The Eastern Forest in the Precolonial Era, c.1795–1895

Abstract

There exists a big debate in the literature over the relative contribution of foreign and indigenous factors in the degradation of Madagascar’s eastern forests. A major refrain is that foreign capitalist and imperialist forces constituted the chief causative agents in the destruction of the Malagasy forests and associated flora and fauna. Advocates of this argument point to efforts by Merina authorities to prevent the degradation of woodlands and the sustainability of traditional peasant exploitation of forest resources. This changed dramatically after the French takeover of the island in 1895 when “The forces of colonial capitalism, mirrored in state actions and policies concerning natural resource extraction and cash crop production for export, triggered changes in land use practices which dramatically affected tropical forest cover in Madagascar” (Jarosz 1993: 367). This chapter seeks to add greater perspective to this viewpoint through an examination of changes to the eastern forests in the imperial Merina era from approximately 1795 to 1895.

I wish to acknowledge the support of the SSHRC in this research.

Annex A: Eastern Madagascar Forests: Some Valuable Trees, Shrubs, and Plants (Listed According to the Malagasy Name)

Those wishing to consult the sources for this table should contact the author.

Local name	Species of tree	Use
Ambora	Tambourissa parvifolia Baker	Small tree of very hard and durable clear yellowish wood used in the house construction of sovereigns and nobles; also for coffins, and canoes
Anjananjana	Leptolkena paucillora Baker	Hardwood used in construction
Anjavidy	Philippia floribunda Bth	A heather that grows on worthless land on the margins of the eastern forest, used formerly mainly for fuel in Antananarivo (as it gives great heat but little smoke), charcoal for the forge, thatch, and kindling
Arivona	?	Soft white wood used in walls and floors
Atafana	Terminalia catappa or Madagascar almond	An important, fast-growing, multi-purpose tree, providing shade, food, medicines, dyes, tannin, and timber
Azovola	?	Kind of rosewood useful for cabinet making, used chiefly for building
Barabanja	Mascarenhasia arborescens D.C.	Yields rubber
Bonara	Acacia Lebbeck	Found mostly in West Madagascar, but also in far northeast; used for small pieces of carpentry
Bongo	Dionychia Bojeri Naud	Gives a black dye; used to treat syphilis
Bontono	Adansonia madagascariensis B.—Baobab	The wood soaked in water is given to cattle to fatten them for market; fibre also used
Diro	Tamarindus indica—Tamarind tree	The tree’s heartwood is narrow, hard, durable, and difficult to work, used to make furniture, carvings, and turned objects such as mortars and pestles
Faho	Cycas circinalis –palm tree	Produces sago
Famelona	Chrysophyllum boivinianum	Beautiful wood used for house and boat construction, carpentry, furniture, and ornamental work; edible fruit; leaves used in traditional medicine to treat fever, muscle pain, relieve fatigue, counter scorpion stings, and treat digestive and genital disease, while bark decoctions are used to treat syphilis
Fangoavana	?	Tree of average height 10 m, diameter 50 cm; greenish hard wood that easy to work and generally used for corner poles of houses
Fanidy	Toddalia aculeata; Choetaeme madagascariensis; Toddalia asiatica (L.) lam.	Spiny hard-wooded tree; root and bark are used for fever; and charm against crocodiles Toddalia asiatica: Widely used in Malagasy medicine: The root bark as a decoction against profuse diarrhoea and diseases of the urinary tract; infusion of the leaves is a febrifuge; resin tapped from stems is oxytocic and an abortifacient
Fantsikahitra	Plectronia sp.	Tree can grow 20 m high but has a maximum diameter of 20 cm; hardwood used in house construction, notably for ridges, and for walking sticks
Fatray	Urophyllum lyalli	Bark used notably in the manufacture of rum
Filao	Casuarina equisetifolia	Grows in sandy soil near the sea; yellowish very hard durable wood used in house construction, and for tannin
Foraha	Calophyllum inophyllum L.	Used in boat construction; resin used by Betsimisaraka to heal wounds, and as bird lime; fruit yields oil used by women in their toilet
Fotona	Leptoloena turbinata Baker	Hardwood used in house construction; edible fruit
Fototra	Barringtonia butonica	Hardwood used to make house foundations in humid territory
Fotsimavo	Various: Homalium axillare, Pittosporum madagascariense, Pittosporum pachyphyllum, Xylopia ambanjensis, Xylopia buxifolia, Xylopia danguyella, Xylopia flexuosa, Xylopia humblotiana, Xylopia lemurica, Xylopia perrieri	Various species of tree can grow up to 10 m, 60 cm diameter; whitish-brown softwood used by Tanala as firewood and as a charm to ensure the success of an undertaking
Fotsinanahary	Senecio cochlearifolius Bojer	Unique to Madagascar, reaches 6 m height, 30 cm diameter; grey soft wood, much used to make ridges of houses; leaves are used to counter stomach disorders
Hafotra	Astrapoea, Dombeya, Sterculiaceae	Yields fibre used chiefly to make cord and rope
Harahara	Neobaronia phyllanthoides Baker; N. xiphodada	N. phyllanthoides: Extremely hard mottled wood with remarkable colours used to make spade handles (3.3 m long) N. Xiphodada: Similar to above
Harongana	Haronga madagascariensis	Tree average height 20 m, 60 cm; knotted white hardwood difficult to work but excellent for house ridges, floors, coffins, canoes, cattle park fences; and sometimes used to make musical instruments. Excellent firewood as it burns long and slow. A decoction of its leaves is used for dysentery and diarrhoea, while the Betsileo mix its leaves with those of the tsimandra, pounded and dried in the sun, to apply locally in cases of scabies. Flowers good for honey production.
Hasa	?	Reddish imperishable hardwood 50 cm diameter, used to make posts to support houses especially in wet surrounds; and fences the dwellings of rulers and lords
Hazino	?	Yellowish wood, average 2 m diameter, much used in carpentry
Hazoambo	Various: Bivinia jalberti, Calantica cerasifolia, Calantica grandiflora, Homalium albiflorum, Pittosporum viridiflorum	Hardwood trees that can reach 20 m in height and 60 cm diameter; used chiefly to construct important houses; also to make wheel-less carts to drag large stones to graves
Hazomainty	Erythryoxylum myrtoides Bojer	Black wood used in ornamental work; one of most prized ebony woods for export; oldest (150–200 years) that 12–14 m high and 70 cm diameter so exploited that rare by 1903
Hazomamy	Chamaecrista pratensis (R.Vig.) Du Puy	Bark tastes like cinnamon; the Tanala employed the leaves as a remedy for children ill with malaria.
Hazombiby	Erythroxylon myrtoides Baker	Very hard grey wood that reaches a height of 20 m and 60 cm diameter, used to make house ridges and in ornamental work
Hazomena	Weinmannia Rutenbergi Engler	Tree grows to 20 m, 50 cm diameter; knotty hardwood much used in house construction, especially for corner posts of houses
Hazondrano	Elaeodendron	Valuable fine-grained hard white wood used to make poles (which c. 2 m long) of men’s palanquins; also yields rubber
Hazotokana	Vernonia sp.	Hardwood much used in construction, notably house posts; a decoction of its leaves are used as a vermifuge and for indigestion
Hazovola	Dalbergia baronii	A kind of rosewood, resembling mahogany but superior in weight and density, used chiefly for building purposes; and dyeing hair
Havozomangidy; havozomanitra	Ravensara aromatica	Tree with strong aromatic bark used in composition of laro or belahy to flavour drinks reserved for circumcision ceremony; to flavour toaka; and for medicines to treat boils and swellings. Tanala burn the scented leaves as ody varatra to protect against thunder; exported to Europe under incorrect label “sassafras bark” for use as component to flavour root beer, medicinal preparations, and in perfumes for soap
Hetatra	Podocarpus thunbergii hook; Podocarpus madagascariensis, Baker	Only precolonial pine species known in Madagascar; very valuable whitish wood similar to deal; much used in house construction, notably for flooring
Hidina (see fanidy)
Hintsina	Afzelia bijuga	Large much valued heavy hardwood tree, inelastic and cross-grained, hard to work but very durable, used for posts of the best houses, and furniture, and by the Betsimisaraka to make coffins
Hitsikitsika	Colea Telfaireae Bojer	Small tree with hard durable wood very common in defensive ditches in Imerina, generally used to make the three central posts supporting the roof of a house; edible fruit
Intry		Large tree, of superior durable brown hardwood, resembling teak but heavier and closer in grain; chief wood used by Betsimisaraka of Antongil Bay region in house construction—Valued on UK timber market by 1890; bark yields a red dye
Kintsina (see hintsina)
Lalona	Saxifragaceae; Weinmannia Bojeriana Tul	Used chiefly in house construction and cabinet making
Lambinana	Nuxia sphterocephala Baker & N. terminalioides Baker	Widely used in house construction; leaves used to make taoka (Malagasy rum)
Landemy	Anthocleista sp.	Small tree giving soft wood; large cabbage-like leaves used to make infusion to counter malarial fever; believed to have properties to counter a bad destiny.
Levaro [?]
Mabibo	Khaya madagascariensis—Madagascar mahogany	Fast-growing tree with reddish-brown wood highly for the manufacture of fine furniture, for joinery, implements, carving, etc. the trunks are used traditionally for making canoes
Mahibo / mahabibo / mahabiba	Anacardium occidentale—Cashew tree	Edible fruit; leaf used to treat diabetes, haemorrhoids, stomach ulcer, allergies, hepatitis, wounds, incontinence, anorexia
Mananotsa (see hazotokana)
Merana	Vernonia merana Baker	Used in house construction
Mokarana / mocarano	Macarena echinocarpa Baker, E. macropoda Baker; alnifolia Baker; macaranga obovate; M. ferruginea	Large tree; wood used in house construction M. obovata: Wood used by the Betsimisaraka in house and canoe building M. ferruginea yields abundant resin
Nandrorofo	Trachylobium verrucosum lam	Its root (sandarosy) provides gum copal, which is extracted only for export
Nanto	Labramia Bojeri; Chrysophyllum Inophyllum	Very hard mahogany-coloured wood widely used by Betsimisaraka for house and canoe building; and by the Betsimisaraka and Tanala to construct coffins; its bark yields red dye and tannin
Nato (see Nanto)
Paka	Name for several large trees including urena lobate L.; Homalium nobile	Urena lobate L: Gives a fibre used by the Betsimisaraka Homalium nobile: Hard reddish wood
Ramy	Canarium madagascariense	Most valued for resin used as a stimulant, for incense, to heal large wounds, to protect against infection, seal cracks in boats, trap birds and small mammals, and as an insecticide. The timber is not durable, but because of the large diameter of the trunks (sometimes over 1 m) is used to construct canoes; also for the hidden parts of fine furniture; the dry heartwood is used as a torch.
Ravenala	Strelitziaceae—Traveller’s tree	All parts of tree used, for variously human and animal food, medicine, house building, tools, and utensils
Rotra	Eugenia sp., Myrtaceae Eugenia, Syzygium sp.	Several species of fast-growing hardwood, one with edible fruit; used in herbal medicines due to its vaunted properties against cardio metabolic disorders and dysentery; used in talismans to bring desires to fruition, protect against enemies, and ensure success of a new village; yields a black dye
Sohihy or sodindranto	Rubiaceae tambaribarina	Used in house construction
Tambintsy / tambitsy	Psorospermum androsaemifolium Baker	Grows 1–4 m high; straight red-brown hardwood, used to make houses; decoction used as lotion to treat eczema; leaves and bark crushed, mixed with other mainly aromatic plants to make a plaster applied to stings and bites. The decoction is also administered by mouth; poultices made from its root used to treat scabies.
Tandroroho (see nandrorofo)
Tangena	Tanghinia venenifera	From which the tangena poison extracted
Tapia	Chrysopa sp.	Used to feed silkworm; edible fruit; stem mixed with snuff.
Varo
Tavolohazo	Dilobeia thouarsii	Large tree; wood splits easily so little used; gives fruit the oil of which is used by women in their toilet; slips of wood are taken and used as torches by tsimandoa, royal messengers when travelling at night
Tsipatika	Streblus dimepate	Used to make pestles
Valanirana	Nuxia capitate Baker	Hard wood much used in house construction, and making of harpoons, diffing sticks, and fences for cattle parks; one of woods used for Merina sovereign’s firewood at Fandroana
Valomborona	Albizia fastigiata	Common tree used in house construction, to make soap, and often planted as shade for coffee and vanilla plants
Vanana	Various related species: Elaeocarpus quercifolius Baker; E. dalechampioides Baker; E. rhodanthus Baker	Tree 18 m tall; wood much used in house construction and cabinet making
Vanjaka (see vanana)
Vantsilana	Cussonia vantsilana Baker and panax ornifolius Baker	Used in house construction; and in composition of odi-fo, a traditional remedy to prevent vomiting.
Varo	Hibiscus tiliaceus L.	Betsimisaraka extract twine to make string
Varongy	Ocotea cymosa (Nees) Palacky; Ocolea trichophlebia	High-quality timber extensively used: For house and ship construction and cabinet making; leaves and fruits are used as condiment, bark used in preparing alcoholic beverages.
Vintanina	Calophyllum sp.	Widely used to make canoes, but not houses lest it attract lightening
Vivaona	Dilobeia Thouarsii R. & S. A	Large tree of hardwood used in house construction and for joinery, but not for flooring because of its high shrinkage rates. Branches are used as firewood and the wood produces a good charcoal; oil is extracted from the seeds and used in cooking, but more commonly used as cosmetic, in soap production, and for illumination. The bark has emetic properties and bark decoctions are administered to treat gonorrhoea, and as diuretic and vermifuge
Voamboana	Dalbergia Baroni Baker	Very valuable reddish-brown hardwood, similar to rosewood, used in house construction and for furniture (tables, cupboards, etc.)
Voanana (see vanana)
Voapaka	Uapaca thouarsii Baill.	Hardwood used in house construction; edible fruit; bark used as anti-cholic
Vofaho (see faho)
Volomborona	Albizia polyphylla E. Fournier/albizzia polyphylla E. Fournier	Used to make musical instruments; leaves in medicine to counter asthma, cough, fatigue, postpartum infections, side stitch
Volotsangana	Cephalostachyum chapelien; Phyllostachys bambusoides	Medium-sized bamboo used mainly in house building; for walls, and lath before plastering roofs; also as fishing rods.
Zahana	Phyllarthron bojerianum	Tree with hard durable wood used to make spade handles; leaves used as poultices for syphilitic symptoms
?	Diospyros fuscovelutina	Type of ebony, found in E and NE Madagascar
?	Diospyros megasepala	Type of ebony, found in E and NE Madagascar
?	Diospyros sphaerosepala	Type of ebony, found in E and NE Madagascar
?	Diospyros gonoclada	Type of ebony, found in E Madagascar
?	Landolphia gummifera	Climbing plant which yields India rubber exported from the island
?	Landolphia madagascariensis	Climbing plant which yields India rubber exported from the island
?	Rhodolcena acutifolia	Large tree in the forests east of Antsihanaka, used in house building