International Journal of Scientific Research in Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.10, Issue.2, pp.34-45, February 2024 E-ISSN: 2454-9312 P-ISSN: 2454-6143 Available online at: www.isroset.org Review Article Englerophytum Magalismontanum Sond. T.D. Penn (Sapotaceae): A Review of Its Botany, Nutritional Profile and Ethnomedicinal Potential Kaone Kgotla Mokwena1* 1 Dept. of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana *Corresponding Author: kaonekgotlamokwena@gmail.com Received: 02/Jan/2024; Accepted: 30/Jan/2024; Published: 29/Feb/2024 Abstract— Indigenous plants possess immense potential to play a vital role in resolving the intercontinental challenges relating to issues of food security, climate crisis, and loss of biodiversity. However, their utilization remains considerably low, which represents an unnoticed opportunity in their exploitation. Unlocking the potential of these plants requires extensive research, investment and knowledge dissemination to increase awareness of their numerous benefits and to cultivate a market demand for their products. Of the few, Englerophytum magalismontanum remains one of the underutilized indigenous plants capable of aiding many indigenous communities as a nutritional and pharmacological source. It is a tropical and sub-tropical indigenous plant that holds an immeasurable value as a food and medicinal source. Therefore, this review paper stands to extensively summarize researches that have been linked to the botany, ethnobotany, nutritional profile and ethonopharmacological potential of Englerophytum magalismontanum from all parts of the world to help encourage awareness and full exploitation of this plant species. Keywords— Indigenous plants, Engelophytum magalismontanum, Ethnobotany, Nutritional profile, Phytochemistry, Ethnophamacology 1. Introduction The role of indigenous plants (IPs) as potential sources of food and pharmacotherapy has been the backbone of many cultures and cultural activities around the globe. For as long as it can be recalled, ancient people who were hunter gathers that moved from place to place have been surviving from food and pharmacological sources exploited from indigenous plants. These plants have since then became and instilled a sense of belonging and cultural value for different communities around the world. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization Global Forest Resource Assessment of 2020 (1), the total area covered by forests around the globe is around 4.06 billion hectares of land, which equates to a total of 31% of the total land area. Due to such a vast amount of area covered by forests, this has contributed to the phenomenon of plant blindness, which can be perceived as the failure of humans to recognize plants in everyday life (2). Even though that is the case, many indigenous communities still continue to exploit these plants as potential sources of food, textiles, energy, timber and pharmacological therapy (3). The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that more than 80% of the total world population depends on medicinal plants for their primary medical needs. These plants have been deemed safer and more cost-effective © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved therapeutic agents than their synthetic counterparts. Particularly, they have been indicated to be sources of vast amounts of biologically active compounds which some may refer to as phytochemicals, that continue to aid in curing and alleviating many diseases and illnesses. With the irregular supply of pharmaceutical drugs especially in developing countries around the world as well as the increasing and worrisome issues surrounding antimicrobial resistance to synthetic drugs, IPs portraying pharmacological potential have since been seen as the limelight for disease prevention and alleviation, and has led to a rise in the manufacturing of medicinal plant products whose market value is expected to exceed $5 trillion by 2050 (4). Selected phytochemicals such as tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids and terpenoids have been thoroughly studied and proven to exhibit different pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antidiabetic and carminative potential (5-8). Other than their medicinal value, in countries with high industrialization sectors, which often tend to be the most susceptible to different environmental contaminations by heavy metals like mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and arsenic (As), which can result in detrimental health effects, IPs have also lately been an area of interest as potential environmental remediates through a process known as phytoremediation (9-11). As the world continues to experience and grapple with issues of drought and hunger, indigenous fruit-bearing trees (IFBTs) 34 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies have continued to extend a helping hand and aid as potential nutritional agents for both macro and micronutrient inadequacies and deficiencies (12, 13). From to a recent study by (14), it is estimated that more than 95 % of households in the African continent continue to rely on indigenous plants as a source of food and nutritional support. These plants have been indicated to impact the food and nutritional security status of many communities if thoroughly exploited (12, 1518) and this is even more evident in periods of extreme famine (18). Among many underutilized IPs, Englerophytum magalismontanum has been one of the potential IP species capable of supporting many indigenous communities as a nutritional and pharmacological source. It is a tropical and sub-tropical IP species that has been and continues to exhibit ecological significance and a potential food and medicinal source, making it the subject of great interest for researchers and conservationists. Therefore, this review paper aims to extensively summarize research that has been linked to the botany, ethnobotany, nutritional profile and ethnomedicinal potential of Englerophytum magalismontanum from all parts of the world. Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 (23) (Fig. 1). From these three subfamilies, most of the family species are found in Chrysophylloideae (24). The Sapotaceae family is mainly composed flowering plants such trees and shrubs with their highest diversity found in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and South America (25). The flowers of this family have been described to be either bisexual or unisexual, with bisexual flowers dominating in the Sapotoideae subfamily (26). Plants in this family are often categorized by their slow growth rate and canopy like structure which provides ideal shading (27). Some trees and shrubs in this family have been indicated to produce different edible fruits of nutritional and pharmacological value (21). Even though that is the case, taxonomy and classification of these plant family species has been highlighted to be quite difficult due to high morphological homoplasious (24, 28). 2. Methodology The literature compiled on the botany, ethnobotany, nutritional profile, and medicinal potential of Englerophytum magalismontanum was retrieved from original research articles, books, websites and theses dating from 1966 – 2023 from different databases such as Google scholar, Sabinet, Pubmed and Wiley online library. Different keywords such as indigenous plants, Englerophytum magalismontanum, Transvaal milkplum, Bequaertiodendron magalismontanum have been used as search keywords in those databases for information retrieval. Articles from which information has been derived from were referenced using endnote 20, a reference management software package. Original plant images presented in this review were taken by the author and an additional image was sourced from (https://treesa.org/). All the data was summarized into 8 tables and 5 figures and arranged and tabulated by using Microsoft Office. 3. Taxonomy, botanical description, distribution and vernacular names. 3.1 Taxonomy Englerophytum magalismontanum (Sond.) T.D.Penn, is an indigenous evergreen fruit-bearing tree that is small to medium in size from a family of Sapotaceae (19) and sub family Chrysophylloideae (20). The family name sapota, was configured by a Swedish botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus (23 Mar 1707 – 10 Jan 1778) from the Mexican vernacular name for one of the plants known as zapota (21). It has been hypothesized that this plant family has migrated through the NALB early Eocene into the African continent from regions of Asia and South America (22). The Sapotaceae family belongs to the order of Ericales which consists of 58 genera and roughly 1250 species (22), which are divided into the three subfamilies being Chrysophylloideae, Sapotoideae, and Sarcospermatoideae © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved Fig 1. Sapoteaceae family classification The name Englerophytum is derived from the name of the first collector of the plant, who was a reputed German taxonomist and biogeographer, Mr Gustav Heinrich Adolf Engler (25 Mar 1844 – 10 Oct 1930), while Magalismontanum essentially means the tree was first discovered in the mountains of Magaliesberg in northern South Africa (29). This genera together with the Synsepalum form a monophyletic group (29). According to (20), the genus Englerophytum has approximately 19 species, of which 14 were initially recognized by the World checklist of Sapotaceae (WCSP) (30), and later increased to 19 after identification of 5 new species in the Englerophytum genus (31) (Table 1). Englerophytum magalismontanum has at various times in the past has been attributed different species names such as Bequaertiodendron magalismontanum, Pachystela magalismontana, Chrysophyllum magalismontanum, Pouteria magalismontana and Zeyherella magalismontana before finally being classified as Englerophytum magalismontanum (32). 35 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 Table 1: Englerophytum genus reported Species Name Englerophytum paludosum Englerophytum gigantifolium Englerophytum libenii Englerophytum sylverianum Englerophytum ferrugineum Englerophytum magalismontanum Englerophytum natalense Englerophytum congolense Englerophytum iturense Englerophytum koulamoutouense Englerophytum laurentii Englerophytum letestui Englerophytum longipedicellatum Englerophytum mayumbense Englerophytum oblanceolatum Englerophytum oubanguiense Englerophytum rwandense Englerophytum somiferanum Englerophytum stelechanthum Reference (31) (30) 3.2 Botanical description Englerophytum magalismontanum is an indigenous fruit bearing tree also conferring pharmacological potential, that varies from a height of 3-10 meters which is influenced by the type of habitat it grows in (33) (Fig. 2). It arises from the milkwood family (34, 35) due to its ability to secret a milky latex when its fruits are picked from it (36). E. magalismontanum is characterized by ellipsoid to roundish fruits (19) ranging from a length of 15-25 mm and a diameter of 10-18 mm that ripens to assume a bright reddish to pinkish colour (37) (Fig. 3). Its fruits are mostly single seeded (38) but some double seeded fruits can also be discovered (36) (Fig 4). The fruits are produced by the female version of the plant (39) and are peculiar by their ability to form on the stem of the plants hence the common name Stamvrug (Afrikaans). According to a study done in South Africa by (37), E. magalismontanum fruits are one of the few fruits that are available for harvesting during winter months (May - July). This plant is attributed by small brownish, star-shaped like unpleasantly scented flowers that start flowering from June to December and begin the ripening process from December to January (40). It also has a light brown or greyish scaly bark that tends to develop cracks as the tree ages (36). Its leaves are golden brown and about 25 mm broad and 50-75 mm long (36), that are often located at the end of the brachlets and gradually develop into glossy dark to blue-green older leaves covered with a whitish powdery surface (37, 41). The underside of the leaves however, is layered with golden brown silky hairs (37, 41). Fig 2: E. magalismontanum tree (Photo: K.K Mokwena) © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved Fig 3: Ripe fruits of E. magalismontanum (https://treesa.org/) Fig 4: Englerophytum magalismontanum seeds (Photo: K.K. Mokwena) 3.3 Distribution E. magalismontanum has been reported in different countries in southern Africa, such as South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Eswatini (formely known as Swaziland), Malawi, Zambia, Angola and Mozambique (20). Its distribution also extends to the eastern, western and central part of the African continent to countries such as Tanzania, Guinea, Nigeria, Bennin, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire and Congo, Cameroon and Gabon (42, 43) (Fig. 5). In South Africa where E. magalismontanum has been extensively studied, it can be found in areas such as Gauteng, North West, Mpumalanga, Limpopo, and the northern part of KwaZulu-Natal (19, 33, 44, 45), while in neighbouring countries such as Botswana, E. magalismontanum has been reported in different areas in the south-eastern areas such as Kanye, Ranaka, Ntlhantlhe and Pitsaneng (34). It has been reported to grow in a variety of habitats such as hilly and rocky areas on well dry and drained slopes areas (37, 41) as well as areas characterized by outcrops of quartz or granite rocks (46), at altitudes between 550m and 2000m (37, 41). E. magalismontanum has been reported to exhibited desirable climatic resiliance such as resistance to drought, frost and fire (47). From a study involving indigenous plants in communal and protected areas in Thulamela Municipality of the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve in South Africa, several indigenous plant species have been indicated to dominate both areas, with E. magalismontanum being the most dominant indigenous species in protected areas (41). 36 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 for animals and humans respectively (36, 39, 41, 45, 47, 5154). These products are produced from the sweet and slightly astringent pulp of the fruits. Different techniques for product preparation have been used, for example, Englerophytum magalismontanum jelly is prepared by boiling the fruits for about 10 – 15 minutes followed by addition of sugar equivalent to juice and further boiling for about 30 minutes, finally the mixture is then cooled and allowed to gel (47). On the other hand, its wood is used for carving different utensils such as cooking spoons, bull sticks, milking buckets and implement handles (39, 55) . Additionally, the wood can also be used as a fencing material, hut building material and as a fuel source (41). E. magalismontanum also holds spiritual significance in certain African cultures, its lichen has been reported to call on ancestral spirits during malombo (Vhasenzi) or mbila (Vhalemba) Vhavenda ancestral cults (45, 55). Fig 5: Countries Englerophytum magalismontanum has been reported 3.4 Vernacular names of E. magalismontanum Englerophytum magalismontanum is commonly known as Transvaal milkplum/ stem fruit in English, Motlhatswa in Setswana, Mahlatswa in Sepedi, Munombelo in Vhavenda, Amanumbela in Zulu, UmNumbela in Swati, and Stamvrug in Afrikaans, referring to the fruits’ ability to form on the ‘stem’ or ‘trunk’ of the plant (19, 44, 45, 48-50). Due to South Africa having a long list of vernacular names reported by different sources, it is clearly evident that there is a lot of ethnobotanical research on indigenous plants particularly E. magalismontanum as compared in other countries where E. magalismontanum is a native plant. 4. Ethnobotanical uses of E. magalismontanum Englerophytum magalismontanum is not only nutritionally rich but also a versatile fruit in culinary applications. Its unique flavor profile, reminiscent of tropical fruits with a custard-like texture, blends itself well to juices, smoothies, jams, and dessert recipes. The ethnobotanical uses of E. magalismontanum have been well-documented within indigenous communities, especially in South Africa where a lot of researches have been done pertaining this plant (Table 2). The transfer of ethnobotanical knowledge related to E. magalismontanum is deeply rooted in the oral traditions of indigenous communities through stories, folklore and the elderly passing down their wisdom and expertise on the uses and conservation of this plant. This plant holds a significant cultural value within indigenous communities through the exploitation of its fruits and wood for different ethnobotanical practices and beliefs. Table 2 provides a summary of E. magalismontanum ethnobotanical use as well as plant parts used in different indigenous communities. From the entire E. magalismontanum plant, its fruits are the most exploited for ethnobotanical use. The fruits are used for the production of different products such as a non-alcoholic beverage (Juice), alcoholic beverage (beer, brandy, wine), jam, syrup, porridge flavourant and as a general food source © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved Table 2. Ethnobotanical uses of Englerophytum magalismontanum Ethnobotanical use Plant part used Reference Juice Beer, fermented beverage/ alcoholic drink Cooking spoons Fruits Fruits (45, 51, 52) (39, 45, 47, 48, 52) Wood (45, 48) Call on ancestral spirits during malombo and mbila cults Fuel source Wild food source Porridge flavourant Jam or jelly Wine Brandy Syrup Decorative garden plant Fencing poles Implement handles Hut building Milking buckets Bull sticks Lichen (45, 55) Wood fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Whole plant (41) (36, 39, 41, 47, 53) (36, 54) (36, 39, 47, 51) (36, 39, 51) (36, 39) (36, 39) (39, 47, 56) Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood (39) (39) (39) (39) (55) 4.1 Propagation of E. magalismontanum E. magalismontanum can be used as a decorative plant in many indigenous homes in Africa (39, 47). To help prevent nutritional variations due to geographical locations, efforts have been made by the Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops on propagation trials and genetic selection of E. magalismontanum plants (37). Previously, this plant has been successfully regenerated directly from its seeds and other plant cuttings (36, 39). Concerning seed propagation, fresh clean seeds are the best for rapid and uniform germination with an average germination period of 37 days (36, 56). Controlled watering must be strictly adhered to because the seeds are prone to decay (56). Furthermore, (56) indicated that the best sowing medium is one-third each of 50% local peat, 50% crushed charcoal (pH 6.5) and a course river sand, with the best sowing time being in January. For adaptable growth in soils as a decorative garden plant, the pH of the soil should be kept low since E. magalismontanum thrives more 37 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies in acidic soils (56). Just like any plant species, E. magalismontanum fruits are prone to pest infestation most probably due to their sweetness and bright colour. They are more vulnerable to fruit fly attack (39), particularly mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitate and natal fruit fly, Ceratitis rosa (57) as well as other insect species like Bahiria ximeniata and Nola poliotis (37). 5.0 Nutritional Profile of E. magalismontanum 5.1 Proximate Composition of E. magalismontanum fruits A comprehensive understanding of the nutritional profile has become increasingly relevant in modern society due to the escalating prevalence of chronic diseases and the undeniable link between diet and health. E. magalismontanum, with its exceptional nutritional value and abundance of bioactive compounds, holds substantial potential to be used for functional food development. The nutritional analysis reported on E. magalismontanum fruits indicates variations from one source to the other which can be brought about by different factors such as environmental variations, variation in the place of origin, analytical methods used, soil composition and even differences in the fruits ripening stages (58) hence not ideal for product commercialization (37). In this review, comparison of the nutritional profile was made between infants less than 6 months of age and male and female adults above 70 years of age because they are mostly susceptible to nutrient deficiencies. The moisture content of Englerophytum magalismontanum fruits varies between 88.11 g/100g and 77.7 g/100g (40, 46) as presented in Table 3 . Moisture content is an index of water activity that influences the processibility, storability and overall quality of a product (59). The analytical method used can have a role in moisture content determination, justifying the differences in the results reported, but as to how the moisture content was determined is not documented by both authors. The ash content of E. magalismontanum fruits varies between 2.05 g/100g and 0.5 g/100g (40, 46) as presented in Table 3. The ash content is an index of mineral content, and as to how it was determined is not documented by both authors. Other than the analytical method used, the difference in the ash content may be due to differences in geographical location, stage of maturity and soil type (60). The ash content in this study is more than that reported by (40) who reported 20.42mg/100g for C. macrocarpa and less than that reported by (61) who reported 11.2g/100g for Ximenia caffra. The protein content of E. magalismontanum fruits slightly varies between 0.83 g/100g and 0.9 g/100g (40, 46) as presented in Table 3. From the values presented, E. magalismontanum fruits cannot referred to as good sources of proteins considering they cannot meet the recommended protein intake for infants less than 6 months of age (12.5g/d) and those of females (53g/d) and male (47g/d) adults above 70 years of age (40, 46). The protein content in this study is more than that reported by (40) who reported 6.98 mg/100g for H. lucida.and less than that reported by (61) who reported 17g/100g for Trichilia emetic. © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 The fiber content of the fruits also varies between 5.60 g/100g and 1.3 g/100g (40, 46) as also presented in Table 3. The fiber content recorded from E. magalismontanum fruits is insufficient to meet the recommended fiber intake for females (21g/d) and male (30g/d) adults above 70 years of age (40, 46). The fiber content in this study is more than that reported by (40) who reported 29.89mg/100g for P. reclinata and less than that reported by (61) who reported 45.3g/100g for Azanza garckeana The fat content presented by (40, 46) was 0.31 g/100g and 0.4 g/100g respectively, which is not significant comparing the two reported results. The fat content in this study is more than that reported by (40) who reported 7.75mg/100g for S. guineense and less than that reported by (61) who reported 31.2g/100g for Strychnos spinosa. Fats play a vital role in maintaining optimal bodily functions and have been associated with numerous health benefits such as reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and promoting brain function. The carbohydrate content of E. magalismontanum fruits significantly varies between the two results, 3.10 g/100g and 19.2 g/100g, reported in Table 3. From these results, it can be concluded that Englerophytum magalismontanum fruits cannot be considered as good sources of carbohydrates considering they provide less carbohydrates that the recommended carbohydrates intake for infants less than 6 months of age (60g/d) and those of females (175g/d) and male (130g/d) adults above 70 years of age (40, 46). The carbohydrate content in this study is more than that reported by (40) who reported 36.98 mg/100 g for H. lucida and less than that reported by (61) who reported 88.2g/100g for Parinari curatellifolia The energy content (18.51 Kj/100g) also recorded from E. magalismontanum fruits indicates that the fruits are poor sources of energy based on the recommended energy intake for infants less than 6 months of age (515 Kcal/d) and those of females (1810 Kcal/d) and male (2100 Kcal/d) adults above 70 years of age (40, 46). The reported energy content of fruits is less than what was reported by (61) who reported the lowest energy content from their study of 810Kj/100g for Azanza garckeana Table 3. Proximate Composition of Englerophytum magalismontanum fruits Parameter (40) (46) Moisture 88.11 g/100g 77.7 g/100g Ash 2.05 g/100g 0.5 g/100g Crude protein 0.83 g/100g 0.9 g/100g Crude fiber 5.60 g/100g 1.3 g/100g Crude fat 0.31 g/100g 0.4 g/100g Carbohydrates 3.10 g/100g 19.2 g/100g Energy (kcal/100g) 18.51 kj/100g 5.2 Mineral Composition of E. magalismontanum fruits and leaves The mineral analysis of Englerophytum magalismontanum fruits and leaves revealed that this plant boasts a diverse array of macro and micro minerals (Table 4). These minerals do contribute to the growth and development of the tree, it's 38 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies nutritional value, as well as for the organisms that depend on it for sustenance. Varying values of the mineral content has been reported for which some indicate that E. magalismontanum fruits and leaves can be good sources some macro and trace elements for infants less than 6 months of age and those of females and male adults above 70 years of age as their reported values exceed their recommended mineral intake for macro elements such as potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and calcium and trace elements such as iron and zinc. The calcium content of 410mg/kg reported by (50) is enough to meet the recommended calcium intake of 300mg/d for infants less than 6 months of age, but not sufficient to meet the recommended calcium intake of 1300mg/d for males and females above 70 years of age (40, 46). Even though the calcium content reported is enough to meet the recommended calcium intake for infants less than 6 months of age, it would not be wise to use the fruits as a source of calcium since the recommended calcium intake can only be achieved when a kilogram of the fruits in consumed which may be to enough for infants below 6 months of age. The phosphorus content of 718mg/kg reported by (50) is enough to meet the recommended phosphorus content of 100mg/d for infants less than 6 months and 700mg/d for males and females above 70 years old (40, 46). Phosphorus is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of healthy bones and teeth, making it particularly important for both children and the elderly. The phosphorus content of 11.7mg/100g reported by (46) is unfortunately not enough the meet the recommended calcium intake for infants less than 6 months of age and males and female above 70 years of age. The magnesium content of 777mg/kg reported by (50) is enough to meet the recommended phosphorus content of 30mg/d for infants less than 6 months and 420mg/d for males above 70 years old and 420mg/d for females above 70 years old (40, 46). With this high magnesium content reported, especially when compared to the recommended magnesium intake for infants less than 6 months, it can be safe to say that E. magalismontanum fruits can help formulate a good supplement for magnesium for infants below 6 months of age and adults above 70 years of age. For children, magnesium is crucial for proper growth and development, as it aids in the formation and maintenance of strong bones and teeth while for the elderly, adequate magnesium intake is important as it can help prevent and manage age-related conditions such as osteoporosis and cardiovascular diseases, ensuring a higher quality of life. The magnesium content of 0.19mg/100g reported by (46) is unfortunately to enough the meet the recommended calcium intake for infants less than 6 months of age and males and females above 70 years of age. The sodium content of 40.6mg/100g reported by (46) is not enough to meet the recommended sodium content of 120mg/d for infants less than 6 months and 1200mg/d for males and females above 70 years old (40, 46). This being said, E. magalismontanum fruits cannot be considered as good © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 sources of sodium. For children, sodium serves several roles like proper development and growth of their nervous system, while in adults proper sodium intake ensures that the body's fluids are well-balanced, reducing the risk of dehydration or fluid retention commonly seen in older adults. The potassium content of 8464mg/kg reported by (50) is enough to meet the recommended phosphorus content of 0.4g/d for infants less than 6 months and 4.7g/d for males and females above 70 years old (40, 46). Referencing the latter, it is safe to conclude that with such a vast amount of potassium reported from E. magalismontanum fruits, the fruits can be an excellent source of potassium supplement for both children under 6 months of age and males and females above 70 years of age. For children, adequate potassium intake is necessary for proper growth and development, as it helps to support healthy muscles and bones whereas in the elderly it helps maintain a healthy blood pressure, prevent muscle weakness and reduce the risk of stroke and heart diseases. According to (62) it is estimated that one third of the world's population will be affected by high blood pressure by 2025, with this in mind E. magalismontanum fruits containing a significant amount of potassium can help serve as a source of potassium supplement as an intake of such can have an effect in maintaining blood pressure. As stated before, the variation in mineral content from the latter studies which both analyzed the mineral content of E. magalismontanum fruits could be attributed to environmental variations, variation in the place of origin, analytical methods used, soil composition and even differences in the fruits ripening stages (58). Likewise, the vitamin content (Table 5), vitamin B1 (Thiamine), vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) and vitamin B3 (Nicotinic acid) reported for the fruits of E. magalismontanum are insufficient to be recommended vitamin intakes as they are less than the recommended vitamin intake reported by (40, 46). Only the vitamin C content reported by (47) is enough to meet the recommended vitamin C intake for infants to female and male teenagers (18 years). The latter high content of vitamin C can help account for the antioxidant activity of E. magalismontanum fruits as it has been cited that the antioxidant activity is not only portrayed by phenolic compounds, but by other compounds such as carotenoids and vitamins (A,C,E) (63). With this in mind, vitamin C is essential nutrient for individuals of all age groups since they can all be affected by oxidative stress diseases, which require antioxidants like vitamin C to neutralize harmful free radicals, reducing the risk of chronic diseases like cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancers. Thus, ensuring an adequate intake of vitamin C is pivotal for both children and older adults to promote their overall health and well-being. Table 4. Mineral Composition of Englerophytum magalismontanum fruits and leaves Parameter (50) [Fruits] (46) (64) [Leaves] [Fruits] Al 109 mg/kg 20 mg/100g Ca 410 mg/kg 20 mg/100g 10.15% Fe 27 mg/kg 0.69 mg/100g 16 587 mg/kg 39 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies K Mg Mn P Pb Se Zn Cu Na B 8464 mg/kg 777 mg/kg 50 mg/kg 718 mg/kg 131 mg/kg 286 mg/kg 25 mg/kg - 533 mg/100g 0.19 mg/100g 11.7 mg/100g 0.23 mg/100g 40.6 mg/100g Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 7.25% 2.30% 6627 mg/kg 0.92% 1334 mg/kg 181.5 mg/kg 13 801 mg/kg 767 mg/kg Table 5. Vitamin content of Englerophytum magalismontanum fruits Parameter (50) (37, 40) (47) (46) Vitamin C 1.6 mg/100g Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2 Vitamin B3 - 20 mg/100g - 40 mg/100g - 14.1 mg/100g 0.07 mg/100g 0.03 mg/100g 1.64 mg/100g 5.3 Amino acids composition of E. magalismontanum fruits E. magalismontanum fruits contain a diverse array of amino acids, vital for unlocking their potential health benefits. The fruits contain a rich assortment of essential amino acids (EAA) include phenylalanine, valine, threonine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, histidine and methionine (Table 6). These amino acids cannot be synthesized by the human body, necessitating their intake from dietary sources (65). Additionally, E. magalismontanum fruits also contain nonessential amino acids (NEAA), which unlike EAA can be synthesized in smaller quantities by the human body (66). Such amino acids, including alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid and glycine (Table 6), which play crucial roles such as tumor metabolism, antioxidant responses and neurotransmission (66-68). The presence of these amino acids in the fruits further demonstrates the potential health benefits associated with their consumption and the fruits’ potential to serve as a valuable natural supplement to meet the body's amino acid requirements. From the values reported, it shows that E. magalismontanum fruits are a good source of amino acids compared to estimated amino acid requirement by (69). As the building blocks of proteins, amino acids are involved in countless biological functions, including cell signalling, hormone synthesis, immune system function, and antioxidative defence (70). With the latter being stated, that E. magalismontanum can be considered as a good source of dietary functional amino acids supplementation to help in regulating different metabolic pathways. Table 6: Amino acids composition of Englerophytum magalismontanum fruits Amino Acid (40) Arginine 0.39 g/100g Serine 0.32 g/100g Aspartic acid 0.80 g/100g Glutamic acid 0.71 g/100g Glycine 0.24 g/100g Threonine 0.21 g/100g Alanine 0.29 g/100g Tyrosine 0.38 g/100g Proline 0.26 g/100g HO-Proline 0.16 g/100g Methionine 0.09 g/100g © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved Valine Phenylalanine Isoleucine Leucine Histidine Lysine 0.31 g/100g 0.22 g/100g 0.23 g/100g 0.35 g/100g 0.24 g/100g 0.54 g/100g 6. Ethnopharmacological uses of Englerophytum magalismontanum Ethnopharmacology is the interdisciplinary study of traditional medicinal practices of different ethnic communities, focusing on the use of plants and natural substances. Understanding the ethnopharmacological uses of IPs is crucial for preserving cultural heritage, promoting sustainable practices, and discovering potential sources for new medicines. Even better, investigating the medicinal properties of IPs can lead to the discovery of new natural compounds with potential therapeutic applications. For instance, the ethnobotanical uses of the Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar Periwinkle) by the indigenous community for treating diabetes and cancer has led to the discovery of two anti-cancer agents, vincristine and vinblastine, which are currently undergoing trials to be employed into the modern health care system (71). With that being said, understanding these ancient practices can help promote the integration of traditional medicine into modern healthcare systems and ensuring the preservation of cultural traditions while offering alternative treatment options. E. magalismontanum has a long history of traditional use for treating various ailments and has gained attention among researchers in the field of ethnopharmacology. The traditional use of this plant by indigenous communities has laid the foundation for scientific research, highlighting its potential therapeutic applications. This plant's traditional uses also align with many current health challenges, such as gastrointestinal disorders and diabetes mellitus. Different parts of the plant such as the roots, bark, fruits and leaves have been utilized by the indigenous community for treating numerous health conditions (Table 7). The roots of E. magalismontanum can be used as a contraceptive, fertility enhancement and for the treatment of alzheimer's disease, headaches, rheumatism, abdominal pains and epilepsy (19, 39, 47, 55, 72, 73). The latter can be related with the works of (19, 49) who indicated that leaf extract of E. magalismontanum do possess anti-inflammatory activity, this can help justify the ethomedicinal use of this plant in treating ailments such as Alzheimer's disease and headaches that have been associated with cases of inflammation. Inflammation has been indicated to be one of the key players in Alzheimer's disease (74, 75) and headaches (76). For curing rheumatism, the powdered roots of E. magalismontanum are rubbed on the incision made over the painful area (47, 55), the same can be applied for headaches by also rubbing powdered roots on an incision made on the forehead (47). For treatment of abdominal pains, a boiled root decoction is drunk and used as a remedy (45, 49, 53, 55, 77). A combination of the fruits and leaves can be used as a 40 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies treatment for epilepsy (39) while the fruits alone can help produce a beverage made from which helps relieve constipation (45). The bark on the other hand can be used for treating diabetes mellitus by oral administration of the bark decoction (78, 79). This latter ethnomedicinal practice is supported by the findings of (33) who identified and isolated naringenin from leaf extracts of E. magalismontanum, naringenin is a compound known for its antidiabetic activity (80). The bark can be used for relieveing headaches by sniffing smoke released from the dry burned bark (72). Additionally, the bark can be powdered and used for curing rheumatism (39, 49, 53). E. magalismontanum leaf extracts can be taken orally for treating stomach problems and as a blood purifier (72). Justifying the latter, E. magalismontanum being proven to possess a diverse array of phenolic compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, coumarins, and terpenoids (72, 81, 82), which are free radical scavengers hence conferring antioxidant activity, can help justify its ethomedicinal uses for treating oxidative stress diseases such as those associated with stomach problems. Table 7: Ethnopharmacological uses of Englerophytum magalismontanum Ethnopharmacoogical use Plant part References used Contraceptive Root decoction (53, 55), Diabetes mellitus Bark (78) Headache Bark, Roots (39, 47, 72) Rheumatism Roots, Bark, (39, 47, 49, 53, 55, 81) leaves Epilepsy Fruits and roots (39, 47, 49, 77) Abdominal pains, Root (19, 45, 49, 53, 55, 77) Alzheimer's disease Gastrointestinal Ailments Leaf extracts (72) Blood purifier Leaf extracts (72) Constipation Fruit beverage (45) Fertility Enhancement Roots (73) Erectile Dysfunction Roots (48) HIV/AIDS Roots (48) 7. Phytochemistry The presence of phyto-compounds in E. magalismontanum provides a scientific base for its traditional medicinal use. These compounds play significant roles in defending against environmental stressors and pathogens (83). E. magalismontanum contains a multitude of phytochemical constituents isolated from different plants parts (root, bark fruits and leaf) such as phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, coumarins, and terpenoids which are responsible for its diverse therapeutic properties (72, 81, 82). 7.1 Phenolics Phenolics, also known as phenolic compounds, represent a diverse class of organic compounds characterized by their aromatic nature and the presence of one or more hydroxyl groups attached to the phenyl ring (84). These compounds have garnered significant attention due to their various physiological and pharmacological properties. Phenolics are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom and serve as powerful antioxidants (85, 86), exhibiting potential benefits © 2024, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 for human health. E. magalismontanum bark, leaves and fruits have been identified to contain a diverse array of phenolic compounds such as neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid and 3-O-p-Coumaroylquinic acid (Table 8) (33, 72, 82). These phenolic compounds were isolated by sonication using 80% methanol in water, then used for Ultraperformance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) analysis. Several studies have indicated E. magalismontanum phenolics compounds’ potential role in anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory agents, for example a study conducted by (33) has isolated an phenolic compound ‘naringenin’ which is potential anti-diabetic compound, this proven scientifically by research can therefore help justify the ethnomedicinal uses of E. magalismontanum for the control of diabetes as described by (78) and (79). 7.2 Flavonoids Flavonoids are a group of natural polyphenolic compounds consist of a flavan nucleus composed of two benzene rings linked by a heterocyclic pyran ring or pyrone (87). The subclasses of flavonoids commonly found in plants include flavones, flavanones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and isoflavones (88). E. magalismontanum fruit extracts accumulate a diverse range of flavonoids such as catechin, quercetin, epicatechin, myricetin, kaemferol (Table 8 ) (82). The flavonoids were isolated by sonication using 80% methanol in water, then used for Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) analysis. Owing to their chemical structure, flavonoids exhibit remarkable antioxidant potential, neutralizing harmful free radicals and reducing oxidative stress. The flavonoids present in E. magalismontanum extracts, particularly quercetin, showcases a strong radical-scavenging capability, making it a promising candidate for medicinal and nutraceutical applications such as potential treatments for diabetes and diabetes-related illnesses (89). The latter scientific study can help in justifying some of the ethnomedicinal uses of E. magalismontanum for the control of diabetes as described by (78) and (79). Combinations of flavonoids demonstrated higher antioxidant activity than single compounds, indicating a synergistic effect of these flavonoids (90). 7.3 Stigmasterol and Sitosterol Stigmasterol and Sitosterol are phytosterols that have a similar chemical structure, yet showcase unique characteristics with diverse biological functions. These phytosterols are distinguishable by the absence or presence of a double bond at the carbon in position 22, respectively, leading to subtle variations in their physiological properties (91). Both of these plant sterols exhibit promising pharmacological properties, for example, Sitosterol has demonstrated potential carcinogenesis through its ability to inhibit tumor cell proliferation (92), while Stigmasterol has exhibited anti-inflammatory activity on mice through the carrageenan-induced peritonitis and paw edema induced by arachidonic acid principles (93, 94). Both of these phytosterols have also been identified to have cytotoxic activity (94-96) on different cells lines such as the caco-2 41 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies (epithelial intestinal cell lines) which can help justify the ethnomedicinal use of E. magalismontanum for gastrointestinal ailments as reported by (72). In addition, these phytosterols together with other phytocompounds can also have a role in the in the moderate cytotoxicity results on vero cell line using E. magalismontanum bark as reported by (53). Identification of these plant sterols was performed by mass spectrophotometry from the leaves of E. magalismontanum (77). 7.4 Triterpenes Another group of bioactive compounds isolated from E. magalismontanum leaves by fine-chromatography include Dammarenedio, Betulin and Oleanolic acid (77). These triterpenoids are biologically synthesized through the mevalonic acid pathway (97). They serve as repellents for different microorganisms and herbivores, protecting individual plants species (98). Moreover, they have also been indicated to provide health benefits to human such as antidiabetic activity (99), which through this, helps to further justify and cements the ethnomedicinal use of E. magalismontanum for the treatment of Diabetes mellitus as described by (78, 79). 7.5 Other Compounds Additional phytocompounds identified from the leaf extracts of E. magalismontanum include alkaloids, tannins, glycosides and coumarins (72). These compounds also confer different pharmacological activities such as being free radical scavengers (Antioxidants) against different oxidative stress diseases (100-102). Table 8: Phenolic compounds quantified from E. magalismontanum fruits Phenolic Compounds (82) Trans-5-Caffeoylquinic acid (3- CQA). 0.79 ± 0.16 mg/kg (Neochlorogenic acid) 3-Caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA) 1.04 ± 0.20 mg/kg (chlorogenic acid) 3-O-p-Coumaroylquinic acid 3-O-Caffeoylshikimic acid Delphinidin 3-galactoside Delphinidin 3-O-glucoside Cyanidin 3,5-O-diglucoside Catechin Epicatechin Myricetin 3-galactoside Myricetin 3-arabinoside Quercetin 3-galactoside Quercetin 3-O-α-Larabinopyranoside Methyl gallate 3-O-betaDglucopyranoside Gentisic acid 5-O-glucoside Procyanidin dimer B1 Procyanidin B5 Procyanidin B-type dimer β-Glucogallin (1-O-Galloyl-β-Dglucopyranose) 30.69 ± 6.50 mg/kg 5.32 ± 1.58 mg/kg 57.80 ± 1. 0 mg/kg 0.14 ± 0.11 mg/kg 0.64 ± 0.37 mg/kg 25.47 ± 6.33 mg/kg 1349.46 ± 1.00 mg/kg 0.23 ± 0.10 mg/kg 0.10 ± 0.08 mg/kg 1.36 ± 0.61 mg/kg 401.09 ± 1.50 mg/kg 0.56 ± 0.23 mg/kg Xanthohumol A Prenylated Flavonoid Tryptophan 0.33 ± 0.27 mg/kg 14.65 ± 0.51 mg/kg 0.77 ± 0.30 mg/kg 6.99 ± 2.26 mg/kg 1.35 ± 0.59 mg/kg 527.07 ± 0.90 mg/kg 1.59 ± 0.41 mg/kg Vol.10, Issue.2, Feb. 2024 challenges include limited scientific research and inadequate documentation of traditional knowledge. Given the scientific evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of E. magalismontanum, further research is warranted to uncover its full range of biological activities and to identify potential drug candidates. Furthermore, investigating its safety and pharmacokinetic properties could pave the way for future clinical applications. Though the above suggestions are made, it is key to note that traditional knowledge and ecological sustainability must be respected and protected to ensure the preservation and ethical use of this invaluable botanical resource. 9. Conclusion E. magalismontanum exhibits exceptional ethnobotanical significance particularly within the Southern African region where its mostly studied. Its traditional uses, medicinal properties and cultural values make it an invaluable plant species. Preserving and promoting the knowledge associated with this tree is crucial for ensuring its sustainable use and conservation, aiming to benefit both the current and future generations. Continued research and collaborative efforts will undoubtedly uncover further insights into other factors such as its ecological significance and pharmacological potential and contribute to the advancement of scientific knowledge and conservation practices. Testing E. magalismontanum's genotoxicity both in vitro and in vivo is advisable and crucial for evaluating ethnomedicinal claims. To guarantee the security of such therapeutic applications in the future, an in-depth and detailed research and clinical assessment of E. magalismontanum is recommended. Data Availability None Conflict of interests The author does not declare any conflict of interest. Funding This review article did not receive any specific funding from any funding agency. References [1] [2] [3] [4] 8. 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