHNIDAE Pinheyschna yemenensis VU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); D2 yes COENAGRIONIDAE Azuragrion somalicum ssp. amitinum VU B2ab(iii); D2 yes COENAGRIONIDAE Pseudagrion kersteni VU B2ab(iii) COENAGRIONIDAE Ischnura fountaineae VU B2ab(iii) LESTIDAE Lestes pallidus VU B2ab(iii) Endemic yes Figure 5.4. he distribution of Data Deicient Odonata across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river subcatchments. 48 Male of Orthetrum ransonnetii (LC) in Wadi Rum (Jordan). Photo © Friedhelm Krupp 5.4 Patterns Of Species Richness 5.4.1 Species richness he diversity of dragonlies in the Arabian Peninsula is mainly explained by the efect of climate (rainfall due to monsoons) and the proximity to the African and Asian plates. Hotspots of species richness are coastal areas (south-west Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman). Elsewhere, the region receives little rainfall and has low species diversity. 5.4.2 Distribution of endemic taxa he Arabian Peninsula holds seven taxa endemic to the region (10.9% of all taxa recorded for the region), including ive Zygoptera and two Anisoptera. he Coenagrionidae with three taxa dominate all other zygopteran families (Table 5.4). Endemics are mainly found in the mountains along the southeastern and southwestern coasts of Arabia (Fig. 5.5). mountain forests of southwestern Saudi Arabia and Yemen, the mountains of northern Oman and the Afrotropical relict pockets of Dhofar (Oman and Al Mahra (Yemen). 5.4.3 Distribution of threatened species richness he distribution of threatened species richness mirrors that of high species diversity represented by the Tandem oviposition of the Arabian Featherleg Arabicnemis caerulea (LC), an endemic genus and species of Southern Arabia. Photo © Friedhelm Krupp 49 Table 5.4. Number of endemic taxa and total number within each Odonata family. Suborder Family Number of taxa Number of endemic taxa Zygoptera Lestidae 1 0 Coenagrionidae 14 3 Platycnemididae 1 1 Protoneuridae 1 11 Sub-total – Zygoptera (damsellies) 17 5 Aeshnidae 5 1 Gomphidae 3 0 Libellulidae 34 12 Sub-total – Anisoptera (dragonlies) 42 2 59 7 Anisoptera Total – Odonata 1 2 With the endemic genus Arabineura Schneider and Dumont, 1995 he status of Urothemis thomasi Longield, 1932 as an Arabian endemic would be challenged if Urothemis aethiopica Nielsen, 1957 is considered as its east African subspecies (Schneider 1988), or if U. thomasi is regarded as a subspecies of U. signata (Rambur, 1842) (Waterston and Pittaway 1991). Figure 5.5. he distribution of endemic Odonata across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river sub-catchments. 50 5.5 Major threats to Odonata of the Arabian Peninsula 5.6 Conservation Recommendations Freshwater habitats in the region are under a several anthropogenic pressures (see section 5.5.1) due to water extraction, habitat degradation and urban development. hus, the conservation of wetland biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula faces a tough challenge and will need to draw upon a wide spectrum of local and regional actions spread over diferent domains: protection, monitoring, research, management and education. Databases, atlases (Boudot et al. 2009) and Red Lists are useful tools that will help to select highly threatened species and hotspots of high conservation values. Extensive surveys are needed to ill the gaps in our knowledge of the distribution of several species and complete the present checklist. More work is also needed to clarify the taxonomic status of a number of taxa (e.g. Urothemis thomasi, Orthetrum kollmannspergeri, and Crocothemis chaldaeorum) and to describe their larvae and exuviae. Likewise, our knowledge of the ecology of 5.5.1. General overview of threats he main threats to Odonata and their habitats in the Arabian Peninsula are summarized in Fig. 5.6. Over the last century, rapid development has transformed the whole of the Arabian Peninsula and, unsurprisingly, modiications to natural systems (in terms of physical modiication of the habitat by dams, water abstraction, channelization, or destruction of riparian habitat??) stand out as the dominant threats. Pollution, agriculture and a burgeoning aquaculture industry (e.g. shrimp farms) also rank high in the threats list. Unfortunately, the advent of global warming will probably exacerbate such pressure and the steady sprawl of residence and commercial development will only add to the plight of already vulnerable and increasingly fragmented wetlands. Wadi Baish in southwest Saudi Arabia which hosts a large population of Pseudagrion hamoni may be threatened by dam construction and water extraction. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui 51 Figure 5.6. Percentage of Odonata in the Arabian Peninsula afected by major categories of threat. Wadi Hanifa is very much “tamed” across the Saudi capital Riyadh. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui 52 Schneider 2009. Atlas of the Odonata of the Mediterranean and North Africa. Libellula, Supplement 9: 1–256. Carfì, S., Vittoria, R. and Terzani, F. 1995. Some dragonlies from the north of the Republic of Yemen. Bolletino della Società entomologica italiana 126: 195– 199. Clausnitzer, V. and Jödicke, R. (eds) 2004. Guardians of the Watershed. Global status of dragonlies: critical species, threat and conservation. International Journal of Odonatology 7: 111–430. Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K-D, Koch, R., Boudot, J-P., Darwall, W.T.T., Kipping, J., Samraoui, B., Samways, M.J., Simaika, J.P. and Suhling, F. 2012. Focus on African freshwaters: hotspots of dragonly diversity and conservation concern. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10: 129–134. Corbet, P.S. 1999. Dragonlies: Behaviour and biology of Odonata. Harley Books. Crick, H.Q.P. 2004. he impact of climate change on birds. Ibis 146: 48–56. Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Boudot, J_P., Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J., Kisakve, J.J., Ogbogu, S.S., Samraoui, B., Samways, M.J., Schütte, K., Simaika, J.P., Suhling, F. and Tchibozo, S. 2011. Dragonlies and Damsellies of Africa (Odonata): history, diversity distribution and conservation. In: Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G., Allen, D.J., Holland, R.A., Harrison, I.J. and Brooks, E.G.E. (Editors). he diversity of life in African Freshwaters. Under Water, Under hreat An analysis of the status and distribution of freshwater species throughout mainland Africa. IUCN, 128–177. Dumont, H.J. and Al-Safadi, M.M. 1991. Additions to the dragonly fauna of Yemen. Notulae odonatologicae 3: 114–117. Dumont, H.J. and Al-Safadi, M.M. 1993. Further additions to the dragonly fauna of the Republic of Yemen (Odonata). Opuscula zoologica luminensia 109: 1–8. Feulner, G.R. 1999. Two new UAE Damsellies: Ceriagrion glabrum and Pseudagrion decorum. Tribulus 9: 31. Feulner, G.R. 2001. he damselly Pseudagrion decorum breeding in the UAE. Tribulus 11: 24. Feulner, G.R., Reimer, R.W., and Hornby, R.J. 2007. An updated illustrated checklist of dragonlies and damsellies of the UAE. Tribulus 17: 37–62. Garcia, N., Abdul Malak, D. and Cuttelod, A. 2008. he status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in North Africa. Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Malaga, Spain: IUCN. Crocothemis chaldaeorum (DD) is thought to have originated within the extensive and ancient palm groves of the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Photo © Boudjéma Samraoui endemic species (e.g., Pinheyschna yemenensis, Arabineura khalidi,and Azuragrion granti) and relict species (Rhyothemis semihyalina, Urothemis edwardsii) is limited and there is ample scope for improvement (Samraoui et al. 2003). here is thus clearly a need for capacity building in the area both for odonatological and environmental training. here is a close similarity between the conservation status of freshwater species of the Arabian Peninsula and that of Northern Africa (Samraoui and Menai 1999, Jödicke et al. 2004). Conservation priorities identiied by a panel of experts for the latter region may be applicable to the Arabian Peninsula (García et al. 2008). Conservation measures include research designed to provide reliable information on status and trends of species and their habitats (as noted above), the development of Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) programs, the use of sustainable agricultural techniques and waste management, law enforcement, habitat protection, and action plans for species, and environmental education. 5.7 References Al-Houty, W. 1985. Some Odonata from Kuwait. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine 121: 62. Al-Safadi M.M. 1990. Dragonlies (Odonata) of the Yemen Arab Republic. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 11: 18–30. Boudot, J-P, Kalkman, V., Azplicueta Amorin, M., Bogdanovic, T., Cordero Rivera, A., D e g a b r i e l e , G., Dommanget, J.-L., Ferreira, S., Garrigos, B., Jovic, M., Kotarac, M., Lopau, W., Marinov, M., Mihokovic, N., Riservato, E., Samraoui, B. and W. 53 Gassmann, D. 2004. he phylogeny of Southeast Asian and Indo-Paciic Calicnemiinae (Odonata, Platycnemididae). Bonner zoologische Beiträge 53: 37–80. Giles, G.B. 1998. An illustrated and annotated checklist of the dragonlies of the UAE. Tribulus 8: 9–15. Hooftman, D.A., van Kleunen, M. and Diemer, M. 2003. Efects of habitat fragmentation on the itness of two common wetland species, Carex davalliana and Succisa pratensis. Oecologia 134: 350–359. Jennings, M.C. 2010. Atlas of the breeding birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25: XI + 751. Jödicke, R., Boudot, J-P., Jacquemin, G., Samraoui, B. and Schneider W. 2004. Critical species of Odonata in northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. International Journal of Odonatology 7: 239–253. Kempe, S. and Dirks, H. 2008. Layla Lakes, Saudi Arabia: he world-wide largest lacustrine gypsum tufas. Acta carsologica 37: 7–14. Kimmins, D.E. 1961. he Odonata and Neuroptera of the Island of Socotra. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 13: 385–392. Krupp, F., Schneider, W., Nader I.A. and Khushaim, O. 1990. Zoological survey in Saudi Arabia, spring 1990. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 11: 3–9. Krupp, F. Appel, M., Hamoud, A., Schneider,W. and Zajonz, U. 2006. Zoological survey in the Red Sea coastal zone of Yemen. Fauna of Arabia 21 : 11–32. Lambret, P. and Boudot, J-P. 2009. Nesciothemis farinosa (Förster, 1898) et Orthetrum ransonnetii (Brauer, 1865) nouveaux pour l’Arabie Séoudite et autres observations d’Odonates sur les reliefs côtiers de la Mer Rouge. Martinia 25: 153–155. Longield, C. 1931. Dragonlies. In: homas, B. “A camel journey across the Rub’ al Khali”. Geographical Journal 78: 209-242; pp. 230–231. Longield, C. 1932. A new species of the genus Urothemis from southern Arabia and some remarks on the species of Odonata inhabiting the Qara mountains. Stylops 1: 34–35. Martens, A., Richter, O. and Suhling, F. 2010. he relevance of perenial springs for regional biodiversity and conservation. In: Schmiedel U., Jürgens, N. (eds): Biodiversity in southern Africa 2: Patterns and processes at regional scale. Klaus Hess Publishers, Göttingen: 70–74. McLachlan, R. 1903. he dragonlies of Sokotra. In: H.O. Forbes (ed.), he Natural History of Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri: being the report upon the results of the conjoint expedition to these islands in 1898-9. Special Bulletin of the Liverpool Museum, London, XLVII + 598pp. Pittaway, A.R. 1983. he dragons of Al-Hasa (Odonata). ARAMCO World Magazine 2: 2–3. Reimer, R.W. 2008. An extraordinary conluence of events in the study of UAE and Oman Odonata. Agrion 12: 55. Reimer, R.W. 2009. Additional records for Oman. Agrion 13: 45–47. Reimer, R.W., Feulner, G.R. and Hornby, R.J. 2009. Errata and Addenda: Updated illustrated checklist of dragonlies of the UAE – uncluding a third species of Ischnura damselly. Tribulus 18: 28–36. Riservato, E., Boudot, J-P., Ferreira, S., Jovic, M., Kalkman, V.J., Schneider, W., Samraoui, B. and Cuttelod, A. 2009. he status and distribution of dragonlies of the Mediterranean Basin. Gland, Switzerland and Malaga, Spain. Samraoui, B., Benyacoub, S., Mecibah, S. and Dumont, H.J. 1993. Afotropical libellulids in the lake district of El Kala, NE Algeria with a redescription of Urothemis e. edwardsii (Selys) and Acisoma panorpoides ascalaphoides (Rambur) (Anisoptera: Libellulidae). Odonatologica 3: 365–372. Samraoui, B., Boudot, J.-P., Riservato, E., Ferreira, S., Jovic, M., Kalkman, V.J. and Schneider. 2010. he status and distribution of dragonlies. In García, N., Cuttelod, A. and Abdul Malak, D. (eds.). he Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Northern Africa. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Malaga, Spain: xiii+141pp. Samraoui, B. and Menai, R. 1999. A contribution to the study of Algerian Odonata. International Journal of Odonatology 2: 145–165. Schneider, W. 1987. he genus Pseudagrion Selys, 1876 in the Middle East. A zoogeographic outline (Insecta: Odonata: Coenagrionidae). Proceedings of the Symposium on the Fauna and Zoogeography of the Middle East, Mainz 1985, pp. 114–123. Schneider, W. 1988. Dragonlies (Odonata) of the Wahiba Sands and adjacent areas, eastern Oman. Journal of Oman Studies. Special Report 3: 377–388. Schneider, W. and Dumont, H.J. 1995. Arabineura n. gen., a new protoneurid genus from Arabia, with the description of the hitherto unknown female of Arabineura khalidi (Schneider, 1988) comb. nov. (Insecta: Odonata: Protoneuridae). Biologisch Jaarboek Dodonaea 62: 114–120. Schneider, W. and Dumont, H.J. 1997. he dragonlies and damsellies (Insecta: Odonata) of Oman. An updated and annotated checklist. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 16: 89–110. Schneider,W. and Dumont, H.J. 1998. Checklist of the dragonlies and damsellies of Socotra island (Insecta: 54 Odonata). In: H.J. Dumont (ed.); Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Socotra Island: Present and Future, Aden 1996 1: 83–105. United Nations Publications, p. 219–232, New-York. Schneider W. and Krupp, F. 1993. Dragonly records from Saudi Arabia, with an annotated checklist of the species from the Arabian Peninsula (Insecta: Odonata). Fauna of Saudi Arabia 13: 63–78. Schneider, W. and Nasher, A. 2013. Dragonlies from mainland Yemen and the Socotra Archipelago. Additional records and novelties. IDF Report 57: 1–13. Schneider, W. and Parr, M.J. 1998. Orthetrum julia falsum Longield 1955, new to the dragonly fauna of Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula (Anisoptera: Libellulidae). International Journal of Odonatology 1: 155–158. Suhling, F., Sahlén, G., Martens, A., Marais, E. and Schütte, C. 2006. Dragonly assemblages in arid tropical environments : a case study from western Namibia. Biodiversity and Conservation 15: 311–332. van der Weide, M.J.T. and Kalkman, V.J. 2008. Some new records of dragonlies from Oman. Agrion 12: 52–54. Waterston, A.R. 1980. Insects of Saudi Arabia. Odonata. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 2: 57–70. Waterston, A.R. 1981. he dragonlies (Odonata) of Dhofar. In: “he scientiic results of the Oman lora and fauna survey 1977 (Dhofar)”. Journal of Oman Studies, Special Report 2: 149–151. Waterston, A.R. 1984. A new genus and species of platycnemidid dragonly from the Arabian Peninsula. Odonatologica 13: 139–146. Waterston, A.R. 1985. Insects of southern Arabia. Odonata from the Yemens and Saudi Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 6: 451–472. Waterston, A.R. and Pittaway, A.R. 1991. he Odonata or dragonlies of Oman and neighbouring territories. Journal of Oman Studies 10: 131–168. Wilson, K. 2008. A brief trip to United Arab Emirates and Northern Oman. Agrion 12: 56–57. 55 Chapter 6. The status and distribution of freshwater crabs Cumberlidge, N.1 Cumberlidge 2004, 2006; see section 6.3 for further details). 6.1 Overview of the regional fauna he entire Arabian Peninsula lacks freshwater crabs, except for Socotra, the largest island in the Socotran archipelago. Socotra is home to three species of freshwater crabs that belong to two genera, Socotra Cumberlidge and Wranik, 2002, and Socotrapotamon Apel and Brandis, 2000, that are all assigned to the Potamidae Ortmann, 1896 (Ng et al. 2008, Cumberlidge et al. 2009). All of these species (Socotra pseudocardisoma Cumberlidge and Wranik, 2002, Socotrapotamon socotrensis (Hilgendorf, 1883), and Socotrapotamon nojidensis Apel and Brandis, 2000, have a stable taxonomy (Ng et al. 2008). he Potamidae is easily the largest of all of the freshwater crab families, and includes 95 genera and more than 505 species in two subfamilies, the Potaminae Ortmann, 1896, and the Potamiscinae Ortmann, 1896 (Ng et al. 2008, Cumberlidge and Ng 2009). he Potamidae has a wide distribution throughout the southern Palaearctic and Oriental zoogeographical regions from Morocco as far east as Japan and as far south as Indonesia (Ng et al. 2008, Yeo et al. 2008, Cumberlidge et al. 2009). he three Socotran potamids are the only members of this family found in the Afrotropical region (Yeo et al. 2008, Cumberlidge 2008). All three Socotran species belong to the subfamily Potamiscinae, whose members are otherwise found from northeast India to as far as east China and Japan, and in southeast Asia as far as Indonesia and the Philippines. he Socotran potamids are not closely related to the geographically closest potamids (species of the Palaearctic genus Potamon (Potamidae: Potaminae)) that are found in North Africa, the Mediterranean coastal region (including Egypt), the Middle East, and the western Himalayas (Bott 1967, Brandis et al. 2000; see section 6.3 for further discussion). Furthermore, the Socotran freshwater crabs are not closely related to the geographically close freshwater crabs of Somalia, despite the fact that Socotra lies closer to the coast of Africa than to the coast of the Arabian Peninsula (Reed and he three species of Socotran freshwater crabs are similar in terms of their breeding strategy (they all have direct development from egg to hatchling crabs, and they all lack larval stages) but they difer in their choice of habitat within freshwater ecosystems on the island (streams, waterfalls, and rock crevices) (Apel and Brandis 2000, Cumberlidge and Wranik 2002). hese freshwater crabs are omnivores that mostly consume plant matter and scavenge detritus, and are found wherever year round water is present. 6.1.1 Crab Distribution and Ecoregions he Socotra archipelago comprises a chain of four islands: Socotra, Abd al Kuri, Samha, and Darsa that have a combined area of about 4,000 km2. his archipelago is an extension of the Horn of Africa and at its closest point is only 90 km from the coast of Somalia (see also Chapter 1). Socotra is the only island in the archipelago that has freshwater crab populations, all of the other islands lack freshwater crabs (Cumberlidge and Wranik 2002). Topographically Socotra can be divided into three main zones: a lowland coastal plain of variable width, a limestone plateau (300 to 700 m asl) that extends over most of the island, and the granitic Haghir mountains in the center of the island (up to 1,519 m asl). he vegetation of Socotra is sparse and is dominated by plants adapted to a semi-arid climate although more luxuriant vegetation is found in the sheltered valleys and on mountain slopes (Kingdon 1989, Mies and Zimmer 1993, Mies et al. 1995). In general about onethird of the plants and animals found on Socotra are endemic at both the species and generic levels, but the genera and species of freshwater crabs are 100% endemic. 1 Department of Biology, Northern Michigan University. Marquette, MI 49855-5376, USA. 56 Wadi Daneghan, Socotra is one of the locations where Socotrapotamon socotrensis (LC) is known to occur. Photo©Friedhelm Krupp 6.2. Assessment of species threatened status (IUCN Red List Criteria: Regional Scale) he conservation status of the Arabian Peninsula’s freshwater crab fauna has been assessed using the IUCN Red List Criteria at the regional scale (IUCN 2003, Cumberlidge et al. 2009). All three species of freshwater crabs found in the Arabian Peninsula have a restricted extent of occurrence and, as noted above, are all endemic to Socotra. herefore, the assessment of threat status at the regional scale is also representative of a global assessment. Socotra pseudocardisoma is a large and secretive semiterrestrial air-breathing species that is restricted to rock crevices, karst, and an underground cave system in an inland locality in the Haghir mountains far away from permanent freshwater sources and far away from the coast (Cumberlidge and Wranik 2002). Socotrapotamon socotrensis is a locally common stream-living species found in shallow streams and wadis throughout the Figure 6.1 Distribution map of the freshwater crabs Socotra socotrensis, Socotrapotamon nojidensis and S. pseudocardisoma in the Arabian Peninsula. 57 island including the northern lowland coastal areas and the streams draining the central mountain range. his species is often found living in burrows that it digs into the banks of rivers (Apel and Brandis 2000). he third Socotran species, S. nojidensis, is found only in the shallow waters of a series of waterfalls and rock pools at the base of the escarpment in the western part of the Nojid plain on the south coast of Socotra, living between rocks and plants (Apel and Brandis 2000). Socotra pseudocardisoma (LC) lives in an inaccessible limestone karst system in the highlands of Socotra, Yemen, which provide this large semiterrestrial species with a level of protection. Photo©Friedhelm Krupp Most of the aquatic ecosystems of Socotra are either actually or potentially afected by increasing development for the tourist industry with its associated demands on freshwater sources, and this may adversely afect freshwater crab populations in the future. he conservation status of each of the three species of freshwater crabs found in the Arabian Peninsula is summarized in Table 6.1 and is discussed briely below. surfaces they can also climb quickly up and down rock surfaces and so escape into inaccesible crevices. he Haghir massif where this species lives is an ancient mountainous area that has remained above sea level for millions of years (since the Mesozoic) and has served as a refuge for a number of Socotra’s terrestrial species during past changes in sea levels that looded lower-lying parts of the island. he Haghir mountains receive Socotra’s highest rainfall totals and are frequently shrouded in clouds and heavy mists. Other sources of water for aquatic animals living on these mountains include permanent springs and the year-round streams that run down the northern slopes of the massif. However, at lower elevations these streams become sporadic and only low freely after rain (Wranik 1999). Crabs produce eggs and release their hatchlings during the wettest part of the year when plant and animal populations on Socotra are at their highest levels. he present population levels of 6.2.1 Case Studies Socotra pseudocardisoma Wranik, 2002 (LC) Cumberlidge and his semi-terrestrial species grows as large as 90.5 mm across the carapace at its widest point. Living specimens of S. pseudocardisoma have a dark-purple dorsal carapace with a light brown margin, cream carapace sides, a pale sternum, and light yellow chelae and walking legs. Socotra pseudocardisoma lives only in the Haghir massif, and is a semi-arid zone crab with terrestrial habits found in temporary aquatic freshwater habitats in granite and limestone (sinks, underground streams, caverns, hollows and crevices) located far from conventional freshwater sources. hese crabs can not only move rapidly on level Table 6.1 he number of freshwater crab species, and the number of endemics, in each regional IUCN Red List Category in the Arabian Peninsula (IUCN 2003, Cumberlidge et al. 2009). Regional Red List Categories Regional Assessment Global Assessment Number of Regional Endemics 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vulnerable 0 0 0 Near hreatened 0 0 0 Least Concern 2 2 2 Data Deicient 1 1 1 Total* 3 3 3 Critically Endangered hreatened Categories Endangered * Excluding species that are considered Not Applicable. 58 S. pseudocardisoma are estimated to be stable based on the number of individuals known and ield reports made at diferent times. Socotra pseudocardisoma is currently listed as Least Concern because there are no known longterm threats that may result in a decline in the extent and quality of its habitat. Its extent of occurrence is very restricted (less than 500 km²) because all individuals are found in a single locality (Diksam located on a limestone plateau in the Haghir mountains) that is part of an extensive karst system whose inaccessible crevices undoubtedly protect this species from threats by predators, including humans. In addition, the Haghir mountains are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and this designation may aford some level of protection for this species in the future. mountainous parts of the Haghir mountains where it is found either in shallow water or in burrows dug into river banks. Socotrapotamon socotrensis is known from ive diferent localities on Socotra: Kerignigi, Wadi Daneghan, Wadi Fahuh, a wadi near Hadibo, and Wadi Ayhaft. Socotrapotamon socotrensis is listed as Least Concern in view of its island-wide distribution, its apparent tolerance of low-scale habitat modiication, and its presumed large population based on its occurrence in multiple localities. However, this stream-living species is not found in a protected area and no conservation measures are known to be in place. Potential long-term threats to S. socotrensis include habitat loss and pollution arising from the increased demands for water imposed by the tourist industry. Socotrapotamon socotrensis (Hilgendorf, 1883) (LC) Socotrapotamon nojidensis Apel and Brandis, 2000 (DD) his species is endemic to Socotra island where it is common in freshwater streams and wadis throughout the island from the low coastal areas in the north to the his species is endemic to Socotra where it is known only from a series of waterfalls and rock pools at the base of the escarpment in the western part of the Nojid plain Socotrapotamon socotrensis (LC) is endemic to Socotra island where it is common in streams and wadis living either in shallow water or in burrows dug into river banks. Photo©Friedhelm Krupp 59 on the south coast of the island. his species lives in the shallow waters between rocks and plants. Living specimens of S. nojidensis have a dark-colored carapace that is cream on the sides and pale underneath and its chelae and walking legs are bright orange. his is a medium-sized species with adults measuring 36.6 mm across the carapace at its widest point. his species is listed as Data Deicient because it is known only from a single locality in Socotra, was last collected in 1999, and because very little is known about its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements, population size, population trends, and long-term threats. his species is not found in a protected area. from the Arabian Peninsula. It is, therefore, interesting that the ainities of Socotrapotamon and Socotra lie with members of the Oriental freshwater crab subfamily Potamscinae rather than with the Palaearctic Potaminae or the Afrotropical Potamonautidae (Cumberlidge 2008, 2009, Cumberlidge et al. 2008). he geographically closest potamids to Socotra are not close relatives and belong to a diferent subfamily (the Potaminae; see above) whose members are found north of the Arabian Peninsula, the closest being the widespread species Potamon potamios that is found in the Sinai peninsula in Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Syria. Other species of this genus are distributed throughout the Middle East as far east as the Himalayas (Brandis et al. 2000, Cumberlidge 2010). Although Socotra is geographically much closer to Somalia than it is to the Arabian Peninsula the two species of freshwater crabs found in Somalia (Potamonautes obesus, Potamonautinae and Deckenia imitatrix Deckeniinae) and the freshwater crabs found in the Seychelles are not closely related to the Socotran freshwater crabs, and belong to a diferent family, the Potamonautidae Bott, 1970 (Reed and 6.3 Patterns of species richness he unique character of Socotra is due in part to its great age and long isolation. Geologically, Socotra is part of the African-Arabian tectonic plate that became separated from the African mainland in the Tertiary. he result is that the majority of the island’s fauna and lora is more closely related to African species rather than to those Socotrapotamon nojidensis (DD) is endemic to a waterfall in the western part of the Nojid plain in Socotra, Yemen. Photo©Friedhelm Krupp 60 Cumberlidge 2004, 2006, Daniels et al. 2006, Ng et al. 2008, Cumberlidge and Ng 2009, Cumberlidge et al. 2009). he taxonomic isolation of the Socotran freshwater crabs is further emphasized by the fact that there are no species of Potamidae found either in Somalia or anywhere else in subsaharan Africa (Bott 1955, Cumberlidge 1999, Reed and Cumberlidge 2006). Because of the above anomalies all three of Socotra’s endemic species of freshwater crabs, S. pseudocardisoma, S. socotrensis and S. nojidensis are of extreme biogeographical and phylogenetic interest. Cumberlidge 2008). he relatively close proximity of the Indian peninsula to the Socotran archipelago raises the possibility of an Indian peninsula origin for the ancestors of the Socotran freshwater crabs. However, this is unlikely because of the complete absence of any species of potamid freshwater crabs in the Indian subcontinent south of the Ganges basin (Cumberlidge et al. 2009). he possibility of the Socotran freshwater crabs originating during the Miocene from an Asian potamiscine ancestor that reached the island via the eastern Arabian mainland remains an open question (Apel and Brandis 2000). Although the two Socotran genera are not known to be closely related to any of the extant potamid genera, Socotra and Socotrapotamon are closely related to each other despite their morphological diferences, because they group together as sister taxa in molecular phylogenies of the Potamidae (Daniels et al. 2006, Shih et al. 2009). A Gondwanan origin for the Socotran freshwater crab genera is unlikely because the potamoid freshwater crab ancestors probably originated in the late Cretaceous or early Cenozoic, long after the fragmentation of the southern supercontinent (Klaus et al. 2011). he date of origin for the potamoid freshwater crabs is supported by molecular phylogenetic studies (Daniels et al. 2006) and by the fossil record for freshwater crabs that dates back only as far as the Miocene (Glaessner 1929, Bachmayer and Pretzmann 1971). It is therefore more likely that the ancestors of the Socotran freshwater crabs reached the island by overseas dispersal from somewhere in Asia, given the lack of any close taxonomic relationship with the crabs found in Europe, the Middle East, continental Africa, the Seychelles, and Madagascar (Daniels et al. 2006, Species diversity of freshwater crabs within the Arabian Peninsula clearly depends on the availability of permanent surface water. Hence, the lack of records of freshwater crab specimens from all parts of the mainland Arabian Peninsula (in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman and mainland Yemen; Table 6.2) over the past 100 years is because these aquatic crustaceans are genuinely not found there (presumably because of a lack of suitable habitat) rather than because of a lack of zoological interest and collection efort. his is not an unexpected inding because freshwater crabs are also absent from other extremely arid parts of Africa (e.g., the Sahara including Libya, Western Sahara, and the desert regions of Morocco, Algeria, and most of Egypt away from the Nile) (Cumberlidge 2010). here is a high degree of endemism in Socotra at the species level (3 out of 3, 100%), and at the genus level (2 out of 2, 100%), but not at the family level (Cumberlidge et al. 2009) (Table 6.2). Table 6.2 Number of species and genera (in parentheses) of freshwater crabs found in each country of the Arabian Peninsula Country Number of Species and Genera Bahrain 0 - - Kuwait 0 - - Oman 0 - - Potamidae, Potamiscinae Socotra pseudocardisoma Socotrapotamon socotrensis Socotrapotamon nodijensis Socotra Island, Republic of Yemen 3(2) Family, Subfamily Species Qatar 0 - - United Arab Emirates 0 - - 61 by global climate change that could negatively impact the island’s aquatic invertebrates. Field investigations in Socotra in March 2010 by Kay van Damme noted dramatic declines in some of the island’s surface water systems and in the abundance of both species of Socotrapotamon. hese sharp declines in crab populations warrant further investigation because these charismatic island endemics are not found anywhere else in the Arabian Peninsula. he threats to the species need more thorough investigation, and the species certainly require careful re-assessment to determine whether they are at risk of extinction. However, at present there is not enough ield data to determine the full extent of any threats and the status of the populations. 6.3.1 Extirpated species No species of freshwater crab from the Arabian Peninsula is known to have been extirpated and none are either Extinct (EX) or Extinct in the Wild (EW). 6.4 Major threats to crabs in the freshwater ecosystems of the Arabian Peninsula hreats to crabs in Socotran freshwater ecosystems are mainly from changes in hydrology and habitat destruction driven by the demands of increasing tourism (Collen et al. 2008, Cumberlidge et al. 2009). Socotrapotamon socotrensis inhabits aquatic systems some of which are associated with population centers, and these are localities where pollution by sewage and general waste may become threat factors. he two range-restricted species of Socotran freshwater crabs (Socotra pseudocardisoma, in karst formations; and Socotrapotamon nodijensis, around waterfalls) depend on the careful management of both their habitats and the associated water resources, because these factors are most likely to have the biggest impact on their longterm survival. 6.5 Conservation recommendations None of the three species of Socotran freshwater crabs are currently assessed as threatened (Tables 6.1, 6.3). Hence, the region’s freshwater crab fauna does not appear to be in immediate trouble when compared with other assessed freshwater groups, such as ish, molluscs, and dragonlies found in the same freshwater habitats. he two Socotran freshwater crabs assessed as Least Concern have so far proved to be relatively tolerant of changes in land-use afecting the freshwater ecosystems where they are found. Nevertheless, all three species could sufer catastrophic declines should there be abrupt changes in hydrology, and there is at least some evidence that this might occur (see section 6.4 above). Human-induced loss of habitat is a primary cause for concern for the long-term survival of Socotra’s unique freshwater crab fauna. here is an urgent need for new surveys to discover new species, reine species distributions, deine speciic habitat requirements, describe population levels and trends, and identify speciic threats to Socotra’s important endemic freshwater crab fauna. Recent information on additional threats to the Socotra’s aquatic ecosystems and their invertebrates comes from Belgian biologist Kay van Damme (pers comm.) who carried out ield investigations there in March 2010. One such threat comes from the application of antimalarial biocides in 1999 that polluted many of Socotra’s river systems with toxic chemicals. hese chemicals accumulate in the food chain, although their efects on the freshwater crab populations have still to be investigated. Other threats to Socotra’s aquatic ecosystems include alterations of hydrological low patterns caused Table 6.3 Summary of the Red List categories and the distribution of the species of freshwater crabs found in the Arabian Peninsula. Species RL Category Range (km2) # Loc PA Socotra pseudocardisoma LC < 100 1 N Socotrapotamon socotrensis LC < 1,000 4 N Socotrapotamon nodijensis DD ~ 10 1 N RL = Red List, LC = Least Concern, DD = Data Deicient, Range = estimation of species distribution range based on distribution polygon of all known specimens, #Loc = number of discontinuous localities from which the species was collected, PA = protected area, N = not found in a PA. 62 reference to Madagascar and the Seychelles. Contributions to Zoology 77(2): 71–81. Cumberlidge, N. 2009. Chapter 27, Freshwater Crabs and Shrimps (Crustacea: Decapoda) of the Nile Basin. In H. J. Dumont (ed), he Nile. Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae, Vol. 89 (Springer, New York), pp.547–561. Cumberlidge, N. 2010. Chapter 6. he status and distribution of freshwater crabs, pp. 71–78. In: García, N., Cuttelod, A. and Abdul Malak, D. (eds.). he Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Northern Africa. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Malaga, Spain: xiii+141pp. Cumberlidge, N. and Ng, P. K. L. 2009. Systematics, evolution, and biogeography of the freshwater crabs. In: Crustacean Issues: Decapod Crustacean Phylogenetics, CRC, Leiden, 491–504. Cumberlidge, N. and Wranik, W. 2002. A new genus and new species of freshwater crab (Potamoidea: Potamidae) from Socotra Island, Yemen. Journal of Natural History 36(1): 51–64. Cumberlidge, N., R. v. Sternberg, S. R. Daniels. 2008. A revision of the higher taxonomy of the Afrotropical freshwater crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) with a discussion of their biogeography. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 93(2): 399–413. Cumberlidge, N., Ng, P. K. L., Yeo, D. C. J., Magalhaes, C., Campos, M. R., Alvarez, F., Naruse, T., Daniels, S. R., Esser, L. J., Attipoe, F. Y. K., Clotilde-Ba, F.-L., Darwall, W., McIvor, A., Ram, M., and Collen, B. 2009. Freshwater crabs and the biodiversity crisis: importance, threats, status, and conservation challenges. Biological Conservation 142: 1665–1673. Daniels, S. R., Cumberlidge, N., Pérez-Losada, M., Marijnissen S. A. E., and Crandall, K. A. 2006. Evolution of Afrotropical freshwater crab lineages obscured by morphological convergence. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40: 225–235. Glaessner, M. 1929. Dekapodenstudien. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie etc., Beilagenband LXIII, Abt. B: 137–176. Hilgendorf, F., 1883. Dans Taschenberg, Beitrage zur Fauna der Insel Sokotra, Zeitschrift für Naturwissenschaft Halle 11(4):171–173. IUCN. 2003. Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels: Version 3.0. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Kingdon, J., 1989. Island Africa (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey) 287. 6.6 References Abell, R., hieme, M. L., Revenga, C., Bryer, M., Kottelat, M., Bogutskaya, N., Coad, B., Mandrak, N., Balderas, S. C., Bussing, W., Stiassny, M. L. J., Skelton, P., Allen, G. R., Unmack, P., Naseka, A., Ng, R., Sindorf, N., Robertson, J., Armijo, E., Higgins, J. V., Heibel, T.J., Wikramanayake, E., Olson, D., López, H.L., Reis, R. E., Lundberg, J. G., Pérez, M. H. S., and Petry, P. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. BioScience 58(5): 403–414. Apel, M. and Brandis, D. 2000. A new species of freshwater crab (Crustacea: Brachyura: Potamidae) from Socotra Island and description of Socotrapotamon n. gen. Fauna of Arabia 18: 133–144. Bachmayer, F. and Pretzmann, G. 1971. Krebsreste aus den altpliozanen Susswasserablagerungen des Eichkogels bei Modling, Niederosterreich. Annalen des naturhistorischen Museums Wien 75: 283–291. Bott, R. 1955. Die Süßwasserkrabben von Afrika (Crust., Decap.) und ihre Stammesgeschichte. Annales du Musée du Congo belge (Tervuren, Belgique) C-Zool. Sér. 3(III): 209–352. Bott, R. 1967. Potamidae (Crustacea, Decapoda) aus Afghanistan, Westasien und dem Mittelmeerranum (Eine Revision der Untergattung Potamon s str.). Videnskabelige Meddelelser Naturhistorisk Forening i København, 130: 7–43. Bott, R. 1970. Betrachtungen über die Entwicklungsgeschichte und Verbreitung der Süßwasser-Krabben nach der Sammlung des Naturhistorischen Museums in Genf/Schweiz. Revue suisse de Zoologie 77: 327–344. Brandis, D., Storch, V. and Türkay, M. 2000. Taxonomy and zoogeography of the freshwater crabs of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Senckenbergiana biologica 2: 5–56. Collen, B., Ram, M., Dewhurst, N., Clausnitzer, V., Kalkman, V., Cumberlidge, N. and Baillie, J. E. M. 2008. Broadening the coverage of biodiversity assessments. In: J.-C. Vié, C. Hilton-Taylor and S.N. Stuart (eds). he 2008 Review of he IUCN Red List of hreatened Species. IUCN Gland, Switzerland. Cumberlidge, N. 1999. he freshwater crabs of West Africa. Family Potamonautidae. Faune et Flore Tropicales 35, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD, ex-ORSTOM), Paris, 382 pp. Cumberlidge, N. 2008. Insular species of Afrotropical freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Potamonautidae and Potamidae) with special 63 Klaus, S. Yeo, D. C. J., and Ahyong, S. T. 2011. Freshwater crab origins-Laying Gondwana to rest. Zoologischer Anzeiger 250: 449–456. Mies, B. and Zimmer, H. 1993. Die Vegetation der Insel Sokotra im Indischen Ozean, Natur und Museum 123: 253–264. Mies, B., Behyl, F. E. and Printzen, C. 1995. Die Waldformationen der Insel Sokotra (Indischer Ozean), Natur und Museum 125: 122–133. Ng, P. K. L., Guinot, D. and Davie, P. J. F. 2008. Systema Brachyurorum: Part I. An annotated checklist of extant brachyuran crabs of the world. Rales Bulletin of Zoology Supplement 17: 1–286. Ortmann, A. 1896. Das system der Decapoden-Krebse. Zool. Jabh. (Syst.) 9: 409–453. Reed, S. K. and Cumberlidge, N. 2004. Notes on the taxonomy of Potamonautes obesus (A Milne-Edwards, 1868) and Potamonautes calcaratus (Gordon, 1929) (Brachyura: Potamoidea:Potamonautidae) from eastern and southern Africa. Zootaxa 418: 1–20. Reed, S. K., Cumberlidge, N. 2006. Taxonomy and biogeography of the freshwater crabs of Tanzania, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae, Platythelphusidae, Deckeniidae). Zootaxa 1262: 1–139. Shih, H.-T., Yeo, D. C. J. and Ng, P. K. L. 2009. he collision of the Indian plate with Asia: molecular evidence for its impact on the phylogeny of freshwater crabs (Brachyura: Potamidae). Journal of Biogeography 36: 703–719. hieme, M. L., Abell, R. A., Stiassny, M. J. L., Skelton, P. A., Lehner, B. 2005. Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A conservation assessment. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA. Wranik, W. 1999. Sokotra, Mensch und Natur, Jemen Studien 258. Yeo, D. C. J., Ng, P. K. L, Cumberlidge, N., Magalhaes, C., Daniels, S. R., Campos, M. 2008. Global diversity of crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura) in freshwater. In: Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Hydrobiologia 595: 275–286. 64 Chapter 7. The status and distribution of wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula Patzelt, A.1, Lansdown, R.V.2, Knees, S.G.3 permanent water courses, as well as Utricularia striatula which grows as an epiphyte in the drought-deciduous Anogeissus dhofarica forest in southern Oman. hus, the project considered the conservation requirements of all plants occurring in the Arabian Peninsula which are dependent upon wetlands; these are species which would not occur if there were no wetlands. 7.1 Introduction Wetland-dependent plants provide a wide range of functions in freshwater ecosystems. hey supply water with oxygen, ix atmospheric carbon, recycle nutrients, regulate water temperature and light, as well as protecting against erosion. hey also provide vital habitat and food for ish and aquatic invertebrates, which themselves support other animals and humans. Many species of wetland-dependent plants, such as rice (Oryza sativa) and water-chestnut (Trapa natans) are eaten by people, while others have been used for a variety of purposes, such as papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) for writing and the Socotran Exacum aine, or the Persian Violet, which is now widely cultivated as an indoor ornamental plant. Many still are used for construction, such as common reed (Phragmites australis). Plants that are dependent upon wetlands are vulnerable to many anthropogenic pressures, from direct habitat loss through drainage and conversion to other land-uses to pollution and the secondary efects of hyper-eutrophication such as algal blooms. A fundamental principle of these assessments was not to pre-judge the conservation condition, such as by selecting species known or believed to be of conservation concern, as this approach is likely to support existing areas of concern, but overlook taxa which are not already known to be at risk. herefore all plants occurring in the region which might be considered dependent upon wetlands were assessed. he vascular plant taxa covered by this assessment can be grouped as follows: ƒ Always completely submerged (obligate submerged ƒ he aim of this project was to assess the conservation status of vascular plant species occurring in wetlands in the Arabian Peninsula. he deinition of which plants may be considered aquatic is not straightforward. he following deinition was considered the most clear and unambiguous available: “Vascular aquatic plants are interpreted as all Pteridophytina and Spermatophytina whose photosynthetically active parts are permanently or, at least, for several months each year submerged in water or loat on the surface of water” (Cook 1996). However, the decision was taken to extend the range of taxa included to cover species such as Nerium oleander, which is restricted to the edge of shallow semi-permanent and ƒ ƒ ƒ aquatics) such as the naiads (Najadaceae). Submerged with sexually reproductive parts emergent (held above the water or at the surface), such as Potamogeton natans. Emergent, the roots and base of the plant are submerged, but some photosynthetic parts and sexually reproductive parts are held above the water, such as Eleocharis, Marsilea, Schoenoplectus and Typha species. Floating, without roots or with roots hanging in the water column, such as hornworts (Ceratophyllum sp.) and duckweeds (Lemnaceae). Amphibious, growing from the land over the water or adopting a variety of the above forms, such as some Persicaria species. 1 Oman Botanic Garden, Diwan of Royal Court, P.O. Box 808, Muscat 122, Sultanate of Oman. 2 Ardeola Environmental Services, 45 he Bridle, Stroud, Glos. GL5 4SQ, UK. 3 Centre for Middle Eastern Plants (CMEP), Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR, UK. 65 ƒ Marginal plants and those associated with ephemeral Exacum af. aine (Gentianaceae) from southern Oman. he species is restricted to a small number of limestone springs at the foothills of the mountains. he closely related Exacum aine (LC), known commercially as the Persian Violet, is endemic to Socotra. Photo © Annette Patzelt wetlands. he following taxa were excluded from the assessment: ƒ Taxa known or suspected not to be native to the region; however, this distinction is not always straightforward, particularly when considering longestablished cultivated plants. ƒ Hybrids and taxa below species level. he availability of information on plants in the region is not uniform. Recent intensive research combined with conservation assessment of plants on Socotra and neighbouring islands (Miller and Morris 2004) means that an accurate picture of the conservation status of wetland-dependent plants in the archipelago can be established. Similarly, as a result of recent conservation assessments for plants in Oman (Patzelt in press.), there is generally good information for Oman. Most of the available information for the rest of the Peninsula is either sparse or out of date and this is particularly the case for some mountainous areas. (2010) was followed. Data were derived from ield observations and records, a range of published sources, including mainstream and the “grey” literature, the National Herbarium in Oman (ON), the herbarium at Oman Botanic Garden, and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (E) databases. Where the information was available, the taxonomic treatment by he World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (he Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2013) was followed. In cases where names had not yet been treated by this checklist, he Plant List here are areas of taxonomic uncertainty afecting wetland-dependent plants, in particular, the taxonomy of Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium is very poorly elucidated and the subject of a number of diferent concurrent treatments (Lansdown 2007). Equally, there Wadi Daykah in northern Oman is one of the largest permanent water bodies in the country. Photo © Annette Patzelt 66 are populations of a species of Exacum (Gentianaceae) occurring in the southern region of Oman that resemble Exacum aine, a species endemic to Socotra (Knees and Miller 2006), but which are considered to be distinct (Patzelt in press.). he populations in Oman are threatened, but because they have yet to be formally described, they have been considered here as part of E. aine. Once this taxon has been formally described, it will be possible to assess its conservation status separately. Permanent or semi-permanent pools in wadi systems are usually very small in size and localised in their distribution. Photo © Annette Patzelt Maps have been produced showing the distribution of species in relation to catchments (using HydroSHEDS spatial data layers; see Chapter 2). However, in the Arabian Peninsula the distribution of wetland-dependent plants is not strongly linked to catchments and consequently these maps give the impression that many species occur over a larger area than is actually the case. chain in south-western Yemen, the Asir and Al Hijaz mountain ranges in Saudi Arabia, and the Haggeher and Hager ranges on Socotra Island (Yemen). 7.2 Overview of the regional aquatic lora Areas of higher species richness are found in central Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar and Kuwait. Species diversity is likely to be underrepresented in remote areas, because the aquatic lora of areas diicult to reach is poorly known. While the Arabian region mainly comprises dry, arid habitats, there are also several permanent freshwater systems with high species diversity including endemic and threatened species (see Chapter 1). Large numbers of species of freshwater plants are found in southern Oman, the Hajar mountains of northern Oman, the mountain Species richness is relatively low in much of the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula, where the freshwater Limestone seepages on the southern coast of Socotra provide a unique habitat for Critically Endangered species such as Scaevola socotraensis. Photo © Sabina G. Knees CMEP/RBGE 67 lora is characterised by a lower number of widespread pantropical species. In the central Arabian Peninsula, covered by the vast sand desert of the Rub Al Khali, there are very few wetland-dependent plants. hroughout the Arabian Peninsula, overgrazing and disturbance as well as surface water abstraction has led to severe degradation of the vegetation of many permanent water bodies. he small number and scale of permanent water bodies means that the region supports few obligate wetlanddependent plant species; those which do occur are typically species with a wide global distribution such as hornworts (Ceratophyllum species), duckweeds (Lemna species) the grass Isachne globosa, naiads (Najas species), pondweeds (Potamogeton species) and water-crowfoots (species of Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium). Floating plants such as Lemna species and rare Utricularia species are less abundant than other life-forms. Many natural water bodies in the region are seasonal and the region contains a few permanent water bodies such as in the mountain areas of Oman, and on the inner slope of the Asir Mountains in Saudi Arabia. he main habitats supporting wetland dependent plants are small pools in wadis, small marshes and localised water bodies. Not surprisingly, most wetland vegetation in the region is characterised by plants which are able to tolerate drought and which grow on the margins of pools, in irrigated areas and on damp, disturbed ground. A number of species grow along the margins of wadis in shallow water, but not in deep standing water. hese may also be considered wetland plants, but their relationship is with the readily available water in the soil, rather than surface water. hese include species such as Arundo donax (LC), Nerium oleander (LC), Salix acmophylla (LC), which is rare in the Peninsula, and grasses such as Saccharum kajkaiense (LC), S. ravennae (LC) and S. spontaneum (LC). he margins of pools, irrigated areas and moist, disturbed ground are dominated by sedges (Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae), but also include a range of bistorts or water-peppers (Persicaria species) and rushes (Juncaceae) among other species. hese species also dominate the vegetation in marshy areas, which occur along the Red Sea Escarpment in Yemen and Saudi Arabia. hroughout much of the Peninsula, apart from the coastal mountainous regions, drainages are typically internal and endorheic or intermittent and do not reach their terminal basins. Natural streams and wadis tend to be very “lashy” in that they respond rapidly to the erratic rainfall, such that water-levels and low velocity vary considerably. Only a few wetland dependant plant species are able to cope with these conditions. Very localised limestone springs in southern Arabia provide a rare habitat for the aquatic fern Ceratopteris cornuta (Water lettuce, Water sprite), assessed Critically Endangered in the Arabian Peninsula. Photo © Annette Patzelt 68 Seasonally inundated depressions are a particularly important habitat for local wetland plant species on the Red Sea Escarpment, in Oman and on the islands of the Socotra archipelago. his habitat typically supports species capable of surviving as annuals, but which persist during dry periods in the seed-bank, including a number of rare or local taxa, such as Exacum socotranum (CR), Panicum socotranum (CR) and Bergia polyantha (VU). he fertile fronds of Ceratopteris cornuta (CR) are erect, longer, narrower and more divided than the sterile loating fronds. he species always occurs in small populations and is threatened by ecosystem modiications. Photo © Annette Patzelt A number of both submerged and emergent species of plant are found at the edge of permanent water bodies or in shallow water. Typical elements at the edge of water pools and slowly moving water in wadi systems include Schoenoplectus lacustris (LC), S. litoralis (VU), Bolboschoenus maritimus (LC) and Juncus species. he aquatic fern Ceratopteris cornuta (CR), usually rooting in mud, is restricted to a few isolated swamps and springs in southern Arabia. he mountains of southern Oman and adjacent Yemen are inluenced by the southwest monsoon, which creates a tropical fog-oasis in an arid environment. he area is an outstanding example of an island-like refugium: a seasonal cloud-forest in an otherwise arid environment (Miller 1994, Hildebrandt and Eltahir 2006, Patzelt he Pondweed Potamogeton nodosus (Potamogetonaceae) (LC) is common and widespread and can be found in permanent water bodies in Oman, Saudi Arabia and Yemen including Socotra. Photo © Annette Patzelt 69 2011). his mountain chain has a unique climate which is relected in high plant species diversity with high levels of endemism, where endemic palaeo-African relict forest communities, dominated by the endemic Anogeissus dhofarica are found (Kürschner et al. 2004). In this semi-deciduous cloud-forest, the rare Utricularia striatula (EN) is found as an annual epiphyte on the bark of trees (Miller and Cope 1996; Patzelt, in press.). his plant community also includes larger permanent water bodies. he Maidenhair fern Adiantum capillus-veneris (Adiantaceae) (LC) is common and widespread on the Arabian Peninsula. It often may be seen growing on moist, sheltered and shaded limestone formations, and in gorges and wadis, in springs and seepages. Photo © Annette Patzelt he mountains in northern Oman are part of an arid subtropical mountain system extending from southern Arabia to Southwest Asia, with a strong element of endemism and remarkable relict species. Above 1,500 m, the vegetation is dominated by Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos; here, wetland-dependent plants are mostly restricted to manmade structures, as almost no permanent or semipermanent natural water bodies occur in this arid environment. Occasionally, the hygrophilous Maidenhair fern (Adiantum capillus-verneris) (LC) and the orchid Epipactis veratrifolia (EN) are found in small springs, seepages, rock cavities with dripping water, and on moist man-made terrace walls. he rare Eastern marsh helleborine Epipactis veratrifolia (Orchidaceae) (EN) is restricted to small populations and is threated by recreational activities, natural system modiications such as changing hydrology and drought. Photo © Annette Patzelt 70 Wetland dependent plants, particularly ferns such as Adiantum capillus-veneris (LC) and Pteris vittata (LC) may also occur in areas which do not permanently hold water, but remain humid due to the topography. Where waterfalls or seepages further increase humidity, rock faces and walls may support other species such as Poa schimperiana (LC) and local endemics, including Festuca yemenensis (VU) and Scaevola socotraensis (CR) (Cope 2007). he comparison of the total species richness of wetlanddependent plants per country (Figure 7.1) shows that Yemen, including the Socotra archipelago, has the highest species richness of wetland dependant plants, followed by Oman and Saudi Arabia. he UAE, Bahrain, Qatar and Kuwait support fewer wetland-dependent species, because aquatic habitat structures and permanent freshwater systems are less common. In the Arabian Peninsula, mountain ranges typically support more wetland-dependent plants than the lowlands. here are many reasons for this, but the most important are: In parts of the region, irrigation channel systems, called “alaj” (singular “falaj”) in Oman and qanats in other countries, represent an important habitat in areas where there are no natural water bodies. Especially around leaks of old and less-well maintained water channels, plants dependant on wet or moist soil, such as Lindenbergia indica (LC), and Bacopa monnieri (LC) occur. As a traditional water supply, the water channels are variously maintained or abandoned for pump wells. Wetland-dependent plants are typical found in artiicial habitats such as irrigated land, damp areas around settlements and along the irrigation channels (Patzelt 2010). 1. Mountains typically support complex geology and topography with high peaks, deep ravines, wadis and springs. As a result there many diferent habitats for species to occur, with pockets of high humidity, where water may not be lost quickly through evaporation. 2. Many habitats occur as small isolated patches whilst at the same time, many species are altitude or habitat speciic. his leads to increased speciation. Figure 7.1. he distribution of wetland-dependent plant species across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river sub-catchments 71 A falaj in Oman refers to water that runs through a channel dug in the earth or built by stones and rock. Leaks and holes in the irrigation system support wetland plant life. his irrigation system is deep-rooted in Oman’s land and history. Photo © Annette Patzelt 3. he southern Arabian Peninsula is at a biogeographical crossroad between Africa and Asia and many species characteristic of one or other region occur, particularly in south-western Yemen and southern Oman. 4. he mountain systems function in a similar way to islands, isolated from similar habitats by the surrounding desert. 7.3 Conservation status (IUCN Red List criteria: regional scale) he status of a total of 182 species of wetland-dependent plants was assessed at a regional level. Within the Arabian Peninsula, 12.6% of the species assessed (23 species) are considered threatened with extinction, with 3.8% of them being Critically Endangered, 3.8% Table 7.1. he number of wetland-dependent plant species in each Red List Category in the Arabian Peninsula. hreatened categories Regional Red List Category Number of species Number of Regional Endemics Critically Endangered (CR) 7 3 Endangered (EN) 7 0 Vulnerable (VU) 9 2 Near hreatened (NT) 1 0 Least Concern (LC) 118 2 Data Deicient (DD) 40 0 - 0 182 7 Not Evaluated Total number of taxa assessed* * All species assessed as regionally threatened which are endemic to the region are also globally threatened 72 Table 7.2 hreatened wetland-dependent plant species in the Arabian Peninsula. Regional Red List Criteria Category Family Species CONVOLVULACEAE CYPERACEAE GENTIANACEAE GOODENIACEAE GRAMINEAE PARKERIACEAE PTERIDACEAE CRASSULACEAE CYPERACEAE CYPERACEAE GRAMINEAE LENTIBULARIACEAE LENTIBULARIACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ELATINACEAE GRAMINEAE CYPERACEAE UMBELLIFERAE POLYGONACEAE COMPOSITAE CYPERACEAE CYPERACEAE CYPERACEAE Stictocardia tiliifolia Pycreus dwarkensis Exacum socotranum Scaevola socotraensis Panicum socotranum Ceratopteris cornuta Acrostichum aureum Crassula hedbergii Cyperus alulatus Fimbristylis bisumbellata Odontelytrum abyssinicum Utricularia minor Utricularia striatula Epipactis veratrifolia Bergia polyantha Festuca yemenensis Fuirena felicis Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Persicaria senegalensis Pulicaria arabica Schoenoplectiella proxima Schoenoplectus lacustris Schoenus nigricans CR CR CR CR CR CR CR EN EN EN EN EN EN EN VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU VU D B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) D B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(ii,iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(ii,iii,v) D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 B2ab(iii) D2 B2ab(iii) B2ab(ii,iii) Endemic yes yes yes yes yes Endangered and 4.9% Vulnerable (Tables 7.1 and 7.2, Figures 7.2 and 7.3); one species is classed as Near hreatened. Figure 7.2. he proportions (%) of wetland-dependent plant species in each regional Red List category in the Arabian Peninsula he threats to the wetland-dependent plants of the Arabian Peninsula are fundamentally caused by the conlict between supply and demand for natural resources. he species assessed are therefore mainly afected by habitat loss and degradation induced by human activities, such as development and agriculture, and natural system modiications resulting from unsustainable human mismanagement of the environment. he majority of threatened wetland-dependent plants in the region are found in montane areas (Figure 7.3) and the patterns of abundance closely follow the areas of species diversity (Figure 7.1) as well as the areas of endemic species (Figure 7.4). he main areas of threat include the Yemen highlands, where springs are being 73 Figure 7.3. he distribution of threatened wetland-dependent plant species across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river sub-catchments converted to facilitate abstraction and the vegetation is removed to improve the ‘cleanliness’ of the of-take area. In Oman, threatened species mainly include species dependent upon springs and permanent pools, of which several have been altered to cemented structures. Even small-scale disturbance, such as a single road, can destroy the habitat of narrow-range endemic and rare aquatic species, and there is little chance of recovery from neighbouring areas. Adapting springs to use for water supply for animals and as recreational area by concreting the spring is a major threat to rare plant species. he fringing vegetation and all aquatic plant life are usually eradicated during the construction process. Photo © Annette Patzelt In the Asir mountains (Saudi Arabia), in northern and southern Oman, in the Yemen highlands and on Socotra, building development and recent road construction has had a severe efect on local hydrology, causing the loss of springs and many small bodies of semi-permanent water, as well as severely afecting permanent water bodies in larger wadi systems. he high degree of threat to montane wetland-dependent plant populations is partly because the mountains are species rich, but also partly due to the level of threat imposed by man. here is massive pressure due to the increasing urbanisation of the region, especially on the highlands of mainland Yemen and north-eastern Socotra, the Asir mountains in Saudi Arabia, as well as in mountain areas in Oman and the UAE, in relation to the growing human population and the on-going expansion of the tourist infrastructure. 74 Natural limestone springs are found at the foothills of the mountain systems in southern Oman. he fringing vegetation holds rare and threatened species. Photo © Annette Patzelt Seasonally wet pools are common in the deeply cut gorges in central Socotra. Photo © Sabina G. Knees CMEP/RBGE 75 Areas with high levels of endemism among wetlanddependent plants in the Peninsula (Figure 7.4) relect the areas of high species diversity, with an increase in endemism from north to south and high levels of endemism in the southern Arabian Peninsula. he islands of Socotra as well as southern Oman hold a signiicant proportion of narrow-range endemic species, some of which are listed as threatened either at a national or global level. he Socotra archipelago has the highest number of endemics found in aquatic habitats and many of these are conined to wet refugia, in areas usually mountainous, which typically catch monsoon precipitation. hese vary in size from just a few square kilometres, such as the north-facing limestone escarpment on Samha or the limestone plateau on Abd al Kuri, to several hundred square kilometres such as the granitic central highlands and the adjacent limestone plateaux on Socotra. In Yemen, several permanent pools occur on the limestone plateaux such as this at Hamadero, Socotra, providing good habitats for marginal wetland species including Juncus socotranus. hese water bodies also provide habitats for freshwater crabs and dragonlies. Photo © Sabina G. Knees CMEP/RBGE In general, both southern Oman and Socotra show regions that have high taxonomic diversity as well as high numbers of endemic species (Miller and Nyberg Figure 7.4. he distribution of endemic wetland-dependent plant species across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river sub-catchments. 76 ƒ Jebel Ma’alih in north-western Socotra ƒ Hager, limestone ridge above Ras Shu’ub in western 1991, White and Léonard 1991, Miller and Morris 2004, Patzelt in press). he montane areas of the Red Sea escarpment in Yemen and Saudi Arabia support only few aquatic endemics, because most aquatic species found there represent range extensions of species with a larger, more northern distribution. Socotra ƒ Qatariyah limestone plateau in south-western Socotra ƒ North-facing limestone escarpment on Samha ƒ Limestone plateau and clifs of Jebel Saleh on Abd al Kuri Generally, three endemism hotspots can be identiied as follows: A large proportion (22%; 40 species) of the species assessed are classed as Data Deicient (Table 7.3). In general, the distribution of these species (Figure 7.5) follows that of the threatened and endemic species apart from only very small numbers occurring on Socotra, because of the intensive research which has recently been carried out (Miller and Morris 2004). However the limits to data availability in the highlands of Yemen and Saudi Arabia are evident in the high proportion of Data Deicient species there, compared to other regions. 1. he south-west monsoon-afected regions in southern Oman and southeast Yemen, a regional centre of plant endemism with a vegetation unique on a global scale. 2. South-western Saudi Arabia and the adjacent Yemen highlands. 3. Socotra Archipelago, with seven principal “wet refugia” identiied: ƒ Granitic central highlands and adjacent limestone plateaux in north-central Socotra ƒ Limestone plateaux and escarpments (principally Riqadrihon and Hamaderoh) in north-eastern Socotra hese species, although often widely distributed outside the region, are frequently only known from one or two Figure 7.5. he distribution of Data Deicient wetland-dependent plant species across the Arabian Peninsula region, mapped to river sub-catchments 77 Table 7.3. Data Deicient wetland-dependent plant species in the Arabian Peninsula. None of the species are endemic to the region. Species Regional Red List Category Global Red List Category Anagallis serpens DD DD Bolboschoenus glaucus DD DD Bolboschoenus maritimus DD LC Brachiaria mutica DD LC Ceratophyllum submersum DD LC Cyperus compressus DD LC Cyperus diformis DD LC Cyperus esculentus DD LC Cyperus fuscus DD LC Cyperus iria DD LC Cyperus longus DD LC Cyperus nutans DD LC Cyperus wissmannii DD DD Echinochloa pyramidalis DD LC Eleocharis marginulata DD LC Eleocharis uniglumis DD LC Fimbristylis dichotoma DD LC Fimbristylis turkestanica DD LC Hemarthria altissima DD LC Isachne globosa DD LC Limosella macrantha DD LC Myriophyllum spicatum DD LC Najas graminea DD LC Osteospermum muricatum DD LC Phragmites karka DD LC Polypogon schimperianus DD DD Potamogeton coloratus DD LC Potamogeton lucens DD LC Pycreus polystachyos DD LC Pycreus sanguinolentus DD LC Ranunculus rionii DD LC Ranunculus sphaerospermus DD LC Ranunculus trichophyllus DD LC Schoenoplectus corymbosus DD LC Schoenoplectus mucronatus DD LC Sebaea microphylla DD LC Sebaea pentandra DD LC Utricularia australis DD LC Veronica anagalloides DD LC Veronica beccabunga DD LC 78 gatherings within the Peninsula and in many cases these collections do not provide suicient information on which to base a thorough assessment. Until more studies of these taxa can be made they have been listed here as Data Deicient. In the Arabian Peninsula, Stictocardia tiliifolia (Convolvulaceae) (CR) is only found in one location, occurring in small numbers. It is threatened by infrastructure and tourism development. Photo © Annette Patzelt 7.4 Major threats to wetland dependent plants of the Arabian Peninsula 7.4.1 General overview of threats Habitat loss and degradation through natural system modiications, residential and commercial development and through agriculture are the main threats to wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula (Figure 7.6). Natural system modiications afect 30% of the threatened wetland-dependent plant species, residential, commercial development 25%, and agriculture 22%. Climate change and severe weather, especially droughts and strong high low events severely afect some freshwater species and have a direct efect on wetlanddependent plant populations. hese threats are expected to worsen in the future due to the increasing efects of climate change (Botkin et al. 2007, Dawson et al. 2011). Figure 7.6. Percentage of wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula afected by major categories of threat 79 Dams and their associated reservoirs adversely afect freshwater biodiversity and change ecosystems. Photo © Annette Patzelt 7.4.2 Habitat loss and degradation he greatest threat to the wetland-dependent plants of the region is the loss and degradation of suitable habitat mainly through drainage of wetlands for development or for agriculture. his is mainly due to encroaching urbanisation, tourism and recreational activities. For example, the rare Stictocardia tiliifolia is only found in one location on the Arabian Peninsula (in southern Oman), where it is Critically Endangered as a result of planned recreation and tourism infrastructure development. Some threatened or endemic species are directly afected by the increasing number of visitors to sites where infrastructure development such as the building of paths, tracks and roads afects their habitat. his is, for example, the case of Salix acmophylla (LC) and Epipactis veratrifolia (EN). Some species are vulnerable to human disturbance as they can be easily destroyed by trampling, including delicate herbaceous plants such as Myosotis laxa (LC) and Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides (VU) only found in swampy areas close to areas of cultivation in the Yemen highlands. ƒ Adapting thermal springs to use the water for swimming and washing, again removing fringing vegetation, and concreting spring beds ƒ Construction of dams hese practices have increased in frequency and impact in the last three decades. Although there are a relatively small number of permanent larger water systems in the region, an increasing number have been highly regulated by dams built in recent years, and more dams are planned. Plant populations that occur on islands are extremely vulnerable to genetic erosion as they often do not have any neighbouring populations, which could work as a source genepool. An additional pressure on island populations is the degradation and fragmentation of their habitats due to an increasing human population combined with the development of tourism and recreation, especially in coastal areas. his is particularly true for Socotra, where the few fragile coastal lagoons are becoming increasingly polluted. he potential for subsequent loss of marginal species is high. However, the coastal development in Oman, the UAE, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait is also substantial and habitat loss occurs at an alarming rate. Most of the wetland-dependent plants in the region are dependent upon the draw-down zones of permanent water bodies (fringing parts of permament water bodies as well as areas further downstream that may vary from being inundated to dry based on natural draw down). Consequently, they are extremely vulnerable to stabilisation of water levels, which allows colonisation by more aggressive plants dependent upon the permanent availability of water. Stabilisation of water levels also permanently inundates the seed bank of ephemeral species which cannot grow in water, but are typical for moist ephemeral wetlands. Much of the stabilisation of water levels is the result of dams blocking lowing water or the conversion of springs and seasonal pools to structures that permanently hold water. 7.4.3 Modiication of water sources and changes to low regime Water bodies in the Arabian Peninsula are modiied in a variety of ways for a wide range of reasons. Typical examples of water body modiications which adversely afect wetland-dependent plants include: Dams are built in permanently wet wadi systems for electricity generation and for industrial and domestic supplies. Damming to create water storage reservoirs afects the upper reaches of water systems. In general, data indicate biodiversity loss through dam construction, ultimately resulting in common species replacing rare ones (McAllister et al. 2001). An overall increase in species numbers hides a real decline in ‘natural’ plant diversity. Dams and their reservoirs form barriers that ƒ Realignment of water courses for road construction ƒ Concreting the beds of natural water lows ƒ Adapting springs to abstract water to supply local villages and their livestock, removing fringing vegetation, and concreting spring beds 80 will modify the hydrological landscape by altering the luctuations in water level, and changing in waterchemistry, temperature, oxygen content and sediment load, and thus potentially afecting sensitive species. suitable for most species that require a constant availability of water for their survival. he water table of many natural streams is also being lowered by groundwater abstraction for irrigation. 7.4.4 Over-abstraction of water 7.4.5 Water pollution Large-scale habitat destruction due to excessive water abstraction is a threat that has reached critical proportions, especially in the Yemen highlands, one of the most water-stressed countries on earth. he human population has grown alongside water corridors and the intensiication of agriculture has led to loss of natural wetlands due to surface and groundwater abstraction. In Yemen, production of the recreational drug, qat (Catha edulis) has doubled in the last two decades, consuming 90% of Yemen’s water (Sullivan 2012). Overuse of underground water has resulted in an increase of underlying saline waters and has led to the disappearance of surface water bodies. he 21 aquifers that surround the capital city Sana’a are drying up very rapidly and the water table is recorded as falling by c. 2m per year (Brown 2008). Water pollution is a problem throughout the Arabian Peninsula and in general it is a consequence of the unregulated discharge of waste water from agriculture, industry and domestic human activities, such as high concentrations of detergents from washing clothes, into natural water bodies. However, some countries, e.g. Oman and the UAE, have invested substantially in water treatment plants and unregulated discharge of waste is much reduced, littering however remains a major problem. In Yemen, most streams and small standing water bodies around human populations are very polluted, a problem exempliied by the recent accumulation of litter and rubbish in Khor Qalansiyah (see photo), a large lagoon on the west of Socotra (Van Damme and Banield 2011). his was free of macrowaste up until the late 1990s but now there is a serious risk to human health as well as the potential reduction in biodiversity in these rare freshwater habitats. Permanent water bodies are now becoming seasonal in many parts of the Arabian Peninsula and are no longer Pollution through waste and biocides may pose a threat to the freshwater fauna and lora (photo from Khor Qalansiyah, Socotra). Photo © Kay Van Damme 81 he human population is increasing along freshwater systems and so is the degree of contamination. he main impacts of pollution on wetland-dependent plants are as a consequence of the secondary efects of hypereutrophication, such as algal blooms which often lead to catastrophic declines in dissolved oxygen. However, lower levels of eutrophication can enable aggressive species such as Phragmites australis and Typha species to out-compete less robust species. 7.4.6 Climate change and extreme weather events It is very diicult to predict the potential efects of climate change on wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula. It seems likely that water availability will become an issue for wetland plant conservation: the existing impacts of over-abstraction, combined with poor water management are having a devastating efect on wetlands in the region and extreme climatic events are only likely to exacerbate this. Based on the current climate change scenarios, the increased frequency and intensity of droughts as well as tropical hurricane events may become another major threat (Delany et al. 2008, Lenton et al. 2008). In certain areas of the Arabian Peninsula, springs are already seeing declines in recharge during drought events. he main impacts of pollution on wetland-dependent plants are as a consequence of the secondary efects of hyper-eutrophication, such as algal blooms, which often lead to substantial decline in dissolved oxygen. Lower levels of eutrophication can enable aggressive species such as Phragmites australis (Common Reed) and Typha species (Reed-mace) to out-compete less robust species. 7.4.7 Invasive alien plants Wadi Darbat, southern Oman in full spate following unseasonal rain in 2007. Delicate marginal herbaceous species with restricted distributions are easily lost following catastrophic weather events such as this. Photo © Sabina G. Knees CMEP/RBGE Although a number of non-native wetland-dependent plant species are established in the region, there is as yet no evidence to suggest that they are adversely afecting native wetland-dependent plant populations. However, there is a need to monitor the import as well as the spread of non-native plant species. 7.5 Conservation In the face of the on-going threats to wetland habitats in the region and the species they support, there is an urgent need to implement conservation action. he following section presents priorities for conservation of wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula. 7.5.1 Develop Action Plans for the conservation of wetland-dependent plants Data from this publication provide information on the status of and threats to wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula. However, there is a need to convert this information into a comprehensive tool that sets out the steps required to meet the conservation needs of these species. he irst step is, therefore, to use the data compiled through this project to prepare an Action Plan for the conservation of wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula. his action plan will set out the conservation action necessary for each species and will bring these species-speciic actions together to provide regional and strategic plans for conservation action that can be adopted by diferent national governments.. 82 met; however action is required to set aside intact aquatic habitats with large managed areas. 7.5.2 Incorporate plant conservation requirements and actions into national strategies and legislation Conservation of aquatic habitats must address sustainable development, by the integrated management of habitats and natural resources, combining the rational use of resources, particularly water, with the conservation of biodiversity. his can be achieved by each country applying its own existing legislation in order to reduce habitat loss and by strengthening existing protection measures such as increasing protected areas and the creation of further reserves. he increasing threat to aquatic lora and habitats merits a regional initiative and agreement. he countries of the Arabian Peninsula are signatories to a number of important conventions aimed at conserving biodiversity, most importantly the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity. Being signatories to the CBD, the Arabian Peninsula countries have made the commitment to conserve the biodiversity within the Peninsula. his means that not only should extinctions be prevented, but population decline should also be stemmed or reversed. he GSPC (Global Strategy of Plant Conservation) targets for 2010 were not met, but the data generated by this publication will support eforts to meet the new targets for 2020. 7.5.4 Develop capacity building and public awareness campaigns However, there is currently no legislation speciically for the protection or conservation of wetland-dependent plant species and the only legislative tools available for protection of these species relate to general habitat and site protection. here is an overwhelming need to improve enforcement of existing legislation to control development and the impacts of agricultural intensiication. In particular, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool designed to control the adverse efects of development on the environment. here is a need to review the adequacy of existing legal requirements for EIA’s in the region, and propose a tightening of the legislation if this is required, e.g. such as adding a requirement for EIA for small dams, tourism and wetland development projects, to ensure that the legislation for EIA is applied. In addition, there is a need to introduce new legislation to protect both the most threatened wetland-dependent plant species and the sites which support them. here is also a need to identify and conserve man-made structures e.g. the alaj system in Oman, which need careful and skilled restoration and use of appropriate materials in order to not destroy the associated aquatic lora. Any attempt to improve the legislative controls on actions afecting wetland-dependent plants in the region must be coupled with a programme of capacity building and awareness. In particular, the dissemination of information on water management and its efect on biodiversity at the household and village levels as well as on the governmental level could have a dramatic efect on the condition and use of natural wetlands. Such a programme needs to involve collaboration between experts and NGO’s with the expertise to monitor species to support the relevant governmental institutions. 7.5.5 Conduct research to expand the knowledge on wetland-dependent plants of the Arabian Peninsula 7.5.3 Follow a landscape and catchment level approach here is a need to undertake research to ill gaps in the information available on the conservation status of wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula. his report identiies Data Deicient species (for which information is inadequate to achieve an informed conservation assessment), and areas in which there are concentrations of Data Deicient species, where there is therefore a need to carry out research into wetland plant conservation. here is a need to lobby governments to adopt a catchment-based approach to management of natural resources, including water. he protection of freshwater biodiversity is a conservation challenge as the inluences of the upstream drainage network, and the surrounding land on springs and pools need to be taken into consideration. Such catchment approaches are rarely Such survey programmes should also be used to identify additional sites for conservation through the strengthening of research on wetland-dependent plant distribution, population sizes and population trends. here is also a need to commence research into the potential impacts of climate change, which presents a new level of threat, especially to fragmented and small populations. 83 7.5.6 Improve information management 7.7 References here is a need to strengthen the network of Arabian Plant experts by improving communication and providing training. his includes the mobilisation of appropriate inancial support. he IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Arabian Plant Specialist Group plays a vital role in this regional network. Al Farhan, A.H., Aldjain, I.M.N., homas, J. Miller, A.G., Knees, S.G., Lewellyn, O. and Akram, A. 2008. Botanic Gardens in the Arabian Peninsula, Sibbaldia 6:189–203 Botkin, D.B., Saxe, H., Araújo, M.B., Betts, R., Bradshaw, R., Cedhagen, T., Chesson, P., Davis, M.B., Dawson, T.P., Etterson, J., Faith, D.P., Ferrier, S., Guisan, A., Skjoldborg, A., Hansen, D.H., Kareiva, P., Loehle, Margules, C., New, M., Skov, F., Sobel, M.J., Stockwell, D., and Svenning, J-C., 2007. Forcasting efects of global warming on Biodiversity, BioScience 57, 227–236. Brown, LR. 2008. Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization. W.W. Norton and Company, New York, Cook, C.D.K. 1996. Aquatic and wetland plants of India. Oxford University Press, Oxford Cope, T. 2007. Flora of the Arabian Flora of the Arabian Peninsula and Socotra. Vol. 5 part 1. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Dawson, T.P., Jackson, S.T., House, J.I., Prentice, I.C. and Mace, G.M., 2011, Beyond Predictions: Biodiversity Conservation in a Changing Climate, Science Vol. 332 no. 6025, 53–58. Delany S., Seddon, M., Lenton, T.M., Held, H., Kriegler, E., Hall, J.W., Lucht, W., Rahmstorf, S. and Schellnhuber, H.J. 2008. Tipping elements in the Earth’s climate system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105(6): 1786–1793. Hildebrandt, A., Eltahir, E.A.B. 2006. Forest at the edge: Seasonal cloud forest in Oman creates its own ecological niche. Geophysical Research Letters 33. Knees, S.G. and Miller, A.G. 2006. Soqotra – land of the dragon’s blood tree. he Plantsman, new series 5: 146–152. Kürschner, H., Hein, P., Kilian, N. and Hubaishan, M. A. 2004. he Hybantho durae-Anogeissetum dhofaricae ass. nova – phytosociology, structure and ecology of an endemic South Arabian forest community. Phytocoenologia 34(4): 569–612. Lansdown, R.V. 2007. he identity of Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium in the River Itchen. Environment Agency, Southern Region. Lenton, T.M., Held, H., Kriegler, E., Hall, J.W., Lucht, W,; Rahmstorf, S., Schellnhuber, H.J. 2008. Tipping elements in the Earth’s climate system. www.pnas. org/cgi/content/full/0705414105/DC1. McAllister, D.E., Craig, J.F. and Davidson, N. 2001. Biodiversity Impacts of Large Dams - Background Paper, IUCN / UNEP / WCD. 7.5.7 Establish ex-situ conservation programmes Ex situ conservation programmes should be used to ensure the continuing presence of viable populations of highly threatened species. hese collections will serve as a back-up measure through conservation in botanic gardens and gene banks. Inter- and intra-speciic species diversity should be systematically targeted. he Oman Botanic Garden, currently under construction, already holds the largest documented collection of Arabian plants on a global scale (Patzelt et. al. 2008, 2009). he garden has the unique aim of propagating and displaying the complete indigenous lora of the Sultanate of Oman, and aims to address the urgent need for conservation solutions to the biodiversity crisis. Actively addressing targets of the ‘Global Strategy for Plant Conservation’ (GSPC), a program of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, the Oman Botanic Garden represents a new model for botanic gardens in the 21st century and is a groundbreaking initiative of ex situ conservation in Arabia. he experience gained is vital for other major new initiatives in plant conservation across the Arabian Peninsula. Smaller scale projects are also underway in other parts of the Peninsula, including a ledgling botanic garden in Hadibo on the island of Socotra. Established with help from the Ministry of Agriculture, Yemen, this family run garden and nursery are growing 37% of Socotra’s 308 endemic plants and have a seed collection of over 80 species, including several threatened wetland dependent species. It has since received support from the Socotra Conservation Fund (SCF), Socotra Conservation and Development Programme (SCDP), Arid Lands and Sustainable Communities Trust (ALSCT) and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE). his is a vital project which is helping to conserve the unique lora of the island and will eventually be key to future reintroduction programmes. Further botanic gardens are becoming established in the Peninsula and these are summarised by Al Farhan et al. (2008). 84 Miller, A.G. 1994. CPD Site SWA 1. Dhofar Fog Oasis. Oman and Yemen. In: Davis, S. D. and Heywood, V. H. (eds.) Centres of Plant Diversity, vol. 1, pp. 143– 155, Cambridge: IUCN. Miller, A.G. and Cope T.A. 1996. Flora of the Arabian Peninsula and Socotra. Vol. 1. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Miller, A.G. and Morris, M. 2004. Ethnolora of the Socotra Archipelago. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh. Miller, A.G. and Nyberg, J.A. 1991. Patterns of endemism in Arabia. Flora et Vegetatio Mundi 9: 263–279. Patzelt A. 2010. Plant Communities, Endemism and Conservation – History and Heritage. In: Bürkert, A. and Schlecht E. (eds.) Oases of Oman – Livelihood Systems at the Crossroads, p. 30–33. Al Roya Press & Publishing House, Sultanate of Oman. Patzelt, A. 2011. he hemeda quadrivalvis tall-grass savannah of Oman at the crossroad between Africa and Asia. Edinburgh Journal of Botany, 68 (2): 301– 319. Patzelt, A., (in press.) Oman Plant Red Data Book. Oman Botanic Garden, Diwan of Royal Court: Muscat, Oman. Patzelt, A., Morris, L., Al Harthi, L., Al Rashdi, I., Spalton, A. 2008. he Oman Botanic Garden (1): he Vision, early plant collections and propagation. Sibbaldia 6: 41–77. Patzelt A., Morris L.M., Al Farsi K., Spalton A. 2009. he Oman Botanic Garden (2): Collections Policy, Nursery Construction, Expanded Plant Production and Initial Tree Translocation. Sibbaldia 7: 83–97 Sullivan, P. 2012. Water, Food, Energy, Qat and Conlict: Yemen. Associate Paper, Future Directions International, 1–6. he Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2013. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://apps.kew.org/ wcsp/ (accessed January 31, 2013). he Plant List 2010. Version 1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/ (accessed January 31, 2013). Van Damme, K. and Banield. L. 2011. Past and present human impacts on the biodiversity of Socotra Island (Yemen): implications for future conservation. Biodiversity Conservation in the Arabian Peninsula. Zoology in the Middle East, Supplementum 3, 2011: 31–88. White, F. and Léonard, J. 1991. Phytogeographical links between Africa and Southwest Asia. Flora et Vegetatio Mundi 9: 229–246. 85 Chapter 8. Regional synthesis for all taxa García, N.1, Harrison, I.2 and Tognelli, M.1 his chapter provides the results and analysis of the combined data for freshwater ishes, molluscs, wetlanddependent plants, crabs and odonates. It presents an overview of the current status and distribution of freshwater species, and valuable base-line knowledge to be taken into consideration in environmental and development planning throughout the region. Forty-one taxa (14% of the species assessed) are endemic to the Arabian Peninsula region, i.e., they do not exist anywhere else in the world, and therefore their regional Red List status corresponds also to their risk of extinction at the global level. Almost half of these endemics (19 species) are threatened with extinction: four Critically Endangered, nine Endangered and six Vulnerable (Table 8.1 and Figure 8.1) 8.1 Red List status 8.2 Patterns of species richness Out of the 292 species assessed, 17.5% are categorized as regionally threatened (in the Red List Categories Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable), almost 3% Near hreatened and 20% Data Deicient. One taxon is Regionally Extinct, the odonate Azuragrion vansomereni, known from a single site in Saudi Arabia (see chapter 5). he number of introduced or wandering species (Not Applicable) identiied as non-native to the region reaches 13, including mainly mollusc and Odonata taxa. 8.2.1 Centres of species richness Species richness patterns were identiied by combining the number of species contained in sub-catchments for each focal taxonomic group (freshwater ishes, molluscs, crabs, dragonlies and wetland-dependent plants). Fiftyive Data Deicient species could not be mapped and were, therefore, excluded from the analysis. Table 8.1 Summary of Red List Category classifications at the regional scale by taxonomic groupings. Taxon Total* RE CR EN VU NT LC DD NA Fishes 18 0 1 5 2 1 7 2 0 Odonata 59 1 1 9 5 4 32 7 4 Molluscs 30 0 1 2 2 2 14 9 9 Aquatic Plants 182 0 7 7 9 1 118 40 0 Crabs 3 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 Total 292 1 10 23 18 8 173 59 13 IUCN Red List Categories: RE – Regionally Extinct, CR – Critically Endangered, EN – Endangered, VU – Vulnerable, NT – Near hreatened, LC – Least Concern, DD – Data Deicient, NA – Not Applicable (e.g. vagrant species, introduced species). * Excludes those species classiied as Not Applicable (NA) and Not Evaluated (NE). 1 IUCN/Conservation International Biodiversity Assessment Unit, Betty & Gordon Moore Center for Ecosystem Science & Economics, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA 2 Center for Environment and Peace, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA 86 he highest concentration of freshwater species assessed was found in wadis of central mountain ranges in Yemen, including the Socotra archipelago, and south-west Saudi Arabia and Oman in Dhofar (Figure 8.2). hese regions mainly fall in the Southwest Arabian Coast freshwater ecoregion, but also in some of the neighboring, peripheral parts of the Arabian Interior freshwater ecoregion. Figure 8.1 he proportion (%) of freshwater species in each regional IUCN Red List Category in the Arabian Peninsula. 8.2.2 Distribution of threatened species he areas with highest concentration of threatened freshwater species in the Arabian Peninsula are in Oman, the northern mountains and Afrotropical relict pockets of Dhofar, and the highlands of southern Saudi Arabia and Yemen. hese are also Southwest Arabian Coast freshwater ecoregion, and in the southern part of the Arabian Interior freshwater ecoregion where it overlies Figure 8.2. Arabian Peninsula species richness for freshwater ishes, molluscs, odonates, crabs and wetland-dependent plants, mapped to river sub-catchments. 87 Oman. Some freshwater taxa present in the Socotra Island are also highly threatened due to unsustainable water management practices and pollution (Figure 8.3). Research on freshwater ish at Wadi Wurrayah, UAE. Photo © N. A. Hamidan 8.2.3 Distribution of endemic species he mountains along the southeast and southwest of the Arabian Peninsula are hotspots of freshwater endemic species. Particularly for wetland-dependent plants, southern Oman and southeast Yemen are regional centres of plant endemism with unique vegetation at global scale. Also, all freshwater crabs and some freshwater molluscs known from the region are exclusive to the Socotra Islands. Other areas holding high concentrations of endemic freshwater taxa are Wadi Hadramaut in Yemen, Wadi Hadiya in Saudi Arabia, and the Dhofar region in Oman (Figure 8.4). 8.2.4 Distribution of Data Deicient species he pattern of Data Deicient species follows the general pattern of species richness, and highlights the areas where Figure 8.3. he distribution of regionally threatened species of freshwater ishes, molluscs, odonates, crabs and wetlanddependent plants within the Arabian Peninsula, mapped to river sub-catchments. 88 Kids swimming at Layla Lakes in Saudi Arabia (summer 1976). Photo © Michael C. Jennings Figure 8.4. Number of species of freshwater ishes, molluscs, odonates, crabs and wetland-dependent plants endemic to the Arabian Peninsula, mapped to river sub-catchments. 89 more research is needed to determine their conservation status. he highest concentration of species categorized as DD is in the south west and south of the Arabian Peninsula, although a few species also appear in the northern portion of the region (Figure 8.5). Water pollution due to domestic and agricultural activities is the second largest threat known, impacting more than 50% of the molluscs and 20% of the odonates. Particularly, the uncontrolled use of pesticides for malaria pest control is attributed to be a major cause of decline and eradication of freshwater species populations in the region. 8.3 Threats to freshwater biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula he current trend of atmospheric temperature increase and rainfall decline, particularly in Oman and the UAE (chapter 3) is known to be major threat to the assessed freshwater species, particularly 23% of the freshwater ish. Habitat degradation and modiication due to agriculture intensiication are also important threats for approximately 21% of the assessed wetland-dependent plants and 16% of the odonates. Residential and commercial development is a major cause of decline for 25% of the water-dependent plants. Additional impacts to freshwater biodiversity assessed for the region are included in Figure 8.6. he Arabian Peninsula includes some of the most water stressed countries in the world, with high temperatures and low rates of precipitation. his low availability of water, coupled with a growing population with increasing water needs, is placing considerable stress on freshwater ecosystems (Jungius 1988, Wishart et al. 2000). he main threats to freshwater biodiversity in the region are related to natural system modiications, including dams, water abstraction and riparian habitat loss due to ires, which afects more than 40% of the assessed species. Figure 8.5. Distribution of freshwater ishes, molluscs, odonates, crabs and wetland-dependent plants classiied as Data Deicient, mapped to river subcatchments. Only those species with locality information could be mapped. 90 8.4 Conclusions 8.4.2 Conservation priorities 8.4.1 Patterns of species richness and endangerment he species distribution information generated through this project has been compared with the existing on protected areas in the region (Figure 8.7). Spatial information on Ramsar sites (Wetlands of International Importance) also available at the Ramsar website in the form of point localities (full details at www.ramsar.org), was included in this igure. According to this information, there are very few sites in the Arabian Peninsula (ive in United Arab Emirates, two in Bahrain, and one each in Yemen [Socotra] and Oman), most of these being coastal wetlands. However, there are two important inland wetland sites in the United Arab Emirates: Al Wathba Wetland Reserve and Wadi Wurayah National Park. he latter site is an important spawning ground for several species of ishes. With sparse rainfall only occurring during monsoons, the regional climate determines the low diversity of freshwater fauna and lora in the Arabian Peninsula. As this reports shows, even though the region may not be exceptional in terms of the number of species, the distribution pattern of these species shows important hotspots of richness in the Dhofar region of Oman, the wadis of the central Yemeni mountain ranges, south-west Saudi Arabia and the Socotra archipelago. Rainfall elsewhere in the region is very scarce and has resulted in low species diversity. Also, freshwater habitats in the region are under great anthropogenic pressure associated to urban, agricultural and industrial development activities, such as habitat modiication from water extraction and degradation from pollution. In general for the Arabian Peninsula, freshwater biodiversity habitat lacks suitable protection, with the exception of the Island of Socotra and some small areas in south and southeastern Oman and United Arab Figure 8.6 Major current threats to freshwater species in the Arabian Peninsula 91 Emirates. his may be related to the fact that protected areas in the region are mainly designed to cover terrestrial species. herefore, there is a need to update the protected areas system to integrate this newly disclosed information. sustainable agricultural techniques and waste management, law enforcement, habitat protection, action plans for species, and environmental education. Because many of the rivers in the Arabian Peninsula experience regular cessation of low, it will be essential to develop conservation priorities that recognize the importance of perennial systems in maintaining aquatic biodiversity (Wishart et al. 2000). Faunal comparison of temporary and perennial systems will be important in developing networks of protected and managed areas that support the species diversity across connected basins. It is also worth highlighting that half of the freshwater species endemic to the region are threatened with extinction, and that a ifth of all assessed species are Data Deicient, and therefore potentially threatened if future updated data changes our current knowledge about their conservation status. Additional ieldwork to ill the knowledge gaps and update the status of these taxa, particularly those endemic to the region, is a priority to ensure adequate conservation of these species. As noted by Jungius (1988), the establishment of protected areas in the Arabian Peninsula should include appropriate policies and management for enforcing legislation and supporting conservation. In addition, it is important to ensure that local and nomadic communities are engaged in the planning of implementation of these protected areas, to ensure that there is a sense of ownership and governance of the protected areas. For Finally, conservation priorities of freshwater biodiversity in the Arabian Peninsula are very similar to those identiied for the Northern Africa region (García et al. 2008), which include the development of Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) programs, the use of Figure 8.7. Overlay of protected areas and freshwater species in the Arabian Peninsula. Protected area layer developed from World Database on Protected Areas, with additional new information for the region (adapted from Al Omari 2011), and including Ramsar sites (www.ramsar.org). 92 maximum eiciency, conservation planning for the freshwater ecosystems of the Arabian Peninsula should be integrated with existing terrestrial programs and spatial prioritization for the region. For example, AGEDI (2013) have completed an important systematic study for the Arabian Peninsula which has produced a stakeholder and expert database, spatial data, and measures of ecosystem threat status and ecosystem protection level that will be valuable to basin scale conservation planning. 8.5 References AGEDI. 2013. Systematic Conservation Planning Assessments and Spatial Prioritizations for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates and the Arabian Peninsula. Pp. 80. Available from www.agedi.ae. Al Omari, K. 2011. Protected Areas in he Arabian Peninsula. Zoology in the Middle East (Supplementum 3): 21-26. García, N., Cuttelod, A. and Abdul Malak, D. (eds.) (2010). he Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Northern Africa. Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Malaga, Spain : IUCN, 2010. xiii+141pp. Jungius, H. 1988. he national parks and protected areas concept and its application to the Arabian Peninsula. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 9: 3-11. Langhammer, P. F., Bakarr, M. I., Bennun, L. A., Brooks, T. M., Clay, R. P., Darwall, W., De Silva, N., Edgar, G. J., Eken, G., Fishpool, L. D. C., da Fonseca, G. A. B., Foster, M. N., Knox, D. H., Matiku, P., Radford, E. A., Rodrigues, A. S. L., Salaman, P., Sechrest, W. and Tordof, A. W. 2007. Identiication and gap analysis of key biodiversity areas: targets for comprehensive protected area systems. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN (Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series 15). Ricketts, T.H., Dinerstein, E., Boucher, T., Brooks, T.M., Butchart, S.H.M., Hofmann, M., Lamoreux, J.F., Morrison, J., Parr, M., Pilgrim, J.D., Rodrigues, A.S.L., Sechrest, W., Wallace, G.E., Berlin, K., Bielby, J., Burgess, N.D., Church, D.R., Cox, N., Knox, D., Loucks, C., Luck, G.W., Master, L.L., Moore, R., Naidoo, R., Ridgely, R., Schatz, G.E., Shire, G., Strand, H., Wettengel, W. and Wikramanayake, E. 2005. Pinpointing and preventing imminent species extinctions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 51: 1849718501-. Wishart, M.J., Gagneur, J. and El-Zanfaly, H.T. 2000. River conservation in North Africa and the Middle East. In: Boon, P.J., Davies, B.R. and Petts, G.E. (eds). Global perspectives on river conservation: science, policy, and practice. Pp. 127154-. John Wiley & Sons. 8.4.3 Application of project outputs All data generated by this project and summarized in the present report are freely available. he global assessments of all species included in this project are available on the IUCN Red List website (www.iucnredlist.org) and freely available to the public, and all regional assessments can be found in the physical CD attached at the end of this publication. his information is a base resource to assist in the prioritization of sites that contribute signiicantly to the global persistence of biodiversity at both regional and international levels, such as Key Biodiversity Areas (Langhammer et al. 2007) and Alliance for Zero Extinction sites (Ricketts et al. 2005). In addition, this information can guide decision makers in future development and environmental planning. 8.4.4 Future work A strong and collaborative network of experts has been built through this project, which is essential for keeping the collated information regularly up-to-date and its efective integration within development and environmental planning processes. Eforts should be directed to keep and strength the links between IUCN and its partners, policy makers, regional decision makers and related organizations to use, maintain and strengthen this freely available knowledge and integrate it into future planning. Lessons learned from the process of integrating biodiversity information need to be disseminated to all stakeholders in a practical format that makes it easy to replicate the most successful methodologies. 93 Appendix 1. Freshwater Fishes of the Arabian Peninsula IUCN Regional Regional Regional Endemic Red List Red List Red List Red List to Arabia Category Category Category Criteria (Yes/No) Order Family Taxon ANGUILLIFORMES ANGUILLIDAE Anguilla bengalensis NT NE No ANGUILLIFORMES ANGUILLIDAE Anguilla bicolor NT NE No CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Acanthobrama hadiyahensis CR CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Arabibarbus arabicus LC CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Carasobarbus apoensis EN B2ab (i,ii,iii,iv) EN B2ab (i,ii,iii,iv) Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Carasobarbus exulatus EN B2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii) Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Cyprinion acinaces LC LC Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Cyprinion mhalensis LC LC Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Cyprinion watsoni LC NT No CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra barreimiae LC LC Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra buettikeri VU B2ab(iii) VU B2ab(iii) Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra dunsirei EN D EN D Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra lautior EN B2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii) Yes CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra longipinnis DD CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra mamshuqa EN CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra sahilia LC CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra smarti VU CYPRINIFORMES CYPRINIDAE Garra tibanica LC LC Yes CYPRINODONTIFORMES CYPRINODONTIDAE Aphanius dispar LC LC No MUGILIFORMES MUGILIDAE Liza abu LC NE No PERCIFORMES GOBIIDAE Awaous aeneofuscus LC DD No 94 B2ab (i,ii,iii,iv); CR B2ab (i,ii,iii,iv); LC Yes DD B2ab(iii) EN Yes B2ab(iii) LC D2 VU Yes Yes Yes D2 Yes Appendix 2. Freshwater Molluscs of the Arabian Peninsula IUCN Red List Category Red List Criteria Regional Red List Category Regional Red List Criteria Endemic to Arabia (Yes/No) Order Family Taxon VENEROIDA CORBICULIDAE Corbicula luminalis LC LC No VENEROIDA SPHAERIIDAE Pisidium casertanum LC LC No HYGROPHILA LYMNAEIDAE Galba truncatula LC LC No HYGROPHILA LYMNAEIDAE Lymnaea natalensis LC LC No HYGROPHILA LYMNAEIDAE Radix auricularia LC LC No HYGROPHILA LYMNAEIDAE Stagnicola palustris LC VU HYGROPHILA PHYSIDAE Haitia acuta LC LC No HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Ancylus luviatilis LC LC No HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Biomphalaria arabica LC LC Yes HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Bulinus beccarii LC LC Yes HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Bulinus truncatus LC LC No HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Bulinus wrighti LC LC Yes HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Ceratophallus socotrensis DD DD Yes HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Gyraulus cockburni EN HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Gyraulus convexiusculus HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE HYGROPHILA B2ab(ii,iii) D2 No EN B2ab(ii,iii) Yes LC EN B2ab(iii) No Gyraulus piscinarum LC DD No PLANORBIDAE Indoplanorbis exustus LC LC No HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Planorbis planorbis LC DD No HYGROPHILA PLANORBIDAE Segmentorbis angustus LC DD No LITTORINIMORPHA ASSIMINEIDAE Assiminea nitida LC EN LITTORINIMORPHA BITHYNIIDAE Bithynia badiella VU LITTORINIMORPHA HYDROBIIDAE Hydrobia balfouri LITTORINIMORPHA HYDROBIIDAE LITTORINIMORPHA No DD No DD DD Yes Hydrobia glaucovirens DD DD Yes HYDROBIIDAE Hydrobia lactea NT NT Yes LITTORINIMORPHA STENOTHYRIDAE Gangetia miliacea LC NT No LITTORINIMORPHA STENOTHYRIDAE Stenothyra arabica DD DD Yes SORBEOCONCHA MELANOPSIDAE Melanopsis costata LC EN SORBEOCONCHA PALUDOMIDAE Cleopatra bulimoides LC DD No SORBEOCONCHA THIARIDAE Melanoides tuberculata LC LC No SORBEOCONCHA THIARIDAE Plotia scabra LC LC No 95 B1ab(iii,iv) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) No Appendix 3. Dragonlies and Damsellies (Odonata) of the Arabian Peninsula IUCN Red List Category Regional Regional Red List Endemic to Red List Arabia (Yes/ Criteria Category No) Order Family Taxon ODONATA AESHNIDAE Anax ephippiger LC LC No ODONATA AESHNIDAE Anax imperator LC LC No ODONATA AESHNIDAE Anax parthenope LC LC No ODONATA AESHNIDAE Anax speratus LC LC No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Agriocnemis pygmaea LC CR B2ab(iii) No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Azuragrion nigridorsum LC EN B2ab(iii) No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Azuragrion vansomereni LC RE No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Ceriagrion glabrum LC LC No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Ischnura evansi LC LC No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Ischnura fountaineae LC VU ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Ischnura senegalensis LC LC No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Pseudagrion decorum LC NT No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Pseudagrion hamoni LC LC No ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Pseudagrion kersteni LC VU ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Pseudagrion sublacteum sublacteum LC LC No ODONATA GOMPHIDAE Lindenia tetraphylla LC LC No ODONATA GOMPHIDAE Paragomphus genei LC LC No ODONATA GOMPHIDAE Paragomphus sinaiticus NT LC No ODONATA LESTIDAE Lestes pallidus LC VU B2ab(iii) No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Acisoma panorpoides ascalaphoides LC EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii) No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Brachythemis impartita LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Crocothemis chaldaeorum DD DD No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Crocothemis erythraea LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Crocothemis sanguinolenta LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Crocothemis servilia LC DD No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Diplacodes lefebvrii LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Macrodiplax cora LC NT No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Nesciothemis farinosa LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum abbotti LC EN ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum cafrum LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum chrysostigma LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum coerulescens anceps LC DD No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum julia falsum LC DD No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum kollmannspergeri LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum ransonnetii LC LC No 96 B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) No No No IUCN Red List Category Regional Regional Red List Endemic to Red List Arabia (Yes/ Criteria Category No) Order Family Taxon ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum sabina LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum taeniolatum LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Orthetrum trinacria LC DD No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Palpopleura deceptor LC DD No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Pantala lavescens LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Rhyothemis semihyalina LC EN ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Selysiothemis nigra LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Sympetrum fonscolombii LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE holymis tillarga LC DD No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Tramea limbata LC NT No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Trithemis annulata LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Trithemis arteriosa LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Trithemis dejouxi LC EN ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Trithemis furva LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Trithemis kirbyi LC LC No ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Urothemis edwardsii LC EN ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Zygonyx torridus LC LC ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Urothemis thomasi thomasi LC EN B2ab(iii) Yes ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Azuragrion somalicum amitinum LC VU B2ab(iii); D2 Yes ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Pseudagrion arabicum LC EN B2ab(iii) Yes ODONATA AESHNIDAE Pinheyschna yemenensis LC VU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); D2 Yes ODONATA PLATYCNEMIDIDAE Arabicnemis caerulea LC LC ODONATA PROTONEURIDAE Arabineura khalidi LC EN ODONATA COENAGRIONIDAE Azuragrion granti LC NT 97 B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) B2ab(iii) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) No No No No Yes B2b(iii,iv) Yes Yes Appendix 4. Freshwater Crabs of the Arabian Peninsula IUCN Red List Category Regional IUCN Red List Category Endemic to Arabia (Yes/No) Socotra pseudocardisoma LC LC Yes POTAMIDAE Socotrapotamon nojidensis DD DD Yes POTAMIDAE Socotrapotamon socotrensis LC LC Yes Order Family Taxon DECAPODA POTAMIDAE DECAPODA DECAPODA 98 Appendix 5. Wetland Dependent Plants of the Arabian Peninsula IUCN Red List Category Regional Red List Category Equisetum giganteum LC LC No MARSILEACEAE Marsilea aegyptiaca LC LC No MARSILEALES MARSILEACEAE Marsilea coromandelina LC LC No PTERIDALES ADIANTACEAE Adiantum capillus-veneris LC LC No PTERIDALES PARKERIACEAE Ceratopteris cornuta LC CR B2ab(iii) No PTERIDALES PTERIDACEAE Acrostichum aureum LC CR D No PTERIDALES PTERIDACEAE Pteris vittata LC LC No ARALES LEMNACEAE Lemna gibba LC LC No ARALES LEMNACEAE Lemna minor LC LC No COMMELINALES COMMELINACEAE Commelina benghalensis LC LC No COMMELINALES COMMELINACEAE Commelina difusa LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Bolboschoenus glaucus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Bolboschoenus maritimus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Carex distans LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Carex stenophylla LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cladium mariscus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus alopecuroides LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus alternifolius LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus alulatus LC EN CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus articulatus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus compressus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus diformis LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus dilatatus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus dubius LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus esculentus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus fuscus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus iria LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus laevigatus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus longus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus nutans LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus rigidifolius LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus rotundus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus schimperianus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus squarrosus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Cyperus wissmannii DD DD No Order Family Taxon EQUISETALES EQUISETACEAE MARSILEALES 99 Regional Red List Criteria B2ab(iii) Endemic to Arabia (Yes/ No) No IUCN Red List Category Regional Red List Category Eleocharis caduca LC LC No CYPERACEAE Eleocharis geniculata LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Eleocharis marginulata LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Eleocharis palustris LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Eleocharis uniglumis LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fimbristylis bisumbellata LC EN CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fimbristylis complanata LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fimbristylis cymosa LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fimbristylis dichotoma LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fimbristylis ferruginea LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fimbristylis sieberiana LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fimbristylis turkestanica LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fuirena ciliaris LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fuirena felicis VU VU CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Fuirena pubescens LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Isolepis setacea LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Kyllinga brevifolia LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Kyllinga microstyla LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Pycreus dwarkensis LC CR CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Pycreus elegantulus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Pycreus lavescens LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Pycreus polystachyos LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Pycreus pumilus LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Pycreus sanguinolentus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Schoenoplectiella proxima DD VU CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Schoenoplectus corymbosus LC DD CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Schoenoplectus lacustris LC VU CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Schoenoplectus litoralis LC LC No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Schoenoplectus mucronatus LC DD No CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Schoenus nigricans LC VU CYPERALES CYPERACEAE Scirpoides holoschoenus LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Agrostis lachnantha LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Arundo donax LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Brachiaria mutica LC DD No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Brachiaria reptans LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Brachiaria scalaris LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Desmostachya bipinnata LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Echinochloa colona LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Echinochloa crusgalli LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Echinochloa pyramidalis LC DD No Order Family Taxon CYPERALES CYPERACEAE CYPERALES 100 Regional Red List Criteria B2ab(ii,iii) D2 B2ab(iii) D2 Endemic to Arabia (Yes/ No) No Yes No No No B2ab(iii) B2ab(ii,iii) No No IUCN Red List Category Regional Red List Category Eriochloa meyeriana LC LC GRAMINEAE Festuca yemenensis VU VU CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Hemarthria altissima LC DD No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Isachne globosa LC DD No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Leptochloa fusca LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Odontelytrum abyssinicum LC EN B2ab(iii) No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Panicum socotranum CR CR B2ab(iii) Yes CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Paspalidium lavidum LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Paspalidium geminatum LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Paspalum scrobiculatum LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Paspalum vaginatum LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Pennisetum macrourum LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Phragmites australis LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Phragmites karka LC DD No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Poa schimperiana LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Polypogon schimperianus DD DD No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Polypogon viridis LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Saccharum kajkaiense LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Saccharum ravennae LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Saccharum spontaneum LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Sporobolus consimilis LC LC No CYPERALES GRAMINEAE Urochloa panicoides LC LC No HYDROCHARITALES HYDROCHARITACEAE Najas graminea LC DD No HYDROCHARITALES HYDROCHARITACEAE Najas marina LC LC No JUNCALES JUNCACEAE Juncus bufonius LC LC No JUNCALES JUNCACEAE Juncus fontanesii LC LC No JUNCALES JUNCACEAE Juncus inlexus LC LC No JUNCALES JUNCACEAE Juncus punctorius LC LC No JUNCALES JUNCACEAE Juncus rigidus LC LC No JUNCALES JUNCACEAE Juncus socotranus LC LC No NAJADALES POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton coloratus LC DD No NAJADALES POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton lucens LC DD No NAJADALES POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton natans LC LC No NAJADALES POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton nodosus LC LC No NAJADALES POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton pusillus LC LC No NAJADALES ZANNICHELLIACEAE Zannichellia palustris LC LC No ORCHIDALES ORCHIDACEAE Epipactis veratrifolia LC EN TYPHALES TYPHACEAE Typha domingensis LC LC No TYPHALES TYPHACEAE Typha elephantina LC LC No APIALES UMBELLIFERAE Apium graveolens LC LC No Order Family Taxon CYPERALES GRAMINEAE CYPERALES 101 Regional Red List Criteria Endemic to Arabia (Yes/ No) No D2 B2ab(ii,iii,v) Yes No IUCN Red List Category Regional Red List Category Apium nodilorum LC LC No UMBELLIFERAE Berula erecta LC NT No APIALES UMBELLIFERAE Centella asiatica LC LC No APIALES UMBELLIFERAE Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides LC VU ASTERALES COMPOSITAE Adenostemma cafrum LC LC No ASTERALES COMPOSITAE Gnaphalium unionis LC LC No ASTERALES COMPOSITAE Osteospermum muricatum LC DD No ASTERALES COMPOSITAE Pulicaria arabica LC VU ASTERALES COMPOSITAE Pulicaria inuloides LC LC CAMPANULALES GOODENIACEAE Scaevola socotraensis CR CR CARYOPHYLLALES AMARANTHACEAE Alternanthera sessilis LC LC No CARYOPHYLLALES PORTULACACEAE Talinum portulacifolium LC LC No EUPHORBIALES EUPHORBIACEAE Chrozophora tinctoria LC LC No GENTIANALES APOCYNACEAE Nerium oleander LC LC No GENTIANALES ASCLEPIADACEAE Kanahia lanilora LC LC No GENTIANALES GENTIANACEAE Centaurium erythraea LC LC No GENTIANALES GENTIANACEAE Centaurium pulchellum LC LC No GENTIANALES GENTIANACEAE Exacum aine LC LC Yes GENTIANALES GENTIANACEAE Exacum arabicum LC LC Yes GENTIANALES GENTIANACEAE Exacum socotranum CR CR GENTIANALES GENTIANACEAE Sebaea microphylla LC DD No GENTIANALES GENTIANACEAE Sebaea pentandra LC DD No HALORAGALES HALORAGACEAE Myriophyllum spicatum LC DD No LAMIALES BORAGINACEAE Heliotropium ovalifolium LC LC No LAMIALES BORAGINACEAE Myosotis laxa LC LC No LAMIALES VERBENACEAE Phyla nodilora LC LC No MALVALES STERCULIACEAE Melhania phillipsiae LC LC No MYRTALES LYTHRACEAE Ammannia auriculata LC LC No MYRTALES LYTHRACEAE Ammannia baccifera LC LC No MYRTALES LYTHRACEAE Lythrum hyssopifolia LC LC No MYRTALES ONAGRACEAE Epilobium hirsutum LC LC No MYRTALES ONAGRACEAE Ludwigia octovalvis LC LC No MYRTALES ONAGRACEAE Ludwigia palustris LC LC No NYMPHAEALES CERATOPHYLLACEAE Ceratophyllum demersum LC LC No NYMPHAEALES CERATOPHYLLACEAE Ceratophyllum submersum LC DD No POLYGONALES POLYGONACEAE Persicaria amphibia LC LC No POLYGONALES POLYGONACEAE Persicaria barbata LC LC No POLYGONALES POLYGONACEAE Persicaria glabrum LC LC No POLYGONALES POLYGONACEAE Persicaria lapathifolia LC LC No POLYGONALES POLYGONACEAE Persicaria maculosa LC LC No Order Family Taxon APIALES UMBELLIFERAE APIALES 102 Regional Red List Criteria D2 B2ab(iii) Endemic to Arabia (Yes/ No) No No No B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii) Yes Yes IUCN Red List Category Regional Red List Category Persicaria salicifolia LC LC POLYGONACEAE Persicaria senegalensis LC VU POLYGONALES POLYGONACEAE Polygonum argyrocoleon LC LC No PRIMULALES PRIMULACEAE Anagallis serpens LC DD No PRIMULALES PRIMULACEAE Samolus valerandi LC LC No RANUNCULALES RANUNCULACEAE Ranunculus multiidus LC LC No RANUNCULALES RANUNCULACEAE Ranunculus rionii LC DD No RANUNCULALES RANUNCULACEAE Ranunculus sphaerospermus LC DD No RANUNCULALES RANUNCULACEAE Ranunculus trichophyllus LC DD No ROSALES CRASSULACEAE Crassula hedbergii LC EN ROSALES CRASSULACEAE Crassula tillaea LC LC No RUBIALES RUBIACEAE Pentodon pentandrus LC LC No SALICALES SALICACEAE Salix acmophylla LC LC No SCROPHULARIALES LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia australis LC DD No SCROPHULARIALES LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia minor LC EN B2ab(iii) No SCROPHULARIALES LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia striatula LC EN B2ab(iii) No SCROPHULARIALES SCROPHULARIACEAE Bacopa monnieri LC LC No SCROPHULARIALES SCROPHULARIACEAE Limosella macrantha LC DD No SCROPHULARIALES SCROPHULARIACEAE Lindenbergia indica LC LC No SCROPHULARIALES SCROPHULARIACEAE Mimulus gracilis LC LC No SCROPHULARIALES SCROPHULARIACEAE Veronica anagallis-aquatica LC LC No SCROPHULARIALES SCROPHULARIACEAE Veronica anagalloides LC DD No SCROPHULARIALES SCROPHULARIACEAE Veronica beccabunga LC DD No SOLANALES CONVOLVULACEAE Cressa cretica LC LC No SOLANALES CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea aquatica LC LC No SOLANALES CONVOLVULACEAE Stictocardia tiliifolia LC CR D No THEALES ELATINACEAE Bergia polyantha LC VU D2 No Order Family Taxon POLYGONALES POLYGONACEAE POLYGONALES 103 Regional Red List Criteria Endemic to Arabia (Yes/ No) No D2 B2ab(iii) No No Appendix 6. 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Neubert. 2011. INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE WORLD HEADQUARTERS Rue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland Switzerland Tel: +41 22 999 0000 Fax: +41 22 999 0020 www.iucn.org/species www.iucnredlist.org