Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
Plants as medicinal stressors, the case of depurative practices in Chazuta
valley (Peruvian Amazonia)
Jaume Sanz-Biset, Salvador Cañigueral n
Unitat de Farmacologia i Farmacognosia,
Facultat de Farmacia,
Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII, s/n, Barcelona E-08028, Catalonia, Spain
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 7 June 2012
Received in revised form
24 September 2012
Accepted 24 September 2012
Available online 30 October 2012
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Depurative practices, based on taking emetic plants and the restriction
of food intake, are very much used in the traditional medicine of Chazuta (Peruvian Amazon) not only
to restore health but also to maintain it.
Aim of the study: To describe Chazuta’s depurative practices, within a theoretical framework that
involves the stress system and which defines the role played by the medicinal plants used as medicinal
stressors. This biomedical model is more inclusive in relation to the variety of medicinal uses found for
these practices.
Material and methods: The information was obtained in the valley of Chazuta from October 2004 to
August 2005 through semi-structured interviews to the 6.3% of its rural adult population (i.e., 140
individuals, 75% belonging to the San Martin Quechua’s ethnic group). Thereafter, results were analysed
and confronted to the existing literature.
Results: Overall, 191 depurative practices were reported in Chazuta where 114 different plant species
were recorded and identified. Depending on their level of severity and duration, depurative practices
can be classified as mild or strict. The wide range of medicinal uses reported supports both the
involvement of adaptive stress responses in depurative practices and the consideration of the plants
employed in this practices as medicinal stressors.
Conclusions: By inducing moderate stress within safe levels, depurative practices in Chazuta could
produce adaptive responses that would protect against the detrimental consequences of chronic stress
and stress-related diseases. This hypothesis could help to understand the diversity of the medicinal
uses recorded in the field. Thus, plant remedies used in these practices in Chazuta could be considered
as ‘‘medicinal stressors’’ as through vomiting the necessary neuroendocrine stress activation would be
produced. In addition, other bioactivities that plants may harbour could converge with the whole stress
reactivity process.
& 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Medicinal plants
Traditional medicine
Chazuta
Peruvian Amazon
San Martin Quechuas
Depuratives
Vomiting
Emesis
Calorie restriction
Fasting
Stress
Adaptive response
Mitohormesis
Medicinal stressor
1. Introduction
The use of medicinal plants in Chazuta (Peruvian Amazon) has
been the study subject of recent publications of our group (SanzBiset and Cañigueral, 2011; Sanz-Biset et al., 2009). A particular
aspect highlighted by these works has been the wide use of plant
remedies in what we have described as depurative practices.
We use the term depurative to differentiate a group of
practices in Chazuta that locals considered to be medicinal
because it prompted a general cleansing effect. This cleansing
effect was believed to be induced first by the ingestion of
medicinal plants with emetic effects (sometimes also being
purgative and often considered with other various medicinal
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 93 402 45 31; fax: þ 34 4035982.
E-mail address: s.canigueral@ub.edu (S. Cañigueral).
0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.09.053
effects) and second by reducing food intake. The local belief is
that this depurative effect, whether induced by emetic medicinal
plants and/or through calorie restriction, produces a ‘‘general
cleansing’’ that enhances health broadly speaking.
It is not uncommon for depurative practices to be used for
bodily purification or detoxification in complementary and alternative medicine (Kayne, 2009). Nowadays, in medicine the term
depurative is mainly used in the clinical management of poisoning and around the concept of dialysis, the method that removes
waste and excess water from the blood in renal failure. However,
in ethnopharmacology, the term depurative is often used to
indicate medicinal plants with effects such as diuretic, purgative,
perspirative, choleretic, cholagogue or emmenagogue. These have
been reported in regions across the world among different
historical periods (Gurib-Fakim, 2006).
Some depurative practices that we reported in Chazuta were
employed against different ailments prevalent in the region.
68
J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
For some of those, we found some correlation in between the
medicinal uses reported and the available bibliographic data on
plant bioactivity or active compounds (Sanz-Biset and Cañigueral,
2011). In part, those results may explain the use of plants in some
depurative practices due to plant activities such as antinflammatory and antimicrobial. Indeed, besides the emetic effect, local
informants also considered many other medicinal effects for the
plants employed in these practices. However, in many occasions
depurative practices in Chazuta were generally employed to tone
and strengthen the body.
When we faced these more unspecific medicinal uses, we
found ourselves limited with the conventional approach of
targeting precise biological activities or active compounds, as
there this relationship became less clear. Therefore, we were led
to consider other biomedical models that could explain the broad
spectrum of the physiological effects reported.
As a result, the explanation proposed here relates to the
moderate activation of stress responses. The theoretical framework used to support these explanations is described in Appendix
A (see the supplementary file). To sum up, it is known that both
emesis and calorie restriction stimulate the neuroendocrine
activation of the stress system (Eversmann et al., 1978, Masoro,
1998). As Chazuta’s depurative practices mimic two very primitive and really stressful conditions that human beings can be
encountered with, i.e., intoxication and starvation, it is feasible to
consider the induction of moderate stress in a way that is
medicinal. Considering models of beneficial exposure to stress is
common in the study of physical exercise, diet restriction and
other conditions (Jackson and Dishman, 2006; Sinclair, 2005;
Tapia, 2006). Similarly to physical activity, depurative practices
in Chazuta could elicit an adequate stimulation of the stress
system, activating several centres such as the HPA axis, the
autonomic nervous system and certain centres in the CNS.
This activation could be within safe levels and could produce
the corresponding adaptive responses conducive to beneficial
stress resistance effects in different systems, e.g., gastrointestinal,
endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory or immune (Chrousos,
2006; Tsigos and Chrousos, 2002; Fig. 1).
Plant preparation
Then, plant remedies used in depurative practices in Chazuta
could be considered as ‘‘medicinal stressors’’ as through vomiting
they could prompt the necessary stress to trigger adaptive stress
responses. In addition, other bioactivities that plants are known to
harbour could converge with the whole stress reactivity process.
The aim of this paper is to describe Chazuta’s depurative practices
within this more inclusive theoretical framework of adaptive stress
responses that is able to indicate the biological processes that would
explain the variety of medicinal uses found for these practices; and
ultimately, to clarify the role that medicinal plants play in these
practices as medicinal stressors. The present paper also brings data to
the topic of plants and practices used for depuration, purification or
detoxification. Even though this is a common subject in complementary and alternative medicine, papers rarely focus on it. Hence,
ethnopharmacological data on this area is especially interesting and
can prove to be useful in future studies.
2. Methods
The information collected in the field was obtained through
semi-structured interviews to the 6.3% of the district’s rural adult
population (140 individuals, 60% men, 40% women, 75% of which
was considered Quechua). The data presented in this paper is
based in a wider fieldwork performed in the studied region from
October 2004 to August 2005. In a previous published paper about
the medicinal plants of Chazuta (Sanz-Biset et al., 2009), precise
information was already given on the study site, its ethnicity, the
demography, its socio cultural context, the historical background,
the present medical system of Chazuta, how the selection of
informants was done for the study, the type of interviews used,
how plants were collected, which botanists participated in determining plant species, and how local consent for the investigation
in Chazuta was obtained. Moreover, permit for the collection and
exportation of voucher herbarium specimens was covered by
official authorisations issued by the Agricultural Ministry of Peru’s
INRENA: Collection licence 087–2004-INRENA-IFFS-DCB and
Exportation permit 005780-AG-INRENA.
Emesis
Calorie restriction
Stress
Neuroendocrine activation
e.g.
Several centres are activated
HPA
axis
ANS
Dopaminergic
system
Amygdale
Hippocampus
Arcuate
nucleus
Thermoregulatory and
appetite-satiety centres
Other
...
Glucocorticoids, catecholamines, ACh, neuropeptides, ATP, NO, HSP, transcriptional factors, others
Modulation of biological activities in different systems
GI
system
Endocrine axes:
reproductive, growth,
thyroid, metabolic
Behaviour
Cardiovascular,
respiratory and
renal functions
Immune
system
Fig. 1. Neuroendocrine infrastructure triggered by stress which could be activated by depurative practices in Chazuta valley. ACh: acetylcholine, ANS: autonomic nervous
system, ATP: adenosine triphosphate, AVP: arginine vasopressin, CRH: corticotropin-releasing hormone, GI: gastrointestinal, HPA: hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal, HSP:
heat-shock proteins, NO: nitric oxide.
J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
Results obtained in the field were thereafter analysed and
confronted to the existing literature.
3. Results and discussion
In this section, results are shown and discussed in the following sequence. First, quantitative results obtained in recording
depurative practices in Chazuta valley are given. Then, depuratives practices are described whether considered being mild or
strict depending on their severity and duration. Also, the different
medicinal uses reported are shown. Finally, the function of plants
in depurative practices is discussed.
3.1. Depurative practices reported in Chazuta
On the whole, 318 plant species used for medicinal purposes
by people living in the Chazuta district were collected and
identified. Of these, 114 species were found to be used in 191
depurative practices recorded in the survey.
Most of the plant remedies observed to be taken in depurative
practices in Chazuta, were aqueous extracts, often unbearably
bitter, highly unpleasant to drink, which seemed to act mainly as
irritants of the gastric and intestinal mucosa triggering nausea
conducive to emesis (Fig. 2).
The usual drastic vomiting caused by the herbal preparations
administered in depurative practices in Chazuta, naturally brings
the need to follow a more constrained food and behavioural
regime (known as dieta in Chazuta). This can go from simply
restricting some types of food, to becoming so strict that could
69
even imply fasting. In the cases where fasting was present, salt
limitation and rest in social seclusion was also prescribed.
Also, the use of emetic plants as well as the depurative
practices themselves can be more or less prolonged in time. From
having just a single cup of the squeezed juice of Aristolochia
leuconeura’s leaves, to drink every morning for seven days a litre
of a decoction made from Tabernaemontana sananho’s root barks.
Also, the calorie restriction prescribed can be less-or-more severe
and extended in time. Normally, the prolonged the emesis, the
stronger the calorie restriction and the whole regime is. Due to
their severity and length in time, depurative practices can be
clearly classified either as mild or strict.
3.2. Mild depurative practices.
These practices are characterised by a moderate calorie
restriction that never reaches fasting, where neither seclusion
nor the restriction of the ingestion of salt are prescribed. They are
generally short in time, many lasting just one day where only a
single dose of a plant remedy is taken. In total, we recorded 93
reports of mild depurative practices, which are shown in Table 1.
The remedy most reported (35 times) in these shorter depurative practices was the worldwide famous ayahuasca mixture,
made with the decoction of Banisteriopsis caapi stems with
Psychotria viridis leaves, and sometimes (16 reports) also adding
other plant species. In comparison with other areas of the
Peruvian Amazon, we observed that the traditional ingestion of
these mixtures hardly entailed any complex ritual. As mentioned
by Lamb (1985), it seems that even more than half a century ago,
Chazuta’s medicine men were not familiar with managing the
psychotropic effects commonly experienced with ayahuasca.
Nowadays, it is difficult to track the original use of ayahuasca
since its tourist boom experienced in recent years has spread
throughout the country. Even a bar recently opened in the valley
was named as Ayahuasca, and there is a thriving tourist industry
in the region based on offering ayahuasca trips into the jungle.
The use of ayahuasca that we reported in Chazuta, differs from
what is shown in many other studies of other regions of western
Amazonia (Baer, 1979; Cárdenas-Timoteo, 1989; Chaumeil, 1979;
Fericgla, 1994; Luna, 1986). In Chazuta, it looks like as if this plant
mixture has been included into the local repertoire of purgas. In a
few occasions, we observed traditional healers giving out ayahuasca mixtures to patients. Except in those healers that had been
already in contact with westerners that searched for ‘‘trips’’, the
remedy was dispensed as another purga where the main goal was
to produce that cleansing effect, i.e., the depurative effect. Thus, the
healers did not expect any psychotropic effect rather than a simple
mareacion, i.e., sickness conducive to vomiting. It is obvious that
the international popularity of ayahuasca arrived years ago in this
valley, however, and at least until recently, this trend seemed to
have adapted and shaped quite well into the local traditional
medical system, using ayahuasca more as a depurative than a
psychotropic. Most likely, ayahuasca could have been introduced
relatively recently in Chazuta’s ethnomedicine and the high number of reports found explained by the external pressure. Acculturation in these regions advances fast and it is likely that such a fragile
environment in front of such a strong western current would
quickly put ordinary farmers into singing in the middle of the night
in a high, wearing condor feathers and jaguar tooth, which
sincerely, it is hard to say considering the first one original, which
one of the three specimens is more extinct.
3.3. Strict depurative practices
Fig. 2. The act of vomiting, which is highly regarded in the ethnomedicine of
Chazuta valley.
Strict depurative practices are characterised by a severe calorie
restriction, usually leading to fasting. In these cases, both social
70
Table 1
Plant remedies used in mild depurative practices in Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazon).
Scientific name (botanical family)
(C ¼ cultivated and/or W ¼wild)
(voucher herbarium specimen)
Local name
Part(s) used Unspecific use
reportsa
Nn:repeated
reportsa
Specific use reports
Nn:repeated reports
Mode of preparation (administration is oral)
Ardisia guyanensis (Aubl.) Mez
(Myrsinaceae) (W) (BCN 40225)
Aristolochia leuconeura Linden
(Aristolochiaceae) (C) (BCN 40090)
Puka chakruna
Leaf
1
0
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi stems
Yawar panka, Machakuy Leaf
or Omagway waska,
Wankawi sacha
4
Squeezed, the juice obtained is drunk
10þ 1n
11 Cough (5), Bronchitis (5),
Tobacco and cocaine
addiction (1)
1 Tobacco and cocaine
addiction. (1)
5 For hunting and fishing
preparednessb (3),
Stomach pains (2)
0
1
1
1
1
Rheumatism (1)
Rheumatism (1)
1
1
Lumbago (1)
1n
1n Tobacco and cocaine
addiction (1n)
1n Lumbago (1n)
1
Brugmansia suaveolens (Humb. &
Bonpl. ex Willd.) Bercht. & J. Presl
(Solanaceae) (C) (BCN 40186)
Brunfelsia grandiflora subsp.
grandiflora (Solanaceae) (C) (BCN
40340)
Calliandra angustifolia Spruce ex
Benth. (Fabaceae) (C) (BCN 40154)
Cornutia microcalycina Pav. &
Moldenke (Verbenaceae) (C and W)
(BCN 40316)
Couroupita guianensis Aubl.
(Lecythidaceae) (C) (BCN 40136)
Croton draconoides Müll. Arg.
(Euphorbiaceae) (W) (BCN 40216)
Gonzalagunia cornifolia (Kunth)
Standl. (Rubiaceae) (W) (BCN 40275)
Guarea macrophylla Vahl (Meliaceae)
(C) (BCN 45069)
Himatanthus sucuuba (Spruce ex Müll.
Arg.) Woodson (Apocynaceae) (C)
(BCN 40862)
Hura crepitans L. (Euphorbiaceae) (W)
(BCN 40265)
Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) (C)
(BCN 40263)
Jatropha gossypiifolia L.
(Euphorbiaceae) (C) (BCN 40264)
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.
(Crassulaceae) (W) (BCN 40358)
Ayawaska, Ayawaska
negra, Ayawaska
amarilla, Purgawaska
Stem
14
Toe, Toe de flor blanca
Leaf
1n
Chirik sanango
Root bark
4
Bobensana
Stem
1n
Shinkurisacha
Leaf
1n
Aya uma
Bark
1n
Bark
n
1
n
Decocted with Psychotria viridis leaves
Decocted: w/ Ardisia guyanensis leaves (1n), w/ Psychotria alba leaves (1), w/ P.
carthagenensis leaves (1), w/ P. ernestii leaves (1), w/ P. viridis and Gonzalagunia cornifolia
(2), w/ P. viridis and Petiveria alliacea (2), w/ P. viridis and Pterocarpus rohrii(2) w/P.
viridis, Rosenbergiodendron longifolium and Toxosiphon trifoliatus (1)
Decocted with Psychotria viridis, Mansoa alliacea and Piper callosum
Decocted w/ Psychotria viridis, P. carthagenensis, Cornutia microcalycina, Croton
draconoides, Himatanthus sucuuba, Licaria sp., Mikania sp. and Virola calophylla
Decocted w/ Psychotria viridis, P. alba, Brugmansia suaveolens, Calliandra angustifolia,
Couroupita guianensis, Tovomita aff. stylosa and Zygia longifolia
Decocted with Psychotria viridis and Aristolochia leuconeura
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. alba, Calliandra angustifolia,
Couroupita guianensis, Tovomita aff.stylosa and Zygia longifolia
11 Febrifuge (7), For hunting Macerated in fresh water for some minutes
and fishing
preparednessb (4)
n
1 Lumbago (1n)
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. alba, Brugmansia suaveolens,
Couroupita guianensis, Tovomita aff.stylosa and Zygia longifolia
n
n
1 Rheumatism (1 )
Decocted w/ Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P.carthagenensis, Croton draconoides,
Himatanthus sucuuba, Licaria sp., Mikania sp. and Virola calophylla
1n Lumbago (1n)
Pichana sacha, Pichana
kaspi, Yaku lucero
Requia
Aerial part
2
0
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. alba, Brugmansia suaveolens,
Calliandra angustifolia, Tovomita aff. stylosa and Zygia longifolia
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. carthagenensis, Cornutia
microcalycina, Himatanthus sucuuba, Licaria sp., Mikania sp. and Virola calophylla
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi stems and Psychotria viridis leaves
Bark
2
0
Decoction
Bellaco kaspi
Bark
2
2
1n
1n Rheumatism (1n)
Sangre de grado
1
n
n
Rheumatism (1 )
Vermifuge (2)
Decoction
Catahua
Latex
2
2
Piñon blanco
Leaf & seed
2
0
Boiled with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P.carthagenensis, Cornutia
microcalycina, Croton draconoides, Licaria sp., Mikania sp. and Virola calophylla
A small dose of the crude latex is drunk. This remedy is considered very toxic if overdose
occurs.
Squeezed, the juice obtained is drunk
Piñon colorado
Leaf & seed
2
0
Squeezed, the juice obtained is drunk
Rakta panka, Aire sacha
Leaf
1
1
Vermifuge (2)
Pain when passing water Squeezed, then a great quantity of the juice obtained needs to be taken
(1)
J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex
Griseb.) C.V. Morton (Malpighiaceae)
(C) (BCN 40135)
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi stems and Psychotria viridis leaves
Licaria sp. (Lauraceae) (W) (BCN
40116)
Mansoa alliacea (Lam.) A.H. Gentry
(Bignoniaceae) (C and W) (BCN
40100)
Mikania sp. (Asteraceae) (C)(JSB-513)
c
Minquartia guianensis Aubl.
(Olacaceae) (W) (BCN 40145)
Petiveria alliacea L. (Phytolaccaceae)
(C) (BCN 40892)
Piper callosum Ruiz & Pav. (Piperaceae)
(C and W) (BCN 40846)
Psychotria alba Ruiz & Pav. (Rubiaceae)
(W) (BCN 40291)
Canela
Bark
1n
1n Rheumatism (1n)
Ajo sacha, Ajo sacha
macho, Ajo sacha
hembra
Sinchi toe
Stem and
root bark
2
2
Aerial part
1n
1n
1n
1n
Huacapú
Bark
5
0
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis and Piper callosum leaves
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. carthagenensis, Cornutia
microcalycina, Croton draconoides, Himatanthus sucuuba, Licaria sp. and Virola calophylla
Decoction (in 3 reports), Macerated in fresh water for some minutes (in 2 reports)
Mukura hembra,
Mukura macho
Guayusa macho or
hembra
Chakruna
n
For hunting and fishing
preparedness b (2)
Rheumatism (1n)
Rheumatism (1n)
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P.carthagenensis, Cornutia
microcalycina, Croton draconoides, Himatanthus sucuuba, Mikania sp. and Virola calophylla
Macerated in fresh water for some minutes
2
0
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis
Leaf
1n
1n Rheumatism (1n)
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis and Mansoa alliacea
Leaf
1n
1n
0
1n Lumbago (1n)
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi stems
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, Brugmansia suaveolens, Calliandra
angustifolia, Couroupita guianensis, Tovomita aff. stylosa and Zygia longifolia
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi stems
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, Cornutia microcalycina, Croton
draconoides, Himatanthus sucuuba, Licaria sp., Mikania sp. and Virola calophylla
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi stems
Psychotria carthagenensis Jacq.
(Rubiaceae) (C and W) (BCN 40292)
Yaku bushiklla,
Chakruna
Leaf
1n
1n
0
1n Rheumatism (1n)
Psychotria ernestii K. Krause
(Rubiaceae) (W) (BCN 40294)
Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav.
(Rubiaceae) (C) (BCN 40296)
Chakruna
Leaf
1n
0
Chakruna, Chakruna
negra
Leaf
21n
1n
5n For hunting and fishing
preparedness b (3n),
Stomach pains (2n)
1n Rheumatism (1n)
1n
1n
1n Rheumatism (1n)
1n Lumbago (1n)
1n
1n Tobacco & cocaine
addiction (1n)
0
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi stems and Psychotria viridis leaves
0
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis and Toxosiphon trifoliatus
1n Lumbago (1n)
Decocted w/ Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. alba, Brugmansia suaveolens,
Calliandra angustifolia, Couroupita guianensis & Zygia longifolia
Decocted w/ Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis & Rosenbergiodendron longiflorum
Pterocarpus rohrii Vahl (Fabaceae) (C)
(BCN 40159)
Rosenbergiodendron longiflorum (Ruiz
& Pav.) Fagerl. (Rubiaceae) (W) (BCN
40304)
Tovomita aff. stylosa Hemsl.
(Clusiaceae) (W) (BCN 44882)
Toxosiphon trifoliatus (Pilg.) Kallunki
(Rutaceae)(W)(JSB-145) c
Virola calophylla (Spruce) Warb.
(Myristicaceae) (W) (BCN 40115)
Zygia longifolia (Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Willd.) Britton & Rose (Fabaceae) (W)
(BCN 44887)
2n
Yawar kaspi
Bark
Lucero sacha
Whole plant 1n
Bachuja, Chullachaki
Bark
1n
kaspi/ hembra
Lucero sisa, Lucero sacha Whole plant 1n
0
Bark
1n
1n Rheumatism (1n)
Yaku or Untai shimbillu, Bark
Shimbillu
1n
1n Lumbago (1n)
Cumala roja
Decocted: w/ Banisteriopsis caapi (19n), w/ B. caapi & Gonzalagunia cornifolia (2n), w/ B.
caapi & Petiveria alliacea (2n), w/ B. caapi & Pterocarpus rohrii (2n), w/ B. caapi,
Rosenbergiodendron longifolium & Toxosiphon trifoliatus (1n)
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Cornutia microcalycina, Croton draconoides,
Himatanthus sucuuba, Licaria sp., Mikania sp., Psychotria carthagenensis and Virola
calophylla
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Mansoa alliacea and Piper callosum
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi, Brugmansia suaveolens, Calliandra angustifolia,
Couroupita guianensis, Psychotria alba, Tovomita aff. stylosa and Zygia longifolia
Decocted with Banisteriopsis caapi and Aristolochia leuconorrea
Decocted w/ Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. carthagenensis, Cornutia
microcalycina, Croton draconoides, Himatanthus sucuuba, Licaria sp. & Mikania sp.
Decocted w/ Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, P. alba, Brugmansia suaveolens,
Calliandra angustifolia, Couroupita guianensis & Tovomita aff. Stylosa
J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
Aerial part
a
Unspecific use reports were those which informants considered that the cleansing effect produced by depurative practices brought a general and unspecific tonic effects (see Table 3).
In Chazuta, it was common to endure depurative practices to achieve the necessary fitness to go out in hunting and fishing expeditions. Moreover, through the depurative effect most of the corporal scent was expected to
disappear, hence making human presence unnoticeable for wild animals which then become easier whether to hunt or fish.
c
BCN codes unavailable. Instead, the collection number, i.e., Jsb-xxx, is provided. If needed, a duplicate must be found in USM (Lima, Peru), where these specimens were yet to be entered.
b
71
72
Table 2
Plant remedies used in strict depurative practices in Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazon).
Scientific name (C¼ cultivated and/or
W¼ wild) (voucher herbarium
specimen)
Local name
Aspidosperma rigidum Rusby
Tashkum remo kaspi, Remo kaspi
(Apocynaceae) (W) (BCN 40686)
Ayawaska negra, A. amarilla, Purgawaska
Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.)
C. V. Morton (Malpighiaceae)
(C) (BCN 40135)
Specific use reportsn
Nn: repeated reports
Mode of preparation (Administration is oral)
Decocted with the root bark of
Tabernaemontana undulata
Bark
1
0
Stem
0
1
Pulmonary disease (1)
Decocted with Psychotria viridis leaves
Manchinga
Latex
0
3
Chirik sanango
Root
bark
1
13 Rheumatism (12), Inguinal herniab (1)
Shillinto blanco, Shillinto negro
Stem
1
4
Guayusa macho
Ullku guayusa
Parinari
Leaf
1
0
Bark
0
1
Munichi sacha
Leaf
2
0
Decoction
Millwa renaquillo, Millwa renaco, M.r.
macho, M.r. hembra, M.r. de hoja ancha,
M.r. de hoja pequeña
Mishki panka
Bark
1
0
Decoction
Leaf
0
1
For hunting and fishing preparednessd (1)
Infusion, for drinking and, in addition, bathing
8
Rheumatism (8)
Macerated in fresh water
Chuchuwasha Chuchuwasha Blanca
1
Stem
and root
bark
Bark
0
2
Inguinal herniab (1), Broken bones (1)
Macerated in fresh water
Stem
0
1
Inguinal herniab (1)
Decoction
0
1
Malaria (1)
Infusion
Guayusa macho, Guayusa hembra
Whole
plant
Leaf
2
0
Yanchama blanca, Yanchama negra
Latex
0
1
Heliconia acuminata Rich.
(Heliconiaceae) (W) (BCN 40361)
Mansoa alliacea (Lam.) A.H. Gentry
Ajo sacha macho/ hembra
(Bignoniaceae) (C and W) (BCN 40100)
Maytenus aff. macrocarpa (Ruiz & Pav.)
Briq. (Celastraceae) (W) (BCN 40217/
40218)
Phthirusa stelis (L.) Kuijt (Loranthaceae)
(C) (BCN 40133)
Physalis angulata L. (Solanaceae) (W)
(BCN 40877)
Piper callosum Ruiz & Pav. (Piperaceae)
(C and W) (BCN 40846)
Poulsenia armata (Miq.) Standl.
(Moraceae) (W) (BCN 40578)
Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav.
(Rubiaceae) (C) (BCN 40296)
Remijia megistocaula K. Krause
(Rubiaceae) (W) (BCN 40270)
Renealmia aromatica (Aubl.) Griseb.
(Zingiberaceae) (W) (BCN 40836)
Smilax longifolia Rich. (Smilacaceae)
(W) (BCN 40850)
Strychnos ramentifera Ducke
(Loganiaceae) (W) (USM 206354)
Unspecific use
reportsa
Nn: repeated
reports a
Suelda con suelda de hoja menuda, Pishku
isman de hoja menuda
Bolsa mullaka
Rheumatism (3)
One spoonful of the latex is mixed with warm
water
Macerated in fresh water
Abscess (1), Leishmaniosisc (1), Tumors (1), AIDS (1) The crushed stem, (sometimes previously
roasted), is macerated in fresh water. Normally,
a single dose is given
Infusion
Tumors (1)
Decocted with Remijia megistocaula, Smilax
longifolia and Trichilia maynasiana
Infusion
n
Rheumatism (1)
A few spoonfuls are mixed with warm water
n
Pulmonary disease (1 )
Chakruna, Chakruna negra
Leaf
0
1
Capirona blanca
Bark
0
1n Tumors (1n)
Ñukñuk panka
Leaf
0
1
Zarza, Zarzaparrilla
Root
0
1n Tumors (1n)
Suifa, Waska chuchuwasha
Stem
0
1
For hunting and fishing preparednessd (1)
Malaria (1)
Decocted with crushed stems of Banisteriopsis
caapi
Decocted with Couepia chrysocalyx, Smilax
longifolia and Trichilia maynasiana
Infusion, for drinking and, in addition, bathing
Decocted with Couepia chrysocalyx, Remijia
megistocaula and Trichilia maynasiana.
Decoction
J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
Brosimum alicastrum subsp.
bolivarense (Pittier) C.C. Berg
(Moraceae) (C and W) (BCN 40699)
Brunfelsia grandiflora subsp.
grandiflora (Solanaceae) (C) (BCN
40340)
Callaeum antifebrile (Griseb.) D. M.
Johnson (Malpighiaceae) (C and W)
(BCN 40246)
Calyptranthes bipennis O. Berg
(Myrtaceae) (C) (BCN 40119)
Couepia chrysocalyx (Poepp.) Benth. ex
Hook. f. (Chrysobalanaceae) (W) (BCN
44897)
Esenbeckia amazonica Kaastra
(Rutaceae) (W) (BCN 40831)
Ficus trigona L.f. (Moraceae) (C and W)
(BCN 40702)
Part
used
Strychnos solimoesana Krukoff
(Loganiaceae) (W) (USM 206381)
Tabernaemontana sananho Ruiz & Pav.
(Apocynaceae) (C and W) (BCN40859)
Tabernaemontana undulata Vahl
(Apocynaceae) (C and W) (BCN 40725)
Tovomita brasiliensis (Mart.) Walp.
(Clusiaceae) (W) (BCN 45070)
Tovomita aff. stylosa Hemsl.
(Clusiaceae) (W) (BCN 44882)
Suifa, Waska chuchuwasha
Stem
0
1
Rheumatism (1)
Decoction
b
5
5
Rheumatism (3), Inguinal hernia (1), Vermifuge (1) Macerated in fresh water
1
1n
0
3
0
1
Rheumatism (2), Malaria (1)
Bachuja, Chullachaki kaspi, C. k. macho
Root
bark
Root
bark
Bark
Bachuja, Chullachaki kaspi, C. k. hembra
Bark
17
Bark
0
17 Rheumatism (7), Broken bones (5), Abscess (1),
Inguinal herniab (1), Leishmaniosisc (1), Vaginal
pains (1), Urine infection (1)
1n Tumors (1n)
Uchu sanango
Ushpawasha sanango, Ayac sanango
Trichilia maynasiana C. DC. (Meliaceae) Shatunillu
(W) (BCN 44884)
Rheumatism (1)
Decocted or macerated in fresh water.
Decocted with the bark of Aspidosperma rigidum.
Macerated with other plants to conform a
particular Bachuja mixturee.
Decocted (18) or macerated in fresh water (16),
with other plants to conform the plant mixture
known as Bachujaf.
Decocted with Couepia chrysocalyx, Remijia
megistocaula and Smilax longifolia.
a
Unspecific use reports were those which informants considered that the cleansing effect produced by depurative practices brought a general and unspecific tonic effect (see Table 3).
We consider that the disorder known in Chazuta as bajada de testos (descendent testicles) refers to inguinal hernia. It is a much prevalent ailment among ‘‘Chazutian’’ men that is usually caused when carrying heavy
weights.
c
We consider that the disease known in Chazuta as uta refers to leishmaniosis. Even though it is rare in Chazuta, individuals who spend days deep inside the forest (normally involved in illegal tree felling) are especially
prone to leishmania infection.
d
In Chazuta, it was common to endure depurative practices to achieve the necessary fitness to go out in hunting and fishing expeditions. Moreover, through the depurative effect most of the corporal scent was expected to
disappear, hence making human presence unnoticeable for wild animals which then become easier whether to hunt or fish.
e
This particular Bachuja mixture is prepared by macerating the bark of Tovomita brasiliensis with the following plants: Calliandra angustifolia Spruce ex Benth. (Fabaceae) (BCN 40154) (1 report), Clusia aff. palmicida Rich.
ex Planch. and Triana (Clusiaceae) (BCN 44874) (1), Erythroxylum sp. (Erythroxylaceae) (BCN 40234) (1), Ficus nymphaeifolia Mill. (Moraceae) (BCN 40638) (1), Ficus vs. paraensis (Miq.) Miq. (Moraceae) (BCN 40711) (1), Ficus
ypsilophlebia Dugand (Moraceae) (BCN 40580) (1), Tovomita cf. longifolia (Rich.) Hochr. (Clusiaceae) (BCN 44878) (1) and Zygia longifolia (Humb. and Bonpl. ex Willd.) Britton and Rose (Fabaceae) (BCN 44887) (1).
f
Bachuja mixtures are either macerations in fresh water or decoctions of Tovomita aff. stylosa bark with the following plants: Tovomita foldatsii Cuello (Clusiaceae) (BCN 44883) (29 reports), Calliandra angustifolia Spruce ex
Benth. (Fabaceae) (BCN 40154) (20), Maytenus aff. macrocarpa (Ruiz & Pav.) Briq. (Celastraceae) (BCN 40217/40218) (13), Zygia longifolia (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Britton & Rose (Fabaceae) (BCN 44887) (13), Allosanthus
trifoliolatus Radlk. (Sapindaceae) (BCN 40140) (12), Petrea sp. (Verbenaceae) (BCN 40266) (12), Clusia aff. lineata (Benth.) Planch. & Triana (Clusiaceae) (BCN 44873) (10), Dicranopygium aff. lugonis Harling (Cyclanthaceae) (BCN
40083) (10), Dicranopygium yacu-sisa Harling (Cyclanthaceae) (BCN 40082) (10), Rourea puberula Baker (Connaraceae) (BCN 40691) (7), Ficus trigona L.f. (Moraceae) (BCN 40702) (6), Clusia aff. loretensis Engl. (Clusiaceae) (BCN
44872) (4), Salacia cordata (Miers) Mennega (Celastraceae) (BCN 40566) (4), Ficus caballina Standl. (Moraceae) (BCN40710) (3), Ruellia proxima Lindau (Acanthaceae) (BCN 40220) (3), Ardisia huallagae Mez (Myrsinaceae) (BCN
40226) (2), Clusia sp.2. (Clusiaceae) (JSB24)g (2), Clusia sp.3. (Clusiaceae) (USM 207186) (2), Clusia sp.4. (Clusiaceae) (JSB-261)g (2), Eugenia biflora (L.) DC. (Myrtaceae) (BCN 40110) (2), Ficus casapiensis (Miq.) Miq. (Moraceae)
(BCN 40647) (2), Aspidosperma rigidum Rusby (Apocynaceae) (BCN 40686) (1), Asplundia sp. (Cyclanthaceae) (JSB263)g (1), Capparis sola J.F. Macbr. (Capparaceae) (BCN 46106) (1), Carpotroche aff. longifolia (Poepp.) Benth.
(Flacourtiaceae) (BCN 40258) (1), Casearia sp. (Flacourtiaceae) (BCN 40087) (1), Chomelia paniculata (Bartl. ex DC.) Steyerm. (Rubiaceae) (BCN 40305) (1), Chrysochlamys ulei Engl. (Clusiaceae) (BCN 40227) (1), Clusia aff. flavida
(Benth.) Pipoly (Clusiaceae) (BCN 45073) (1), Clusia aff. palmicida Rich. ex Planch. & Triana (Clusiaceae) (BCN 44874) (1), Clusia sp.1. (Clusiaceae) (JSB271)g (1), Clusia sp.5. (Clusiaceae) (JSB-469)g (1), Condaminea corymbosa (Ruiz
& Pav.) DC. (Rubiaceae) (BCN40271) (1), Copaifera paupera (Herzog) Dwyer (Fabaceae) (BCN 40153) (1), Coussarea brevicaulis K. Krause (Rubiaceae) (BCN 40310) (1), Doliocarpus aff. dentatus (Aubl.) Standl. (Dilleniaceae) (BCN
40192) (1), Ficus americana subsp. guianensis (Desv. ex Ham.) C.C. Berg (Moraceae) (USM 206345) (1), Ficus eximia Schott (Moraceae) (BCN 40697) (1), Ficus macbridei Standl. (Moraceae) (BCN 40696) (1), Ficus vs. maxima Mill.
(Moraceae) (BCN 40639) (1), Ficus obtusifolia Kunth. (Moraceae) (BCN 208763) (1), Ficus pertusa L.f. (Moraceae) (BCN 40694) (1), Ficus tonduzii Standl. (Moraceae) (BCN 40648) (1), Ficus ypsilophlebia Dugand (Moraceae) (BCN
40580) (1), Forsteronia graciloides Woodson (Apocynaceae) (BCN 40684) (1), Garcinia madruno (Kunth) Hammel (Clusiaceae) (JSB-139)g (1), Heteropsis flexuosa (Kunth) G.S. Bunting (Araceae) (BCN 40328) (1), Hevea guianensis
Aubl. (Euphorbiaceae) (BCN 40260) (1), Hippotis tubiflora Spruce ex K. Schum. (Rubiaceae) (BCN 40277) (1), Inga ruiziana G. Don (Fabaceae) (BCN 44889) (1), Inga semialata (Vell.) Mart. (Fabaceae) (BCN 44885) (1), Marcgravia cf.
crenata Poepp. ex Wittm. (Marcgraviaceae) (JSB-250)g (1), Matelea rivularis Woodson (Asclepiadaceae) (BCN 40332) (1), Maxillaria sp. (Orchidaceae) (JSB-159)g (1), Phthirusa stelis (L.) Kuijt (Loranthaceae) (BCN 40133) (1),
Psittacanthus cucullaris (Lam.) Blume (Loranthaceae) (BCN 40313) (1), Psychotria carthagenensis Jacq. (Rubiaceae) (BCN 40292) (1), Rinorea viridifolia Rusby (Violaceae) (BCN 46108) (1), Sida setosa Mart. ex Colla (Malvaceae) (BCN
44891) (1), Solanum monadelphum Van Heurck & Müll. Arg. (Solanaceae) (JSB-259)g (1), Strychnos ramentifera Ducke (Loganiaceae) (USM 206354) (1), Swartzia arborescens (Aubl.) Pittier (Fabaceae) (BCN 40173) (1), Swartzia
simplex (Sw.) Spreng. (Fabaceae) (W) (BCN 40172) (1), Tovomita carinata Eyma (Clusiaceae) (BCN 44877) (1), Toxosiphon trifoliatus (Pilg.) Kallunki (Rutaceae) (JSB-145)g (1) and Unonopsis sp. (Annonaceae) (W) (BCN 40720) (1).
g
BCN and USM codes unavailable. Instead, the collection number, i.e., Jsb-xxx, is provided. If needed, a duplicate must be found in USM (Lima, Peru), where these specimens were yet to be entered.
b
J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
73
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J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
seclusion and the restriction of the ingestion of salt are often
prescribed. They are longer in time than mild depurative practices
and usually a plant remedy is ingested multiple times. For this
second type of depurative practices, which are shown in Table 2,
we obtained 98 reports.
These more severe depurative practices are known as strict
diets and have been the study subject in a previous paper (SanzBiset and Cañigueral, 2011). Informants stressed that the
intention to take emetic remedies and to fast was again to
produce this general cleansing effect considered medicinally
beneficial by itself. It is common sense to see that the rejection
of salt in such regimes may participate in the depurative effect as
this restriction clearly enhances diuresis as well as other corporal
secretions such as perspiration. The plant remedy known by
informants as either bachuja or mezcla de palos was the most
reported (34 times) in the survey for being taken in strict diets. It
is a plant mixture that always contain species of the genus
Tovomita (Clusiaceae) (Fig. 3) and which locals consider as the
panacea of Chazuta.
3.4. Uses of depurative practices and the function of plants
Depurative practices in the traditional medicine of Chazuta are
used either to restore health or to maintain it. Even though we
expected informants to bring in strong irrational beliefs to explain
the function of their vomiting and starvation practices, the main
argument they put forward persistently was the concept that
cleansing, whether through emesis or by restricting food, was
salutiferous. In addition, in Chazuta informants also stressed that
if plants were to be used for curing, the necessary dieta was
needed to be followed. In some occasions, fasting was said to be
the main cure and plant remedies just used to complement it. In a
way, the fact that vomiting and starving was not avoided but
desired, left us puzzled at the beginning, as it seemed to contradict our conventional western medical beliefs on health and
healing.
Depurative practices reported in Chazuta were employed
against different ailments prevalent in the region. The most
common diseases in Chazuta have an infectious aetiology due to
the tropical climate and lack of sewer systems. Musculoskeletal
ailments are also frequent, due to the rural lifestyle. However, in
many occasions depurative practices were employed to tone and
strengthen the body, thus to cope better with the labour of being
a chacarero (farmer), montaraz (hunter) and mitayero (rural
worker in general). These terms partially compile the region’s
view of a capable, strong and healthy individual, i.e., someone
able to sustain his/her family and clan, which until recently
mainly depended upon the food harvested from the orchards,
the animals hunted in the jungle and fished in the rivers, as well
as upon the maintenance of a certain social balance (Salas-Fasabi,
2001; Weiss, 1949). It is considered that the cleansing produced
by these practices brings a more general tonic effect expressed in
Chazuta in ways such as: (a) augmenting work performance, (b)
enhancing endurance (hacerse más bizarro), (c) increasing weight
carrying, (d) extending cold resistance, (e) sharpening the senses,
(f) lessening sluggishness (dejar de ser arragán), (g) preventing
illnesses, or (h) improving sexual function.
The wide range of medicinal uses recorded for these practices,
which can be separated as either being specific (103 reports) or
unspecific (88), are shown in Table 3.
Determining the function of plants in depurative practices is
less straightforward as, often, precise plant activities can not be
Fig. 3. Tovomita aff. stylosa with a single stilt root (left), and Tovomita foldatsii showing multiple stilt roots (right). Both are the plants most employed in the strict
depurative practices in Chazuta valley.
J. Sanz-Biset, S. Cañigueral / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 67–76
75
Table 3
Medicinal uses reported in the 191 depurative practices recorded in Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazon).
Specific medicinal uses recorded (103 reports)
Unspecific medicinal uses recorded (88 reports)
Rheumatism (40 reports)
For hunting and fishing preparedness (11)
Febrifuge (7), malaria (3)
Broken bones (6), inguinal hernia (5)
Cough (5), bronchitis (5)
Vermifuge (5), stomach pains (2)
Tobacco and cocaine addiction (2)
Abscesses (2), leishmaniosis (2)
Tumors (2)
Urine infection (2), vaginal pains (1)
Lumbago (1)
Pulmonary disease (1)
AIDS (1)
Depurative tonic
Cleansing tonic
Tonic
To augment work performance
To enhance endurance (hacerse más bizarro)
To increase weight carrying
To extend cold resistance
To sharpen the senses
To lessen sluggishness (dejar de ser arragán)
To prevent illnesses
To improve sexual function
directly associated. In some cases plants are considered to play an
important role in depurative practices used against specific
ailments, mainly diseases where pain, inflammation and infection
are present. Indeed, many plants employed in strict depurative
practices are known to harbour activities such as antinflammatory and antimicrobial (Sanz-Biset and Cañigueral, 2011).
Nevertheless, the broadness of the use reports obtained is
maintained in depurative practices—either these being mild or
strict, either these using one plant remedy or another. Thus, once
the depurative effect is induced, Chazutians expect this wide
array of medicinal effects from it. A similar pattern applies for the
plants employed in these practices, where the depuration considered to produce the broad spectrum of medicinal effects is
fundamentally triggered by the stimulation of emesis.
The broadness of the use reports, the high number of unspecific uses reported and the fact that the induction of emesis is a
common factor for the plants used suggest the involvement of
adaptive stress responses in depurative practices and also support
considering plants as medicinal stressors, that is, as inducers of
beneficial levels of stress. Bearing in mind plants as medicinal
stressors can lead to targeting different bioactivities.
In addition, a quick look at the plants mostly used in Chazuta’s
depurative practices clearly indicates the likely presence of CNS
activity, especially in those plants belonging to the Apocynaceae,
Clusiaceae, Loganiaceae, Malpighiaceae, Solanaceae and Rubiaceae
families. Species of those botanical families were involved in 127
depurative practices reports (66% of all). It is clear that CNS
activity could take part into the whole activation of the stress
system. Also, a psychological aspect may contribute to the use of
such drastic practices that depurations are. When the body is put
under such pressure, whether through vomiting or starving, the
state of the mind may be expected to follow a particular pattern
where CNS plant activity may have its role.
4. Conclusions
Overall, 191 depurative practices were reported in Chazuta
using 114 different plant species which were recorded and
identified. These practices can be classified as mild (93 reports)
or strict (98) depending on how severe in restrictions and
prolonged in time they are. By inducing moderate stress through
emesis and calorie restriction and within safe levels, depurative
practices in Chazuta could produce adaptive responses that
would protect against the detrimental consequences of chronic
stress and stress-related diseases. This hypothesis could help to
understand the diversity of the medicinal uses that we recorded
in the field, either specific (103 reports) or unspecific (88). The
experimental data shown in this paper supports considering plant
remedies used in these practices in Chazuta as ‘‘medicinal
stressors’’ as through vomiting the necessary neuroendocrine
stress activation would be produced. In addition, CNS activity
and other bioactivities that plants may harbour could converge
with the whole stress reactivity process.
Acknowledgements
To the people of Chazuta that were happy to share with us
their knowledge; and to José Campos de la Cruz, Mirbel Epiquien
Rivera and the other botanists who helped in the plant
determination.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in
the online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.09.053.
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